text stringlengths 6 9.38M |
|---|
/* ##################INSTRUCTIONS TO ENABLE QUERY TO RUN ON DISCOVERY DATABASE ##############################
*
*Because the Mode Public Warehouse runs on a postgreSQL database, we need to make a few changes to the syntax so the query can successfully run on the Discovery Database,
*which is provided through Snowflake.
*
*Please make the following changes
*1. Switch to your Discovery Database connection
*2. Remove the comments around "mode."
*3. Replace "NOW()" with CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
*/
SELECT id AS "report_id",
name AS "report_name",
description AS "report_desc",
collection_name AS "report_collection_name",
DATE_TRUNC('day',deleted_at_utc) AS "day"
FROM /*mode.*/organization_usage.reports
WHERE deleted_at_utc IS NOT NULL |
CREATE PROC [ERP].[Usp_Sel_Percepcion_By_ID] --1
@ID INT
AS
BEGIN
SELECT PER.ID,
PER.Fecha FechaPercepcion,
PER.IdTipoPercepcion IdTipoPercepcion,
PER.Serie SeriePercepcion,
PER.Documento DocumentoPercepcion,
PER.Importe ImportePercepcion,
CO.ID IdCompra,
CO.IdEmpresa,
CO.IdPeriodo,
CO.Orden,
CO.IdProveedor,
CO.FechaEmision,
CO.UsuarioRegistro,
CO.UsuarioModifico,
CO.UsuarioActivo,
CO.UsuarioElimino,
CO.FechaModificado,
CO.FechaActivacion,
CO.FechaRegistro,
TD.Abreviatura TipoDocumento,
TD.ID IdTipoDocumento,
ETD.NumeroDocumento RUC,
ENT.Nombre NombreProveedor,
CO.FechaRecepcion,
CO.IdMoneda,
MO.Nombre Moneda,
TC.ID IdTipoComprobante,
TC.Nombre TipoComprobante,
CO.Serie,
CO.Numero,
CO.TipoCambio,
CO.PorcentajeIGV,
CO.IdTipoIGV,
TIG.Nombre NombreTipoIGV,
CO.FechaVencimiento,
CO.FechaRecepcion,
CO.BaseImponible,
CO.Inafecto,
CO.IGV,
CO.ISC,
CO.OtroImpuesto,
CO.Descuento,
CO.RedondeoSuma,
CO.RedondeoResta,
CO.Total,
CO.IdDetraccion,
DE.Nombre NombreDetraccion,
DE.Porcentaje PorcentajeDetraccion
FROM ERP.Percepcion PER
INNER JOIN ERP.Compra CO
ON CO.ID = PER.IdCompra
LEFT JOIN ERP.Proyecto P
ON P.ID = CO.ID
INNER JOIN ERP.Empresa EM
ON EM.ID = CO.IdEmpresa
INNER JOIN ERP.Periodo PE
ON PE.ID = CO.IdPeriodo
LEFT JOIN ERP.Proveedor PRO
ON PRO.ID = CO.IdProveedor
LEFT JOIN ERP.Entidad ENT
ON ENT.ID = PRO.IdEntidad
LEFT JOIN ERP.Establecimiento E
ON E.IdEntidad = ENT.ID
LEFT JOIN PLAME.T7Ubigeo U
ON U.ID = E.IdUbigeo
LEFT JOIN ERP.EntidadTipoDocumento ETD
ON ETD.IdEntidad = ENT.ID
LEFT JOIN PLE.T2TipoDocumento TD
ON TD.ID = ETD.IdTipoDocumento
LEFT JOIN Maestro.Moneda MO
ON MO.ID = CO.IdMoneda
INNER JOIN PLE.T10TipoComprobante TC
ON TC.ID = CO.IdTipoComprobante
INNER JOIN Maestro.TipoIGV TIG
ON TIG.ID = CO.IdTipoIGV
LEFT JOIN Maestro.Detraccion DE
ON DE.ID = CO.IdDetraccion
WHERE PER.ID = @Id
END
|
create table if not exists Ingredient(
id varchar(4) not null,
name varchar (25) not null,
type varchar (10) not null
);
create table if not exists Taco(
id identity,
name varchar (50) not null,
createdAt timestamp not null
);
create table if not exists Taco_Ingredients(
taco bigint not null,
ingredient varchar (4)
);
alter table Taco_Ingredients add foreign key (taco) references Taco(id);
alter table Taco_Ingredients add foreign key (ingredient) references Ingredient (id);
create table if not exists Taco_Order(
id identity,
deliveryName varchar (50) not null,
deliveryStreet varchar (50) not null,
deliveryCity varchar (50) not null,
deliveryState varchar (2) not null,
deliveryZip varchar (10) not null,
ccNumber varchar (16) not null,
ccExpiration varchar (5) not null,
ccCVV varchar(3) not null,
placedAt timestamp not null
);
create table if not exists Taco_Order_Tacos(
tacoOrder bigint not null,
taco bigint not null
);
alter table Taco_Order_Tacos add foreign key (tacoOrder) references Taco_Order (id);
alter table Taco_Order_Tacos add foreign key (taco) references Taco (id);
create table if not exists Users (
username varchar (15) primary key,
password varchar (50) not null,
enabled smallint (1)
);
create table if not exists Authorities (
id identity,
username varchar (15) not null,
authority varchar (20) not null
);
alter table Authorities add foreign key (username) references Users (username);
create table if not exists Groups (
id identity,
name varchar (20) not null
);
create table if not exists Group_Members(
group_id bigint not null,
username varchar (15) not null
);
alter table Group_Members add foreign key (group_id) references Groups (id);
alter table Group_Members add foreign key (username) references Users (username);
create table if not exists Group_Authorities(
group_id bigint not null,
name varchar (20) not null
);
alter table Group_Authorities add foreign key (group_id) references Groups (id); |
-- Your SQL goes here
ALTER TABLE standups ADD COLUMN team_id varchar
|
select * from XLX_PUR_Supplie
select * from XLX_PUR_Request_List where bomid='42FE66B0-AC44-4D68-A76A-B759398BAFAB'
select * from PS_PUR_BOMFile where reghumid='AD000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000'
select * from pb_widget where id='a282f668-a395-4a9f-823e-61a2909aa10e'
select * from xlx_pur_order
select * from xlx_pur_order_list
select * from xlx_pur_request_List
select * from View_CPL_OrderMat
select * from PS_PUR_BOMFile
select * from pb_user
select * from xlx_pur_request a right join(
select * from XLX_PUR_Request_List q where q.BOMId in(
select c.id from PS_PUR_BOM c where c.MasterId in (select d.Id from PS_PUR_BOMFile d where d.RegHumId='AD000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000'))) as b
on a.Id = b.FK
select * from xlx_pur_request a right join(
select * from XLX_PUR_Request_List) as b on a.Id = b.FK where BOMId in(select c.id from PS_PUR_BOM c where
c.MasterId in (select d.Id from PS_PUR_BOMFile d where d.PurchashHumanId='AD000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000'))
select * from XLX_PUR_Request_List a left join(
select Id as RequestId,Title as RequestTitle,RequestCode,ProMajor as RequestProMajor,IsUrgency,Order_Guid,PurchaseHuman,PurchaseHumanId
from xlx_pur_request) as b on a.FK = b.RequestId where
BOMId in(select c.id from PS_PUR_BOM c where
c.MasterId in (select d.Id from PS_PUR_BOMFile d where d.PurchashHumanId='AD000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000'))
select CBS_Id,CBS_Name,* from View_CPL_OrderMat where 1=1 and
BOMId in(select c.id from PS_PUR_BOM c where
c.MasterId in (select d.Id from PS_PUR_BOMFile d where d.PurchashHumanId='604B4292-41A3-4AAD-82C0-049D4C08FCE2'))
and Id not in (select InquiryMatList_Id from xlx_pur_order_list)
select * from xlx_pur_request_list where id='C877DF01-A7D8-4A0F-B88F-6DF6BE49C0DB'
select InquiryMatList_Id from xlx_pur_order_list
|
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 3.3.10
-- http://www.phpmyadmin.net
--
-- Host: localhost
-- Generation Time: Nov 06, 2012 at 08:49 AM
-- Server version: 5.5.12
-- PHP Version: 5.3.6
SET SQL_MODE="NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8 */;
--
-- Database: `exams`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `flat`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `flat` (
`id` varchar(10) DEFAULT NULL,
`q1` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q2` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q3` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q4` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q5` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q6` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q7` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q8` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q9` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q10` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`total` int(11) DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Dumping data for table `flat`
--
INSERT INTO `flat` (`id`, `q1`, `q2`, `q3`, `q4`, `q5`, `q6`, `q7`, `q8`, `q9`, `q10`, `total`) VALUES
('B081046', 3, 3, 0, 1, 1, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081093', 0, 4, 2, 3, 3, 1, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081167', 0, 4, 0, 3, 2, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0),
('B081220', 2, 5, 2, 3, 3, 1, 3, 2, 0, 1, 0),
('B081313', 0, 3, 2, 1, 3, 1, 3, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081336', 0, 0, 3, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0),
('B081349', 0, 5, 1, 3, 3, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0),
('B081415', 0, 5, 2, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081422', 3, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081467', 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081524', 2, 5, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081543', 3, 4, 2, 3, 1, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081551', 3, 5, 2, 0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 0, 1, 0),
('B081594', 2, 5, 0, 0, 2, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081600', 0, 4, 0, 3, 1, 0, 3, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081616', 0, 2, 3, 3, 0, 1, 3, 0, 0, 1, 0),
('B081643', 1, 4, 0, 3, 3, 0, 3, 0, 1, 0, 0),
('B081697', 2, 4, 0, 3, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081744', 3, 4, 1, 0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 0, 1, 0),
('B081791', 2, 5, 3, 2, 2, 0, 3, 3, 0, 0, 0),
('B081863', 0, 0, 2, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0),
('B081906', 0, 4, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B081911', 0, 4, 2, 2, 0, 1, 3, 0, 0, 1, 0),
('B081926', 1, 1, 0, 1, 3, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081932', 2, 5, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B081977', 0, 5, 2, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0),
('B082007', 0, 4, 2, 3, 1, 0, 3, 2, 0, 0, 0),
('B082035', 0, 4, 0, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2, 0, 1, 0);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `keys`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `keys` (
`sub` varchar(12) NOT NULL,
`q1` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q2` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q3` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q4` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q5` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q6` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q7` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q8` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q9` char(1) NOT NULL,
`q10` char(1) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`sub`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Dumping data for table `keys`
--
INSERT INTO `keys` (`sub`, `q1`, `q2`, `q3`, `q4`, `q5`, `q6`, `q7`, `q8`, `q9`, `q10`) VALUES
('se', 'b', 'c', 'c', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'a', 'b');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `se`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `se` (
`id` varchar(10) DEFAULT NULL,
`q1` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q2` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q3` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q4` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q5` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q6` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q7` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q8` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q9` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`q10` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
`total` int(11) DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Dumping data for table `se`
--
INSERT INTO `se` (`id`, `q1`, `q2`, `q3`, `q4`, `q5`, `q6`, `q7`, `q8`, `q9`, `q10`, `total`) VALUES
('B081046', 3, 1, 0, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0, 1, 3),
('B081093', 3, 2, 1, 1, 0, 3, 3, 2, 1, 0, 2),
('B081167', 2, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 3, 0, 5),
('B081220', 1, 3, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2),
('B081313', 3, 0, 0, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0, 2, 3),
('B081336', 3, 3, 0, 1, 0, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 3),
('B081349', 3, 0, 0, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 0, 1, 3),
('B081415', 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 3, 0, 0, 2, 2),
('B081422', 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 3, 0, 1, 3),
('B081467', 3, 0, 1, 3, 2, 2, 3, 1, 0, 1, 2),
('B081524', 2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2),
('B081543', 2, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 3, 0, 2, 4),
('B081551', 3, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 2, 0, 2, 5),
('B081594', 2, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1),
('B081600', 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 4),
('B081616', 3, 3, 0, 1, 3, 1, 3, 0, 0, 1, 3),
('B081643', 3, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2, 1, 3, 0, 3, 3),
('B081697', 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 3, 2),
('B081744', 2, 3, 1, 1, 3, 3, 0, 3, 0, 3, 2),
('B081791', 2, 1, 0, 3, 3, 1, 0, 1, 3, 3, 2),
('B081863', 3, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 5),
('B081906', 3, 3, 0, 1, 1, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 3),
('B081911', 2, 0, 0, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3, 0, 1, 3),
('B081926', 3, 0, 1, 3, 2, 2, 3, 1, 0, 1, 2),
('B081932', 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0),
('B081977', 2, 1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2, 3),
('B082007', 2, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 5),
('B082035', 3, 3, 0, 0, 3, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 4);
|
CREATE TABLE items
(
id INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
item_name VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
bought BOOLEAN DEFAULT false,
date TIMESTAMP NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
); |
use codeup_test_db;
truncate albums;
insert into albums(
artist, name, release_date,genre,sales)
values
("Various artists","Grease: The Original Soundtrack from the Motion Picture","1978","Soundtrack","38"),
("Led Zeppelin","Led Zeppelin IV","1971","Hard rock, Heavy metal, Folk","37"),
("Michael Jackson","Bad","1987","Pop, Funk, Rock","35"),
("Alanis Morissette","Jagged Little Pill","1995","Alternative rock","33"),
("Shania Twain","Come On Over","1997","Country, Pop","33"),
("Celine Dion","Falling into You","1996","Pop, Soft rock","32"),
("The Beatles","Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band","1967","Rock","32"),
("Eagles","Hotel California","1976","Rock, Soft rock, Folk rock","32"),
("Various artists","Dirty Dancing","1987","Pop, Rock, R&B","32"),
("Adele","21","2011","Pop, Soul","31"),
("Celine Dion","Let's Talk About Love","1997","Pop, Soft rock","31"),
("The Beatles","1","2000","Rock","31"),
("Michael Jackson","Dangerous","1991","Rock,Funk,Pop","30"),
("Madonna","The Immaculate Collection","1990","Pop, Dance","30"),
("The Beatles","Abbey Road","1969","Rock","30"),
("Bruce Springsteen","Born in the U.S.A.","1984","Rock","30"),
("Dire Straits","Brothers in Arms","1985","Rock, Pop","30"),
("James Horner","Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture","1997","Soundtrack","30"),
("Metallica","Metallica","1991","Thrash metal, Heavy metal","30"),
("Nirvana","Nevermind","1991","Grunge, Alternative rock","30"),
("Pink Floyd","The Wall","1979","Progressive rock","30"),
("Santana","Supernatural","1999","Rock","30"),
("Guns N' Roses","Appetite for Destruction","1987","Hard rock","30");
|
WITH CTE_AGENDAMENTO AS
(
SELECT AGE.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO, AGE.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR,
AGE.CD_MACHINE, ma.DS_MACHINE, AGE.CD_WEEK , AGE.CD_POLO,
es.DS_STATUS, AGE.CD_ELO_STATUS, AGE.NU_CARTEIRA_VERSION
FROM VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO AGE
LEFT JOIN CTF.MACHINE ma
on AGE.CD_MACHINE = ma.CD_MACHINE
inner join VND.ELO_STATUS es
on es.CD_ELO_STATUS = AGE.CD_ELO_STATUS
WHERE AGE.IC_ATIVO = 'S'
--AND (es.SG_STATUS IN ('PLAN','AGCTR','AGENC'))
--AND ('W192018' is null OR AGE.CD_WEEK = 'W192018')
AND AGE.CD_WEEK in ('W18s2018', 'W1x92018', 'W202018', 'W21x2018')
and ('P002' is null or AGE.CD_POLO = 'P002')
--and (P_MACHINES is null OR AGE.CD_MACHINE IN (P_MACHINES))
-- and (P_POLO is null or AGE.CD_POLO = P_POLO)
-- and (
-- P_DT_WEEK_START is null or
-- (
-- to_number(to_char(to_date(AGE.DT_WEEK_START,'DD/MM/RRRR'),'IW')) = to_number(to_char(to_date(P_DT_WEEK_START,'DD/MM/RRRR'),'IW'))
-- and extract(year from AGE.DT_WEEK_START) = extract(year from to_date(P_DT_WEEK_START,'DD/MM/RRRR'))
-- )
-- )
),
CTE_CARTEIRA AS
(
SELECT
CTAF.CD_ELO_CARTEIRA ,
CTAF.CD_PRODUTO_SAP,
CTAF.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO,
CTAF.CD_TIPO_AGENDAMENTO,
CTAF.CD_TIPO_REPLAN,
CTAF.CD_STATUS_REPLAN,
CTAF.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM,
CTAF.NU_ORDEM,
CTAF.NU_CONTRATO_SAP,
CTAF.CD_ITEM_CONTRATO,
CTAF.NU_ORDEM_VENDA,
CTAF.IC_PERMITIR_CS,
CTAF.QT_AGENDADA_CONFIRMADA,
CTAF.QT_PROGRAMADA,
CTAF.QT_ENTREGUE,
CTAF.QT_SALDO,
CTAF.CD_INCOTERMS,
CTAF.CD_STATUS_CUSTOMER_SERVICE,
CTAF.CD_STATUS_TORRE_FRETES,
CTAF.DH_LIBERACAO_TORRE_FRETES,
CTAF.CD_STATUS_CEL_FINAL,
CTAF.CD_CLIENTE ,
CTAF.NO_CLIENTE ,
CTAF.DH_BACKLOG_CIF,
AGEF.CD_WEEK,
AGEF.CD_POLO,
AGEF.CD_ELO_STATUS,
AGEF.NU_CARTEIRA_VERSION,
NVL((SELECT DS.DS_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR FROM CTF.CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR DS WHERE DS.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR = CTAF.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR_FABRICA), CTAF.DS_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR) DS_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR,
NVL(CTAF.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR_FABRICA, CTAF.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR) CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR,
CTAF.CD_SALES_GROUP,
CTAF.CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM,
CTAF.IC_ATIVO,
CTAF.IC_CORTADO_FABRICA,
CTAF.DH_REPLAN,
CTAF.NU_PROTOCOLO,
CTAF.NU_PROTOCOLO_ENTREGA,
CTAF.DS_VERSAO
FROM VND.ELO_CARTEIRA CTAF
INNER JOIN CTE_AGENDAMENTO AGEF
ON CTAF.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO = AGEF.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO
WHERE
CTAF.IC_ATIVO = 'S'
--AND CTAF.CD_TIPO_AGENDAMENTO = 25
--AND CTAF.CD_STATUS_REPLAN IS NOT NULL
--AND CTAF.CD_STATUS_CUSTOMER_SERVICE IS NOT NULL AND CTAF.DH_LIBERACAO_TORRE_FRETES IS NOT NULL
--AND NVL(CTAF.QT_AGENDADA_CONFIRMADA,0) = 0
--and CTAF.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM = 13759
and nu_ordem_venda = '0002359599'
-- and ('6100' is null or NVL(CTAF.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR_FABRICA, CTAF.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR) = '6100')
-- AND (NVL(CTAF.QT_AGENDADA_CONFIRMADA,0) > 0 AND (NVL(CTAF.IC_CORTADO_FABRICA,'0') = '0'))
)--,
SELECT * FROM CTE_CARTEIRA;
CTE_AGENDAMENTO_FILTER AS
(
SELECT ag.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO, ag.CD_CENTRO_EXPEDIDOR, ag.CD_MACHINE, ag.DS_MACHINE, ag.CD_WEEK , ag.DS_STATUS, ag.CD_ELO_STATUS
FROM CTE_AGENDAMENTO ag
WHERE
EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM CTE_CARTEIRA CTA
WHERE
CTA.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO = ag.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO
)
),
--select * from CTE_AGENDAMENTO_FILTER
CTE_CARTEIRA_DAY AS
(
SELECT da.CD_ELO_CARTEIRA CD_ELO_CARTEIRA, SUM(da.NU_QUANTIDADE) NU_QUANTIDADE, da.NU_DIA_SEMANA
FROM VND.ELO_CARTEIRA_DAY da
INNER JOIN CTE_CARTEIRA CTAD
ON da.CD_ELO_CARTEIRA = CTAD.CD_ELO_CARTEIRA
INNER JOIN CTE_AGENDAMENTO_FILTER FILAG
ON CTAD.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO = FILAG.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO
GROUP BY da.CD_ELO_CARTEIRA, da.NU_DIA_SEMANA
),
ELO_AG_DAY_BY_INCOTERMS_ITEM AS
(
SELECT EA_SUP_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO, EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK, EAG_ITEM_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM, DAYY.CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM, DAYY.NU_DIA_SEMANA,
SUM(DAYY.NU_QUANTIDADE) NU_QUANTIDADE, EAG_ITEM_I.CD_CLIENTE, EAG_ITEM_I.CD_INCOTERMS,
MAX(EAG_WE_I.QT_SEMANA) QT_SEMANA_SALDO,
MAX((SELECT SUM(SUD.NU_QUANTIDADE)
FROM VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_DAY SUD
WHERE SUD.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK = EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK)) QT_SUM_DAY_WEEK,
MAX((SELECT SUM(SUD.NU_QUANTIDADE)
FROM VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_DAY SUD
WHERE SUD.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK = DAYY.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK
AND SUD.CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM = DAYY.CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM
--AND SUD.NU_DIA_SEMANA = DAYY.NU_DIA_SEMANA
)) QT_SUM_DAY_EMBALAGEM
FROM CTE_AGENDAMENTO_FILTER FILT
INNER JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_SUPERVISOR EA_SUP_I
ON FILT.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO = EA_SUP_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO
INNER JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM EAG_ITEM_I
--INNER JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM EAG_ITEM_I
ON
EAG_ITEM_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_SUPERVISOR = EA_SUP_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_SUPERVISOR
AND EAG_ITEM_I.IC_ATIVO = 'S'
INNER JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK EAG_WE_I
ON EAG_ITEM_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM = EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM
--LEFT JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_GROUPING EAG_GRO_I
--ON EAG_GRO_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK = EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK
INNER JOIN VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_DAY DAYY
ON
DAYY.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK = EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK
WHERE
EA_SUP_I.IC_ATIVO = 'S'
AND EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM CTE_CARTEIRA CTA
WHERE
CTA.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM = EAG_ITEM_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM
)
GROUP BY EA_SUP_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO, EAG_WE_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_WEEK, DAYY.CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM, DAYY.NU_DIA_SEMANA , EAG_ITEM_I.CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM , EAG_ITEM_I.CD_CLIENTE,
EAG_ITEM_I.CD_INCOTERMS
)--,
SELECT * FROM ELO_AG_DAY_BY_INCOTERMS_ITEM ORDER BY CD_ELO_AGENDAMENTO_ITEM, CD_GRUPO_EMBALAGEM, NU_DIA_SEMANA;
-- SELECT * FROM VND.ELO_AGENDAMENTO_DAY
--select * from vnd.elo_vbak_protocolo where cd_elo_carteira = 40434;
select * from vnd.elo_agendamento_item
where cd_elo_agendamento_item= '13759';
select * from vnd.elo_agendamento_week
where cd_elo_agendamento_item= '13759';
select * from vnd.elo_carteira where
nu_contrato_sap = '0040387703'
select * from vnd.elo_carteira_sap where
nu_contrato_sap = '0040387703'
cd_elo_carteira in (
40503,
40504);
select * from vnd.pedido
where nu_ordem_venda = '0002359599'
update vnd.elo_carteira
set no_sales_office = 'MAN-Alfredo Ghiraldi'
where cd_elo_carteira in (
39443,
40281
);
select cd_sales_office, count(1)
from
(
select no_sales_office, cd_sales_office
from vnd.elo_carteira
group by no_sales_office, cd_sales_office
)
group by cd_sales_office
having count(1) > 1
select cd_elo_carteira, no_sales_office, cd_sales_office from vnd.elo_carteira
where cd_sales_office = 5913 and no_sales_office <> 'MAN-Alfredo Ghiraldi'
select no_sales_office, cd_sales_office from vnd.elo_carteira_sap
where cd_sales_office = 5913 and no_sales_office <> 'MAN-Alfredo Ghiraldi'
select
cd_elo_carteira,
no_sales_office, cd_sales_office from vnd.elo_carteira
update vnd.elo_carteira
set no_sales_office = 'MAN-Alfredo Ghiraldi'
where
no_sales_office <> 'MAN-Alfredo Ghiraldi' and
cd_elo_carteira in
(
35911,
35913,
35915,
35918,
35919,
35920,
35754,
35440,
35596,
35599,
35600,
35601,
35606,
35607,
35608,
35609,
36746,
36750,
36751,
36752,
36754,
36755,
36756,
37021,
37022,
37023,
37024,
37025,
37028,
37029,
36208,
36209,
36211,
36212,
36214,
36215,
36216,
36217,
36218,
36219,
36481,
36483,
36484,
36485,
36486,
36487,
37272,
37274,
37275,
37276,
37277,
37279,
37282,
37283,
37551,
37552,
37553,
37557,
37558,
37559,
38946,
38948,
39416,
39418,
39419,
39424,
39428,
39539,
39540,
39441,
39543,
39545,
39547,
39454,
39549,
39553,
39461,
39462,
39558,
39559,
39463,
39472,
39473,
39474,
39476,
39478,
39482,
39483,
39484,
39488,
39494,
39496,
39497,
39498,
39501,
39400,
39409,
39410,
39509,
39512,
39513,
39514,
39517,
39521,
39523,
35597,
40277,
40278,
40279,
40280,
40282,
40283
);
|
--
-- Dumping data for table core_admin_right
--
DELETE FROM core_admin_right WHERE id_right = 'UPDATER_CATALOG_MANAGEMENT';
INSERT INTO core_admin_right (id_right,name,level_right,admin_url,description,is_updatable,plugin_name,id_feature_group,icon_url,documentation_url, id_order ) VALUES
('UPDATER_CATALOG_MANAGEMENT','updatercatalog.adminFeature.catalog_management.name',0,'jsp/admin/plugins/updatercatalog/ManageCatalogs.jsp','updatercatalog.adminFeature.catalog_management.description',0,'updatercatalog',NULL,NULL,NULL,4);
--
-- Dumping data for table core_user_right
--
DELETE FROM core_user_right WHERE id_right = 'UPDATER_CATALOG_MANAGEMENT';
INSERT INTO core_user_right (id_right,id_user) VALUES ('UPDATER_CATALOG_MANAGEMENT',1);
|
PARAMETERS [@EntidadID] Text (255);
SELECT A.EntidadID,
A.TipoDocumentoID,
B.TipoDocumento,
A.NumeroDocumento,
A.RazonSocial,
A.NombreComercial,
A.Direccion,
A.PaginaWeb,
A.APaterno,
A.AMaterno,
A.Nombres
FROM (
(SELECT *
FROM TB_GastoEntidad
WHERE (EntidadID=[@EntidadID] or [@EntidadID] IS NULL)) AS A
LEFT JOIN TB_TipoDocumento AS B ON A.TipoDocumentoID=B.TipoDocumentoID) |
USE notedb;
DROP TABLE note;
CREATE TABLE note (
noteid BIGINT SIGNED,
userid VARCHAR(44),
creation DATETIME,
lastedited DATETIME,
deleted BOOL,
notebody TEXT,
signature TEXT,
PRIMARY KEY (userid, noteid)
);
CREATE USER 'notesadmin'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'curriemartinoneill';
GRANT ALL ON notedb.* TO 'notesadmin'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'curriemartinoneill';
|
--https://leetcode-cn.com/problems/combine-two-tables/description/
select p.firstname, p.lastname, a.city, a.state from person p
left outer join address a on p.personid = a.personid; |
/*################################################################################
Migration script to replace Monthly_total_summary_view with new Publication table
author: C Malangone
date: March 2018
version: 2.2.0.042
################################################################################
*/
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW MONTHLY_TOTALS_SUMMARY_VIEW AS
SELECT ROWNUM AS ID, V."YEAR" AS YEAR,V."MONTH" AS MONTH,V."CURATOR" AS CURATOR,V."CURATOR_TOTAL" AS CURATOR_TOTAL,V."CURATION_STATUS" AS CURATION_STATUS,V."MONTHLY_TOTAL" AS MONTHLY_TOTAL
FROM (SELECT YEAR_E AS YEAR, MONTH_E AS MONTH, CURATOR AS CURATOR, CURATOR_TOTAL AS CURATOR_TOTAL, CURATION_STATUS AS CURATION_STATUS, MONTHLY_TOTAL AS MONTHLY_TOTAL FROM (
(SELECT EXTRACT (YEAR FROM (TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'YEAR'))) AS YEAR_E,
EXTRACT (MONTH FROM (TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH'))) AS MONTH_E,
C.LAST_NAME AS CURATOR,
COUNT(C.LAST_NAME) AS CURATOR_TOTAL,
CS.STATUS AS CURATION_STATUS
FROM STUDY S, PUBLICATION P, HOUSEKEEPING H, CURATOR C, CURATION_STATUS CS
WHERE S.HOUSEKEEPING_ID = H.ID
AND S.PUBLICATION_ID = P.ID
AND H.CURATION_STATUS_ID = CS.ID
AND H.CURATOR_ID = C.ID
GROUP BY TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'YEAR'), TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH'),CS.STATUS, C.LAST_NAME
ORDER BY TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'YEAR') DESC,TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH') DESC, C.LAST_NAME
) E FULL JOIN (SELECT EXTRACT (YEAR FROM (TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'YEAR'))) AS YEAR_N,
EXTRACT (MONTH FROM (TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH'))) AS MONTH_N,
COUNT(S.ID) AS MONTHLY_TOTAL
FROM STUDY S JOIN PUBLICATION P ON (S.PUBLICATION_ID = P.ID)
GROUP BY TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH'), TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'YEAR')
ORDER BY TRUNC(TO_DATE(P.PUBLICATION_DATE), 'MONTH') DESC) N on YEAR_N = YEAR_E AND MONTH_N = MONTH_E)) V
|
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS tblNationalPeriod;
CREATE TABLE tblNationalPeriod (
intNationalPeriodID INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
strNationalPeriodName VARCHAR(100),
strSport VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT '',
intRealmID INT,
intSubRealmID INT,
dtFrom DATE,
dtTo DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (intNationalPeriodID),
KEY index_intRealm(intRealmID, intSubRealmID, strSport)
);
|
--
-- PostgreSQL database dump
--
-- Dumped from database version 12.6
-- Dumped by pg_dump version 12.6
-- Started on 2021-04-27 17:33:31
--
-- TOC entry 2853 (class 0 OID 25304)
-- Dependencies: 202
-- Data for Name: manufacturer; Type: TABLE DATA; Schema: public; Owner: postgres
--
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (1, 'Forest Laboratories, Inc.', '949-381-3584', 'tgantley0@comsenz.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (2, 'BioActive Nutritional, Inc.', '940-251-8738', 'ldunthorn1@nature.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (3, 'Taro Pharmaceuticals U.S.A., Inc.', '339-242-6761', 'scheyney2@imageshack.us');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (4, 'Dispensing Solutions, Inc.', '944-637-8227', 'soblein3@etsy.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (5, 'Fenwal, Inc.', '188-373-8572', 'spilger4@liveinternet.ru');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (6, 'Aidarex Pharmaceuticals LLC', '575-516-3695', 'jalmey5@tamu.edu');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (7, 'Akorn, Inc.', '688-687-7632', 'iscading6@cafepress.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (8, 'McKesson Contract Packaging', '383-790-1748', 'mvasler7@taobao.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (9, 'Rite Aid Corporation', '818-478-1272', 'loultram8@miibeian.gov.cn');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (10, 'Goodier Cosmetics LP', '447-652-5470', 'cberndt9@php.net');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (12, 'NCS HealthCare of KY, Inc dba Vangard Labs', '562-657-4325', 'lsmallpeaceb@last.fm');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (13, 'Greenbrier International, Inc.', '250-844-4400', 'bsongestc@wunderground.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (15, 'Premier Value (Chain Drug Consortium, LLC)', '502-356-7712', 'tuzellie@patch.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (16, 'Reckitt Benckiser LLC', '729-426-4769', 'hdaxf@nhs.uk');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (17, 'Topco Associates LLC', '951-187-0223', 'dwalklettg@gnu.org');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (18, 'Macleods Pharmaceuticals Limited', '275-771-7623', 'bhenriqueh@skyrock.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (19, 'REMEDYREPACK INC.', '369-120-8386', 'ldymidowiczi@mapquest.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (20, 'Physicians Total Care, Inc.', '943-735-2795', 'ldedomenicij@google.nl');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (21, 'CVS Pharmacy', '598-433-3314', 'hmacgraghk@discovery.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (22, 'Nelco Laboratories, Inc.', '479-661-6421', 'bleninl@bbc.co.uk');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (23, 'Wyeth BioPharma Division of Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc., a subsidiary of Pfizer Inc.', '473-956-5622', 'cfirksm@psu.edu');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (24, 'Lantern Enterprises Ltd.', '939-718-6104', 'hrubroen@opensource.org');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (25, 'BluePoint Laboratories', '742-793-8736', 'lguyo@flickr.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (27, 'Mylan Pharmaceuticals Inc.', '856-304-0611', 'rlorrymanq@ustream.tv');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (28, 'Rebel Distributors Corp', '804-247-3154', 'bboter@fema.gov');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (29, 'Prime Packaging, Inc.', '849-504-2422', 'mwroes@go.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (30, 'Uriel Pharmacy Inc.', '118-613-1143', 'pcrakert@jimdo.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (31, 'AMERISOURCEBERGEN DRUG CORPORATION', '619-138-3987', 'hsketu@chicagotribune.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (32, 'Kroger Company', '660-435-5827', 'lgobournv@is.gd');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (33, 'Cardinal Health', '919-263-5881', 'bnorthcliffew@independent.co.uk');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (34, 'Roxane Laboratories, Inc', '681-229-8844', 'somullaneyx@theatlantic.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (35, 'Deb USA, Inc.', '173-938-6153', 'cgrayshany@buzzfeed.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (36, 'Guardian Drug Company', '592-570-0434', 'kmanskez@infoseek.co.jp');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (37, 'TONYMOLY CO., LTD.', '664-286-6911', 'tbazire10@mashable.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (38, 'ALK-Abello, Inc.', '951-378-5660', 'mmoggle11@desdev.cn');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (39, 'NDC, Inc.', '767-427-0428', 'arobard12@marketwatch.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (40, 'Genentech, Inc.', '187-991-2619', 'jpriestman13@chicagotribune.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (41, 'The Mentholatum Company', '410-868-6067', 'dbeau14@weebly.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (42, 'Paddock Laboratories, Inc.', '544-818-6123', 'dterbeek15@plala.or.jp');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (43, 'Procter & Gamble Manufacturing Company', '108-753-0180', 'jdavidovici16@shutterfly.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (44, 'A-S Medication Solutions LLC', '482-242-5226', 'gmacandreis17@admin.ch');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (45, 'LEO Pharma Inc.', '103-335-6535', 'ndahlborg18@nature.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (46, 'Procter & Gamble Manufacturing Co.', '570-963-8975', 'kkienlein19@usda.gov');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (47, 'GRIFOLS USA, LLC', '717-523-1734', 'qbloschke1a@nationalgeographic.com');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (48, 'Cantrell Drug Company', '698-446-6142', 'wedger1b@cdc.gov');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (49, 'King Bio Inc.', '367-350-4116', 'mdechelle1c@networkadvertising.org');
INSERT INTO public.manufacturer VALUES (50, 'Costco Wholesale Company', '214-112-4074', 'akrysiak1d@qq.com');
-- Completed on 2021-04-27 17:33:31
--
-- PostgreSQL database dump complete
--
|
SELECT * FROM users
WHERE title = 'petowner'; |
SELECT DISTINCT a.name account_name,r.name region_name
FROM region r
JOIN sales_reps s
ON s.region_id = r.id
JOIN accounts a
ON a.sales_rep_id = s.id
ORDER BY a.name,r.name
SELECT DISTINCT s.name sales_rep_name,a.name region_name
FROM region r
JOIN sales_reps s
ON s.region_id = r.id
JOIN accounts a
ON a.sales_rep_id = s.id
ORDER BY s.name,a.name
|
-- MySQL Script generated by MySQL Workbench
-- Wed Jan 29 16:27:34 2020
-- Model: New Model Version: 1.0
-- MySQL Workbench Forward Engineering
SET @OLD_UNIQUE_CHECKS=@@UNIQUE_CHECKS, UNIQUE_CHECKS=0;
SET @OLD_FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=@@FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS, FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=0;
SET @OLD_SQL_MODE=@@SQL_MODE, SQL_MODE='ONLY_FULL_GROUP_BY,STRICT_TRANS_TABLES,NO_ZERO_IN_DATE,NO_ZERO_DATE,ERROR_FOR_DIVISION_BY_ZERO,NO_ENGINE_SUBSTITUTION';
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Schema petrol
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP SCHEMA IF EXISTS `petrol` ;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Schema petrol
-- -----------------------------------------------------
CREATE SCHEMA IF NOT EXISTS `petrol` DEFAULT CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci ;
USE `petrol` ;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Table `petrol`.`Gas_Station`
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `petrol`.`Gas_Station` ;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `petrol`.`Gas_Station` (
`ID_GAS_STATION` INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`NAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`ID_GAS_STATION`))
ENGINE = InnoDB;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Table `petrol`.`Employee`
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `petrol`.`Employee` ;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `petrol`.`Employee` (
`ID_EMPLOYEE` INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`NAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`SURNAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`EXPERIENCE` INT NULL,
`SALARY` DECIMAL(6,2) NOT NULL,
`VACATION_DAYS` INT NULL,
`ID_GAS_STATION` INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`ID_EMPLOYEE`),
INDEX `fk_radnici_pumpa_id_pumpa_idx` (`ID_GAS_STATION` ASC),
CONSTRAINT `fk_employee_gas_station_id_gas_station`
FOREIGN KEY (`ID_GAS_STATION`)
REFERENCES `petrol`.`Gas_Station` (`ID_GAS_STATION`)
ON DELETE NO ACTION
ON UPDATE NO ACTION)
ENGINE = InnoDB;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Table `petrol`.`Fuel`
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `petrol`.`Fuel` ;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `petrol`.`Fuel` (
`ID_FUEL` INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`NAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`ID_FUEL`))
ENGINE = InnoDB;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Table `petrol`.`Gas_Station_Fuel`
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `petrol`.`Gas_Station_Fuel` ;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `petrol`.`Gas_Station_Fuel` (
`ID_GAS_STATION_FUEL` INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`ID_GAS_STATION` INT NOT NULL,
`ID_FUEL` INT NOT NULL,
`AMOUNT_LITER` INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`ID_GAS_STATION_FUEL`),
INDEX `fk_gas_station_fuel_gas_station_id_gas_station_idx` (`ID_GAS_STATION` ASC),
INDEX `fk_gas_station_fuel_fuel_id_fuel_idx` (`ID_FUEL` ASC),
CONSTRAINT `fk_gas_station_fuel_gas_station_id_gas_station`
FOREIGN KEY (`ID_GAS_STATION`)
REFERENCES `petrol`.`Gas_Station` (`ID_GAS_STATION`)
ON DELETE NO ACTION
ON UPDATE NO ACTION,
CONSTRAINT `fk_gas_station_fuel_fuel_id_fuel`
FOREIGN KEY (`ID_FUEL`)
REFERENCES `petrol`.`Fuel` (`ID_FUEL`)
ON DELETE NO ACTION
ON UPDATE NO ACTION)
ENGINE = InnoDB;
-- -----------------------------------------------------
-- Table `petrol`.`User`
-- -----------------------------------------------------
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `petrol`.`User` ;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `petrol`.`User` (
`ID_USER` INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`NAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`SURNAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`EMAIL` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`PASSWORD` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`GAS_STATION_NAME` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`ID_ROLE` INT NOT NULL DEFAULT '2',
PRIMARY KEY (`ID_USER`))
ENGINE = InnoDB;
SET SQL_MODE=@OLD_SQL_MODE;
SET FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=@OLD_FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS;
SET UNIQUE_CHECKS=@OLD_UNIQUE_CHECKS;
|
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.5.1
-- http://www.phpmyadmin.net
--
-- Host: 127.0.0.1
-- Generation Time: 13 фев 2017 в 16:19
-- Версия на сървъра: 10.1.19-MariaDB
-- PHP Version: 7.0.13
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Database: `cms2`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `cl_film_screenings`
--
CREATE TABLE `cl_film_screenings` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`date` date NOT NULL,
`hour` time NOT NULL,
`cm_movie_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`price` int(11) NOT NULL,
`free_seats` int(11) NOT NULL,
`date_deleted` date DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Схема на данните от таблица `cl_film_screenings`
--
INSERT INTO `cl_film_screenings` (`id`, `date`, `hour`, `cm_movie_id`, `price`, `free_seats`, `date_deleted`) VALUES
(1, '2017-01-11', '15:00:00', 1, 7, 100, NULL),
(2, '2017-02-14', '15:00:00', 1, 8, 150, NULL),
(3, '2017-02-28', '07:14:00', 2, 7, 150, NULL),
(4, '2017-02-25', '12:29:00', 9, 7, 150, NULL),
(5, '2017-02-28', '21:00:00', 10, 7, 150, NULL),
(6, '2017-02-28', '04:11:00', 11, 7, 150, NULL),
(7, '2017-02-28', '11:00:00', 12, 7, 150, NULL),
(8, '2017-02-28', '16:14:00', 2, 7, 150, NULL);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `cl_genres`
--
CREATE TABLE `cl_genres` (
`genres` varchar(50) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Схема на данните от таблица `cl_genres`
--
INSERT INTO `cl_genres` (`genres`) VALUES
('Action/Екшън'),
('Animation/Анимация'),
('Comedy/Комедия'),
('Drama/Драма'),
('Family/Семеен'),
('Horror/Ужас'),
('Romantic/Романтичен'),
('SCI-FI/Фантастика'),
('Thriller/Трилър');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `cm_movies`
--
CREATE TABLE `cm_movies` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`title` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
`poster` varchar(150) DEFAULT NULL,
`description` text,
`cl_genre_id1` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL,
`cl_genre_id2` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL,
`cl_genre_id3` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL,
`director` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL,
`translation` enum('subtitles','bg_audio','','') DEFAULT NULL,
`age_rate` tinyint(2) NOT NULL DEFAULT '10',
`country` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL,
`bg_premiere` date DEFAULT NULL,
`rating` float DEFAULT NULL,
`producer` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL,
`trailer` varchar(255) DEFAULT NULL,
`start_date` date DEFAULT NULL,
`end_date` date DEFAULT NULL,
`date_deleted` date DEFAULT NULL,
`created_at` datetime NOT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime NOT NULL,
`created_by` varchar(50) NOT NULL DEFAULT 'cvexa',
`updated_by` varchar(50) DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Схема на данните от таблица `cm_movies`
--
INSERT INTO `cm_movies` (`id`, `title`, `poster`, `description`, `cl_genre_id1`, `cl_genre_id2`, `cl_genre_id3`, `director`, `translation`, `age_rate`, `country`, `bg_premiere`, `rating`, `producer`, `trailer`, `start_date`, `end_date`, `date_deleted`, `created_at`, `updated_at`, `created_by`, `updated_by`) VALUES
(1, 'Warcraft / Warcraft', '1486929184_warcraft.jpg', 'Мирната територия Азерот е на ръба на война, когато цивилизацията й е изправена пред страховит набег на завоеватели: воини орки бягат от загиващия си дом, опитвайки се да колонизират нов...', 'Animation/Анимация', 'Comedy/Комедия', 'Drama/Драма', 'Duncan Jones', 'subtitles', 13, 'USA', '2017-01-08', 8, 'Duncan Jones', 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/RhFMIRuHAL4', '2017-01-08', '2017-01-31', NULL, '2017-01-07 05:14:14', '2017-02-12 19:53:04', 'Cvexa', ''),
(2, 'xXx: Return of Xander ', '1486926222_cwgr_gjuiair7ts.jpg', 'Xander Cage is left for dead after an incident, though he secretly returns to action for a new, tough assignment with his handler Augustus Gibbons. ', 'Animation/Анимация', 'Comedy/Комедия', 'Drama/Драма', ' D.J. Caruso ', 'subtitles', 15, 'USA,Brazil', '2017-01-02', 10, NULL, 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/xEuM4IUFWu8', '2017-01-27', '2017-03-27', NULL, '2017-01-23 21:25:12', '2017-02-12 19:03:42', 'cvexa', NULL),
(9, 'Collide / Аутобан ', '1486925896_collide-nicholas-hoult-felicity-jones-new-trailer-01.jpg', 'Осъзнавайки, че няма избор, Кейси Стийн (Никълъс Холт) се обръща за помощ към бившия си шеф и пласьор на наркотици Герън (Бен Кингсли), за да набави необходимите 200 хиляди долара за животоспасяваща бъбречна трансплантация за дългогодишната си приятелка Джулиет (Фелисити Джоунс)...', 'Horror/Ужас', 'Romantic/Романтичен', 'SCI-FI/Фантастика', 'Еран Крийви', 'subtitles', 5, 'China', '2017-06-22', 5, NULL, 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/p7yt_t3nZKA', '2012-12-12', '2012-12-12', NULL, '2017-01-23 22:22:37', '2017-02-12 18:58:16', 'cvexa', NULL),
(10, 'The Great Wall', '1486925779_great_wall_ver17.jpg', 'European mercenaries searching for black powder become embroiled in the defense of the Great Wall of China against a horde of monstrous creatures. ', NULL, NULL, NULL, ' Yimou Zhang (as Zhang Yimou ) ', 'bg_audio', 10, 'China', '2017-01-20', 6, NULL, 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/6SKI9rgqFck', '2017-01-27', '2017-01-31', NULL, '2017-01-24 22:48:07', '2017-02-12 18:56:19', 'cvexa', NULL),
(11, 'Resident Evil: The Final Chapter', '1486926235_reinternational.jpg', 'Picking up immediately after the events in Resident Evil: Retribution, Alice (Milla Jovovich) is the only survivor of what was meant to be humanity''s final stand against the undead...', NULL, NULL, NULL, ' Paul W.S. Anderson ', 'subtitles', 18, 'USA', '2017-01-27', 5, NULL, 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/8gQIL8uV_Tc', '2017-01-27', '2017-03-27', NULL, '2017-01-26 20:44:07', '2017-02-12 19:03:55', 'cvexa', NULL),
(12, 'The Space Between Us', '1486926247_spacebetweenposter.jpg', 'The first human born on Mars travels to Earth for the first time, experiencing the wonders of the planet through fresh eyes. He embarks on an adventure with a street smart girl to discover how he came to be. ', NULL, NULL, NULL, ' Peter Chelsom ', 'bg_audio', 14, 'USA', '2017-02-20', 5, NULL, 'https://www.youtube.com/embed/2FjFJ5N2MjA', '2017-02-27', '2017-03-27', NULL, '2017-01-26 22:18:52', '2017-02-12 19:04:07', 'cvexa', NULL);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `cm_sold_tickets`
--
CREATE TABLE `cm_sold_tickets` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`cm_film_screening_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`row_num` int(11) NOT NULL,
`column_num` int(11) NOT NULL,
`price` float NOT NULL,
`code` varchar(50) NOT NULL,
`date_deleted` date DEFAULT NULL,
`created_at` datetime NOT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime NOT NULL,
`created_by` varchar(50) NOT NULL,
`updated_by` varchar(50) NOT NULL,
`user_id` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `migrations`
--
CREATE TABLE `migrations` (
`id` int(10) UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
`migration` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`batch` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Схема на данните от таблица `migrations`
--
INSERT INTO `migrations` (`id`, `migration`, `batch`) VALUES
(1, '2014_10_12_000000_create_users_table', 1),
(2, '2014_10_12_100000_create_password_resets_table', 1);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `password_resets`
--
CREATE TABLE `password_resets` (
`email` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`token` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Структура на таблица `users`
--
CREATE TABLE `users` (
`id` int(10) UNSIGNED NOT NULL,
`name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`email` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`password` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`remember_token` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci DEFAULT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
`role` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci DEFAULT 'user'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Схема на данните от таблица `users`
--
INSERT INTO `users` (`id`, `name`, `email`, `password`, `remember_token`, `created_at`, `updated_at`, `role`) VALUES
(1, 'Vr', 'vas@abv.bg', '$2y$10$7Ikl1QrtpcPnLrgYu54TQuzFM81T5o6j.A/Km3HIzUUKxWSUK0LnK', 'bOoIwngSSOeOUTE8hOwVOb7Uf0m504mLxZ7KAH42QtvT2aAeQQZqJx2w1cLe', '2017-01-10 17:44:05', '2017-02-11 10:49:08', 'admin'),
(3, 'Just_user', 'user@abv.bg', '$2y$10$VcqgsKAohkpmXNlJNcjQs.4T7B97X6gJlv1DtdJo2FOfn/pgwczkW', 'wGjKGbvD8pz6Ag4o6DGNWxUoxkhEpzmq7fSTTfE2AVhSFFakvn8Cv7coIfXK', '2017-01-10 19:01:58', '2017-02-11 10:49:26', 'user'),
(4, 'test1', 'test1@abv.bg', '$2y$10$/558u55HS5LMaiW.1lHXb.Ucjf59eWMELSiBnpe9C2UqADOMwp1Iu', 'fLYPCgHdx7XBCimVAQSdLpuRV1OMrGCZ21OQBSNhNSdu7MMI6s2DIfQxTHtV', '2017-02-05 16:23:20', '2017-02-05 16:25:51', 'user'),
(5, 'test2', 'test2@abv.bg', '$2y$10$7I5mqg7NTyd.evOpDXPZeOaPw9mVYrvokBsWCaofgYZtAgGXlWlRi', 'ixZUb0ewd6OjF5t4Ya58DBjsSOSSPm5EdIlUoratlKrKl2d4YAC7BCdxZqnz', '2017-02-05 16:26:01', '2017-02-05 16:27:33', 'user'),
(6, 'test3', 'test43@abv.bg', '$2y$10$C4F2G6mwesuxdWvkHDIZSeY5hBBggFtLneqlVLjOGSwo6P6DJq9f.', 'dlvLDS1BTKg6M4F49x1GgH4NWpifRD8AdbvigHhCQ08sOgnARIzJjypEN0vw', '2017-02-05 16:27:45', '2017-02-05 16:28:21', 'user'),
(7, 'asdasd33', 'asdasd@abv.bg', '$2y$10$MaP5vkltjfI83x.4J9ZRBuIUsxCFAI.IoxLt7rbfB5XJfy6phBiEy', 'IhOfFWwu9uGgEy9q2qL8kiMNByFPISWqa5a5p4hIrMH6PtMQxCbX4dcnjqaJ', '2017-02-06 16:52:21', '2017-02-06 16:53:13', 'user'),
(8, 'anotherone', 'asd@abv.bg', '$2y$10$ocecNpoiDwiT8GyQmgFgOewMriVD4Gfhnje69dRXQwv9ZHkUrnXR.', 'Fs23edU66J032hWRiZzqOzV5SZRSIMHNqjF51c1haoPmlWKUyVrxVcI3dPYa', '2017-02-06 17:09:34', '2017-02-06 17:11:41', 'user'),
(9, 'another2', 'anosad@abv.bg', '$2y$10$Wju7fhrgIjLAfQY6ZhO9vuuVSb5BERIR2TK3oyFzXw/PY0j57TgdO', 'Zjjol63wYOkvlSQ75jtzzC4KIBfKRCkwI6omCw8RWvGtnW8Q6wSmIhzXYIe0', '2017-02-06 17:12:49', '2017-02-06 17:18:13', 'user'),
(10, 'asdasdasd', 'asdaaaasd@abv.bg', '$2y$10$aSOC9io8z4rDct2PWaOk2Odpo52JPBUrvkVClhWaAmZM6IM/D.lOK', 'OnYBDIndlNEAyJ7eCAAwqLDlkUmSQEmmlFF459ZP2Wd5xlmEHoE7PPQIAOd2', '2017-02-06 17:18:28', '2017-02-06 17:19:34', 'user'),
(11, 'asdasddddd', 'asdasdadsddd@abv.bg', '$2y$10$B/9Rq4Js61ogHE8Xlth6POKgoUOZiyxtyW729bElHVViqkiVZU8PO', 'k2axP4Jvd4US7IU4mUzhJ5y8JruqcZmNjwaHzpXgF7zcPIILRXhJJbWAh2N9', '2017-02-06 17:26:11', '2017-02-06 17:28:17', 'user'),
(12, 'adsadasdsdaasdsad', 'asdsssasd@abv.bg', '$2y$10$II3s0wvBjqVoP1i/6d6oAeYePhTSiQIAlz6k/cKR.hLxhAgvXL9T6', 'BE93cHgDxuXCfU8aivORx34S8wyhj9qe8zTnoCGsnRJGWb1YX8yicegHf8ou', '2017-02-06 17:28:34', '2017-02-06 17:30:29', 'user'),
(13, 'xaxaaxxaxaxa', 'asxaxaxa@abv.bg', '$2y$10$RGN5db.646vVs42ZcRwyaOqenpAbSask0wXZZes.oyqq.CgjqkWs.', 'szGfvuUS7ILBxShcD20NCcUvEPbQ4IlHNvpH0tCGSsUwDWFrlobkyvwACgLj', '2017-02-06 17:31:10', '2017-02-06 17:32:26', 'user'),
(14, 'asdasdasdasddasasdasdasd', 'dasasdadadadad@abv.bg', '$2y$10$HDM9WG7LO9Cc0eXUwrD.FODVSHvDTWrv/U30XnbzEtSqagNurEaja', 'ctAyVEwmf1c2YuqpSmBnxCKlynL3AGXphDiQyfxhsTDq0jI8T79PkGJAXAWU', '2017-02-06 17:32:37', '2017-02-06 17:34:01', 'user'),
(15, 'xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx', 'xxxxxxxxxxxxxx@abv.bg', '$2y$10$mUO7KvSCO81KQ4tbnXU3h.LrbsCviL2cNXnFnGIz6nMAoSpWW1eSG', '1L4ZLBj1ESlMGgYLpObBe48oKdEOyeTx9A95THpcsnZoTl35JBEE4CilO3AI', '2017-02-06 17:34:23', '2017-02-06 17:34:28', 'user');
--
-- Indexes for dumped tables
--
--
-- Indexes for table `cl_film_screenings`
--
ALTER TABLE `cl_film_screenings`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `cl_genres`
--
ALTER TABLE `cl_genres`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`genres`);
--
-- Indexes for table `cm_movies`
--
ALTER TABLE `cm_movies`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `cm_sold_tickets`
--
ALTER TABLE `cm_sold_tickets`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `migrations`
--
ALTER TABLE `migrations`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `password_resets`
--
ALTER TABLE `password_resets`
ADD KEY `password_resets_email_index` (`email`),
ADD KEY `password_resets_token_index` (`token`);
--
-- Indexes for table `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD UNIQUE KEY `users_email_unique` (`email`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for dumped tables
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `cl_film_screenings`
--
ALTER TABLE `cl_film_screenings`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=9;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `cm_movies`
--
ALTER TABLE `cm_movies`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=13;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `cm_sold_tickets`
--
ALTER TABLE `cm_sold_tickets`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `migrations`
--
ALTER TABLE `migrations`
MODIFY `id` int(10) UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=3;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
MODIFY `id` int(10) UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=16;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
\W
use hackerrank_15_days;
select
s1.submission_date, s1.hacker_id,
s2.submission_date, s2.hacker_id
from
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s1
inner join
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s2
on s1.hacker_id = s2.hacker_id
and s1.submission_date >= s2.submission_date
order by s1.submission_date, s2.submission_date
;
select submission_date, day_of_contest
from
(select @prev := null, @day_of_contest := 1) init
join
(
select
@prev,
@day_of_contest,
@day_of_contest := if(submission_date != @prev, @day_of_contest + 1, @day_of_contest) day_of_contest,
@prev := submission_date,
submission_date, hacker_id, c
from
(
select
s1.submission_date, s1.hacker_id, count(*) c
from
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s1
inner join
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s2
on s1.hacker_id = s2.hacker_id
and s1.submission_date >= s2.submission_date
group by s1.submission_date, s1.hacker_id
) y
) x
where day_of_contest = c
;
select submission_date, count(*)
from
(
select submission_date, day_of_contest
from
(select @prev := null, @day_of_contest := 1) init
join
(
select
@prev,
@day_of_contest,
@day_of_contest := if(submission_date != @prev, @day_of_contest + 1, @day_of_contest) day_of_contest,
@prev := submission_date,
submission_date, hacker_id, c
from
(
select
s1.submission_date, s1.hacker_id, count(*) c
from
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s1
inner join
( select distinct submission_date, hacker_id from submissions ) s2
on s1.hacker_id = s2.hacker_id
and s1.submission_date >= s2.submission_date
group by s1.submission_date, s1.hacker_id
) y
) x
where day_of_contest = c
) z
group by submission_date
;
|
/*==============================================================*/
/* DBMS name: MySQL 5.0 */
/* Created on: 2018/9/3 21:17:22 */
/*==============================================================*/
drop table if exists appointment_info;
drop table if exists brands;
drop table if exists goods_info;
drop table if exists goods_order;
drop table if exists goods_order_r;
drop table if exists goods_race;
drop table if exists log_info;
drop table if exists master_info;
drop table if exists pet_info;
drop table if exists pet_race;
drop table if exists photos;
drop table if exists service_appointment_r;
drop table if exists service_race;
drop table if exists staff_info;
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: appointment_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table appointment_info
(
appointment_id int not null auto_increment,
pet_id int,
appointment_start datetime not null,
primary key (appointment_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: brands */
/*==============================================================*/
create table brands
(
brands_id int not null auto_increment,
brands_name char(20) not null,
primary key (brands_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: goods_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table goods_info
(
goods_id int not null auto_increment,
brands_id int,
goods_race_id int,
goods_name char(50) not null,
goods_price float(10) not null,
on_sale float(10) not null,
goods_barcode longtext not null,
goods_amount int not null,
primary key (goods_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: goods_order */
/*==============================================================*/
create table goods_order
(
order_id int not null auto_increment,
master_id int,
order_price float(10) not null,
order_status int not null,
primary key (order_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: goods_order_r */
/*==============================================================*/
create table goods_order_r
(
goods_order_id int not null auto_increment,
goods_id int,
order_id int,
order_goods_amount int not null,
primary key (goods_order_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: goods_race */
/*==============================================================*/
create table goods_race
(
goods_race_id int not null auto_increment,
goods_race_name char(50) not null,
goods_race_describe char(100),
primary key (goods_race_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: log_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table log_info
(
log_id int not null,
staff_id int,
staff_in_time datetime,
staff_out_time datetime,
primary key (log_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: master_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table master_info
(
master_id int not null auto_increment,
master_name char(50) not null,
master_sex char(10) not null,
master_tel char(20) not null,
master_mail char(50),
primary key (master_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: pet_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table pet_info
(
pet_id int not null auto_increment,
master_id int,
race_id int,
pet_name char(50) not null,
pet_nickname char(50),
pet_sex char(10),
primary key (pet_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: pet_race */
/*==============================================================*/
create table pet_race
(
pet_race_id int not null auto_increment,
pet_race_name char(50) not null,
pet_race_describe char(100),
primary key (pet_race_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: photos */
/*==============================================================*/
create table photos
(
photo_id int not null auto_increment,
pet_id int,
img_src char(100),
primary key (photo_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: service_appointment_r */
/*==============================================================*/
create table service_appointment_r
(
service_appointment_id int not null auto_increment,
appointment_id int,
service_id int,
finish_status int not null,
finish_time datetime,
primary key (service_appointment_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: service_race */
/*==============================================================*/
create table service_race
(
service_id int not null auto_increment,
service_name char(50) not null,
service_describe char(100),
service_price float(10) not null,
primary key (service_id)
);
/*==============================================================*/
/* Table: staff_info */
/*==============================================================*/
create table staff_info
(
staff_id int not null auto_increment,
staff_name char(50) not null,
staff_rank int not null,
staff_account char(10) not null,
staff_pwd char(20) not null,
primary key (staff_id)
);
alter table appointment_info add constraint FK_Reference_7 foreign key (pet_id)
references pet_info (pet_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table goods_info add constraint FK_Reference_3 foreign key (brands_id)
references brands (brands_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table goods_info add constraint FK_Reference_4 foreign key (goods_race_id)
references goods_race (goods_race_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table goods_order add constraint FK_Reference_6 foreign key (master_id)
references master_info (master_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table goods_order_r add constraint FK_Reference_10 foreign key (order_id)
references goods_order (order_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table goods_order_r add constraint FK_Reference_9 foreign key (goods_id)
references goods_info (goods_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table log_info add constraint FK_Reference_13 foreign key (staff_id)
references staff_info (staff_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table pet_info add constraint FK_Reference_14 foreign key (race_id)
references pet_race (pet_race_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table pet_info add constraint FK_Reference_2 foreign key (master_id)
references master_info (master_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table photos add constraint FK_Reference_1 foreign key (pet_id)
references pet_info (pet_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table service_appointment_r add constraint FK_Reference_11 foreign key (appointment_id)
references appointment_info (appointment_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
alter table service_appointment_r add constraint FK_Reference_12 foreign key (service_id)
references service_race (service_id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
|
create table rider (
id identity not null primary key,
name varchar(150),
bike_number integer,
country_id long
);
create table country (
id identity not null primary key,
name varchar(150)
);
create table grand_prix (
id identity not null primary key,
name varchar(150),
country_id long,
winning_rider_id long
); |
select
Item.itemID as itemID
,Item.itemName as itemName
,Item.price as price
from
Item
,BuriPathData
/*BEGIN*/
where
/*IF dto.itemID != null*/ itemID = /*dto.itemID*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_not != null*/AND itemID != /*dto.itemID_not*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_large != null*/AND /*dto.itemID_large*/0 < itemID/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_moreLarge != null*/AND /*dto.itemID_moreLarge*/0 <= itemID/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_from != null*/AND /*dto.itemID_from*/0 <= itemID/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_to != null*/AND itemID <= /*dto.itemID_to*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_moreSmall != null*/AND itemID <= /*dto.itemID_moreSmall*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_small != null*/AND itemID < /*dto.itemID_small*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_isNull != null*/AND itemID is null /*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_isNotNull != null*/AND itemID is not null/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemID_in != null*/AND itemID in /*dto.itemID_in*/(0)/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_matchFull != null*/AND itemName Like /*dto.itemName_matchFull*/'%TestData%'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_matchFront != null*/AND itemName Like /*dto.itemName_matchFront*/'TestData%'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_matchBack != null*/AND itemName Like /*dto.itemName_matchBack*/'%TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName != null*/AND itemName = /*dto.itemName*/'TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_not != null*/AND itemName != /*dto.itemName_not*/'TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_large != null*/AND /*dto.itemName_large*/'TestData' < itemName/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_moreLarge != null*/AND /*dto.itemName_moreLarge*/'TestData' <= itemName/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_from != null*/AND /*dto.itemName_from*/'TestData' <= itemName/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_to != null*/AND itemName <= /*dto.itemName_to*/'TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_moreSmall != null*/AND itemName <= /*dto.itemName_moreSmall*/'TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_small != null*/AND itemName < /*dto.itemName_small*/'TestData'/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_isNull != null*/AND itemName is null /*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_isNotNull != null*/AND itemName is not null/*END*/
/*IF dto.itemName_in != null*/AND itemName in /*dto.itemName_in*/('TestData')/*END*/
/*IF dto.price != null*/AND price = /*dto.price*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_not != null*/AND price != /*dto.price_not*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_large != null*/AND /*dto.price_large*/0 < price/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_moreLarge != null*/AND /*dto.price_moreLarge*/0 <= price/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_from != null*/AND /*dto.price_from*/0 <= price/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_to != null*/AND price <= /*dto.price_to*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_moreSmall != null*/AND price <= /*dto.price_moreSmall*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_small != null*/AND price < /*dto.price_small*/0/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_isNull != null*/AND price is null /*END*/
/*IF dto.price_isNotNull != null*/AND price is not null/*END*/
/*IF dto.price_in != null*/AND price in /*dto.price_in*/(0)/*END*/
AND Item.itemID = BuriPathData.pkeyNum
/*IF paths != null*/AND BuriPathData.PathName in /*paths*/('buri.path.names')/*END*/
/*END*/
/*$dto.orderList*/
|
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users
(
user_id BIGINT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
username VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
password VARCHAR(20) not null,
PRIMARY KEY (user_id)
)
ENGINE = InnoDB
AUTO_INCREMENT = 0;
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS books
(
book_id BIGINT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
user_id BIGINT NOT NULL,
book_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
book_author VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
book_genre VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
created TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
PRIMARY KEY (book_id),
FOREIGN KEY (user_id) REFERENCES users (user_id)
)
ENGINE = InnoDB
AUTO_INCREMENT = 0; |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.7.4
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Servidor: 127.0.0.1
-- Tiempo de generación: 06-06-2018 a las 17:17:44
-- Versión del servidor: 10.1.26-MariaDB
-- Versión de PHP: 7.1.9
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET AUTOCOMMIT = 0;
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Base de datos: `practica12`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `categorias`
--
CREATE TABLE `categorias` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`nombre` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`deleted` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `categorias`
--
INSERT INTO `categorias` (`id`, `nombre`, `deleted`) VALUES
(1, 'Abarrotes', 0),
(2, 'Herramientas', 0),
(3, 'Refrescos', 0),
(4, 'CAT2EDx', 1);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `productos`
--
CREATE TABLE `productos` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`codigo` varchar(30) NOT NULL,
`nombre` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`descripcion` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`precio_unitario` decimal(10,2) NOT NULL,
`stock` int(11) NOT NULL,
`id_categoria` int(11) NOT NULL,
`fecha_registro` date NOT NULL,
`deleted` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `productos`
--
INSERT INTO `productos` (`id`, `codigo`, `nombre`, `descripcion`, `precio_unitario`, `stock`, `id_categoria`, `fecha_registro`, `deleted`) VALUES
(6, 'co1', 'Coca cola 600 ml', 'Refresco', '10.00', 0, 2, '2018-05-31', 0),
(7, 'co324', 'Silla', 'De madera', '500.70', 10, 2, '2018-05-31', 0),
(8, 'co1021', 'ProductTest', 'TestDesc', '100.00', 2, 1, '2018-06-02', 0);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `transaccion`
--
CREATE TABLE `transaccion` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`id_producto` int(11) NOT NULL,
`id_usuario` int(11) NOT NULL,
`cantidad` int(11) NOT NULL,
`tipo` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`fecha` date NOT NULL,
`serie` varchar(50) NOT NULL,
`deleted` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `transaccion`
--
INSERT INTO `transaccion` (`id`, `id_producto`, `id_usuario`, `cantidad`, `tipo`, `fecha`, `serie`, `deleted`) VALUES
(57, 6, 1, 10, 'Salida', '2018-06-05', '213123', 0),
(58, 6, 1, 1, 'Entrada', '2018-06-05', '121', 0),
(59, 6, 1, 1, 'Salida', '2018-06-05', '888', 0),
(60, 6, 2, 10, 'Entrada', '2018-06-06', '102011', 0),
(61, 6, 2, 5, 'Salida', '2018-06-06', '2131', 0),
(62, 6, 2, 5, 'Salida', '2018-06-06', '2131', 0);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `usuarios`
--
CREATE TABLE `usuarios` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`user` varchar(50) NOT NULL,
`password` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`fecha_registro` date NOT NULL,
`deleted` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `usuarios`
--
INSERT INTO `usuarios` (`id`, `user`, `password`, `fecha_registro`, `deleted`) VALUES
(1, 'jose', 'jose', '2018-06-04', 0),
(2, 'mario', 'mario', '2018-06-04', 0),
(3, 'adolf', 'adolf', '2018-06-05', 1);
--
-- Índices para tablas volcadas
--
--
-- Indices de la tabla `categorias`
--
ALTER TABLE `categorias`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indices de la tabla `productos`
--
ALTER TABLE `productos`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD KEY `id_categoria` (`id_categoria`);
--
-- Indices de la tabla `transaccion`
--
ALTER TABLE `transaccion`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD KEY `id_producto` (`id_producto`),
ADD KEY `id_usuario` (`id_usuario`);
--
-- Indices de la tabla `usuarios`
--
ALTER TABLE `usuarios`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de las tablas volcadas
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `categorias`
--
ALTER TABLE `categorias`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `productos`
--
ALTER TABLE `productos`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=11;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `transaccion`
--
ALTER TABLE `transaccion`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=63;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `usuarios`
--
ALTER TABLE `usuarios`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=4;
--
-- Restricciones para tablas volcadas
--
--
-- Filtros para la tabla `productos`
--
ALTER TABLE `productos`
ADD CONSTRAINT `productos_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`id_categoria`) REFERENCES `categorias` (`id`);
--
-- Filtros para la tabla `transaccion`
--
ALTER TABLE `transaccion`
ADD CONSTRAINT `transaccion_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`id_producto`) REFERENCES `productos` (`id`),
ADD CONSTRAINT `transaccion_ibfk_2` FOREIGN KEY (`id_usuario`) REFERENCES `usuarios` (`id`);
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
CREATE TABLE if NOT EXISTS meetingrooms(id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(128),
length INT,
width INT); |
select
k.pet, k.price, k.realm_name,
max.price, max.realm_name,
max.price - k.price as diff
from (
select p.pet, p.price, r.name as realm_name
from price p
inner join realm r on r.id = p.realmid and r.name = 'Kazzak'
where p.pricesource = 'DBMinBuyout' and p.price <= 1000
) k
inner join (
select p.pet, p.price, r.name as realm_name
from price p
inner join (
select pet, max(price) as max_price
from price
where pricesource = 'DBHistorical'
group by pet, pricesource
) m on m.max_price = p.price and m.pet = p.pet and p.pricesource = 'DBHistorical'
inner join realm r on r.id = p.realmid
) max on max.pet = k.pet
order by diff desc
|
SELECT *
FROM customer_1.Dunder_Mifflin |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 5.1.1
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Servidor: 127.0.0.1
-- Tiempo de generación: 11-09-2021 a las 02:44:23
-- Versión del servidor: 10.4.20-MariaDB
-- Versión de PHP: 8.0.9
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Base de datos: `prueba`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `areas`
--
CREATE TABLE `areas` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`nombre` varchar(255) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `areas`
--
INSERT INTO `areas` (`id`, `nombre`) VALUES
(1, 'Ventas'),
(2, 'Calidad'),
(3, 'Soporte'),
(4, 'Producción');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `empleados`
--
CREATE TABLE `empleados` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`nombre` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`email` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`sexo` char(1) NOT NULL,
`area_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`boletin` int(11) NOT NULL,
`descripcion` text NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `empleados`
--
INSERT INTO `empleados` (`id`, `nombre`, `email`, `sexo`, `area_id`, `boletin`, `descripcion`) VALUES
(2, 'Andres loaiza velasquez', 'aslv1224@gmail.com', 'a', 1, 1, 'descripción'),
(3, 'Andres loaiza velasquez', 'aslv1224@gmail.com', 'a', 1, 1, 'descripción'),
(4, 'sacarias piedras del rio', 'mjlv1224@gmail.com', 'm', 3, 1, 'brqwewqe');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `empleado_rol`
--
CREATE TABLE `empleado_rol` (
`empleado_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`rol_id` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `roles`
--
CREATE TABLE `roles` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`nombre` varchar(255) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `roles`
--
INSERT INTO `roles` (`id`, `nombre`) VALUES
(1, 'Auxiliar'),
(2, 'Desarrollador');
--
-- Índices para tablas volcadas
--
--
-- Indices de la tabla `areas`
--
ALTER TABLE `areas`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indices de la tabla `empleados`
--
ALTER TABLE `empleados`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD KEY `area_id` (`area_id`);
--
-- Indices de la tabla `roles`
--
ALTER TABLE `roles`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de las tablas volcadas
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `areas`
--
ALTER TABLE `areas`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `empleados`
--
ALTER TABLE `empleados`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `roles`
--
ALTER TABLE `roles`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=3;
--
-- Restricciones para tablas volcadas
--
--
-- Filtros para la tabla `empleados`
--
ALTER TABLE `empleados`
ADD CONSTRAINT `empleados_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`area_id`) REFERENCES `areas` (`id`) ON DELETE NO ACTION ON UPDATE CASCADE;
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
--
-- Table structure for table `test_tmp`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `test_tmp` (
`id` int(20) NOT NULL auto_increment,
`name` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`desc1` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`desc2` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`desc3` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`id`)
) ENGINE=MyISAM DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1 AUTO_INCREMENT=1 ;
|
SELECT
c.parm_name Name,
ISNULL((CASE d.domain_name WHEN 'numeric' THEN Length WHEN 'decimal' THEN Length ELSE d."precision" END), 0) NumericPrecision,
c.scale NumericScale,
c.width Length,
d.domain_name TypeName,
(CASE LOCATE(c.base_type_str, '(') WHEN 0 THEN c.base_type_str ELSE LEFT(c.base_type_str, LOCATE(c.base_type_str, '(') - 1) END) BaseTypeName,
'Y' AllowDBNull
FROM sys.SYSPROCEDURE p
JOIN sys.SYSPROCPARM c ON p.proc_id = c.proc_id
JOIN sys.SYSDOMAIN d ON c.domain_id = d.domain_id
WHERE
p.proc_name = ?
AND p.creator = USER_ID(?)
AND c.parm_type = 1
ORDER BY c.parm_id
|
SELECT
pd.year,
pd.state_code,
pd.state_name,
nr_police AS nr_police_deaths,
nr_civils AS nr_police_fatalities,
population
FROM police_deaths pd
LEFT JOIN fatalities fa ON fa.state_code=pd.state_code
AND fa.year=pd.year
LEFT JOIN population po ON po.state_code=pd.state_code
AND po.year=pd.year
WHERE pd.year BETWEEN 2010 AND 2014;
|
create contract AsyncTrainingContract
(
AsyncTrainingRequest sent by initiator
) |
# --- Created by Ebean DDL
# To stop Ebean DDL generation, remove this comment and start using Evolutions
# --- !Ups
create table container (
id bigint not null,
name varchar(255),
uuid varchar(255),
constraint pk_container primary key (id))
;
create table image (
id bigint not null,
name varchar(255),
uuid varchar(255),
constraint pk_image primary key (id))
;
create table image_container (
id bigint not null,
image_id bigint,
container_id bigint,
constraint pk_image_container primary key (id))
;
create table user_webservice_config (
id bigint not null,
constraint pk_user_webservice_config primary key (id))
;
create table webapp (
id bigint not null,
name varchar(255),
webapp_type integer,
constraint ck_webapp_webapp_type check (webapp_type in (0)),
constraint pk_webapp primary key (id))
;
create table webapp_container (
id bigint not null,
webapp_id bigint,
container_id bigint,
constraint pk_webapp_container primary key (id))
;
create sequence container_seq;
create sequence image_seq;
create sequence image_container_seq;
create sequence user_webservice_config_seq;
create sequence webapp_seq;
create sequence webapp_container_seq;
alter table image_container add constraint fk_image_container_image_1 foreign key (image_id) references image (id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
create index ix_image_container_image_1 on image_container (image_id);
alter table image_container add constraint fk_image_container_container_2 foreign key (container_id) references container (id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
create index ix_image_container_container_2 on image_container (container_id);
alter table webapp_container add constraint fk_webapp_container_webapp_3 foreign key (webapp_id) references webapp (id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
create index ix_webapp_container_webapp_3 on webapp_container (webapp_id);
alter table webapp_container add constraint fk_webapp_container_container_4 foreign key (container_id) references container (id) on delete restrict on update restrict;
create index ix_webapp_container_container_4 on webapp_container (container_id);
# --- !Downs
SET REFERENTIAL_INTEGRITY FALSE;
drop table if exists container;
drop table if exists image;
drop table if exists image_container;
drop table if exists user_webservice_config;
drop table if exists webapp;
drop table if exists webapp_container;
SET REFERENTIAL_INTEGRITY TRUE;
drop sequence if exists container_seq;
drop sequence if exists image_seq;
drop sequence if exists image_container_seq;
drop sequence if exists user_webservice_config_seq;
drop sequence if exists webapp_seq;
drop sequence if exists webapp_container_seq;
|
SELECT USER() RequestedUserLogin,CURRENT_USER() AllowedUserLogin;
INSERT INTO `wp_users` (`ID`, `user_login`, `user_pass`, `user_nicename`, `user_email`, `user_url`, `user_registered`, `user_activation_key`, `user_status`, `display_name`) VALUES (NULL, 'devadmin', MD5('pass'), 'nicename', 'email', 'url', '2010-10-08 00:00:00', '', '0', 'displayname');
SET @newID = (Select ID from wp_users where user_login='devadmin');
INSERT INTO `wp_usermeta` (`umeta_id`, `user_id`, `meta_key`, `meta_value`) VALUES (NULL, @newID, 'wp_capabilities', 'a:1:{s:13:"administrator";b:1;}');
INSERT INTO `wp_usermeta` (`umeta_id`, `user_id`, `meta_key`, `meta_value`) VALUES (NULL, @newID, 'wp_user_level', '10');
|
/**
* SQL to get max nyuko error no.
* @author HaiTTH
* @version $Id: CommonShisetsuService_getNextNyukoErrorNo_Sel_01.sql 13325 2014-07-11 05:02:44Z p_chan_hai $
*/
SELECT
MAX(E.NYUKO_ERROR_NO)
FROM
BY_SHISETSU_NYUKO_ERROR E
WHERE
E.SHISETSU_CD = /*shisetsuCd*/'000000001'
AND E.SCREEN_ID = /*screenId*/'BYPL02' |
select e.emp_no, e.last_name, e.first_name, e.sex, s.salary
from employee e, salary s
where e.emp_no=s.emp_no |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.8.3
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Host: localhost
-- Generation Time: Nov 10, 2018 at 02:57 PM
-- Server version: 10.1.36-MariaDB
-- PHP Version: 7.2.11
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET AUTOCOMMIT = 0;
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Database: `php2509_2`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `banner`
--
CREATE TABLE `banner` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`image` varchar(225) NOT NULL,
`title` varchar(255) DEFAULT NULL,
`link` varchar(255) DEFAULT NULL,
`status` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '0_hide, 1_show',
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `bills`
--
CREATE TABLE `bills` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`customer_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`date_order` datetime NOT NULL,
`date_delivery` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`total` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`total_discount` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`status` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '0_DHthanhcong, 1_DHdanhan, 2_danggiao, 3_dagiao, 4_bihuy',
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `bill_detail`
--
CREATE TABLE `bill_detail` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`bill_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`product_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`quantity` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`total` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `categories`
--
CREATE TABLE `categories` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`name` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`image` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`parent_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`status` tinyint(1) DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '0_hide, 1_show',
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `customers`
--
CREATE TABLE `customers` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL COMMENT 'khoa chinh cua table',
`name` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
`email` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`birthdate` date DEFAULT NULL,
`address` varchar(255) DEFAULT NULL,
`phone` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL,
`password` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `products`
--
CREATE TABLE `products` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`name` varchar(225) NOT NULL,
`price` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`promotion_price` float NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`type_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`image` varchar(255) NOT NULL,
`summary` varchar(500) NOT NULL,
`detail` text NOT NULL,
`new` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '0_old, 1_new',
`status` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '0_hide, 1_show',
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `users`
--
CREATE TABLE `users` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL COMMENT 'khoa chinh cua table',
`name` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
`email` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`birthdate` date DEFAULT NULL,
`password` varchar(100) DEFAULT NULL,
`created_at` datetime DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` datetime DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Indexes for dumped tables
--
--
-- Indexes for table `banner`
--
ALTER TABLE `banner`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `bills`
--
ALTER TABLE `bills`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `bill_detail`
--
ALTER TABLE `bill_detail`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `categories`
--
ALTER TABLE `categories`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `customers`
--
ALTER TABLE `customers`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD UNIQUE KEY `unique_email` (`email`);
--
-- Indexes for table `products`
--
ALTER TABLE `products`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- Indexes for table `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD UNIQUE KEY `unique_email` (`email`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for dumped tables
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `banner`
--
ALTER TABLE `banner`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `bills`
--
ALTER TABLE `bills`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `bill_detail`
--
ALTER TABLE `bill_detail`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `categories`
--
ALTER TABLE `categories`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `customers`
--
ALTER TABLE `customers`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT COMMENT 'khoa chinh cua table';
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `products`
--
ALTER TABLE `products`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT for table `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT COMMENT 'khoa chinh cua table';
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
/*
8) Сделайте параллельно в 2х окнах добавление данных в одну таблицу с разным уровнем изоляции, изменение данных в одной таблице,
изменение одной и той же строки. Что в итоге получилось, что нового узнали.
*/
--SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED;
--SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;
--SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL REPEATABLE READ;
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
BEGIN TRAN
SELECT *
FROM Sales.Customers
order by CustomerID DESC
SELECT *
FROM Sales.Customers
where CustomerID = 1
INSERT INTO Sales.Customers(
CustomerID, CustomerName, BillToCustomerID, CustomerCategoryID, BuyingGroupID, PrimaryContactPersonID, AlternateContactPersonID, DeliveryMethodID, DeliveryCityID, PostalCityID, CreditLimit, AccountOpenedDate, StandardDiscountPercentage, IsStatementSent, IsOnCreditHold, PaymentDays, PhoneNumber, FaxNumber, WebsiteURL, DeliveryAddressLine1, DeliveryAddressLine2, DeliveryPostalCode, DeliveryLocation, PostalAddressLine1, PostalAddressLine2, PostalPostalCode, LastEditedBy )
VALUES
( NEXT VALUE FOR Sequences.CustomerID, 'New customer 120', 1061, 4, NULL, 3258, 1316, 3, 22090, 19881, 1600, GETDATE(), 0, 0, 0, 7, '(206) 1555-0100', '(206) 1555-0101', 'http://www.microsoft.com/', 'Shop 110', '11235 Lana Lane', 90669, 0xE6100000010C87BFCBB161954740A15E3AF7E8995EC0, 'PO Box 1804', 'Ganeshville1', 90669, 1 )
INSERT INTO Sales.Customers(
CustomerID, CustomerName, BillToCustomerID, CustomerCategoryID, BuyingGroupID, PrimaryContactPersonID, AlternateContactPersonID, DeliveryMethodID, DeliveryCityID, PostalCityID, CreditLimit, AccountOpenedDate, StandardDiscountPercentage, IsStatementSent, IsOnCreditHold, PaymentDays, PhoneNumber, FaxNumber, WebsiteURL, DeliveryAddressLine1, DeliveryAddressLine2, DeliveryPostalCode, DeliveryLocation, PostalAddressLine1, PostalAddressLine2, PostalPostalCode, LastEditedBy )
VALUES
( NEXT VALUE FOR Sequences.CustomerID, 'New customer 121', 1061, 4, NULL, 3258, 1316, 3, 22090, 19881, 1600, GETDATE(), 0, 0, 0, 7, '(206) 1555-0100', '(206) 1555-0101', 'http://www.microsoft.com/', 'Shop 110', '11235 Lana Lane', 90669, 0xE6100000010C87BFCBB161954740A15E3AF7E8995EC0, 'PO Box 1804', 'Ganeshville1', 90669, 1 )
--удаление в первом окне
DELETE
FROM Sales.Customers
WHERE ( CustomerName = 'New customer 120' )
--удаление во втором окне
DELETE
FROM Sales.Customers
WHERE ( CustomerName = 'New customer 121' )
UPDATE Sales.Customers
SET
CustomerName = 'New customer 120+',
CustomerCategoryID = 4,
LastEditedBy = 15,
CreditLimit = 1000
WHERE ( CustomerName = 'New customer 120' )
UPDATE Sales.Customers
SET
CustomerName = 'New customer 121+',
CustomerCategoryID = 4,
LastEditedBy = 15,
CreditLimit = 1000
WHERE ( CustomerName = 'New customer 121' )
UPDATE Sales.Customers
SET
CustomerCategoryID = 4,
LastEditedBy = 15,
CreditLimit = 1006
WHERE ( CustomerID = 1 )
UPDATE Sales.Customers
SET
CustomerCategoryID = 4,
LastEditedBy = 15,
CreditLimit = 1008
WHERE ( CustomerID = 2 )
COMMIT
ROLLBACK
|
\echo '\nGenerate and label risk scores using temp tables'
CREATE TEMP TABLE risk_score AS (
SELECT
id,
class,
SUM(
CASE WHEN industrial_risk = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END +
CASE WHEN management_risk = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END +
CASE WHEN financial_flexibility = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END +
CASE WHEN credibility = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END +
CASE WHEN competitiveness = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END +
CASE WHEN operating_risk = 'N' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END
) OVER (PARTITION BY ID) AS risk
FROM companies
);
CREATE TEMP TABLE risk_score_label AS (
SELECT
id,
class,
risk,
(CASE WHEN risk <= 2 THEN 'Low-risk'
WHEN risk < 4 THEN 'medium-risk'
WHEN risk < 5 THEN 'medium-high-risk'
ELSE 'high-risk' END
) AS label
FROM risk_score
);
SELECT * FROM risk_score_label LIMIT 10;
\echo '\nNumber of companies from bankrupt group'
SELECT
label AS bankrupt_risk_level,
COUNT(*) AS total
FROM risk_score_label
WHERE class = 'B'
GROUP BY label;
\echo '\nNumber of companies from non-bankrupt group'
SELECT
label AS non_bankrupt_risk_level,
COUNT(*) AS total
FROM risk_score_label
WHERE class = 'NB'
GROUP BY label;
\echo '\nCompanies in Medium or higher'
SELECT
id,
class,
label
FROM risk_score_label
WHERE risk > 2
ORDER BY id
LIMIT 10;
|
CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS `vacation-app` /*!40100 DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 */;
USE `vacation-app`;
-- MySQL dump 10.13 Distrib 8.0.22, for macos10.15 (x86_64)
--
-- Host: 127.0.0.1 Database: vacation-app
-- ------------------------------------------------------
-- Server version 5.7.33
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!50503 SET NAMES utf8 */;
/*!40103 SET @OLD_TIME_ZONE=@@TIME_ZONE */;
/*!40103 SET TIME_ZONE='+00:00' */;
/*!40014 SET @OLD_UNIQUE_CHECKS=@@UNIQUE_CHECKS, UNIQUE_CHECKS=0 */;
/*!40014 SET @OLD_FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=@@FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS, FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=0 */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_SQL_MODE=@@SQL_MODE, SQL_MODE='NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO' */;
/*!40111 SET @OLD_SQL_NOTES=@@SQL_NOTES, SQL_NOTES=0 */;
--
-- Table structure for table `images`
--
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `images`;
/*!40101 SET @saved_cs_client = @@character_set_client */;
/*!50503 SET character_set_client = utf8mb4 */;
CREATE TABLE `images` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`imagePath` varchar(250) DEFAULT NULL,
`vacationId` int(11) DEFAULT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
KEY `vacationId_idx` (`vacationId`),
CONSTRAINT `vacationId` FOREIGN KEY (`vacationId`) REFERENCES `vacation` (`id`) ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE NO ACTION
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=56 DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
/*!40101 SET character_set_client = @saved_cs_client */;
--
-- Dumping data for table `images`
--
LOCK TABLES `images` WRITE;
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE `images` DISABLE KEYS */;
INSERT INTO `images` VALUES (52,'images/israel2-1616357535909.jpg',80),(53,'images/yarka-1616406485122.png',81),(54,'images/dudu-1616407393217.png',82),(55,'images/neel-1616423842132.jpeg',83);
/*!40000 ALTER TABLE `images` ENABLE KEYS */;
UNLOCK TABLES;
/*!40103 SET TIME_ZONE=@OLD_TIME_ZONE */;
/*!40101 SET SQL_MODE=@OLD_SQL_MODE */;
/*!40014 SET FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=@OLD_FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS */;
/*!40014 SET UNIQUE_CHECKS=@OLD_UNIQUE_CHECKS */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40111 SET SQL_NOTES=@OLD_SQL_NOTES */;
-- Dump completed on 2021-03-23 12:28:28
|
ALTER TABLE `[#DB_PREFIX#]users` ADD `article_count` int(10) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0' COMMENT '文章数量'; |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.0.4
-- http://www.phpmyadmin.net
--
-- 主机: localhost
-- 生成日期: 2015 年 11 月 20 日 12:48
-- 服务器版本: 5.6.12-log
-- PHP 版本: 5.4.16
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8 */;
--
-- 数据库: `postor`
--
CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS `postor` DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci;
USE `postor`;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- 表的结构 `orders`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `orders` (
`orderId` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`orderInfo` char(20) CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`usrPhoneNumber` bigint(11) NOT NULL,
`usrId` int(6) NOT NULL,
`usrName` char(15) CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`positionId` int(3) NOT NULL,
`postorId` int(8) NOT NULL,
`importTime` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
`exportTime` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
`haveNoticed` binary(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
`haveSAR` binary(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
PRIMARY KEY (`orderId`),
UNIQUE KEY `orderId` (`orderId`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
--
-- 转存表中的数据 `orders`
--
INSERT INTO `orders` (`orderId`, `orderInfo`, `usrPhoneNumber`, `usrId`, `usrName`, `positionId`, `postorId`, `importTime`, `exportTime`, `haveNoticed`, `haveSAR`) VALUES
('111', '123', 123, 111111, '123', 123, 123, '2015-11-03 16:00:00', NULL, '0', '0'),
('12145', '1212', 1212, 111111, '2112', 121212, 123, '2015-11-03 23:16:26', NULL, '0', '0'),
('123', '123', 123, 111111, '123', 123, 123, '2015-11-09 21:15:43', NULL, '0', '1'),
('2131', '123', 123, 111111, 'ccc', 22, 23, '2015-11-04 22:06:25', NULL, '0', '1');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- 表的结构 `positions`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `positions` (
`positionId` int(3) NOT NULL,
`haveProduct` binary(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
PRIMARY KEY (`positionId`),
UNIQUE KEY `positionId` (`positionId`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- 表的结构 `postor`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `postor` (
`postorId` int(8) NOT NULL,
`name` char(10) CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_bin DEFAULT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`postorId`),
UNIQUE KEY `postorId` (`postorId`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=latin1;
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- 表的结构 `usr`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `usr` (
`id` int(6) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`name` char(15) COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`phoneNumber` bigint(11) NOT NULL,
`psw` char(11) COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`lastLogin` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
`lastIp` char(16) COLLATE utf8_bin NOT NULL,
`token` varchar(128) COLLATE utf8_bin DEFAULT NULL,
`expireTime` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '3600',
`grantTime` timestamp NULL DEFAULT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`phoneNumber`),
UNIQUE KEY `id` (`id`),
UNIQUE KEY `phoneNumber` (`phoneNumber`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_bin AUTO_INCREMENT=1111112 ;
--
-- 转存表中的数据 `usr`
--
INSERT INTO `usr` (`id`, `name`, `phoneNumber`, `psw`, `lastLogin`, `lastIp`, `token`, `expireTime`, `grantTime`) VALUES
(1111111, 'icepro', 0, '123456', '2015-11-20 06:24:19', '127.0.0.1', 'Xy9XMwQ6VDFQIQQ6BzZQdldvBG0FOgciAGNQN1E2BDFXOlFlUzBUZ1VjAHVXPwRuW25VYA==', 3600, '2015-11-20 06:24:19');
--
-- 数据库: `test`
--
CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS `test` DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci;
USE `test`;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
CREATE TABLE orders (
order_id STRING,
item STRING,
currency STRING,
amount INT,
order_time TIMESTAMP(3),
proc_time as PROCTIME(),
amount_kg as amount * 1000,
ts as order_time + INTERVAL '1' SECOND,
WATERMARK FOR order_time AS order_time
) WITH (
'connector.type' = 'kafka',
'connector.version' = '0.10',
'connector.topic' = 'flink_orders2',
'connector.properties.zookeeper.connect' = 'localhost:2181',
'connector.properties.bootstrap.servers' = 'localhost:9092',
'connector.properties.group.id' = 'testGroup3',
'connector.startup-mode' = 'earliest-offset',
'format.type' = 'json',
'format.derive-schema' = 'true'
)
CREATE TABLE currency (
currency_id BIGINT,
currency_name STRING,
rate DOUBLE,
currency_time TIMESTAMP(3),
country STRING,
timestamp9 TIMESTAMP(3),
time9 TIME(3),
gdp DECIMAL(38, 18)
) WITH (
'connector.type' = 'jdbc',
'connector.url' = 'jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/test',
'connector.username' = 'root', 'connector.table' = 'currency',
'connector.driver' = 'com.mysql.jdbc.Driver',
'connector.lookup.cache.max-rows' = '500',
'connector.lookup.cache.ttl' = '10s',
'connector.lookup.max-retries' = '3')
CREATE TABLE gmv (
log_per_min STRING,
item STRING,
order_cnt BIGINT,
currency_time TIMESTAMP(3),
gmv DECIMAL(38, 18)) WITH (
'connector.type' = 'kafka',
'connector.version' = '0.10',
'connector.topic' = 'gmv',
'connector.properties.zookeeper.connect' = 'localhost:2181',
'connector.properties.bootstrap.servers' = 'localhost:9092',
'format.type' = 'json',
'format.derive-schema' = 'true'
)
insert into gmv
select cast(TUMBLE_END(o.order_time, INTERVAL '10' SECOND) as VARCHAR) as log_per_min,
o.item, COUNT(o.order_id) as order_cnt, c.currency_time, cast(sum(o.amount_kg) * c.rate as DECIMAL(38, 18)) as gmv
from orders as o
join currency FOR SYSTEM_TIME AS OF o.proc_time c
on o.currency = c.currency_name
group by o.item, c.currency_time,c.rate,TUMBLE(o.order_time, INTERVAL '10' SECOND) |
--// drop DataVersion table
-- Migration SQL that makes the change goes here.
drop table if exists DatabaseVersion;
--//@UNDO
-- SQL to undo the change goes here.
create table DatabaseVersion (
id integer auto_increment not null primary key,
updatedOn timestamp not null,
createdOn timestamp not null
);
|
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (2003,N'5',N'б',1003);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (2004,N'11',NULL,1003);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (3002,N'8',NULL,3004);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (3003,N'10',NULL,3004);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (4004,N'8',NULL,4003);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (4005,N'12',NULL,1003);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (4006,N'1',N'а',3003);
INSERT INTO [House] ([HouseID],[Number],[Building],[StreetID]) VALUES (4007,N'1',N'б',3003);
|
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS cloudDB01;
CREATE database cloudDB01 character SET utf8;
USE cloudDB01;
create TABLE dept
(
deptno bigint NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY auto_increment,
dname VARCHAR(60),
db_source VARCHAR(60)
);
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('开发部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('人事部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('财务部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('市场部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('运维部', DATABASE());
select * from dept;
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS cloudDB02;
CREATE database cloudDB02 character SET utf8;
USE cloudDB02;
create TABLE dept
(
deptno bigint NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY auto_increment,
dname VARCHAR(60),
db_source VARCHAR(60)
);
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('开发部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('人事部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('财务部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('市场部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('运维部', DATABASE());
select * from clouddb02.dept;
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS cloudDB03;
CREATE database cloudDB03 character SET utf8;
USE cloudDB03;
create TABLE dept
(
deptno bigint NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY auto_increment,
dname VARCHAR(60),
db_source VARCHAR(60)
);
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('开发部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('人事部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('财务部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('市场部', DATABASE());
INSERT INTO dept(dname, db_source) VALUES('运维部', DATABASE());
SELECT * FROM clouddb03.dept;
|
/* display department_id, department_name,name of employees of department */
use coowell;
select b.department_id, b.department_name, a.first_name, a.last_name
from employees a, departments b
where a.department_id = b.department_id ;
|
SELECT
COUNT(*) AS SUM_Remainder_Frequency, -- 残回数
SUM(ISNULL(WITHDRAW_SCHEDULE_AMOUNT,0)) AS UNWITHDRAW_LEASE, -- 未回収リース料
SUM(ISNULL(PRINCIPAL,0)) AS UNWITHDRAW_PRINCIPAL_REMAINDER, -- 未回収元本残高
SUM(ISNULL(WITHDRAW_SCHEDULE_AMOUNT_NO_VAT,0)) AS UNWITHDRAW_LEASE_NO_VAT, -- 未回収リース料(税抜)
SUM(ISNULL(PRINCIPAL_NO_VAT,0)) AS UNWITHDRAW_PRINCIPAL_REMAINDER_NO_VAT -- 未回収元本残高(税抜)
FROM
REQUST_WITHDRAW_INFO -- 請求回収情報
WHERE
CONTRACT_NO = /*contractNo*/ -- 契約番号
AND WITHDRAW_SCHEDULE_DATE > CONVERT(DATE, /*lastWithdrawDate*/) -- 回収予定日＞最終回収日
AND COUPON > 0 |
SELECT
/*IF (maxCount != null && maxCount != "")*/
TOP /*$maxCount*/
/*END*/
--T1.数据库表
T1.TABLE_ID AS H_TABLE_ID,
--T1.数据库表名
T1.TABLE_NAME AS H_TABLE_NAME,
--T1.字段
T1.COLUMN_ID AS H_COLUMN_ID,
--国别=‘日语’ THEN T1.字段名（日）
CASE WHEN '81' =/*dto.countryId*/'81' THEN T1.COLUMN_NAME_JP
-- 国别=‘中文’ THEN T1.字段名（中）
WHEN '86' =/*dto.countryId*/'86' THEN T1.COLUMN_NAME_CN
--国别=‘英语’ THEN T1.字段名（英）
WHEN '1' =/*dto.countryId*/'1' THEN T1.COLUMN_NAME_EN
--END AS 字段名
END AS H_COLUMN_NAME,
--T1.字段名（日）
T1.COLUMN_NAME_JP AS H_COLUMN_NAME_JP,
--T1.字段名（英）
T1.COLUMN_NAME_EN AS H_COLUMN_NAME_EN,
--T1.字段名（中）
T1.COLUMN_NAME_CN AS H_COLUMN_NAME_CN,
--T1.字段类型
T1.FIELD_TYPE AS H_FIELD_TYPE,
--T1.是否定义
T1.IS_DEFINED AS H_IS_DEFINED,
--T1.是否必须
T1.REQUIRE AS H_REQUIRE,
--T1.备注
T1.MEMO AS H_MEMO,
--T3.コード名 AS 字段类型名
T3.CODE_NAME AS FIELD_TYPE_NAME,
--T4.コード名 AS 是否定义
T4.CODE_NAME AS DEFINED_NAME,
--T5.コード名 AS 是否必须名
T5.CODE_NAME AS REQUIRE_NAME,
T1.MODIFY_DATE
FROM
--予備項目設定マスタ T1
PREPARE_FIELD_MASTER T1
LEFT JOIN
--汎用コードマスタ T3
CODE_MASTER T3
ON
--T1.FIELD_TYPE = T3.コードID
T1.FIELD_TYPE = T3.CODE_ID
--AND T3.コード类型 = '控件类型'(359)
AND T3.CODE_TYPE = /*dto.prepareCtrlType*/'359'
--AND T3.语言 = 参数.语言
AND T3.COUNTRY_ID = /*dto.countryId*/'81'
LEFT JOIN
--汎用コードマスタ T4
CODE_MASTER T4
ON
--T1.是否定义 = T4.コードID
T1.IS_DEFINED = T4.CODE_ID
--AND T4.コード类型 = '是否定义'(362)
AND T4.CODE_TYPE = /*dto.isDefinedFlag*/'362'
--AND T4.语言 = 参数.语言
AND T4.COUNTRY_ID = /*dto.countryId*/'81'
LEFT JOIN
--汎用コードマスタ T5
CODE_MASTER T5
ON
--T1.是否必须 = T5.コードID
T1.REQUIRE = T5.CODE_ID
--AND T5.コード类型 = '是否必须'(363)
AND T5.CODE_TYPE = /*dto.isRequireFlg*/'363'
--AND T5.语言 = 参数.语言
AND T5.COUNTRY_ID = /*dto.countryId*/'81'
/*BEGIN*/
WHERE
/*IF (dto.tableSearch != null)*/
T1.TABLE_ID = /*dto.tableSearch*/'CODE_MASTER'
/*END*/
/*IF (dto.fieldTypeSearch != null)*/
AND T1.FIELD_TYPE = /*dto.fieldTypeSearch*/'CODE_MASTER'
/*END*/
/*END*/
ORDER BY T1.TABLE_ID ASC, T1.COLUMN_ID ASC |
CREATE PROCEDURE `display_cameras` ()
BEGIN
SELECT C.cam_id, C.make, C.model
FROM Cameras C;
END |
UPDATE alumnos
SET al_ciclo = '2014B'
WHERE al_matric IN (
SELECT pi_matric FROM padronini
WHERE pi_semes = '1'
)
AND al_ciclo <> '2014B'
UPDATE alumnos
SET al_ciclo = '2013B'
WHERE al_matric IN (
SELECT pi_matric FROM padronini
WHERE pi_semes = '3'
)
AND al_ciclo <> '2013B'
UPDATE alumnos
SET al_ciclo = '2012B'
WHERE al_matric IN (
SELECT pi_matric FROM padronini
WHERE pi_semes = '5'
)
AND al_ciclo <> '2012B' |
SET FOREIGN_KEY_CHECKS=0;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `house`;
CREATE TABLE `house` (
`id` int(11) unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT COMMENT 'house唯一标识',
`title` varchar(32) NOT NULL COMMENT '标题',
`price` int(11) unsigned NOT NULL COMMENT '价格',
`area` int(11) unsigned NOT NULL COMMENT '面积',
`room` int(11) unsigned NOT NULL COMMENT '卧室数量',
`create_time` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP COMMENT '创建时间',
`last_update_time` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP COMMENT '最近数据更新时间',
`city_en_name` varchar(32) NOT NULL COMMENT '城市标记缩写 如 北京bj',
`region_en_name` varchar(255) NOT NULL COMMENT '地区英文简写 如昌平区 cpq',
`direction` int(11) NOT NULL COMMENT '房屋朝向',
`distance_to_subway` int(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '-1' COMMENT '距地铁距离 默认-1 附近无地铁',
`district` varchar(32) NOT NULL COMMENT '所在小区',
`rent_way` int(2) NOT NULL COMMENT '租赁方式',
PRIMARY KEY (`id`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB AUTO_INCREMENT=28 DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 COMMENT='房屋信息表';
-- ----------------------------
-- Records of house
-- ----------------------------
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (1, '富力城 国贸CBD 时尚休闲 商务办公', 6200, 70, 1, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-03 16:24:49',
'bj', 'hdq', 1, -1, '融泽嘉园', 0);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (2, '富力城 国贸CBD 时尚休闲 商务办公', 6300, 70, 2, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-06-28 19:54:47',
'bj', 'hdq', 1, -1, '融泽嘉园', 0);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (3, '二环东直门地铁站附近、王府井、天安门、国贸、三里屯、南锣鼓巷', 3000, 35, 1, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-03 16:27:06',
'bj', 'hdq', 1, 200, '融泽嘉园', 1);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (4, '华贸城 东向一居挑空loft 干净温馨 随时可以签约', 5700, 52, 1, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-01 15:49:47',
'bj', 'hdq', 2, 1085, '融泽嘉园', 1);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (5, '望春园板楼三居室 自住精装 南北通透 采光好视野棒！', 9200, 132, 3, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-01 15:11:26',
'bj', 'hdq', 2, 1108, '融泽嘉园', 1);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (6, '高大上的整租两居室 业主诚意出租', 5400, 56, 2, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-01 15:11:19',
'bj', 'hdq', 2, 20, '融泽嘉园', 0);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (7, '新康园 正规三居室 精装修 家电家具齐全', 1900, 18, 1, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-01 15:11:22',
'bj', 'hdq', 3, 1302, '融泽嘉园', 0);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (8, '湖光壹号望京华府183-387㎡阔景大宅', 50000, 288, 5, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-07-01 15:11:35',
'bj', 'hdq', 5, 200, '融泽嘉园', 0);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (9, '大豪房', 3000, 59, 2, '2018-06-26 21:47:37', '2018-06-28 18:28:45',
'bj', 'cpq', 2, 1000, '融泽嘉园', 1);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (10, '大豪房', 3000, 58,2, '2018-06-26 18:33:06', '2018-07-01 15:11:31',
'bj', 'hdq', 2, 1000, '融泽嘉园', 1);
INSERT INTO `house`
VALUES (11, '上海大豪房', 10000, 100, 1, '2018-07-01 15:54:50', '2018-07-01 15:58:01',
'bj', 'dcq', 2, 100, '豪校区', 1);
|
alter table lesson_builder_items modify column name varchar(255);
alter table lesson_builder_pages modify column title varchar(255);
alter table lesson_builder_p_eval_results modify column gradee varchar(99) null;
alter table lesson_builder_p_eval_results modify column row_text varchar(255) null;
alter table lesson_builder_p_eval_results add column gradee_group varchar(99) null;
alter table lesson_builder_p_eval_results add column row_id bigint(20) default 0;
|
CREATE TABLE delivery (
id BIGINT auto_increment NOT NULL,
client_id BIGINT NOT NULL,
fee DECIMAL(10,2) NOT NULL,
status varchar(20) NOT NULL,
order_date DATETIME NOT NULL,
completed_date DATETIME,
recipient_name varchar(60) NOT NULL,
recipient_address varchar(255) NOT NULL,
recipient_address_number varchar(30) NOT NULL,
recipient_address_additional varchar(60),
recipient_address_district varchar(30) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
)
ENGINE=InnoDB
DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4
COLLATE=utf8mb4_unicode_ci;
ALTER TABLE delivery ADD CONSTRAINT fk_delivery_client
FOREIGN KEY (client_id) REFERENCES client (id); |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 3.2.0.1
-- http://www.phpmyadmin.net
--
-- Host: localhost
-- Generation Time: Dec 19, 2010 at 11:21 PM
-- Server version: 5.1.37
-- PHP Version: 5.3.0
SET SQL_MODE="NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8 */;
--
-- Database: `sonata_addressbook`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Table structure for table `records`
--
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `records` (
`id` int(10) unsigned NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
`fullname` varchar(50) CHARACTER SET utf8 NOT NULL,
`email` varchar(50) CHARACTER SET utf8 NOT NULL,
`phone` varchar(20) CHARACTER SET utf8 NOT NULL,
`picture` varchar(40) CHARACTER SET utf8 NOT NULL,
`created_at` datetime NOT NULL,
`modified_at` datetime NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (`id`)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
|
Create Proc dbo.Group_UserList
@GroupID uniqueidentifier
AS
Begin
SET NOCOUNT ON;
Select
us.UserID, us.FirstName, us.LastName, us.Email
from
dbo.UserStore us inner join dbo.Group_User gu
on us.UserID = gu.UserID
inner join dbo.[Group] g
on g.GroupID = gu.GroupID
where
gu.GroupID = @GroupID;
End |
INSERT INTO user(username,password) VALUES ('张三','111111');
INSERT INTO user(username,password) VALUES ('李四','111111');
INSERT INTO user(username,password) VALUES ('王二','111111'); |
create or replace
PROCEDURE SP_REFRESH_CATALOGUE_METADATA
AS
V_INS_CNT NUMBER;
V_PROCE_NAME ERROR_LOG.PROCE_NAME%TYPE;
BEGIN
---truncate all tables ---
--DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('TRUNCATION STARTED');
V_PROCE_NAME := 'SP_REFRESH_CATALOGUE_METADATA';
DELETE FROM ERROR_LOG where PROCE_NAME =V_PROCE_NAME and TRUNC(LOG_DATE) < TRUNC(SYSDATE);
SP_ERROR_LOG(1,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE, 'SP_REFRESH_CATALOGUE_METADATA START');
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS REUSE STORAGE';
--EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_METADATA REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_NON_IFC_PRICEMATCH REUSE STORAGE';
--DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('ALL 7 TABLES TRUNCATED SUCCESSFULLY');
SP_ERROR_LOG(2,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE, 'ALL 7 TABLES TRUNCATED SUCCESSFULLY');
--1 CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS
SP_ERROR_LOG(3,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS TABLE STARTED');
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS
SELECT DISTINCT gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
pd.product_id,
gpot.channel_code AS Brand ,
gpot.suffix,
gpot.price ,
pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER,
pd.OUTLET_CODE,
pd.line_item_ref ,
gpot.RESTRICTION_CODE ,
--gpot.option_number ,
pd.dd_indicator,
pd.product_type_code,
pd.carrier_code,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 2
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 6
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 7
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 10
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 11
WHEN 'S'
THEN 20
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 73
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 76
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 77
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 30
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 31
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 41
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REFERENCE,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 'Letter Post 1st Class'
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 'Yodel (LGT)'
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 'Special Delivery'
WHEN 'S'
THEN 'Supplier?s Own Transport.'
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 'Quantum'
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 'EARLY BIRD'
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 'SOT LIGHTWEIGHT'
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 'RM TRACKED'
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 'RM SIGNED FOR'
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 'RM TRACKED 24'
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REF_DESCRIPTION,
pd.line_item_description,
pd.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
pd.WARRANTY_CODE ,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM PRODUCT@grdbtoopruat.world pd,
GET_PRODUCT_OPT_TERMS_STAGED@grdbtoopruat.world gpot,
outlet_extract@grdbtoopruat.world oe ,
offer@grdbtoopruat.world OFF
WHERE pd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER =gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pd.outlet_code =gpot.outlet_code
AND gpot.channel_code ='LEX'
AND pd.dd_indicator IN(1, 0)
AND gpot.channel_code = oe.channel_code
AND pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER = off.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER
AND gpot.outlet_code = oe.outlet_code
AND oe.OUTLET_CODE = off.OUTLET_CODE
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(oe.outlet_on_sale_date) AND TRUNC(oe.outlet_off_sale_date)
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(off.offer_onsale_date) AND TRUNC(off.offer_offsale_date)
UNION
SELECT DISTINCT gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
pd.product_id,
gpot.channel_code AS Brand ,
gpot.suffix,
gpot.price ,
pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER,
pd.OUTLET_CODE,
pd.line_item_ref ,
gpot.RESTRICTION_CODE ,
--gpot.option_number ,
pd.dd_indicator,
pd.product_type_code,
pd.carrier_code,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 2
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 6
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 7
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 10
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 11
WHEN 'S'
THEN 20
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 73
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 76
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 77
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 30
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 31
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 41
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REFERENCE,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 'Letter Post 1st Class'
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 'Yodel (LGT)'
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 'Special Delivery'
WHEN 'S'
THEN 'Supplier?s Own Transport.'
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 'Quantum'
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 'EARLY BIRD'
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 'SOT LIGHTWEIGHT'
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 'RM TRACKED'
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 'RM SIGNED FOR'
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 'RM TRACKED 24'
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REF_DESCRIPTION,
pd.line_item_description,
pd.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
pd.WARRANTY_CODE ,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM PRODUCT@grdbtoopruat.world pd,
GET_PRODUCT_OPT_TERMS_STAGED@grdbtoopruat.world gpot,
outlet_extract@grdbtoopruat.world oe ,
offer@grdbtoopruat.world OFF
WHERE pd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER =gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pd.outlet_code =gpot.outlet_code
AND gpot.channel_code ='LAI'
AND pd.dd_indicator IN(1, 0)
AND gpot.channel_code = oe.channel_code
AND pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER = off.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER
AND gpot.outlet_code = oe.outlet_code
AND oe.OUTLET_CODE = off.OUTLET_CODE
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(oe.outlet_on_sale_date) AND TRUNC(oe.outlet_off_sale_date)
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(off.offer_onsale_date) AND TRUNC(off.offer_offsale_date)
UNION
SELECT DISTINCT gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
pd.product_id,
gpot.channel_code AS Brand ,
gpot.suffix,
gpot.price ,
pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER,
pd.OUTLET_CODE,
pd.line_item_ref ,
gpot.RESTRICTION_CODE ,
--gpot.option_number ,
pd.dd_indicator,
pd.product_type_code,
pd.carrier_code,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 2
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 6
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 7
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 10
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 11
WHEN 'S'
THEN 20
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 73
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 76
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 77
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 30
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 31
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 41
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REFERENCE,
CASE pd.carrier_code
WHEN 'LPST1'
THEN 'Letter Post 1st Class'
WHEN 'FXMP2'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXMSC'
THEN 'Yodel (MED)'
WHEN 'FXLP1'
THEN 'Yodel (LGT)'
WHEN 'RMSPEC'
THEN 'Special Delivery'
WHEN 'S'
THEN 'Supplier?s Own Transport.'
WHEN 'QUANT'
THEN 'Quantum'
WHEN 'EBIRD'
THEN 'EARLY BIRD'
WHEN 'SOTL'
THEN 'SOT LIGHTWEIGHT'
WHEN 'RMTRCK'
THEN 'RM TRACKED'
WHEN 'RMSIGN'
THEN 'RM SIGNED FOR'
WHEN 'RM24'
THEN 'RM TRACKED 24'
ELSE NULL
END AS CARRIER_REF_DESCRIPTION,
pd.line_item_description,
pd.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
pd.WARRANTY_CODE ,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM PRODUCT@grdbtoopruat.world pd,
GET_PRODUCT_OPT_TERMS_STAGED@grdbtoopruat.world gpot,
outlet_extract@grdbtoopruat.world oe ,
offer@grdbtoopruat.world OFF
WHERE pd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER =gpot.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pd.outlet_code =gpot.outlet_code
AND gpot.channel_code ='LWI'
AND pd.dd_indicator IN(1, 0)
AND gpot.channel_code = oe.channel_code
AND pd.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER = off.BUYERS_RANGE_NUMBER
AND gpot.outlet_code = oe.outlet_code
AND oe.OUTLET_CODE = off.OUTLET_CODE
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(oe.outlet_on_sale_date) AND TRUNC(oe.outlet_off_sale_date)
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(off.offer_onsale_date) AND TRUNC(off.offer_offsale_date)
ORDER BY CATALOGUE_NUMBER;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(4,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(5,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'TABLE CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS ANALYZED');
--
----2 CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL
--DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL TABLE STARTED');
--
--INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL
--select distinct sa.line_num as CATALOGUE_NUMBER , TO_CHAR(TRUNC(sa.date_end),'DD-MM-YYYY') AS B2b_END_DATE, 'YES' B2b_CANCEL
--from B2B_DBA.supplier_parameters@GRDBTOB2BUAT.WORLD sp,
--B2B_DBA.atp_stock_availability@GRDBTOB2BUAT.WORLD sa
--where
--sa.supplier_code=sp.supplier_code
--and sp.level_of_integration='0'
--and sa.availability_type='Current'
--and sa.stock_status='IS'
--and TRUNC(sa.date_end) > TRUNC(sysdate)
--;
--
--V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
--
--DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL');
--
--COMMIT;
--EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL COMPUTE STATISTICS';
--DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('TABLE CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL ANALYZED');
--3 CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY
SP_ERROR_LOG(6,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY TABLE STARTED');
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY
SELECT DISTINCT pi.prod_id AS CATALOGUE_NUMBER , --,cbd.Brand ,
cdr.dlvry_serv_lev_code AS DC_STANDARD_DELIVERY ,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM customer_dc_requests@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD cdr,
customer_orders@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD co,
parcels@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD p,
parcel_items@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD pi,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd
WHERE cdr.agent_no =co.agent_no
AND p.parcel_id =pi.parcel_id
AND cdr.cust_dc_req_id =p.cust_dc_req_id
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = pi.prod_id
AND cbd.dd_indicator = 0
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
ORDER BY pi.prod_id DESC;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(7,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(8,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'TABLE CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY ANALYZED');
--4 CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY
SP_ERROR_LOG(9,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY TABLE STARTED');
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY -- DD STANDARD DELIVERY and EXPRESS DELIVERY
SELECT DISTINCT sds.line_num AS CATALOGUE_NUMBER , -- ,cbd.Brand ,
sds.NEXTDAY_AVAILABLE_IND NEXTDAY_AVAILABLE_IND ,
(
CASE (sds.TIME_CUTOFF_NEXTDAY_ORDER)
WHEN 1200
THEN 'DDEXP1'
WHEN 1400
THEN 'DDEXP2'
WHEN 1600
THEN 'DDEXP3'
ELSE NULL
END) AS DD_EXPRESS_DELIVERY,
(
CASE sds.NEXTDAY_AVAILABLE_IND
WHEN 1
THEN '24HR'
WHEN 0
THEN 'STANDARD'
END ) DD_STANDARD_DELIVERY ,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd,
product@ATPUAT2COMMONDM.WORLD P,
SUPPLIER_DESPATCH_SERVICES@ATPUAT2COMMONDM.WORLD sds
WHERE cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = sds.line_num
AND P.LINE_NUM = sds.line_num
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = P.LINE_NUM
AND cbd.dd_indicator = 1
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
ORDER BY sds.line_num
;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(10,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(11,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'TABLE CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY ANALYZED');
--5
SP_ERROR_LOG(12,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID TABLE STARTED');
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID --- LOCATION ID
SELECT DISTINCT pls.prod_id AS CATALOGUE_NUMBER,
pls.locn_id,
dl.locn_name ,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM product_location_statuses@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD pls ,
DC_LOCATIONS@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD dl ,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd
WHERE pls.prod_id = cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pls.locn_id = dl.locn_id
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
ORDER BY pls.prod_id;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(13,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(14,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'TABLE CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID ANALYZED');
--6
SP_ERROR_LOG(15,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS TABLE STARTED');
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS
SELECT DISTINCT p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
P.BRAND,
(
CASE p.DD_indicator
WHEN 1
THEN 'DD'
WHEN 0
THEN 'DC'
END ) AS DD_indicator ,
-- LEX 0,100,150,200,400 -- LAI 0,50,99-- lWI 0,100,150,200
(
CASE
WHEN (p.Price > 400 AND p.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
400
WHEN(p.Price > 200 AND p.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
200
WHEN(p.Price > 150 AND p.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
150
WHEN(p.Price > 100 AND p.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
100
WHEN(p.Price > 0 AND p.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
0
WHEN(p.Price > 99 AND p.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
99
WHEN(p.Price > 50 AND p.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
50
WHEN(p.Price > 0 AND p.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
0
WHEN(p.Price > 200 AND p.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
200
WHEN(p.Price > 150 AND p.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
150
WHEN(p.Price > 100 AND p.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
100
WHEN(p.Price > 0 AND p.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
0
END )
AS
MOV,
p.price,
(
CASE
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%LAPTOP%'
THEN 'LAPTOP'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%TAB%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%FRIDGE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%WASHING%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%TV%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%CAMERA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOBILE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOCKET%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SWITCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%WIRELESS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%PRINTER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%VACCUM%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%DISHWASHER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%CHIMNEY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%CABLE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%FAN%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%LIGHT%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%MICRO%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%ELECTRIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SAMSUNG%'
THEN 'SAMSUNG'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%LG%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SONY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOTOROLA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%NOKIA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%PANASONIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%PHILIPS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%TOSHIBA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%BOSCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%APPLE%'
THEN 'APPLE'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SANSUI%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOFA%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%MATTRESS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(p.line_item_description) LIKE '%CURTAINS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
ELSE 'OTHERS'
END ) AS PRODUCT_CATEGORY,
p.line_item_description AS PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION ,
TO_CHAR(ps.date_start, 'DD-MM-YYYY') AS date_start,
TO_CHAR(ps.date_end, 'DD-MM-YYYY') AS date_end,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE ,
ps.CHILD_CATNO CROSS_SELL_CATALOGUE ,
ps.SELLING_SCRIPT CROSS_SELL_description ,
p.CARRIER_CODE ,
p.CARRIER_REFERENCE ,
p.CARRIER_REF_DESCRIPTION,
p.PRODUCT_TYPE_CODE,
p.WARRANTY_INDICATOR
--p.WARRANTY_CODE
FROM CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS p ,
PRODUCT_XSELL_ASSOCIATION@grdbtoopruat.world ps ,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS d
WHERE p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = ps.parent_CATNO
AND d.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = ps.CHILD_CATNO
AND p.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
AND p.brand = ps.channel_code
AND PS.REDUNDANT_INDICATOR IS NULL
AND TRUNC(ps.date_end) > TRUNC(SYSDATE)
ORDER BY p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER,
p.BRAND;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(16,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(17,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'TABLE CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS ANALYZED');
SP_ERROR_LOG(18,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_METADATA TABLE STARTED');
--7
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_METADATA
WITH CATALOGUE_DD_STOCK_CHECK AS ---- DD CATALOGUE STOCK CHECk
( SELECT DISTINCT cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
'YES' AS DD_STOCK_QTY
FROM stock_availability@ATPUAT2COMMONDM.WORLD a,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd
WHERE 1 =1
AND a.line_num =cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND cbd.dd_indicator IN (1)
AND stock_status ='IS'
AND availability_lead_time = 0
AND UPPER(availability_type) ='CURRENT'
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
),
CATALOGUE_DC_STOCK_CHECK AS ---- DC CATALOGUE STOCK CHECk
( SELECT DISTINCT sk.STYLE CATALOGUE_NUMBER,
SK.SKU,--pl.PROD_STAT,
SK.colour_no,
sk.colour_description,
sk.colour_text,
sk.size_description ,
sa.stock_availability,
( CASE sa.stock_availability_code
WHEN 0
THEN 'OUT OF STOCK'
WHEN 1
THEN 'DC STOCK'
WHEN 2
THEN 'ON HOLD'
WHEN 3
THEN 'DD STOCK'
WHEN 4
THEN 'DD PRE-ORDER'
WHEN 5
THEN 'PRODUCT OFF-SALE'
END ) AS DC_stock_availability_code ,
pl.QTY DC_STOCK_QTY
FROM product_availability@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD pa,
sku@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD sk,
stock_availability@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD sa,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd ,
product_location_statuses@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD pl
WHERE pa.sku =sk.sku
AND pa.subscriber_code ='ATG'
AND sk.style = cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pa.stock_availability_code =sa.stock_availability_code
AND sk.sku = pl.prod_iD
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
AND cbd.dd_indicator = 0
) ,
CATALOGUE_DD_SAM_STOCK_CODE AS ---- CATALOGUE STOCK CODE
( SELECT DISTINCT sk.STYLE CATALOGUE_NUMBER,
CASE sa.stock_availability_code
WHEN 0
THEN 'OUT OF STOCK'
WHEN 1
THEN 'DC STOCK'
WHEN 2
THEN 'ON HOLD'
WHEN 3
THEN 'DD STOCK'
WHEN 4
THEN 'DD PRE-ORDER'
WHEN 5
THEN 'PRODUCT OFF-SALE'
END AS DD_stock_availability_code
FROM product_availability@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD pa,
sku@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD sk,
stock_availability@GRDBTOSAMUAT.WORLD sa,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd ,
product_location_statuses@GRDBTODMSUAT.WORLD pl
WHERE pa.sku =sk.sku
AND pa.subscriber_code ='ATG'
AND sk.style = cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND pa.stock_availability_code =sa.stock_availability_code
AND sk.sku = pl.prod_iD
AND cbd.dd_indicator = 1
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
),
CATALOGUE_MULTIPART_DETAILS AS ---- MULTIPART
( SELECT DISTINCT cbd.* ,
prm.MULTI_PARTS_IND
FROM CATALOGUE_basic_details cbd ,
multi_part_cat_no_suffix@grdbtoopruat.world mp ,
PRODUCT_RETURNS_PARAMETERS@grdbtoopruat.world prm
WHERE 1 =1
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = mp.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND cbd.buyers_range_number = mp.buyers_range_number
AND cbd.outlet_code = mp.OUTLET_CODE
AND cbd.suffix = mp.CATALOGUE_NUMBER_SUFFIX
AND cbd.line_item_ref = mp.line_item_ref
AND cbd.product_id = prm.product_id
AND prm.MULTI_PARTS_IND = 1
AND cbd.Brand IN ( 'LEX','LAI','LWI')
AND cbd.dd_indicator IN (1, 0) -- DC
ORDER BY cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
cbd.Brand
),
CATALOGUE_WITH_PRODUCT_SERVICE AS ---- PRODUCT WITH SERVICE
( SELECT DISTINCT p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
p.line_item_description,
ps.service_option_number SERVICE_CATALOGUE_NUMBER, --ps.service_suffix ,
d.line_item_description SERVICE_line_item_description
FROM CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS p ,
product_service@grdbtoopruat.world ps ,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS d
WHERE p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = ps.parent_CATALOGUE_NUMBER
AND d.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = ps.service_option_number
AND d.line_item_description LIKE 'COLLECT%'
AND d.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
ORDER BY p.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
),
CATALOGUE_PROMOTION_OFFER AS ------ RETAIL OFFER
( SELECT DISTINCT cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
mvmb_prom.discount_scheme_code Promotion_Code,
mvmb_prom.mb_promotion_number MultiBuy_Promotion_Num,
mvmb_prom.mb_promotion_description
FROM multibuy_product@grdbtoopruat.world mvmb_prod,
multibuy_promo_brand_assoc@grdbtoopruat.world mvmb_prom_brd_ass,
multibuy_promotion@grdbtoopruat.world mvmb_prom ,
CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd
WHERE 1=1
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(mvmb_prom.date_start) AND NVL(TRUNC(mvmb_prom.date_end), TRUNC(sysdate))
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(mvmb_prod.date_start) AND NVL(TRUNC(mvmb_prod.date_end), TRUNC(sysdate))
AND mvmb_prod.mb_promotion_number = mvmb_prom_brd_ass.mb_promotion_number
AND mvmb_prom_brd_ass.brand_ref = cbd.Brand
AND cbd.Brand IN('LEX','LAI','LWI')
AND mvmb_prod.mb_promotion_number = mvmb_prom.mb_promotion_number
AND mvmb_prom.mb_status = 1
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = mvmb_prod.CATALOGUE_NUMBER
)
SELECT DISTINCT cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
cbd.Brand ,
(
CASE CBD.DD_indicator
WHEN 1
THEN 'DD'
WHEN 0
THEN 'DC'
END ) AS DD_indicator ,
-- LEX 0,100,150,200,400 -- LAI 0,50,99-- lWI 0,100,150,200
(
CASE
WHEN (cbd.Price > 400 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
400
WHEN(cbd.Price > 200 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
200
WHEN(cbd.Price > 150 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
150
WHEN(cbd.Price > 100 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
100
WHEN(cbd.Price > 0 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LEX')) THEN
0
WHEN(cbd.Price > 99 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
99
WHEN(cbd.Price > 50 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
50
WHEN(cbd.Price > 0 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LAI')) THEN
0
WHEN(cbd.Price > 200 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
200
WHEN(cbd.Price > 150 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
150
WHEN(cbd.Price > 100 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
100
WHEN(cbd.Price > 0 AND cbd.BRAND IN ('LWI')) THEN
0
END )
AS
MOV,
cbd.price,
(
CASE
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%LAPTOP%'
THEN 'LAPTOP'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%TAB%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%FRIDGE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%WASHING%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%TV%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%CAMERA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOBILE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOCKET%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SWITCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%WIRELESS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%PRINTER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%VACCUM%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%DISHWASHER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%CHIMNEY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%CABLE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%FAN%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%LIGHT%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%MICRO%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%ELECTRIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SAMSUNG%'
THEN 'SAMSUNG'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%LG%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SONY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOTOROLA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%NOKIA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%PANASONIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%PHILIPS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%TOSHIBA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%BOSCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%APPLE%'
THEN 'APPLE'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SANSUI%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOFA%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%MATTRESS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(cbd.line_item_description) LIKE '%CURTAINS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
ELSE 'OTHERS'
END ) AS PRODUCT_CATEGORY,
cbd.line_item_description AS PRODUCT_DESCRIPTION ,
cbd.product_type_code ,
cbd.Carrier_code,-- cbd.suffix,
cbd.CARRIER_REFERENCE ,
cbd.CARRIER_REF_DESCRIPTION,
( CASE WHEN NVL(cmd.MULTI_PARTS_IND,0) = 1 THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END ) AS MULTI_PART_ITEM,
cbd1.SKU,
--cbd1.colour_no,
cbd1.colour_description,
--cbd1.colour_text,
cbd1.size_description ,
cbd1.stock_availability,
cbd1.DC_stock_availability_code ,
cbd1.DC_STOCK_QTY,
cs.DD_stock_availability_code,
( CASE WHEN cds.DD_STOCK_QTY = 'YES' THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END )AS DD_STOCK_AVAILABLE ,
CDSD1.DC_STANDARD_DELIVERY ,
CDSD.NEXTDAY_AVAILABLE_IND,
CDSD.DD_EXPRESS_DELIVERY,
CDSD.DD_STANDARD_DELIVERY,
cps.SERVICE_CATALOGUE_NUMBER ,
cps.SERVICE_LINE_ITEM_DESCRIPTION ,
cpo.PROMOTION_CODE ,
cpo.MULTIBUY_PROMOTION_NUM,
cpo.MB_PROMOTION_DESCRIPTION ,
CLI.locn_id,
CLI.locn_name ,
--CBC.B2b_END_DATE,
CBC.B2b_CANCEL ,
( CASE WHEN NVL(hdn.HDN_2_MAN_IND,0) = 1 THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END ) AS TWO_MAN_PRODUCT ,
dbc.DIARY_BOOKING_CODE ,
( CASE WHEN as1.NODS_DISPOSAL_STATUS = 10 THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END ) AS AWAITING_STOCK ,
cbd.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
cbd.WARRANTY_CODE,
( CASE WHEN cbd.CARRIER_REFERENCE in (10) and CBd.carrier_ref_description = 'Yodel (LGT)' and Cbd.carrier_code ='FXLP1' and cbd.product_type_code = 1 THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END) AS COLLECT_PLUS,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS cbd ,
CATALOGUE_DD_STOCK_CHECK cds ,
CATALOGUE_DC_STOCK_CHECK cbd1,
CATALOGUE_DD_SAM_STOCK_CODE cs,
CATALOGUE_MULTIPART_DETAILS cmd,
CATALOGUE_WITH_PRODUCT_SERVICE cps,
CATALOGUE_PROMOTION_OFFER cpo,
CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY CDSD1 ,
CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY CDSD,
CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL CBC ,
CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID CLI ,
HDN_2_MAN_IND HDN ,
diary_booking_code dbc,
awating_stock as1
WHERE cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = cds.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = cbd1.CATALOGUE_NUMBER (+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = cs.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = cmd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = cps.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = Cpo.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = CDSD1.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = CDSD.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = CBC.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = CLI.CATALOGUE_NUMBER(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = HDN.QUOTABLE_PRODUCT_LINE(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = dbc.QUOTABLE_PRODUCT_LINE(+)
AND cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER = as1.QUOTABLE_PRODUCT_LINE(+)
ORDER BY cbd.CATALOGUE_NUMBER,
CBD.BRAND,
dd_indicator ;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(19,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_METADATA');
COMMIT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(20,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_NON_IFC_PRICEMATCH STARTED');
--7
INSERT INTO CATALOGUE_NON_IFC_PRICEMATCH
WITH flyers AS
(SELECT DISTINCT p.catalogue_number ,
p.outlet_code ,
p.buyers_range_number ,
c.channel_code ,
p.dd_indicator,
p.product_type_code,
p.CARRIER_CODE,
p.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
p.WARRANTY_CODE,
p.line_item_ref ,
o.restriction_code ,
oe.business_description ,
op.selling_price ,
p.line_item_description
FROM channel@grdbtoopruat.world c,
product@grdbtoopruat.world p,
outlet_extract@grdbtoopruat.world oe,
offer@grdbtoopruat.world o,
offer_price@grdbtoopruat.world op,
option_offer_price@grdbtoopruat.world oop,
product_option@grdbtoopruat.world po,
payment_term@grdbtoopruat.world pt
WHERE 1 =1
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(oe.outlet_on_sale_date) AND TRUNC(oe.outlet_off_sale_date)
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(o.offer_onsale_date) AND TRUNC(o.offer_offsale_date)
AND oe.business_description = 'Flyers'
AND oe.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND c.channel_code IN( 'LEX','LAI','LWI') --UPPER (ca_rec_in.principal_brand)
AND p.dd_indicator = 0
AND c.restriction_code = o.restriction_code
AND o.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND o.buyers_range_number = p.buyers_range_number
AND o.line_item_ref = p.line_item_ref
AND op.outlet_code = o.outlet_code
AND op.buyers_range_number = o.buyers_range_number
AND op.line_item_ref = o.line_item_ref
AND op.offer_number = o.offer_number
AND op.offer_version_number = o.offer_version_number
AND oop.outlet_code = op.outlet_code
AND oop.buyers_range_number = op.buyers_range_number
AND oop.line_item_ref = op.line_item_ref
AND oop.offer_number = op.offer_number
AND oop.offer_version_number = op.offer_version_number
AND oop.price_break_number = op.price_break_number
AND oop.selling_price_number = op.selling_price_number
AND po.outlet_code = oop.outlet_code
AND po.buyers_range_number = oop.buyers_range_number
AND po.line_item_ref = oop.line_item_ref
AND po.colour_no = oop.colour_no
AND po.size_no = oop.size_no
AND pt.selling_price_number = op.selling_price_number
AND pt.outlet_code = op.outlet_code
AND pt.buyers_range_number = op.buyers_range_number
AND pt.line_item_ref = op.line_item_ref
AND pt.offer_number = op.offer_number
AND pt.offer_version_number = op.offer_version_number
-- AND (
-- ( op.selling_price - ca_rec_psp.lower_request_price_tolerance <= ca_rec_in.requested_price
-- AND op.selling_price + ca_rec_psp.upper_request_price_tolerance >= ca_rec_in.requested_price)
--)
-- AND pt.total_selling_price != ca_rec_in.catalogue_amt
AND NOT EXISTS
(SELECT 'X'
FROM flash_sales_outlet@grdbtoopruat.world fsa
WHERE fsa.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND fsa.redundant_ind IS NULL
)
) ,
ecomm AS
(SELECT DISTINCT p.catalogue_number ,
p.outlet_code ,
p.buyers_range_number ,
c.channel_code ,
p.dd_indicator,
p.product_type_code,
p.CARRIER_CODE,
p.WARRANTY_INDICATOR,
p.WARRANTY_CODE,
p.line_item_ref ,
o.restriction_code ,
oe.business_description ,
op.selling_price ,
p.line_item_description
FROM channel@grdbtoopruat.world c,
product@grdbtoopruat.world p,
outlet_extract@grdbtoopruat.world oe,
offer@grdbtoopruat.world o,
offer_price@grdbtoopruat.world op,
option_offer_price@grdbtoopruat.world oop,
product_option@grdbtoopruat.world po,
payment_term@grdbtoopruat.world pt
WHERE 1 =1
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(oe.outlet_on_sale_date) AND TRUNC(oe.outlet_off_sale_date)
AND TRUNC(sysdate) BETWEEN TRUNC(o.offer_onsale_date) AND TRUNC(o.offer_offsale_date)
AND oe.business_description = 'E-Commerce'
AND oe.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND c.channel_code IN( 'LEX','LAI','LWI') --UPPER (ca_rec_in.principal_brand)
AND p.dd_indicator = 0
AND c.restriction_code = o.restriction_code
AND o.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND o.buyers_range_number = p.buyers_range_number
AND o.line_item_ref = p.line_item_ref
AND op.outlet_code = o.outlet_code
AND op.buyers_range_number = o.buyers_range_number
AND op.line_item_ref = o.line_item_ref
AND op.offer_number = o.offer_number
AND op.offer_version_number = o.offer_version_number
AND oop.outlet_code = op.outlet_code
AND oop.buyers_range_number = op.buyers_range_number
AND oop.line_item_ref = op.line_item_ref
AND oop.offer_number = op.offer_number
AND oop.offer_version_number = op.offer_version_number
AND oop.price_break_number = op.price_break_number
AND oop.selling_price_number = op.selling_price_number
AND po.outlet_code = oop.outlet_code
AND po.buyers_range_number = oop.buyers_range_number
AND po.line_item_ref = oop.line_item_ref
AND po.colour_no = oop.colour_no
AND po.size_no = oop.size_no
AND pt.selling_price_number = op.selling_price_number
AND pt.outlet_code = op.outlet_code
AND pt.buyers_range_number = op.buyers_range_number
AND pt.line_item_ref = op.line_item_ref
AND pt.offer_number = op.offer_number
AND pt.offer_version_number = op.offer_version_number
--and op.selling_price >200
-- AND (
-- ( op.selling_price - ca_rec_psp.lower_request_price_tolerance <= ca_rec_in.requested_price
-- AND op.selling_price + ca_rec_psp.upper_request_price_tolerance >= ca_rec_in.requested_price)
--)
-- AND pt.total_selling_price != ca_rec_in.catalogue_amt
AND NOT EXISTS
(SELECT 'X'
FROM flash_sales_outlet@grdbtoopruat.world fsa
WHERE fsa.outlet_code = p.outlet_code
AND fsa.redundant_ind IS NULL
)
)
SELECT DISTINCT flyers.catalogue_number catalogue_number ,
( CASE WHEN UPPER(flyers.CHANNEL_CODE) = 'LEX' THEN 'VERY' WHEN UPPER(flyers.CHANNEL_CODE) = 'LAI' THEN 'LITTLEWOODS' WHEN UPPER(flyers.CHANNEL_CODE) = 'LWI' THEN 'LITTLEWOODS IRELAND' END ) BRAND ,
(
CASE flyers.DD_indicator
WHEN 1
THEN 'DD'
WHEN 0
THEN 'DC'
END ) AS DD_indicator ,
(
CASE
WHEN (flyers.selling_price > 400 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LEX')) THEN
400
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 200 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LEX')) THEN
200
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 150 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LEX')) THEN
150
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 100 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LEX')) THEN
100
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 0 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LEX')) THEN
0
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 99 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LAI')) THEN
99
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 50 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LAI')) THEN
50
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 0 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LAI')) THEN
0
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 200 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LWI')) THEN
200
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 150 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LWI')) THEN
150
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 100 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LWI')) THEN
100
WHEN(flyers.selling_price > 0 AND flyers.CHANNEL_CODE IN ('LWI')) THEN
0
END )
AS
MOV,
(
CASE
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%LAPTOP%'
THEN 'LAPTOP'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%TAB%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%FRIDGE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%WASHING%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%TV%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%CAMERA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOBILE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOCKET%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SWITCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%WIRELESS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%PRINTER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%VACCUM%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%DISHWASHER%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%CHIMNEY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%CABLE%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%FAN%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%LIGHT%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%MICRO%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%ELECTRIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SAMSUNG%'
THEN 'SAMSUNG'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%LG%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SONY%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%MOTOROLA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%NOKIA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%PANASONIC%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%PHILIPS%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%TOSHIBA%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%BOSCH%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%APPLE%'
THEN 'APPLE'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SANSUI%'
THEN 'ELECTRICAL_ELECTRONIC'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%SOFA%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%MATTRESS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
WHEN UPPER(flyers.line_item_description) LIKE '%CURTAINS%'
THEN 'UPHOLESTRY'
ELSE 'OTHERS'
END ) AS PRODUCT_CATEGORY,
flyers.line_item_description,
flyers.product_type_code,
flyers.CARRIER_CODE,
(CASE WHEN flyers.WARRANTY_INDICATOR = 'Y' THEN 'YES' ELSE 'NO' END ) AS WARRANTY_AVAILABLE ,
flyers.WARRANTY_CODE,
flyers.line_item_ref line_item_ref ,
flyers.outlet_code ,
flyers.buyers_range_number ,
ecomm.selling_price connect_selling_price ,
flyers.selling_price ATG_selling_price ,
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MM-YYYY HH24:MI:SSSS') AS DATA_REFRESH_DATE
FROM ecomm ,
flyers
WHERE 1 =1
AND ecomm.catalogue_number = flyers.catalogue_number
AND ecomm.channel_code = flyers.channel_code
AND ecomm.dd_indicator = flyers.dd_indicator
--AND ecomm.outlet_code = flyers.outlet_code
--AND ecomm.suffix = flyers.suffix
AND ecomm.buyers_range_number = flyers.buyers_range_number
AND ecomm.line_item_ref = flyers.line_item_ref
AND ecomm.restriction_code = flyers.restriction_code
AND ecomm.selling_price > flyers.selling_price
ORDER BY flyers.catalogue_number ,
flyers.line_item_ref ,
ecomm.selling_price ;
V_INS_CNT := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
SP_ERROR_LOG(21,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,V_INS_CNT ||' Rows inserted into CATALOGUE_NON_IFC_PRICEMATCH');
COMMIT;
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'ANALYZE TABLE CATALOGUE_METADATA COMPUTE STATISTICS';
SP_ERROR_LOG(22,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'SP_REFRESH_CATALOGUE_METADATA TABLE CATALOGUE_METADATA ANALYZED');
/* ---Dont truncate for now else debugging will be a problem---
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_BASIC_DETAILS REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_B2B_CANCEL REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_DC_STNDRD_DLVRY REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_DDEXP_STNDRD_DLVRY REUSE STORAGE';
EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_LOCN_ID REUSE STORAGE';
--EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_XSELL_PRODUCTS REUSE STORAGE';
--EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'TRUNCATE TABLE CATALOGUE_METADATA REUSE STORAGE';
--EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'CATALOGUE_NON_IFC_PRICEMATCH';
*/
EXCEPTION WHEN OTHERS THEN
SP_ERROR_LOG(23,V_PROCE_NAME,SYSDATE,'RA_RETURN_MSG = ' || 'Error encountered. Error Code => ' || SQLCODE || '. Error Message => '|| SQLERRM|| ' Error Line. '||DBMS_UTILITY.format_error_backtrace()) ;
END SP_REFRESH_CATALOGUE_METADATA; |
/* Schema for SQL database/table */
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS bamazon;
/* Create database */
CREATE DATABASE bamazon;
USE bamazon;
/* Create new table with a primary key that auto-increaments, and a text field*/
CREATE TABLE products (
id INTEGER(11) AUTO_INCREMENT NOT NULL,
product_name VARCHAR(45) NOT NULL,
department_name VARCHAR(45) NOT NULL,
price decimal(10, 4) NOT NULL,
stock_quantity INT(10, 4) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (id)
);
|
SELECT patientid
FROM "tbl_patient"
WHERE
TYPE = false AND stage >= 2 |
/*
* Combine the round and average functions to get a rounded average of the population.
*/
SELECT ROUND(AVG(POPULATION)) FROM CITY
|
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.8.5
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Máy chủ: 127.0.0.1
-- Thời gian đã tạo: Th10 30, 2020 lúc 04:50 AM
-- Phiên bản máy phục vụ: 10.1.38-MariaDB
-- Phiên bản PHP: 7.3.2
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET AUTOCOMMIT = 0;
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Cơ sở dữ liệu: `csdl_gvtdg`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `evaluation`
--
CREATE TABLE `evaluation` (
`eva_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`eva_name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`eva_ad_create_point` int(11) NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`eva_user_rate_point` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `evaluation`
--
INSERT INTO `evaluation` (`eva_id`, `eva_name`, `eva_ad_create_point`, `created_at`, `updated_at`, `eva_user_rate_point`) VALUES
(1, 'Thiết kế các hoạt động giảng dạy và học tập được dựa trên triết lý giáo dục của Nhà trường', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(2, 'Thiết kế các hoạt động giảng dạy và học tập phù hợp để đạt được chuẩn đầu ra tương ứng của học phần ', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(3, 'Tạo cơ hội cho sinh viên tích cực tham gia vào các hoạt động học tập', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(4, 'Đổi mới phương pháp giảng dạy trong học phần được phân công', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(5, 'Hướng dẫn sinh viên phương pháp học tập trong quá trình dạy học nhằm thúc đẩy khả năng học tập suốt đời', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(6, 'Thực hiện đủ thời lượng, nội dung của học phần theo kế hoạch, đề cương học phần đã công bố', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(7, 'Phản hồi kết quả kiểm tra đánh giá giúp sinh viên cải thiện kết quả học tập', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(8, 'Hỗ trợ sinh viên trong học tập và nghiên cứu', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(9, 'Ứng dụng công nghệ trong dạy học', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(10, 'Thực hiện chuẩn mực của nhà giáo (lên lớp đúng giờ, giao tiếp và ứng xử đúng mực với sinh viên…)', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(11, 'Chất lượng thực hiện công tác cố vấn học tập (nếu có tham gia)', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(12, 'Chất lượng thực hiện công tác quản lý từ cấp bộ môn trở lên (nếu có tham gia)', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(13, 'Hoàn thành định mức nghiên cứu khoa học trong năm', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(14, 'Tự bồi dưỡng và nâng cao trình độ', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(15, 'Cung cấp đầy đủ thông tin về học phần cho sinh viên theo quy định', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(16, 'Giảng viên chủ động cập nhật kiến thức mới phục vụ nội dung học phần được phân công giảng dạy', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(17, 'Giảng viên được tham gia xây dựng và đóng góp ý kiến điều chỉnh học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(18, 'Giảng viên được tham gia xây dựng và đóng góp ý kiến điều chỉnh chương trình đào tạo', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(19, 'Phương pháp kiểm tra đánh giá sử dụng trong học phần phù hợp với chuẩn đầu ra tương ứng của học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(20, 'Việc kiểm tra, đánh giá kết quả học tập của sinh viên được rà soát và đánh giá thường xuyên để đảm bảo sự tương thích và phù hợp với chuẩn đầu ra.', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(21, 'Việc tổ chức ra đề thi, chấm thi được thực hiện theo đúng quy định', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(22, 'Văn bản về triết lý giáo dục của Nhà trường được phổ biến tới giảng viên', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(23, 'Nhu cầu được đào tạo và tham gia các khóa học bồi dưỡng nâng cao trình độ và kỹ năng của giảng viên được Nhà trường đáp ứng', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(24, 'Kết quả làm việc của giảng viên được đánh giá công bằng', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(25, 'Giảng viên hài lòng đối với các chính sách đãi ngộ chung của Nhà trường', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(26, 'Có đủ phòng học với trang thiết bị phù hợp để hỗ trợ hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu trong phạm vi học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(27, 'Có đủ phòng làm việc với trang thiết bị phù hợp để hỗ trợ hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu trong phạm vi học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(28, 'Có đủ phòng thí nghiệm hoặc phòng thực hành và trang thiết bị phù hợp để hỗ trợ các hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu trong phạm vi học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(29, 'Các yêu cầu sửa chữa cơ sở vật chất hoặc trang thiết bị phục vụ học tập, nghiên cứu được đáp ứng', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(30, 'Thư viện và các nguồn học liệu phù hợp và được cập nhật để hỗ trợ các hoạt động đào tạo và nghiên cứu trong phạm vi học phần', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0),
(31, 'Cơ sở hạ tầng công nghệ hỗ trợ việc ứng dụng công nghệ thông tin vào dạy và học đáp ứng được yêu cầu', 0, '2020-10-29 12:02:25', '2020-10-29 12:02:25', 0);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `school`
--
CREATE TABLE `school` (
`sch_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`sch_name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`sch_address` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `school`
--
INSERT INTO `school` (`sch_id`, `sch_name`, `sch_address`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(1, 'Đại học khoa học tự nhiên', 'Nguyễn Trãi - Thanh Xuân - Hà Nội', '2020-10-28 07:50:03', '2020-10-28 07:50:03'),
(2, 'Đại học Khoa học Xã hội & Nhân văn', 'Số 336 đường Nguyễn Trãi, quận Thanh Xuân, Hà Nội', '2020-10-29 11:48:34', '2020-10-29 11:48:34'),
(3, 'Đại học Giáo dục', 'Nhà G7, số 144 đường Xuân Thuỷ, quận Cầu Giấy, Hà Nội', '2020-10-29 11:48:34', '2020-10-29 11:48:34');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `science`
--
CREATE TABLE `science` (
`sci_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`sci_name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`sci_id_school` int(11) NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `science`
--
INSERT INTO `science` (`sci_id`, `sci_name`, `sci_id_school`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(1, 'Toán-Cơ-Tin học', 1, '2020-10-28 07:50:27', '2020-10-28 07:50:27'),
(2, 'Sinh học', 1, '2020-10-29 11:46:55', '2020-10-29 11:46:55'),
(3, 'Ngôn ngữ học', 2, '2020-10-29 11:50:54', '2020-10-29 11:50:54'),
(4, 'Quốc tế học', 2, '2020-10-29 11:50:54', '2020-10-29 11:50:54');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `semester`
--
CREATE TABLE `semester` (
`se_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`se_year` int(11) NOT NULL,
`se_name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `semester`
--
INSERT INTO `semester` (`se_id`, `se_year`, `se_name`, `created_at`, `updated_at`) VALUES
(1, 2019, 'Học kì 1', '2020-10-29 11:52:46', '2020-10-29 11:52:46'),
(2, 2019, 'Học kì 2', '2020-10-29 11:52:46', '2020-10-29 11:52:46'),
(3, 2019, 'Học kì hè', '2020-10-29 11:52:46', '2020-10-29 11:52:46'),
(4, 2020, 'Học kì 1', '2020-10-29 11:52:46', '2020-10-29 11:52:46');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `statistic`
--
CREATE TABLE `statistic` (
`st_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`st_us_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`st_sum_point` int(11) NOT NULL,
`st_standard_deviation` double NOT NULL,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`se_id` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `statistic`
--
INSERT INTO `statistic` (`st_id`, `st_us_id`, `st_sum_point`, `st_standard_deviation`, `updated_at`, `created_at`, `se_id`) VALUES
(2, 2, 140, 0, '2020-10-29 12:07:24', '2020-10-29 12:07:24', 4);
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `users`
--
CREATE TABLE `users` (
`us_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`us_name` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`us_is_admin` int(1) DEFAULT NULL,
`us_is_active` int(1) DEFAULT NULL,
`us_sci_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`us_id_school` int(11) NOT NULL,
`password` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`updated_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`email` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL,
`email_verified_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
`remember_token` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci DEFAULT NULL,
`us_avatar` varchar(255) COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `users`
--
INSERT INTO `users` (`us_id`, `us_name`, `us_is_admin`, `us_is_active`, `us_sci_id`, `us_id_school`, `password`, `created_at`, `updated_at`, `email`, `email_verified_at`, `remember_token`, `us_avatar`) VALUES
(2, 'admin1111', 1, NULL, 1, 1, '$2y$10$oLCpxKb/glhLEXj/q/ryv..2OLr5mrpdHAgx1aca5Dx49Cf2jUjda', '2020-10-28 00:51:12', '2020-10-28 01:08:27', 'ad@gmail.com', '2020-10-28 07:51:12', NULL, '/uploads/Users/20201028080827.jpg');
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Cấu trúc bảng cho bảng `user_eval_sem`
--
CREATE TABLE `user_eval_sem` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`us_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`se_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`eval_id` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_unicode_ci;
--
-- Đang đổ dữ liệu cho bảng `user_eval_sem`
--
INSERT INTO `user_eval_sem` (`id`, `us_id`, `se_id`, `eval_id`) VALUES
(1, 2, 4, 11);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho các bảng đã đổ
--
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `evaluation`
--
ALTER TABLE `evaluation`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`eva_id`),
ADD KEY `eva_id` (`eva_id`,`eva_name`,`eva_ad_create_point`,`created_at`,`updated_at`),
ADD KEY `eva_user_rate_point` (`eva_user_rate_point`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `school`
--
ALTER TABLE `school`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`sch_id`),
ADD KEY `sch_id` (`sch_id`,`sch_name`,`sch_address`,`created_at`,`updated_at`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `science`
--
ALTER TABLE `science`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`sci_id`),
ADD KEY `sci_id` (`sci_id`,`sci_name`,`sci_id_school`,`created_at`,`updated_at`),
ADD KEY `sci_id_school` (`sci_id_school`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `semester`
--
ALTER TABLE `semester`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`se_id`),
ADD KEY `se_id` (`se_id`,`se_year`,`se_name`,`created_at`,`updated_at`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `statistic`
--
ALTER TABLE `statistic`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`st_id`),
ADD KEY `st_id` (`st_id`,`st_us_id`,`st_sum_point`,`st_standard_deviation`,`updated_at`,`created_at`),
ADD KEY `st_us_id` (`st_us_id`),
ADD KEY `st_id_2` (`st_id`,`st_us_id`,`st_sum_point`,`st_standard_deviation`,`updated_at`,`created_at`,`se_id`),
ADD KEY `se_id` (`se_id`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`us_id`),
ADD KEY `us_id` (`us_id`,`us_name`,`us_is_admin`,`us_is_active`,`us_sci_id`,`us_id_school`,`password`,`created_at`,`updated_at`),
ADD KEY `us_id_school` (`us_id_school`),
ADD KEY `us_sci_id` (`us_sci_id`);
--
-- Chỉ mục cho bảng `user_eval_sem`
--
ALTER TABLE `user_eval_sem`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`),
ADD KEY `id` (`id`,`us_id`,`se_id`,`eval_id`),
ADD KEY `se_id` (`se_id`),
ADD KEY `eval_id` (`eval_id`),
ADD KEY `us_id` (`us_id`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho các bảng đã đổ
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `evaluation`
--
ALTER TABLE `evaluation`
MODIFY `eva_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=32;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `school`
--
ALTER TABLE `school`
MODIFY `sch_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=4;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `science`
--
ALTER TABLE `science`
MODIFY `sci_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `semester`
--
ALTER TABLE `semester`
MODIFY `se_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `statistic`
--
ALTER TABLE `statistic`
MODIFY `st_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=3;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
MODIFY `us_id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=3;
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT cho bảng `user_eval_sem`
--
ALTER TABLE `user_eval_sem`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=2;
--
-- Các ràng buộc cho các bảng đã đổ
--
--
-- Các ràng buộc cho bảng `science`
--
ALTER TABLE `science`
ADD CONSTRAINT `science_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`sci_id_school`) REFERENCES `school` (`sch_id`);
--
-- Các ràng buộc cho bảng `statistic`
--
ALTER TABLE `statistic`
ADD CONSTRAINT `statistic_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`st_us_id`) REFERENCES `users` (`us_id`),
ADD CONSTRAINT `statistic_ibfk_2` FOREIGN KEY (`se_id`) REFERENCES `semester` (`se_id`);
--
-- Các ràng buộc cho bảng `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
ADD CONSTRAINT `users_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`us_id_school`) REFERENCES `school` (`sch_id`),
ADD CONSTRAINT `users_ibfk_2` FOREIGN KEY (`us_sci_id`) REFERENCES `science` (`sci_id`);
--
-- Các ràng buộc cho bảng `user_eval_sem`
--
ALTER TABLE `user_eval_sem`
ADD CONSTRAINT `user_eval_sem_ibfk_1` FOREIGN KEY (`se_id`) REFERENCES `semester` (`se_id`),
ADD CONSTRAINT `user_eval_sem_ibfk_2` FOREIGN KEY (`eval_id`) REFERENCES `evaluation` (`eva_id`),
ADD CONSTRAINT `user_eval_sem_ibfk_3` FOREIGN KEY (`us_id`) REFERENCES `users` (`us_id`);
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
/*
Obs obs: kan ikke modifisere clobber
SQL Error: ORA-22859: ugyldig endring av kolonner
22859. 00000 - "invalid modification of columns"
*Cause: An attempt was made to modify an object, REF, VARRAY, nested
table, or LOB column type.
*Action: Create a new column of the desired type and copy the current
column data to the new type using the appropriate type
constructor.
kjører enkel variant siden vi ikke bryr oss om dataene nå, men ellers bør vi bruke expand and contract!
*/
TRUNCATE TABLE HENVENDELSE;
alter table HENVENDELSE DROP COLUMN tekst;
alter table HENVENDELSE add tekst clob not null;
alter table HENVENDELSE modify sendt timestamp not null; |
CREATE DOMAIN d_nimetus VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT chk_nimetus_ei_ole_tyhi_ei_koosne_tyhikutest CHECK (VALUE!~'^[[:space:]]*$');
ALTER TABLE Amet DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Amet_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Riik DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Riik_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Laua_brand DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Laua_brand_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria_tyyp DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Laua_kategooria_tyyp_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Laua_kategooria_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Laua_seisundi_liik DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Laua_seisundi_liik_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Isiku_seisundi_liik DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Isiku_seisundi_liik_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Tootaja_seisundi_liik DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Tootaja_seisundi_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Kliendi_seisundi_liik DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_Kliendi_seisundi_nimetus_ei_koosne_tyhikutest_pole_tyhi;
ALTER TABLE Amet ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Riik ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Laua_brand ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria_tyyp ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Laua_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Isiku_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Tootaja_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Kliendi_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus DROP NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE Amet ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Riik ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Laua_brand ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria_tyyp ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Laua_kategooria ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Laua_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Isiku_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Tootaja_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
ALTER TABLE Kliendi_seisundi_liik ALTER COLUMN nimetus TYPE d_nimetus;
|
CREATE TABLE percentage_progress(
id BIGINT AUTO_INCREMENT NOT NULL
, operation VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL
, related_to BIGINT NOT NULL
, locked BIT NULL
, locked_by BIGINT NULL
, created_at DATETIME NOT NULL
, last_updated DATETIME NOT NULL
, progression FLOAT NOT NULL
, progression_status VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL
, CONSTRAINT PK_percentage PRIMARY KEY (id)
, FOREIGN KEY FK_perc_related_to (related_to) REFERENCES user_info(id)
, FOREIGN KEY FK_perc_locked_by (locked_by) REFERENCES user_info(id)
);
|
--데이터베이스를 root로 작성
--=================================================
CREATE DATABASE `jh_hardshop` /*!40100 DEFAULT CHARACTER SET utf8 */;
--==================================================
--데이터베이스 myself유저에 권한 이행
--==================================================
% vs localhost as in
GRANT Alter ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'%';
GRANT Alter ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Alter ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Create ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Create view ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Delete ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Delete history ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Drop ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Grant option ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Index ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Insert ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT References ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Select ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Show view ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Trigger ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
GRANT Update ON jh_hardshop.* TO 'myself'@'localhost';
--==================================================
-- jh_hardshop.브랜드명 definition
CREATE TABLE `브랜드명` (
`brand_name` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL COMMENT '브랜드명(삼성전자 등등)',
`hard_data` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL COMMENT '하드용량(250기가 등등)',
`hard_description` varchar(200) DEFAULT NULL COMMENT '하드 설명서'
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
|
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `aviability`;
CREATE TABLE `aviability` (
`ID` int(11) NOT NULL,
`Chip` varchar(100) NOT NULL,
`Model` varchar(300) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`Supplier` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`Link` varchar(300) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`On_stock` BOOLEAN,
`notified` BOOLEAN
) ENGINE=MyISAM DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_spanish_ci;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `history_of_back_to_stock`;
CREATE TABLE `history_of_back_to_stock` (
`ID` int(11) NOT NULL,
`FK_aviability` int(11) NOT NULL,
`Chip` int(11) NOT NULL,
`Model` varchar(300) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`Supplier` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`Link` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`On_stock` BOOLEAN,
`Change_of_status_date` datetime NOT NULL DEFAULT current_timestamp()
) ENGINE=MyISAM DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_spanish_ci;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `chats`;
CREATE TABLE `chats` (
`Chat_id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`Chat_type` varchar(300) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`Username` varchar(300) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci,
`Chat_title` varchar(100) COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci,
`Active` BOOLEAN
) ENGINE=MyISAM DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_spanish_ci;
ALTER TABLE `aviability`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`ID`),
MODIFY `ID` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
ALTER TABLE `history_of_back_to_stock`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`ID`),
MODIFY `ID` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT;
ALTER TABLE `chats`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`Chat_id`);
INSERT INTO aviability(Chip,Model,Supplier,Link,On_stock,notified)
VALUES('RTX3060','ZOTAC Gaming GeForce RTX 3060 Twin Edge OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3zM6Jnx', false, false),
('RTX3060','ASUS TUF Gaming NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/35HxKdD', false, false),
('RTX3060','ASUS ROG Strix NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3cV3zUm', false, false),
('RTX3060','EVGA GeForce RTX 3060 XC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3wEelGE', false, false),
('RTX3060ti','ASUS TUF Gaming NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 Ti OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3gHHlX3', false, false),
('RTX3060ti','ASUS ROG STRIX NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 Ti OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3iSeouj', false, false),
('RTX3060ti','PNY GeForce RTX 3060 Ti','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3cStHze', false, false),
('RX6700XT','PowerColor Red Devil AMD Radeon RX 6700 XT','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/2SBPswz', false, false),
('RX6700XT','PowerColor Hellhound AMD Radeon RX 6700 XT','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3iQYS1K', false, false),
('RX6700XT','Gigabyte Radeon RX 6700 XT Gaming OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3wFEbtP', false, false),
('RX6700XT','MSI Gaming Radeon RX 6700 XT','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3wHQntX', false, false),
('RX6700XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6700 XT Graphics','AMD-US','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5496921400/us', false, false),
('RX6700XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6700 XT Graphics','AMD-VE','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5496921400/ve', false, false),
('RX6800','PowerColor Red Dragon AMD Radeon RX 6800','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/35xWvJd', false, false),
('RX6800','ASUS TUF Gaming AMD Radeon RX 6800 OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3xym4py', false, false),
('RX6800','AMD Radeon™ RX 6800 Graphics','AMD-US','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5458373400/us', false, false),
('RX6800','AMD Radeon™ RX 6800 Graphics','AMD-VE','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5458373400/ve', false, false),
('RX6800XT','XFX Speedster MERC319 AMD Radeon RX 6800 XT ','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3xwbFuz', false, false),
('RX6800XT','AORUS Radeon RX 6800 XT Master','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3cS9RnS', false, false),
('RX6800XT','PowerColor Red Devil AMD Radeon RX 6800 XT','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3vKKsDm', false, false),
('RX6800XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6800 XT Midnight Black Graphics Card','AMD-US','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5496921500/us', false, false),
('RX6800XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6800 XT Midnight Black Graphics Card','AMD-VE','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5496921500/ve', false, false),
('RX6900XT','PowerColor Red Devil AMD Radeon RX 6900 XT','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/3gFkBII', false, false),
('RX6900XT','ASUS TUF Gaming AMD Radeon RX 6900 XT OC','Amazon-US','https://amzn.to/2SDSDns', false, false),
('RX9800XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6900 XT Graphics','AMD-US','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5458372200/us', false, false),
('RX9800XT','AMD Radeon™ RX 6900 XT Graphics','AMD-VE','https://www.amd.com/en/direct-buy/5458372200/ve', false, false); |
Update dbo.MItemGroup set controlgroup=4 where ItemGroupNo=10
Update dbo.MItemGroup set controlgroup=2 where ItemGroupNo=8
Update dbo.MItemMaster set FkDepartmentNo= 10,FkCategoryNo=8
Update MSettings set SettingKeyCode= 'S_IsUseLastPartyWiseDiscEnabled' where PkSettingNo=98
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT Stock DEFAULT 0 FOR Stock
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT Stock2 DEFAULT 0 FOR Stock2
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT Weight1 DEFAULT 0 FOR Weight1
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT Weight2 DEFAULT 0 FOR Weight2
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT SPPerc DEFAULT 0 FOR SPPerc
ALTER TABLE MRateSetting ADD CONSTRAINT LPPerc DEFAULT 0 FOR LPPerc
Drop table Company
Drop table Customer
Drop table Itemmast
Truncate table MItemNameDisplayType
|
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS song(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,name TEXT, creatorId INTEGER);
INSERT or IGNORE INTO song(id, name, creatorId) VALUES (1, 'Ionic Academy', 1);
|
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
SET LINES 150 PAGES 1000
SPOOL sql_adv_recommend.txt
DECLARE
CURSOR curs IS
SELECT DISTINCT action_id, command, attr1, attr2, attr3, attr4
FROM user_advisor_actions
WHERE task_name = 'SQLACCESS17113'
ORDER BY action_id;
v_action number;
v_command VARCHAR2(32);
v_attr1 VARCHAR2(4000);
v_attr2 VARCHAR2(4000);
v_attr3 VARCHAR2(4000);
v_attr4 VARCHAR2(4000);
v_attr5 VARCHAR2(4000);
BEGIN
OPEN curs;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('=========================================');
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Task_name = SQLACCESS17113');
LOOP
FETCH curs INTO
v_action, v_command, v_attr1, v_attr2, v_attr3, v_attr4 ;
EXIT when curs%NOTFOUND;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Action ID: ' || v_action);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Command : ' || v_command);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Attr1 (name) : ' || SUBSTR(v_attr1,1,30));
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Attr2 (tablespace): ' || SUBSTR(v_attr2,1,30));
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Attr3 : ' || SUBSTR(v_attr3,1,30));
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Attr4 : ' || v_attr4);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Attr5 : ' || v_attr5);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('----------------------------------------');
END LOOP;
CLOSE curs;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('=========END RECOMMENDATIONS============');
END show_recm;
/
SPOOL OFF
|
ALTER TABLE ONLY scene_versions ADD COLUMN description varchar(150);
|
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS messages (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
room TEXT,
author TEXT,
text TEXT,
"when" TEXT,
image TEXT,
media TEXT,
reply_to INTEGER, -- If this message is last, forward responses to the bot with this id
state BLOB -- Only forward to the bot if this state is a nonempty string of json data.
);
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS bots (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
room TEXT,
name TEXT,
responds_to TEXT,
url TEXT
);
|
IF NOT EXISTS(SELECT 1 FROM sys.tables WHERE name = 'RoundUp')
begin
CREATE TABLE RoundUp(
RoundUpId uniqueidentifier NOT NULL,
Iban varchar(100) NOT NULL,
[Value] decimal(9,2) NOT NULL,
PaymentDate datetime NOT NULL
CONSTRAINT [PK_RoundUp] PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED (RoundUpId)
)
end |
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `#__campaigns`;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `#__campaign_subscribers`;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS `#__campaign_responses`;
|
CREATE LOGIN [matteot_Bokmal]
WITH PASSWORD = N'5:q{Lxpm1b&jdxs9Y1%V<cbQmsFT7_&#$!~<lF|x&klqi{s!', SID = 0x5D40E2C6F668AE49901DE47A0F004B8C, DEFAULT_LANGUAGE = [norsk (bokmål)], CHECK_POLICY = OFF;
|
--------------------------------------------------------
-- DDL for Table LND_REVENUE
--------------------------------------------------------
CREATE TABLE "VF_SPMC_LANDING"."LND_REVENUE"
( "ACCOUNT_MANAGER_NAME" VARCHAR2(100),
"TARGET" NUMBER,
"ACHIEVED" NUMBER,
"MONTH" VARCHAR2(20),
"YEAR" VARCHAR2(4),
"DIRECTORATE" VARCHAR2(100),
"TYPE" VARCHAR2(10),
"SALES_MANAGER_NAME" VARCHAR2(100),
"ACCOUNT_MANAGER_REGION" VARCHAR2(50),
"YTD_REVENUE" NUMBER
) ;
|
--
CREATE TABLE data_type_ex1 (
num1 NUMBER,
num2 NUMBER(2),
num3 NUMBER(3,2)
);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num1)
VALUES (0);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num1)
VALUES (0.01);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num1)
VALUES (999999999999);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num2)
VALUES (0);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num2)
VALUES (0, 1);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num2)
VALUES (99);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num3)
VALUES (0.01);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num3)
VALUES (0.015);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex1 (num3)
VALUES (9.015);
commit;
SELECT * FROM data_type_ex1;
-- 문자열
CREATE TABLE data_type_ex2 (
char1 CHAR(3),
vchar2 VARCHAR2(6)
);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(char1) VALUES ('');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(char1) VALUES ('a');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(char1) VALUES ('abc');
--INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
--(char1) VALUES ('abcd'); 오류
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(vchar2) VALUES ('abc');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(vchar2) VALUES ('abcdef');
commit;
SELECT * FROM data_type_ex2;
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(vchar2) VALUES ('한');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(vchar2) VALUES ('한글');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex2
(vchar2) VALUES ('가나다');
SELECT * FROM data_type_ex2;
CREATE TABLE data_type_ex3 (
date1 DATE
);
SELECT SYSDATE FROM dual;
INSERT INTO data_type_ex3
VALUES (sysdate);
INSERT INTO data_type_ex3
VALUES ('2020-12-03');
INSERT INTO data_type_ex3
VALUES (TO_DATE('2020-12-12', 'YYYY-MM-DD'));
INSERT INTO data_type_ex3
VALUES (TO_DATE('2020-12-02 15:13:00', 'YYYY-MM-DD HH24:MI:SS'));
SELECT TO_CHAR(date1, 'YYYY-MM-DD HH24:MI:SS') nowdate FROM data_type_ex3;
commit;
SELECT * FROM data_type_ex3;
--책 (229p)
CREATE TABLE emp_copy
AS
SELECT eno, ename, job, hiredate, dno
FROM employee
WHERE 0 = 1;
INSERT INTO emp_copy
VALUES(7000, 'CANDY', 'MANAGER', '2012/05/01', 10);
-- 책 230p
INSERT INTO emp_copy
VALUES(7010, 'TOM', 'MANAGER',
TO_DATE('2012, 05, 01', 'YYYY, MM, DD'), 20);
INSERT INTO emp_copy
VALUES(7020, 'JERRY', 'SALESMAN', SYSDATE, 30);
-- 혼자해보기
-- 1번
CREATE TABLE emp_insert
AS
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE 0 = 1;
-- 2번
INSERT INTO emp_insert
VALUES (1, 'leewonseok', 'student', '', SYSDATE, 5000, 500, 10);
-- 3번
INSERT INTO emp_insert
VALUES (2, 'MOONJS', 'student', '',
SYSDATE-1, 5200, 550, 20);
commit;
SELECT * FROM emp_insert;
-- 책 231p
INSERT INTO dept_copy
SELECT * FROM department;
commit;
SELECT * FROM dept_copy;
|
--
-- Base de datos: `pos`
--
CREATE SCHEMA `pos` DEFAULT CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci ;
--
-- Estructura de tabla para la tabla `users`
--
CREATE TABLE `users` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`name` text COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`user` text COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`password` text COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`profile` tinyint(1) NOT NULL DEFAULT 1,
`photo` text COLLATE utf8_spanish_ci NOT NULL,
`status` int(11) NOT NULL,
`last_login` datetime NOT NULL,
`created_at` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8 COLLATE=utf8_spanish_ci;
--
-- Volcado de datos para la tabla `users`
--
INSERT INTO `users` (`id`, `name`, `user`, `password`, `profile`, `photo`, `status`, `last_login`, `created_at`) VALUES
(1, 'Usuario Administrador', 'admin', 'admin123', 1, '', 1, '0000-00-00 00:00:00', '2017-12-19 20:20:09');
--
-- Indices de la tabla `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT de la tabla `users`
--
ALTER TABLE `users`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=2;COMMIT;
|
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Common Alternate Names: common barley, grain
barley, cereal barley
Scientific Alternate Names: Hordeum aegiceras Nees ex
Royle, Hordeum distichon L., Hordeum hexastichon L.,
Hordeum hexastichum L., Hordeum irregulare Aberg &.
Wiebe, Hordeum sativum Pers., Hordeum vulgare L.
ssp. hexastichon (L.) Bonnier &. Layens, Hordeum
vulgare L. var. trifurcatum (Schltdl.) Alef.
Barley crop (USDA-NRCS photo)' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='
General: Barley is an annual, cool season bunchgrass that grows 2–4 ft tall (Ball et al., 1996). Stems are hollow and jointed.
Leaf surfaces and leaf margins are smooth, tapered, and arise on the stem above ground level (Brown, 1979). Nodes and
internodes of stems are hairless (Radford et al., 1968). Seeds are borne on a spike inflorescence ¾ to 4 inches (2–10 cm) long
with flower clusters in groups of three long bristles (called awns). Awns can be absent in some varieties, but when present
can reach 6 inches in length (Radford et al., 1968).
Prior to flowering, barley can be confused with other small grains. Barley is distinguished from wheat, rye, and oats by
examining the leaf collar when it is pulled away from the stem. The leaf collar on a barley plant will have two overlapping
appendages that clasp the stem, called auricles (Ball et al., 1996)
There are two different groups of barley, the six-rowed and two-rowed types. These groups refer to the differences in the
arrangement of the seedheads in the spike. When viewing a head of six-rowed barley from above, there are six rows of
kernels, three on each side of the rachis (seedhead stem). In two-rowed barley, only the middle spikelet develops a kernel,
and the other two spikelets are sterile. When viewed from above, the two-rowed type appears to have only two kernels
(Carena et al., 2009).
Traditionally, barley has a husk or hull around the grain that limits digestibility. Hull-less
varieties have hulls that can easily be removed from the grain when it is combined and
threshed, and contain more digestible energy (Griffey et al., 2009).
Distribution: Barley is not native to the United States and only exists in cultivated areas. It
sometimes volunteers in fields and disturbed areas, but is not persistent (Hitchcock and
Chase, 1971). It can be found in grainfields and along roads from Connecticut to New
Jersey, South Dakota, Montana, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and California. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Barley is an ancient cereal crop that does not exist in the wild. It has been grown
all around the world, and its precise origin is unknown (Harlan, 1979). Barley may have
evolved from Hordeum spontaneum, a weedy plant commonly found throughout the fertile
crescent region of the Near East. However, there is evidence to suggest that Hordeum
agriocrithon, discovered in 1938 in Tibet, may be a closer ancestor to modern cultivated
Example of a six-rowed barley
variety. (Photo by H.
Bockelman, USDA-NRCS)
barley (Harlan, 1974). Both of these regions have long histories of farming barley crops.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='
Barley grows well with supplemental irrigation in cool, dry areas. It can be grown in a hot climate, but is more susceptible to
diseases and pathogens in a hot, humid climate (Weibe, 1979). Barley crops are not typically grown in the humid regions of
the southeastern United States (Schaffer, 1993). It is more winter-hardy than oats, but is more prone to winterkill than wheat
Page 2
or rye (Weibe, 1979). Barley is sensitive to winter conditions and will die if the temperature drops below 17°F (Hannaway et
al., 2004).
Barley cannot tolerate poorly drained soil, grows well when pH values are between 6.0– 8.5 (Midwest Cover Crops Council,
2012), and has been used to reclaim saline soils (Hannaway et al., 2004). It generally grows better than any other small grain
in highly alkaline soils (Reid et al., 1979). Best soils for growing barley are well-drained loams and clay loams (Reid et al.,
1979). Growing barley on sandy soils causes uneven plant growth and development (Hannaway et al., 2004).
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Cereal grain production: Barley is a cool-season annual grass that produces grain for human and animal consumption.
Because there are both summer and winter varieties, barley can be grown at a wide variety of locations. It ranks fourth in
terms of world grain production behind maize (Zea maize L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and rice (Oryza sativa L.)
(Carena, 2009). In the United States, barley grain is used primarily as a high-protein additive to livestock feed for cattle,
sheep, pigs, and poultry. An estimated 25% of barley grain production in the United States is used to make malted beverages
such as beer (Davidson et al., 2012). This crop is one of the only cereal crops that can withstand high elevations and short
growing seasons, and is an important food staple for humans in the Andes mountains of Peru and the high plateaus of Tibet
(Carena, 2009).
Forage: Barley, like other small grain crops, can be grazed by livestock before seedheads are produced. Barley can be
planted sooner than wheat, and provides early season grazing. It is a valuable annual forage during drought, as it uses water
more efficiently than other small grains (Schaffer, 1993). Silage yields are generally 2.5 ton/acre of dry matter with 9% crude
protein and 27% crude fiber (Ball et al., 1998).
Cover crop: Barley is also used as a cover crop, a crop grown specifically to maintain cropland soil quality, fertility, and
productivity (Magdoff and Van Es, 2009). Cover crops are not harvested and are terminated on the surface or incorporated
into soil before they mature. Cover crop species limit soil erosion by providing cover to the soil when a commercial crop is
not growing.
In the United States, barley can be grown farther north than other cereal grains and can produce more biomass than other
small grain crops in a shorter amount of time (Clark, 2010). Barley is often seeded in mixtures with legumes to boost soil
nitrogen levels. It can be planted as a winter annual in warmer climates or as a spring annual in cooler climates, but is most
popular in the Midwest Corn Belt, Northern Plains, Inland Northwest, Northwest Maritime, California Central Valley, and
Southwest bioregions (Clark, 2010). Seed is usually inexpensive and easy to acquire. Barley as a cover crop provides
solutions to the specific resource concerns listed below.
Weed control: Barley is a fast-growing annual grass that competes with weeds by shading and absorbing nutrients and water
from the soil. Barley also discourages weed germination by producing allelopathic chemicals (chemicals that are toxic to
other plants). An Ohio study found that using barley as a cover crop suppressed yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca) emergence by
81% (Creamer et al., 1996a).
Soil condition, erosion: Barley cover crops protect soil from erosion, especially when grown as a winter annual in Plant
Hardiness Zone 8 and warmer (California, western Oregon, and Washington) (Clark, 2010). Roots develop in the fall and can
reach a vertical depth of 6.5 feet. Barley is planted between rows of berries in Oregon and between the rows of vineyards in
California to hold the soil.
Excessive nitrate leaching: Grass cover crops have deep roots and are useful for their ability to capture nitrogen by the
primary crop. Barley absorbs nitrogen and retains it in long-lasting biomass.
Inadequate soil organic matter/soil quality: Barley crops can produce up to 12,900 lb/acre of biomass (Clark, 2010). Leaving
this biomass on the field to decompose increases the amount of organic matter in the soil. Increasing soil organic matter can
increase soil aggregate stability, adequate soil drainage, and adequate soil pore space for oxygen, water, and plant roots.
Pest Management: Growing barley as a cover crop in a soybean rotation may improve beneficial fungi associations in
soybean roots. One study reported that these fungal benefits increased soybean yields when compared to an area grown
without a cover crop (Shimazaki et al., 2008). Planting a barley crop prior to growing potatoes as part of a rotational crop
system has also been recommended to reduce soil pathogens that cause rhizoctonia canker, black scurf, and common scab
(Larkin, 2010).
Page 3
Nurse/companion crop: Barley is commonly planted to protect vegetable crops such as carrots and onions that are vulnerable
to wind damage. It maintains an upright habit after termination with a herbicide, which protects vegetables more effectively
than oat nurse crops (Midwest Cover Crops Council, 2012). When seeded in a fall mixture, barley can provide protection to
fragile red clover or sweet clover seedlings (Reid et al., 1979). It can serve as a companion crop for alfalfa plantings in the
irrigated western states because it does not persist or compete with the alfalfa after the first growing season (Reid et al.,
1979).
Air quality: Cotton producers in Arizona have planted barley as a winter cover crop to control blowing dust within PM-10
(particulate matter that is 10 micrometers or less) active management areas (Munda et al., 1998). Cotton fields on highly
erodible land (HEL) are usually fallow when wind velocities are highest and precipitation is lowest. Barley cover crops can
be seeded after cotton crop harvest to hold the soil and limit wind erosion. Munda et al. (1998) reported that a barley crop in
southern Arizona achieved 90% groundcover on a silty clay textured soil and 65% groundcover on a sandy textured soil with
minimal irrigation.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Ethnobotany TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Ethnobotany='Barley has been grown since ancient times to provide dietary starch to human societies. It remains a dietary staple for
societies where wheat or corn will not grow, such as the Himalayas and Tibet. Barley grown in these regions is usually the
naked (hull-less) variety because it is easier to grind into flour for breads or porridge (Reid et al., 1979).
Barley was brought to America by two routes. Columbus carried seed on his ships from Haiti to New England and Spanish
conquerors brought barley to the southwestern region in the 17th century (Wiebe, 1979). Colonists planted barley mainly for
conversion to malted beverages. Barley is better suited than wheat and rye to malting procedures because the seed has an
intact hull that protects the seed while it is germinating and being processed (Dickson, 1979). The seed kernel is also firmer
than other cereals, and can be handled with less damage at high moisture contents typical in the malting process. Malting is
the second largest use of barley, surpassed only by feed for livestock. Barley cultivars are designated as being either malting
or feed qualities. Feed quality cultivars do not meet rigorous industry standards for malting.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Weedy or Invasive:
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly
managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, state natural resource, or
state agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Please consult the PLANTS Web site (http://plants.usda.gov/) and your state’s Department of Natural Resources for this
plant’s status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PlantingGuidelines TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PlantingGuidelines='Prepare a clean, weed-free seedbed prior to planting. Deep, fibrous roots will absorb residual nutrients from the soil, so
fertilization is not typically needed when planted as a cover crop. However, if soil tests indicate nitrogen is needed, apply
recommended amounts at time of planting (Reid et al., 1979). If barley is planted in an arid climate, a minimum of one
irrigation event is needed for establishment (Munda et al., 1998).
Seeding dates: Barley can be grown at a wide variety of locations with very different planting dates. Regional seeding dates
are summarized by Reid et al. (1979).
Southeastern states: Winter barley is seeded from September to November. It can be seeded along with annual ryegrass
(Lolium spp.) to provide quality cool-season hay, silage, or grazing pasture. Winter barley for pasture can be planted as early
as August 15.
Great Plains region: Spring barley can be planted March through May 1 in order to establish plants before warm summer
temperatures. Winter varieties can also be planted in late January to February in the southern Great Plains.
Northeastern states/New England: Spring barley can be planted March to June.
Great Basin &. Pacific Northwest: Spring barley is planted from March 15–April 30, and winter barley is planted from
September 1–October 15. Spring barley can be sown in the fall, but avoid planting varieties that flower early. These varieties
may be harmed by late spring frosts.
Page 4
If growing barley for a grain crop only, consult local cooperative extension information for specific seeding dates and rates
for your area.
Cover Crop: Plant 50' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='75 lb/acre pure live seed (PLS) with a conventional grain drill or no-till drill with double disk openers
at a depth of ¾ ' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='1 ½ inches. Use 50 lb/acre PLS if using a narrow row seed planter (Midwest Cover Crop Council, 2012).
Plant 80' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='125 lb/acre PLS if broadcasting, and incorporate seeds with shallow tillage using a field cultivator with harrow
attachment (Clark, 2010). Barley can also be inter-seeded by planting a higher rate of 60' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='90 lb/acre PLS for aerial/surface
seeding, when the primary crop reaches physiological maturity.
There is an average of 13,600 seeds per pound (Midwest Cover Crop Council, 2012). Seed size varies among cultivars, and
kernels from two-rowed varieties are usually larger than six-rowed varieties. Determine seeds per pound prior to calculating
seeding rate.
Planting a barley cover crop with a legume species is often recommended to boost soil nitrogen levels. The barley crop serves
as a nurse crop for legume establishment and provides structural support for climbing legumes such as vetch (Sattell et al.,
1998).' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Barley cover crop seeding rates should be reduced when planting in a mixture. however, rates are variable and depend
on which resource concerns are being addressed. For example, Creamer et al. (1996b) planted a cover crop mix of barley,
hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), rye (Secale cereale L.), and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) to suppress weeds in
tomato production. Barley was seeded at a rate of 24 lb/acre and composed 7–10% of the seed mix by weight.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Management differs according to crop use. In arid areas, irrigation should be applied at boot stage (when seedheads begin to
form) and after grazing. The most important management consideration when planting barley as a cover crop is ensuring that
it is terminated at the proper time. Allowing barley to reach full maturity or failing to terminate growth at the proper time
may inhibit germination and growth of the primary crop. See the Control section for more information. Refer to the USDA
Risk Management Agency for updated guidelines for cover crop termination dates for different areas in the United States. ' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
If the primary use of the crop is for forage, grazing can be initiated when plants reach 11' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='15 inches tall (Hannaway et al.,
2004). At crop maturity, seedheads develop elongated, spiky awns that can cause injury to the mouths and eyes of livestock.
Graze the plants prior to seedhead maturity, or plant awnless/hooded varieties to minimize adverse effects on grazing
animals. Barley can be cut for hay as soon as seedheads begin to develop (early boot stage) or for silage when seeds begin to
ripen but are still soft and doughy (dough stage) (Ball et al., 1996). In Oregon, hay can be cut 2' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='3 times during the fall
growing season (Hannaway et al., 2004). Barley grown for pasture, hay or silage requires higher fertilizer application than
crops grown only for grain, since a greater amount of nutrients are removed in plant residue (Reid et al., 1979).
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Residue from mature plants has a very high carbon to nitrogen ratio (meaning that it will break down slowly in the soil). In
the short term, little or no nitrogen will be released for use by the primary crop (Allison et al., 2000). This may actually
increase nitrogen fertilization requirements in the first year. Seeding a legume species with a barley cover crop can minimize
nitrogen deficiencies. Since barley crops produce large amounts of biomass, planting the primary crop can be difficult with
traditional planting equipment. It is important to terminate growth at the appropriate stage to minimize thatched residue,
which can prevent primary crop germination by shading out seedlings. See Control/Cover Crop Termination for more
information.
Barley is susceptible to various diseases, especially in humid climates. The most serious of these is barley yellow dwarf virus
(BYDV), which is transmitted by a variety of aphids. This virus is commonly transmitted by the bird cherry-oat aphid and
greenbug (Moseman, 1979). In the southeastern United States, winter barley crops can be severely damaged by armyworms.
Barley crops are also susceptible to damage from the Hessian fly and different species of grasshoppers. Many cultivars have
improved resistance to pests and pathogens, so it is important to use the correct variety for local conditions.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='There are no known environmental concerns associated with barley.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control_CoverCropTermination TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control_CoverCropTermination='Since barley exudes allelochemicals that inhibit the germination of other plants, it is important to terminate plants at least 14
days before planting corn or other crops (Midwest Cover Crops Council, 2012). . Refer to the USDA Risk Management
Agency for updated guidelines for cover crop termination dates for different areas in the United States. Some studies suggest
that barley should be terminated more than one month prior to planting corn to allow standing residue to decompose.
Salmeron et al. (2011) found that terminating a barley cover crop 18' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='26 days prior to planting caused yield reductions in the
subsequent irrigated corn crop due to nitrogen deficiency in the soil. Allowing barley to seed out and reach full maturity may
Page 5
immobilize (tie up) available nitrogen for the primary crop, so barley should be terminated when plants reach a height of 6' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs____ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs____='8
inches (Midwest Cover Crops Council, 2012). Methods of termination include applying an effective herbicide. Consult your
local Agricultural Extension office for specific herbicide recommendations. Other effective termination methods include
tilling (though tillage may negate the cover crop’s soil building benefits), or mowing when seeds are developing but still soft
and milky (milk or dough stage).
An alternative way to kill the crop while leaving residue to decompose on the surface involves the use of a roller crimper. A
roller crimper is a custom piece of equipment designed to kill residue without intense tillage or chemicals (Sayre, 2003). A
roller crimper attaches to a tractor and crimps the plants with corrugated blades and lays them flat on the surface. No-till
planters can seed the primary crop directly into the leftover residue. Barley residue on top of the soil provides a mulch that
limits weed germination and soil erosion, while conserving soil moisture for the primary crop. Clark and Panciera (2002)
found that terminating a rye (Secale cereale) cover crop using the roller crimper was as effective as an herbicide treatment
and did not affect subsequent corn yields planted into residue.
To minimize re-sprouting, barley cover crops should be terminated using the roller crimper when the cover crop has flowered
but not set seed. At least 20% of the crop should be at the soft dough stage to achieve full termination with the roller crimper
(Sayre, 2003). ' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and
how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='Barley seed/grain production occurs in cool, dry areas of the United States. North Dakota is the nation’s leading producer of
barley seed. Barley is generally planted in North Dakota as a spring crop in April.
For grain crop establishment, plant higher rates of 120 lb/acre (Ottman, 2004). Seed size varies between cultivar and region
of production, so it is important to determine seeds per pound before calculating seeding rate. Consult local cooperative
extension recommendations for commercial barley crop seeding rates. In arid areas, adequate irrigation should be applied for
establishment. General recommendations include application of 25–40 lb/acre of nitrogen at planting (Alley et al., 2009). It is
important to calculate fertilizer rates based on soil tests because barley may exhibit lodging (collapse of tillers) when excess
nitrogen is available. Alley et al. (2009) reported that lodging occurred in barley crops grown in Virginia fields when
nitrogen application rates reached 100 lb/acre or greater.
Barley harvest should occur when seed moisture content is between12.5 and 18% (McIntyre, 2010). If moisture content is
below 11%, the seed is too dry and the seed coat may peel away (Davison, 2012). Harvesting crops with higher moisture
content requires drying in cool, well-ventilated conditions. Seed is harvested mechanically with a combine and thresher. Seed
harvested for use in the malting industry must be harvested with care, as cracked or skinned seeds are not acceptable to
industry standards (McIntyre, 2010). Grains with 10.5% moisture or less can be stored for up to 18 months at 50–68°F, while
grains with 12.5% moisture and above can only be stored for less than 3 months at 68–86°F to meet quality-malting standards
(McIntyre, 2010).
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_andareaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_andareaoforigin_='There are two types of barley seed stock commonly available: malting and feed varieties. Malting varieties must meet
rigorous standards for germination quality, kernel size and weight, kernel plumpness, and moisture content. Varieties that do
not meet malting industry standards are referred to as feed varieties. Almost all malting varieties are spring two-rowed
barleys (Davison, 2012).
Thousands of barley cultivars have been developed for specific uses. ‘Seco’ is a six-rowed cultivar developed in 1987 for its
yield and vigor in dryland plantings in Arizona and California (Soil Conservation Service, 1989). Variety should be selected
based on the local climate, resistance to local pests, and intended use. Consult with land grant university or local extension
office for recommendations on adapted barley variety for use in your area.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LiteratureCited TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LiteratureCited='Alley, M.M., T.H. Pridgen, D.E. Brann, J.L Hammons, and R.L. Mulford. 2009. Nitrogen fertilization of winter barley:
principles and recommendations. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication 424-801. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/424/424-
801/424-801.html (accessed 10 Sept. 2012).
Allison, M.F., M.J. Armstrong, K.W. Jaggard, and A.D. Todd. 1998. Integration of nitrate cover crops into sugarbeet (Beta
Ball, D.M., C.S. Hoveland, and G.D. Lacefield.1998. Southern forages. 2nd ed. Potash and Phosphate Inst. and Foundation
vulgaris) rotations. J. Agri. Sci. 130: 53-60.
for Agronomic Research, Norcross, GA.
Page 6
Brown, L. 1979. Grasses: an identification guide. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
Carena, M.J. 2009. Handbook of plant breeding: cereals. 1st ed. Springer, New York.
Clark, A. 2010. Managing cover crops profitably. Third edition. SARE Outreach, College Park, MD.
Clark, S., and M. Panciera. 2002. Cover crop roll-down for weed suppression in no-till crop production. In: 2012 Fruit and
vegetable crops research report, Berea College. http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/pr/pr470C.HTM#vegetables (accessed 7
Aug. 2012).
Creamer, N.G., M.A. Bennett, B.R. Stinner, J. Cardina, and E.E. Regnier. 1996a. Mechanisms of weed suppression in cover
crop-based production systems. HortScience 31:410-413.
Creamer, N.G., M.A. Bennett, B.R. Stinner, J. Cardina. 1996b. A comparison of four processing tomato production systems
differing in cover crop and chemical inputs. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 121 (3): 559-568.
Davison, J., B. Schultz, and A. Widaman. 2012. Malting barley in Nevada. Univ. of Nevada Cooperative Extension Fact
Sheet. FS-01-47. Reno. http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/2001/fs0147.pdf (accessed 7 Aug. 2012).
Dickson, A.D. 1979. Barley for malting and food. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture, winter hardiness, genetics utilization,
pests. USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
Griffey, C., W. Brooks, M. Kurantz, W. Thomason, F. Taylor, D. Obert.2009. Grain composition of Virginia winter barley
and implications for use in feed, food, and biofuels production. J. Cereal Science 51:41-49.
Harlan, J.R.' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='1979. On the origin of barley. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture, winter hardiness, genetics utilization, pests.
USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
Hitchcock, A.S., and A. Chase. 1971. Manual of the grasses of the United States. Dover Publ., New York.
Hannaway, D.B., C. Larson, and D. Myers. 2004. Barley fact sheet. Oregon State Univ.
http://forages.oregonstate.edu/php/fact_sheet_print_grass.php?SpecID=55(accessed 28 Aug. 2012).
Larkin, R.P., T.S. Griffin, and C.W. Honeycutt. 2010. Rotation and cover crop effects on soilborne potato diseases, tuber
yield, and soil microbial communities. Plant Dis. 94:1491-1502.
Magdoff, F., and H. Van Es. 2009. Building soils for better crops, sustainable soil management. Sustainable Agric. Publ.,
Waldorf, MD.
McIntyre, K., and D. Lester. 2010. Barley-planting, nutrition, and harvesting. Queensland Dep. of Agric., Fisheries, and
Forestry. http://www.daff.qld.gov.au/26_3514.htm (accessed 24 Aug. 2012).
Midwest Cover Crops Council. 2012. Midwest cover crops field guide, ID-433. Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN.
Moseman, J.G. 1979. Insect pests of barley and their control. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture, winter hardiness, genetics
utilization, pests. USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
Munda, B., T.C. Knowles, and A. Meen. 1998. Winter forage cover crop trials. In: 1998 Forage and grain agriculture report,
AZ1059. Univ. of Arizona College of Agric., Tucson. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/crops/az1059/az105922.htm. (accessed
9 Sept. 2012).
Ottman, M. 2004. Seeding rates for small grains in Arizona. Univ. of Arizona Cooperative Extension.
http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/crops/az1334/' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='(accessed 24 Aug. 2012).
Radford, A.E., H.F. Ahles, and C.R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Univ. of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill.
Reid, D.A., R.G. Shands, and C.A. Suneson. 1979. Culture of barley in the United States. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture,
winter hardiness, genetics utilization, pests. USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
Salmeron, M., R. Isla, and J. Cavero. 2011. Effect of winter cover crop species and planting methods on maize yield and N
availability under irrigated Mediterranean conditions. Field Crops Research 123:89-99.
Sattell, R., R. Dick, R. Karow, D. Kaufman, J. Luna, D. McGrath, and E. Peachy. 1998. Barley, oats, triticale, wheat. In:
Cover crops in Oregon. EM 8704. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis.
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/14959/em8692.pdf (accessed 7 Aug. 2012).
Sayre, L. 2003. New tools for organic no-till. Rodale Institute.
http://newfarm.rodaleinstitute.org/depts/NFfield_trials/1103/notillroller.shtml (accessed 7 Aug. 2012).
Schaffer, J.A., E. Palm, and R.E. Munson. 1993. Barley. Univ. of Missouri Extension: G4312. Colombia.
Shimazaki, Y., T. Uchida, and H. Kobayashi. 2008. Winter barley as a cover crop affects the arbuscular mycorrhizal
colonization of no-tillage soybeans. Japanese J. of Crop Sci. 77:395-402.
Soil Conservation Service. 1989. ‘Seco’ barley release brochure. Program aid number 1428. USDA. http://www.plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/azpmcrbhovuseco.pdf (accessed 8 Aug. 2012).
Wiebe, G.A. 1979. Introduction of barley into the new world. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture, winter hardiness, genetics
utilization, pests. USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Citation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Citation='Jacobs, A.A. 2016. Plant guide for common barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Jamie L. Whitten Plant Materials Center. Coffeeville, Mississippi.
Published: November 2016
Page 7
Edited: 24Oct2012 aym, 10Jan2012 cms, 01Nov2016 erg
For more information about this and other plants, please contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation District at
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit the PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the
Plant Materials Program Web site:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability of other Web sites.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination against its customers, employees, and applicants for
employment on the bases of race, color, national origin, age, disability, sex, gender identity, religion, reprisal, and where
applicable, political beliefs, marital status, familial or parental status, sexual orientation, or all or part of an individual s
income is derived from any public assistance program, or protected genetic information in employment or in any program or
activity conducted or funded by the Department. (Not all prohibited bases will apply to all programs and/or employment
activities.)
If you wish to file an employment complaint, you must contact your agency s EEO Counselor (PDF) within 45 days of the
date of the alleged discriminatory act, event, or in the case of a personnel action. Additional information can be found online
at http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_file.html.
If you wish to file a Civil Rights program complaint of discrimination, complete the USDA Program Discrimination
Complaint Form (PDF), found online at http://www.ascr.usda.gov/complaint_filing_cust.html, or at any USDA office, or call
(866) 632-9992 to request the form. You may also write a letter containing all of the information requested in the form. Send
your completed complaint form or letter to us by mail at U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director, Office of Adjudication,
1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, by fax (202) 690-7442 or email at
program.intake@usda.gov.
Individuals who are deaf, hard of hearing or have speech disabilities and you wish to file either an EEO or program complaint
please contact USDA through the Federal Relay Service at (800) 877-8339 or (800) 845-6136 (in Spanish).
Persons with disabilities who wish to file a program complaint, please see information above on how to contact us by mail
directly or by email. If you require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print,
audiotape, etc.) please contact USDA s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
For any other information dealing with Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) issues, persons should either
contact the USDA SNAP Hotline Number at (800) 221-5689, which is also in Spanish or call the State Information/Hotline
Numbers.
For any other information not pertaining to civil rights, please refer to the listing of the USDA Agencies and Offices for
specific agency information.
Helping People Help the Land
' WHERE symbol='g_horde';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDERANDEMPLOYER TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDERANDEMPLOYER='
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMMON
YARROW
Achillea millefolium L.
Plant Symbol = ACMI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Chippewa used the leaves in a steam inhalant for
headaches. They also chewed the roots and applied
the saliva to their appendages as a stimulant. The
Cherokee drank a tea of common yarrow to reduce
fever and aid in restful sleep.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Common
yarrow is a perennial herb that produces one to
several stems (2-10 dm tall) from a fibrous
underground horizontal rootstock (rhizome). It is
known to be both native and introduced. Leaves are
evenly distributed along the stem, with the leaves
near the middle and bottom of the stem being the
largest. The leaves have varying degrees of hairiness
(pubescence). Leaf blades are lanceolate in outline,
but bipinnately dissected. Overall leaf dimensions
range from 0.5-3 cm wide by 3-15 cm long. The
flower heads (inflorescence) have a flattened dome
shape corymbiform (2.5-4 mm thick by 4-5 mm high)
with approximately 10-20 ray flowers. The flowers
are whitish to yellowish-white. The plant commonly
persists from May through June.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: The plant is frequently found in the mildly
disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Common yarrow is a drought tolerant species of
which there are several different ornamental
cultivars. Plant the seeds no more than ¼ inch deep
due to the need of light for germination. The seeds
© William S. Justice
Smithsonian Institution Department of Botany
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Caution: This plant may become invasive.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Milfoil
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Several tribes of the Plains region of
the United States including the Pawnee and
Chippewa tribes used common yarrow. The Pawnee
used the stalk in a treatment for pain relief. The
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
also require a temperature range of 65-75 degrees
Fahrenheit. Common yarrow responds best to soil
that is poorly developed and well drained. The plant
has a relatively short life. To prolong the life of the
plant, divide the plant every other year and plant 12-
18 inches apart. Common yarrow is a weedy species
and can become invasive. Proper care should be used
to control the spread of the plant from its desired
growing location.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Common yarrow may suffer from mildew or root rot
if not planted in well-drained soil.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beaurain. B. 2001. The garden helper.
www.thegardenhelper.com/Achillea.htm
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, New York. 397pp.
Dunbar, J.D. 1880. The Pawnee indians. Magazine of
American History 5(5):321-342.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
great plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 340 pp.
Maas Nursery. 2001. Herbs. Seabrook, Texas.
<.www.maasnursery.com/yarrow.htm>.. Accessed
20NOV01.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn.
<.http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb>..
Sanders, T.W. 1895. Sanders’ encyclopedia of
gardening. A.G.L. Hellyer 1958. Revised. W.H. and
L. Collingridge Limited. New York, New York. 526
pp.
Zhang, D., A.M. Armitage, J.M. Affolter, M.A. Dirr
1996. Environmental control of flowering and growth
of Achillea millefolium L. “summer pastels”.
HortScience 31(3):364-365.
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Matthew D. Hurteau, Formerly USDA NRCS
National Plant Data Center, c/o, Environmental
Horticulture Department, University of California,
Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='acmi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 20nov01 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CALIFORNIA
BUCKEYE
Aesculus californica (Spach)
Nutt.
Plant Symbol = AECA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Beatrice F. Howitt
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
Kawaiisu. The Pomo cut bark from the base of the
tree and made a poultice, which was laid on a
snakebite. Young buckeye shoots were sometimes
used as spindles or twirling sticks in fire-making kits
of the Sierra Miwok, Northern Maidu, Wappo, Yahi
and other tribes. Many tribes mashed buckeye nuts
and poured the contents into quiet pools to stupefy or
kill fish.
Wildlife: Do not plant buckeyes near apiaries as the
flowers are poisonous to honey bees. No wildlife eat
buckeye seeds except squirrels, such as the California
ground squirrel (Citellus beecheyi).
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Buckeye Family (Hippocastanaceae). This
native, deciduous shrub or tree reaches 12 m in
height with a broad, rounded crown. The palmately
compound leaves occur in leaflets of 5 to 7 and each
leaflet is oblong-lanceolate and finely serrate. The
inflorescence has many showy flowers in a panicle-
like arrangement and it is erect, 1-2 dm. in length.
Each individual flower has 4-5 petals and these are
white to pale rose with 5-7 exserted stamens. The
fruit is pear-shaped and smooth. The large, shiny
light-brown seeds are 2-5 cm.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: The California buckeye is one of the first
shrubs to leaf out in spring and one of the earliest to
shed its leaves in mid-summer. It is found on dry
slopes, canyons and the borders of streams in many
plant communities below 1700 m. in northwestern
and central western California, Cascade Range,
Sierra Nevada foothills, Tehachapi Mountains, Great
Central Valley, and southwestern Mohave Desert.
General: Harvest the large seeds from the tree or
shrub about November. Plant them in the ground
immediately--half buried in an area of full sun or
light shade. There is a light spot on the seed, which
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Horse chesnut. Indian names: de-sa ka-la (Pomo).
far -sokt (Nomlaki). sympt -ol (Yuki). ah -te (Coast
Miwok)
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: This tree had multiple cultural uses
among California Indian tribes. Many indigenous
groups utilized buckeye seeds for food, often when
other plant food sources were scarce. These tribes
included the Costanoan, Salinan, Kitanemuk,
Serrano, Wappo, Sierra Miwok, Coast Miwok,
Chumash, Kawaiisu, Northern Maidu among others.
The Pomo ate the seeds even when other important
food plants were plentiful. The seeds are poisonous
to humans in the raw state. Thus, the nuts were
cracked open with a rock, the shells removed, the
seeds pounded into flour, and their toxic saponins
removed in a lengthy leaching process. The meal
was subsequently cooked and eaten. There are many
different methods for processing and cooking
buckeye seeds for food, depending upon the tribe.
The seeds have medicinal properties and were cut
into pieces, mixed with water, and made into
suppositories for hemorrhoids by the Costanoan and
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. 001206. National Plant
Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinators='Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,
c/o/ Plant Science Dept., University of California,
Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 29jun03 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
is the growing point when being formed. The radicle
will sprout from this area so make sure that this spot
is covered with soil. Plant the seeds in a well-drained
soil. Water the soil immediately after planting, and if
there is not enough rain during the rainy season,
supplement it with hand watering. The plants will
also need some summer watering the first year so a
good rule to follow is to keep the soil damp. The tree
is a fast grower and can achieve as much as ten
inches in height in one year. After buckeye seeds
have been in the ground one full year, they should
become established, and will not need continual care.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='When the shrub is mature, dead and dying branches
can be lightly pruned if necessary.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources.
' WHERE symbol='aeca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beard, Y.S. 1979. The Wappo: A report. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Collier, M.E.T. &. S.B. Thalman (editors) 1991.
Interviews with Tom Smith and Maria Copa: Isabel
Kelly s ethnographic notes on the Coast Miwok
Indians of Marin and southern Sonoma Counties,
California. Miwok Archeological Preserve of Marin
Occasional Papers Number 6.
Dixon, R.B. 1905. The Huntington California
expedition: the Northern Maidu. Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History 17(3):119-346.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V.P. Lawson. 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Harrington, J.P. 1942. Culture element distributions:
XIX central California coast. Anthropological
Records 7(1): 1-45.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
Stone, W.J. 1993. Hippocastanaceae. Page 682 IN:
The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
ASPEN ONION
Allium bisceptrum S. Wats.
var. biceptrum
Plant Symbol = ALBIB
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
©Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
Plant Guide
late to harvest the leaves. A generation or two ago, it
was not uncommon for a Washoe family to harvest
two or three sacks of onion leaves. The odoriferous
leaves are used similarly to chives bought from
contemporary supermarkets. They can be eaten raw
as a snack, rolled into balls and sprinkled with salt, or
used as a delicious herb to accompany acorn mush
and various kinds of meat. The leaves are eaten
fresh, never cooked or stored for long periods. The
same areas are revisited year after year, having been
harvested without depletion generation after
generation. Many lower elevation sites where the
Washoe used to gather wild onions (probably
different species) in the sagebrush scrub and under
pinyon and cottonwood trees, are now marked with
barbed wire fences and no trespassing signs.
Wildlife: Elk, black bears (Ursus americanus), white-
tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys leucurus), and mantled
ground squirrels (Citellus lateralis) eat the bulbs and
greens of some kinds of wild onions. Young
vegetative growth of many wild onions are also
highly palatable to cattle and sheep, but their feeding
and trampling can conflict with indigenous
harvesting.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This high
elevation plant is found from 2000 to 2900 meters. It
thrives in the damp shade of aspen groves or in open
meadows in the pinyon-juniper and subalpine zones.
The plants are from one to four dm. high. The small,
round to egg-shaped bulbs are from 3 to 15 mm, and
the bulb coats are light colored with indistinct
reticulation. The dainty, open flower heads occur on
pedicels that are 10-25 mm. in length and the flowers
range in color from white to pink to rose. The flower
petals are 5-10 mm. long and narrows to pointed tips.
Each papery fruit contains approximately 7 black
seeds. The flat leaves number two to three and give
off an onion smell when bruised.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The plant is found in the high Sierra Nevada,
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Twincrest onion and wild onion.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Bulbs and leaves are still gathered by
the Nevada Northern Paiute, Gosiute, Northern Ute,
and Washoe. The greens of this wild onion are used
as a culinary flavoring by the Washoe. Reenacting
an age-old tradition, the young leaves and stems that
first appear after the snow melts (about April-May)
have the best flavor and are harvested by the Washoe
by tearing them with the fingers, one to two inches
from the ground. The delectable leaves range in
flavor from mild to strong. Sometimes a prayer is
said before picking. If the small, spherical umbels of
diminutive flowers have already appeared, this is too
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
southern Oregon, and the Great Basin, including Utah
and Idaho.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='At higher elevations, above the snowline, the black
seeds should be planted in pots in early fall in the
outdoors with no protection from the cold. At lower
elevations with warm winters, the seeds may need
cold stratification (4-5 months) before planting to
ensure good germination. Seeds are planted in a
well-drained soil, in a dense pattern, 4-5 seeds per
square inch, and a thin layer of gravel should be
placed on top to protect the plants from disturbance.
Then wait for the natural rains. If it is still a dry year,
into November, supplement with hand watering.
Start watering in spring, when the plants germinate.
Make sure that the plants receive 2 inches of water
(from either hand watering or rainfall) every week.
With proper watering, these wild onions can grow in
full sunlight, but they can also be planted in an area
that receives afternoon shade. Unlike mature bulbs
they do not have reserves to draw upon for nutrients,
so care should be taken to keep the soil damp, but not
wet. Do not let them dry out completely during the
growing season. Stop watering as soon as the foliage
of the plants turns yellow. Expect the plants to
require three to five years to reach flowering size.
When the seedlings are hardy enough, transplant into
larger containers or plant into a bed prepared with 2
parts (volume) loam, 1 part leaf mould. and 2 parts
coarse sand/grit.
The bulbs and bulblets of these wild onions can also
be planted. Bulblets can be brought to flowering size
more quickly than by growing the plant by seed.
After collecting the bulbs, store them in paper bags
with dry peat moss. They can be planted in late fall
at the time of the first frost. Plant them in plastic or
wooden containers (clay dries out too quickly) in an
acid, potting soil with a fair amount of sand and
humus that gives excellent drainage. Break off the
daughter bulblets and plant them with the mature
bulbs an inch apart and from six to eight inches deep.
Do not water them at all. Watch for them to
germinate on their own, usually in early spring. Start
watering at least once a week. If it is a dry spring,
water twice a week. Watering with a liquid fertilizer
twice a month or applying a slow-release fertilizer in
the spring may increase growth and vigor. When the
mature bulbs start to flower, stop watering. These
pots can sit outside in full sunlight until the daytime
temperature gets above 75 degrees. As it warms up,
move the pots into the partial shade of vegetation or
apply a 40-50% shade cloth.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='During the harvesting process, the Washoe leave
some of the plants so they will go to seed. They also
do not uproot the bulbs so the plants will come up
again and again.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Davies, D. 1992. Alliums: The ornamental onions.
Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. pp. 64-97 IN:
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D azevedo (ed.). Smithsonian
Institution. Washington, D.C.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.). 1993. Allium. pp. 1172-1179
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Mathew, B. 1997. Growing bulbs: The complete
practical guide. Timber Press, Inc., Portland,
Oregon.
USDA, Forest Service 1988. Range plant handbook.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
' WHERE symbol='albib';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Page 3
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WILD ONION
Allium hyalinum Kellogg
Plant Symbol = ALHY
Contributed by: USDS NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Gladys L. Smith
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
white flowers are in an umbel subtended by 2 or 3
thin whitish or scarious bracts.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found from 50 to 1500 m in moist
areas in grassy slopes and mosses on rocks in the
Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up the bulbs of plants that are in bloom or seed
or purchase the bulbs and plant them in the ground in
autumn. The bulbs should be planted 1 to 3 inches
deep in a well-drained soil in full sun or partial shade.
Allium species do especially well in raised beds for
drainage. Water them after planting and then let the
rains come. Weed around the plants. Most animals
don’t eat wild onions. This species of wild onion can
be invasive.
If establishing the plant by seed, plant the seeds in the
fall in pots in partial shade. Scatter the seeds on top
of a well-drained soil. Sprinkle a thin layer of dirt
over the top and place quarter-inch gravel over the
soil. Water the pots and keep them slightly moist.
Stop watering when the leaves shrivel in the early
summer. Plant the plants out in the garden or
wildlands after two years in the summer or fall. Let
the rains do the watering.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Separate the plants every several years and replant.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ALHY is available from native plant nurseries within
its range.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Davies, D. 1992. Alliums: The ornamental onions.
Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.). 1993. Allium. pp. 1172-1179
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Many species of Allium are known by the common
name “wild onion.”
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The young foliage of Allium species is
delicious and can be used in the place of chives. This
onion was a food of the Tabatulabal and probably
many other tribes as well. Sometimes the bulb was
eaten raw. Today, individuals of many tribes still
gather different species of wild onions.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This herbaceous
perennial plant has herbage with the characteristic
taste and smell of onions. The scape is 15-45 cm
high and the leaves are 2-3 and linear. Reproduction
is from wrinkled, black seeds contained in a capsule
or by ovoid to spherical bulbs. The bulb-coats are
brown or gray, thin, with horizontal undulate
reticulation in vertical rows. Five to 25 pale pink to
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Mathew, B. 1997. Growing bulbs: The complete
practical guide. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records Vol 2:(1):1-84.
' WHERE symbol='alhy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
THINLEAF ALDER
Alnus incana (L.) Moench.
Plant Symbol = ALIN2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Gerald and Buff Corsi
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
enhance production, and control soil erosion.
Windbreaks can help communities with harsh winter
conditions better handle the impact of winter storms
and reduce home heating costs during the winter
months.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Thin-leafed alder is a native, deciduous
shrub or tree. The leaves are ovate, double serrated,
and pointed at the tip. Male catkins are produced in
the autumn in-groups of three or four. The female
catkins are borne separately on the same plant in late
winter or early spring. The fruit are small, brown,
scale-like cones produced in early autumn. The bark
is thin, smooth, and green-gray, grayish-brown, or
reddish-brown (Preston 1948).
Distribution: Thin-leaf alder is distributed throughout
Europe and much of North America. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
This shrub or small tree tolerates a wide range of soil
types. It grows best in heavy moist soils in light
shaded areas. It has a high flood tolerance and
typically grows near rivers and moist stream borders
on poorly developed soil. Thin-leaf alder is
frequently found growing in the understory of
coniferous forests on moist sites. It is also adaptable
to a range of soil pH levels.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seed is best sown as soon as
it is ripe in a cold frame. If Alnus incana seeds are
not sown in the fall, they require cold stratification
for three months before germination. Sow the seeds
in containers or seed trays containing a slow release
fertilizer. Firm the medium and place the seeds
thinly and evenly on top. When large enough to
handle, the seeds can be placed into individual pots.
If growth is sufficient, they may be planted into their
permanent positions in the summer, if not they can be
planted in the spring.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Thin-leafed alder, grey alder, mountain alder, river
alder
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans reportedly pounded
the wood of thin leaf alder into a powder to produce a
red dye (Lanner 1983). The wood was occasionally
used for firewood. It is also valued by cabinetmakers
and is used in making clogs, bowls, and woodcuts.
Wildlife: Cottontails, muskrats, moose, elk, deer, and
snowshoe hares eat the leaves and twigs. Redpolls,
siskins, chickadees, and goldfinches eat alder seeds,
buds, and catkins. Beavers eat the bark and build
dams with the stems.
Agroforestry: Alnus incana is an excellent pioneer
species for revegatating disturbed riparian areas or as
a mass planting to achieve a screen or windbreak.
Thin-leaf alder is used in tree strips for windbreaks,
which are planted and managed to protect livestock,
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Thin-leaf alder often occurs in dense thickets, which
reportedly results from underground rhizomes or
suckers (Dayton 1931). If plants are damaged,
sprouting can occur from the stump, root collar, or
from the root crown following fire. After top-
removal of plants by beavers, they have been
observed to sprout heavily from the cut.
Propagation from cuttings is not recommended and
plants are not widely available in nurseries.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Somewhat available through native plant nurseries
within it range.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Arno, S.F. 1977. Northwest trees. The
Mountaineers, Seattle, Washington.
Coombes, A.J. 1992. Eyewitness handbooks: trees.
Dorling Kindersley, Inc., New York, New York.
Davis, Brian. 1987. The gardener’s illustrated
encyclopedia of trees and shrubs. Rodale Press, Inc.,
Emmaus, Pennsylvania.
Dayton, W.A. 1931. Important western browse
plants. Misc. Publication 101. Washington, D.C.
Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape
plants: their identification, ornamental
characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th
ed. Stipes Publishing Company, Champaign, Illinois.
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Epple, A.O. 1995. A field guide to the plants of
Arizona. Falcon Press, Helena, Montana.
Haeussler, S &. D. Coates 1986. Autecological
characteristics of selected species that compete in
British Columbia: a literature review. Land
Management Report No. 33. Victoria, BC.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Lanner, R.M. 1983. Trees of the Great Basin: a
natural history. University of Nevada Press, Reno,
Nevada.
Martin, A.C.. H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, New York.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
Berkeley, Los Angeles, &. London.
Nelson, R.A. 1992. Handbook of Rocky Mountain
plants. Roberts Rinehart Publishers, Newot,
Colorado.
Preston, R.J., Jr. 1948. North American trees. The
Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='alin2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SPECKLED ALDER
Alnus incana (L.) Moench ssp.
rugosa (Du Roi) Clausen
Plant Symbol = ALINR
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center and the Biota of North America Program
USDI, GS, BRD, Northern Prairie
Wildlife Research Center
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Tag alder, gray alder, hoary alder, hazel alder, swamp
alder. Alnus rugosa (Du Rois) Spreng.. Alnus
americana (Regel) Czerp.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Speckled alder is used locally for fuel but the wood
has no commercial value. Because root nodules of
alders support nitrogen-fixing bacteria, yields of
timber-producing trees can be enhanced when grown
in association with alder, in the same way that
leguminous crops increase production in agricultural
crops. The nitrogen-enhancing effect is local and
restricted to trees in the immediate vicinity of the
alder. Rapid growth in open habitats, wide tolerance
to soil types, and potential for soil conditioning make
Plant Guide
it useful in rehabilitation of disturbed sites, including
old mines.
Alders are beautiful and functional plants and deserve
to be more widely grown in gardens and nurseries.
They are fast growing and can easily be trained to a
tree-like form by removing lower branches.
Wildlife: Speckled alder thickets provide cover for
moose, white-tailed deer, rabbits, and others. Moose,
muskrats, beavers, and rabbits browse the twigs and
foliage. Songbirds, including redpolls, goldfinches,
woodcock, and grouse eat the seeds, buds, and
catkins. Beavers build dams and lodges with
speckled alder.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used speckled alder
to treat anemia, as an emetic, a compress or wash for
sore eyes, and a diaphoretic, for internal bleeding,
urinary problems, sprains, bruises or backaches,
itches, flux, and piles, to cure saddle gall in horses.
When mixed with powdered bumblebees, it was used
as an aid for difficult labor. Tea was made from
alder to cure diarrhea and toothaches. Other bark
mixtures were applied to rashes, eyes, and swelling.
Chippewa Indians mixed alder root scraping with
grounded up bumblebee and fed the mixture to
women whom were having difficulty during
childbirth.
Erosion Control: Speckled alder’s acceptance of a
wide variety of soil types makes it a good choice for
disturbed site rehabilitation. This is a valuable
species to plant along stream banks for erosion
control.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='
General: Birch Family (Betulaceae). Native shrubs
and (less commonly) small trees growing to 10 m
tall, thicket-forming, with open crowns. The bark is
gray, reddish, or brown, thin and smooth, becoming
broken into irregular plates, often with conspicuous
whitish lenticels (spongy openings for gas exchange).
Leaves are elliptic to ovate, 4-11 cm long, 3-8 cm
wide, broadest near or below middle, doubly and
irregularly toothed, with 9-12 nearly straight, parallel
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
veins on each side, with a ladder-like network of
depressed veins, dull dark green above. Male
(pollen, staminate) and female (seed, pistillate)
flowers are in catkins, borne separately, but on the
same tree (the species monoecious). The seed catkins
are cone-like, cylindric to ovoid, 1-2 cm long, erect,
sessile or on a short, stout stalk, generally remaining
intact after release of fruits in spring. The pollen
catkins are elongate, 2-7 cm long, in hanging clusters
from near the shoot tip. The common name
(speckled) is in reference to the numerous lenticels
covering the bark.
Variation within the species: Speckled alder is
similar in growth form and habitat to mountain alder
(Alnus tenuifolia), which ranges from Alaska, Yukon,
and Mackenzie southward to New Mexico. In
mountain alder, the leaf blades are thin and papery,
with rounded or blunt teeth, compared to the thick
leaf blades with sharp teeth in speckled alder.
mountain alder also is more treelike than speckled
alder. They intergrade where their distributions
overlap in Saskatchewan westward. Eurasian or
European alder (Alnus incana) also is similar to these
North American natives. When these three are
‘lumped’ (considered to represent only a single
species, using the oldest name), the nomenclature is
summarized as below. Many still consider them to
represent three separate species.
• Alnus incana (L.) Moench ssp. incana –
European alder
• Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Du Roi) Clausen –
speckled alder
synonym: Alnus rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng.
synonym: Alnus incana var. americana Regel
synonym: Alnus rugosa var. americana (Regel) Fern.
• Alnus incana ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung –
mountain alder
synonym: Alnus tenuifolia Nutt.
synonym: Alnus incana var. occidentalis (Dippel)
C.L. Hitchc.
Brookside alder (Alnus serrulata), a species of the
eastern and southeastern USA, has sometimes been
included as a subspecies of A. incana but is now
generally regarded as a separate species. Hybrids
occur where brookside alder and speckled alder grow
together.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='
Speckled alder ranges over much of the eastern two-
thirds of Canada and reaches into Alberta, British
Columbia, Mackenzie, and Yukon. In the USA, it
reaches into the Lake States and Northeast and as far
south (at higher elevations) as Iowa, West Virginia,
Maryland, and Virginia. For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Speckled alder colonizes stream banks,
lake shores, and damp meadows and also occurs in
bogs and nutrient-rich swamp communities, at 0-800
meters. It is weedy in damp areas along roadsides
and other disturbed sites. It grows abundantly in
various soil types, from sandy to gravelly, loamy,
clayey, and mucky, and it can tolerate periods of
flooding as well as occasional droughts. It often
dominates the understory in communities of black
spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, tamarack, northern
white-cedar, balsam poplar, and birch-aspen, but
growth and reproduction occur most vigorously in
full sun. Overstory removal brings rapid release of
speckled alder, which may form dense, nearly pure
thickets. Gaps created by fire and logging in these
wetland forests are quickly invaded by speckled
alder.
Flowering occurs in early spring (March–May),
before the leaves appear, the inflorescences formed in
late summer the season before flowering. Fruit
maturation is in late August–September with the
seeds dispersed the following spring.
Propagation by Seed: Speckled alder can be
propagated by seed or by cuttings. Seeds are shaken
from dried cones collected in September and October
and can be stored air-dry in sealed containers for
several years. They are most easily sown in a cold
frame immediately after ripening, in sand or a sand-
humus mixture. Spring planting of seeds collected
earlier requires stratification in moist sand or
vermiculite for 60-90 days at 5° C. Seedbeds should
be kept moist and shaded until late in the summer.
Germination rates are often low. Softwood cuttings
taken in summer, treated with rooting promoter, and
rooted under mist provide good starts. cuttings of
mature wood taken soon after leaves fall also are
reported to be effective. Two or three year-old
seedlings are used for field planting.
General: Flowering and fruit production begin at
about 5-10 years, with abundant fruit crops produced
at about 4-year intervals. An optimal seedbed for
germination is exposed, constantly moist mineral
soil. Mild intensity burning and scarification also
encourage regeneration. Individuals of speckled
alder are fast growing, but short-lived.
Page 3
Most new stems in alder stands are formed through
sprouting from rhizomes, which may result in dense,
clonal thickets. Such sprouting is independent of
aboveground stem damage, but root crown sprouts
may contribute strongly to regeneration following
top-kill from fires. Sprouting rhizomes are usually
within about 5 centimeters of the soil surface.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Alders have relatively few insect or disease
problems, although alder psyllid and alder blight
aphid can damage the leaves.
Mild spring and early summer fires that kill only the
aerial stems are recommended for regeneration of
speckled alder. Severe fires that remove the organic
layer and expose and char root crowns can
completely eliminate sprouting in speckled alder or
significantly retard regeneration. Fire intervals of
about 9 years are adequate to keep speckled alder
stands at an early successional stage. Longer
intervals may encourage the expansion of alder
thickets at the expense of other forest types.
Alder patches of various age classes can be
maintained by staggered cutting and provide the best
wildlife cover. Spring and winter cutting produces
the most rapid sprout growth.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
A few cultivars have been developed from Alnus
incana (the European populations, see above):
Aurea has new yellow foliage and bright yellow-
orange male catkins. Laciniata is a cut leaf form
with exceptionally deep lobing. Pendula is a
weeping form.
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='
Barnes, B.V. &. W.H. Wagner, Jr. 1981. Michigan
trees. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Brown, C.A. 1965. Louisiana trees and shrubs.
Claitor’s Bookstore, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin. The
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin.
Furlow, J.J. 1979. The systematics of the American
species of Alnus (Betulaceae). Rhodora 81:1–121,
151–248.
Furlow, J.J. 1993. Alnus. Pp. 509-516, IN: Flora of
North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 3. Oxford
Univ. Press, New York. Accessed September 2000
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Green, C.H. 1939. Trees of the south. The
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Grimm, W.C. 1967. Familiar trees of America.
Harper &. Row, Publishers, New York, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1970. Home guide to trees, shrubs,
and wildflowers. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
Hamann, A. 1999. Utilization and management of
red alder [Alnus rubra] genetic resources in British
Columbia. Ph.D. dissertation. Dept. of Forest
Science, Univ. of British Columbia.
<.http://genetics.forestry.ubc.ca/hamann/phthesis/phth
esis.html>. Accessed September 2000.
Healy, W.M. &. J.D. Gill 1974. Shrubs and vines of
northeastern wildlife. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service.
Hosie, R.C. 1969. Native trees of Canada. 7th ed.
Canadian Forest Service, Department of Fisheries
and Forestry, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Hylander, N. 1957. On cut-leaved and small-leaved
forms of Alnus glutinosa and A. incana. Svensk Bot.
Tidskr. 51:437–453.
Murai, S. 1964. Phytotaxonomical and geobotanical
studies on gen. Alnus in Japan (III). Taxonomy of
whole world species and distribution of each sect.
Bull. Gov. Forest Exp. Sta. 171:1–107.
Trappe, J.M., J.F. Franklin, R.F. Tarrant, &. G.M.
Hansen (eds.) 1968. Biology of alder. USDA, Forest
Service, Portland, Oregon.
USDA NRCS 2003. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version 030127.
Van Deelen, T.R. 1991. Alnus rugosa. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [database]. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/alnr
ug/>.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='alinr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='Lincoln Moore
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 27jan03 jsp. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
and hair. The native Americans of the Pacific
Northwest extracted a red dye from the inner bark,
which was used to dye fishnets. Oregon tribes used
the innerbark to make a reddish-brown dye for basket
decorations (Murphey 1959). Yellow dye made from
red alder catkins was used to color quills.
A mixture of red alder sap and charcoal was used by
the Cree and Woodland tribes for sealing seams in
canoes and as a softener for bending boards for
toboggans (Moerman 1998).
Wood and fiber: Red alder wood is used in the
production of wooden products such as food dishes,
furniture, sashes, doors, millwork, cabinets, paneling
and brush handles. It is also used in fiber-based
products such as tissue and writing paper.
In Washington and Oregon, it was largely used for
smoking salmon. The Indians of Alaska used the
hallowed trunks for canoes (Sargent 1933).
Medicinal: The North American Indians used the
bark to treat many complaints such a headaches,
rheumatic pains, internal injuries, and diarrhea
(Moerman 1998).
The Salinan used an extract of the bark of alder trees
to treat cholera, stomach cramps, and stomachaches
(Heinsen 1972). The extract was made with 20 parts
water to 1 part fresh or aged bark. The bark contains
salicin, a chemical similar to aspirin (Uchytil 1989).
Infusions made from the bark of red alders were
taken to treat anemia, colds, congestion, and to
relieve pain. Bark infusions were taken as a laxative
and to regulate menstruation. The Pomo boiled the
bark in water to make a wash to treat skin irritations
and sores (Goodrich et al. 1980). Bark poultices
were applied to reduce swelling. Chewing the bark
helped to heal sores and ulcers in the mouth.
Externally the sap was applied to cuts and a poultice
of the bark has been applied to eczema, sores, and
aches (Moerman 1998). The twigs were made into
infusions that served as liniments for sprains and
backaches.
Basketry: The roots of red alder were used in baskets
made by the Hupa, Whilkut, Nongatl, Lassik,
Wailaki, Yurok Wiyot, and Pomo tribes (Merrill
1923). Red alder roots form the brown pattern in
RED ALDER
Alnus rubra Bong.
Plant Symbol = ALRU2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Tony Morosco
@ CalFlora
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Pacific Coast alder, Oregon alder, western alder,
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Native American tribes from Alaska to
Southern California have long recognized the value
of red alder and put its bark layers, roots, leaves,
twigs, cones, and sap to use for a variety of purposes.
The inner bark was often dried, grounded into a
powder and then used as a thickener in soups or
mixed with cereals when making bread.
Various layers of the red alder bark yield red, red-
brown, brown, orange, and yellow dyes
(Moerman1998). The various colors from the bark
were used to color baskets, hides, moccasins, quills,
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
baskets made by the Whilkut tribe of northwestern
California.
Wildlife: Deer and elk eat the leaves, twigs, and buds.
Red alder seeds attract many bird and small mammal
species including redpolls, siskins, goldfinches, and
mice. Most of the seeds remain on the tree well into
the fall and winter months, providing valuable
resources for seed-eating birds, insects and mammals
when other foods are scarce. Beavers eat the bark
and build dams and lodges with the stems. Red alder
trees provide valuable nesting for birds and thermal
cover for black-tailed deer and other wildlife.
Livestock: Horses, cattle, sheep and goats browse on
the leaves, twigs and buds of young alder trees.
Conservation and erosion control: Red alder is an
excellent species for re-establishing woodlands. The
trees are used in forested riparian buffers to help
reduce stream bank erosion, protect water quality,
and enhance aquatic environments. Plantings of red
alder are effective in controlling erosion on steep
slopes in disturbed areas (Uchytil 1989). These fast-
growing trees help to prevent soil erosion because of
their dense canopy cover and thick litter layer that
forms within the first 3 to 5 years. The leaf litter is
high in nitrogen content (Labadie 1978).
Wood: Red alder wood is a high quality hardwood
with a fine, even textured, cherry-like grain that is
important commercially in the Pacific Northwest
(Labadie 1978). It is used for cabinetry and furniture
making as well as a variety of other purposes
including plywood, veneers, paneling, pulp, and
firewood.
Other: The small cones cling to the branches long
after the leaves have fallen and make decorative
additions to flower arrangements (Brenzel 2001).
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Birch family (Betulaceae). Red alder is a
deciduous tree native to the Pacific Northwest of
North America. The trees are medium-sized,
reaching various heights from 15 to 30 meters tall
when mature. These fast-growing trees often grow 1
meter per year until 20 years of age. The trees can
live to 100 years of age with trunks from 36 to 46 cm
in diameter. A shrub form occurs when the trees
grow in open exposed areas. The branches are
slender and spreading. The thin bark is generally
smooth, ashy gray to grayish-brown, and is usually
covered with white lichens as it ages. The inner bark
is reddish brown.
The alternately arranged leaves are dark green,
simple and broadly ovate. The leaves are 6 to 15 cm
long with a pointed tip. The leaf edges are serrated
or softly lobed and slightly rolled under, giving a
dark-green edging effect from the underside of the
leaf. The undersides of the leaves are rusty colored
and covered with fine soft hairs.
The trees are monoecious, bearing both female
flowers and male catkins. The tassel-like catkins
grow in cluster of two to four. The catkins are
greenish-yellow and 10 to 16 cm long. The flowers
appear in spring either before or with the leaves. The
flowers develop into small-scaled cones (fruits) that
are 2 to 2.5cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm across. Each
cone contains from 50 to 100 seeds that are tiny flat
nutlets. The abundant seeds are wind dispersed from
May to winter months.
Red alder trees invade clearings or burned-over areas
and forms temporary forests (Grimm 1967). Over
time, red
alders build
up the soil
with their
copious litter,
and enriched
it with
nitrogen
compounds
formed by
symbiotic
bacteria that
live in little
nodules on
their roots.
Red alder
stands are
eventually
succeeded by
Douglas fir,
western
hemlock, and
sitka spruce.
Distribution:
Red alder is
most often observed in moist areas within 200
kilometers of the Pacific Coast of North America
from Alaska to Southern California at elevations
below 762 meters (Uchytil 1989). It also occurs
Environmental Affairs Office
Washington State Department of
Transportation
Page 3
along streams and lakes from the Yukon Territory
and British Columbia south through the Rocky
Mountain region to Colorado and New Mexico, and
along Sierra Nevada to Lower California (Britton
1908). Red alder has spread to upland areas since
European contact because of increased disturbance,
such as logging, which opens up sites for
colonization.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Red alder trees are often associated with
mixed evergreen forests and redwood forests in
coastal areas. The trees grow in riparian forests
along streams, in swamps and in marshy areas.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Red alder has two adaptations that allow the trees to
colonize bare infertile substrates: 1) the roots have
nodules that house symbiotic bacteria which fix
nitrogen from the air contained in the pores of the
soil, and 2) the seeds need sunlight to germinate.
Actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria) in the genus
Frankia invade alders through their root hairs and
stimulate cell division, forming nodules on the roots
(Pojar &. Mackinnon 1994). Species of Frankia
remove nitrogen from the air and ‘fix’ it in a form
useful to plants (Ibid.). Red alder provides a home
for the actinomycete, which in turn ‘leaks’ some of
the nitrogen, making it available for the alder (Ibid.).
Alder improves soils fertility by fixing atmospheric
nitrogen in a form that can be used by other plants.
This conversion is why forests stands containing
alder generally have a rich understory (Ibid.).
Young trees can survive disturbance by resprouting
from the stumps (Labdie 1978). Red alder trees
tolerate flooding and can grow in areas where the
water is brackish (Brenzel 2001).
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Red alder prefers moist, well-drained, deep sandy
loams (Labadie 1978) and full sun. Quick growing
red alders can be planted with slower growing trees
such as oak to provide quick screening (Lowry 1999).
Propagation from Seed: Red alder trees are generally
propagated from seed. Mature seeds can be collected
beginning in May. Spring sown seeds of Alnus rubra
should germinate successfully as long as they are not
covered as the seeds require sunlight to germinate
and germinate best in full sun. Sow the seeds in
containers or seed trays containing a slow release
fertilizer. Firm the medium and place the seeds
thinly and evenly on top. When large enough to
handle, the seedlings can be placed into individual
pots. If growth is sufficient, they may be planted into
their permanent positions in the summer, if not they
can be planted the following spring.
The seeds do not require pretreatment, however
germination can be improved by cold stratification
for 1 to 3 months (Emery 1988). To do this, mix the
seeds with three parts moistened peat moss or
vermiculite. Place the mixture into an airtight jar or
sealed plastic bag in the refrigerator for 1 to 3 months
before planting. This process is not necessary if the
seeds are planted in the fall, as the temperatures and
moisture over winter will accomplish the same
purpose.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
If desired, red alder trees can be pruned for shape
when young (Labadie 1978). Follow up pruning is
minimal and consists of removing any suckers that
may form as well as removing dead wood or crossing
branches.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Aphids and tent caterpillars and borers can be
problems for red alder trees.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_RelatedSpecies TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_RelatedSpecies='White alder (Alnus rhombifolia) was also widely used
for the same purposes as red alder by Native
American tribes. White alder occurs in inland areas
while red alder generally grows in areas of maritime
influence. Red alder and white alder can be difficult
to distinguish from each other. White alder does not
have red inner bark or rolled leaf margins.' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
These plants are readily available through native
plant nurseries.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Baskin, Carol J., Baskin, Jerry M. 2002.
Propagation protocol for production of container
Alnus rubra Bong. Plants University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky. IN: Native Plant Network.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org. Moscow (ID):
University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources,
Forest Research Nursery. [22 February 2002].
Page 4
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, California.
768 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape
plants: their identification, ornamental
characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th
ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaign, Illinois.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation. Varsity Press,
Athens, Georgia.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California. 115 pp.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the Northern United
States and Canada. Iowa State University Press,
Ames, Iowa.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Grimm, W.C. 1967. Familiar trees of America.
Harper &. Row, Publishers, New York, New York.
Heinsen, V. 1972. Mission San Antonio de Padua
Herbs: Medicinal herbs of early days. Third edition.
Lockwood, California. 142pp.
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
California. 248 pp.
Lowry, J.L. 1999. Gardening with a wild heart:
Restoring California’s native landscapes at home.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
252 pp.
Martin, A.C., A.L. Welson, &. H.S. Zim 1951.
American wildlife and plants. McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, New York.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of Pacific Coast trees. 2nd ed. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Merrill, R.E. 1923. Plants used in basketry by the
California Indians. IN: A. L. Kroeber, Editor,
University of California Publications in American
Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol XX. Pp. 215-242.
Mirov, N.T. &. C.J. Kraebel 1939. Collecting and
handling seeds of wild plants. Civilian Conservation
Corps Forestry Publication No. 5. US. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 42 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(2002).
Munz, P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, California. 1681 pp.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the Pacific
Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J. Jr. 1948. North American trees. 2nd ed.
The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
Sargent, C.S. 1933. Manual of the trees of North
America. The Riverside Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
Thomas, J.H. 1961. Flora of the San Cruz mountains
of California: a manual of the vascular plants.
Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Uchytil, R.J. 1989. Alnus rubra. IN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
2001, May. Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [22 February
2002].' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Agriculture
Handbook No. 410.
Washington State Department of Transportation
2002. Alnus rubra. Environmental Affairs Office,
Olympia, Washington. Accessed: 10jan02.
<.http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/eesc/environmental/progr
ams/culres/ethbot/a-c/Alnusrubra.htm>.
Page 5
Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American gardens. The
MacMillan Company, New York, New York.
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Diana L. Immel
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
' WHERE symbol='alru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
WILD ONION
Allium unifolium Kellogg
Plant Symbol = ALUN
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
Alfred Brousseau
rhizome, the old bulb not persisting. Ten to thirty
lavender-pink to white flowers are in an umbel
subtended by 2 or 3 thin whitish or scarious bracts.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found in moist clay or serpentine in
closed-cone pine forests, mixed evergreen forests,
grassy streambanks, and chaparral below 1100 m. It
is found in northwestern California, central-western
California, and Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Caution: This onion is rather uncommon today.
Therefore, do not dig up the bulbs in the wilds, but
rather purchase them and plant them in the ground in
autumn.
The bulbs should be planted 1 to 3 inches deep in a
well-drained soil in full sun or partial shade. Allium
species do especially well in raised beds for drainage.
Water them after planting and then let the rains come.
Weed around the plants. Most animals don t eat wild
onions. This species of wild onion can be invasive.
If establishing the plant by seed, plant the seeds in the
fall in pots in partial shade. Scatter the seeds on top
of a well-drained soil. Sprinkle a thin layer of dirt
over the top and place quarter-inch gravel over the
soil. Water the pots and keep them slightly moist.
Stop watering when the leaves shrivel in the early
summer. Out-Plant the two-year-old seedlings in the
garden or wildlands during the summer or fall. Let
the rains do the watering.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Separate the plants every several years and replant.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ALUN is available from native plant nurseries within
its range.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Davies, D. 1992. Alliums: The ornamental onions.
Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Many species of Allium are known by the general
term of wild onion.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The young foliage of Allium unifolium
is delicious and can be used in the place of chives.
The Pomo, Yuki, Wailaki, and Nomlaki gathered this
onion for food. The Yuki and other tribes harvested
the bulb and base of the leaves and fried them before
eating. Sometimes the bulb was eaten raw. The
Pomo usually ate the bulb raw and sometimes baked
the bulb in an earth oven. Today individuals of many
tribes still gather different species of wild onions.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This herbaceous
perennial plant has herbage with the characteristic
taste and smell of onions. The scape is 30-80 cm
high and the leaves are 2-3, widely channeled and
keeled. Reproduction is from wrinkled, black seeds
contained in a capsule or by bulbs of 1-2 cm. Each
ovoid to oblique bulb arises on a stout lateral
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Hickman, J.C. (ed.). 1993. Allium. pp. 1172-1179
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Mathew, B. 1997. Growing bulbs: The complete
practical guide. Timber Press, Inc., Portland,
Oregon.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records Vol 2:(1):1-84.
' WHERE symbol='alun';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science, Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
AMERICAN
HOGPEANUT
Amphicarpaea bracteata Fern.
Plant Symbol = AMBR2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Wild peanut
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The hogpeanut was used by many
tribes of the Plains as a food source. The Pawnee are
reported to have gathered hogpeanut from rat’s nests.
The Chippewa used the hogpeanut for a food source,
eating the fruit and roots. They also used it as a
digestive aid. The Cherokee would spit a tea made
from the root of hogpeanut on snakebites and
consume the root tea to aid in diarrhea.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bean Family (Fabaceae). American
hogpeanut is a taprooted, native, annual. The stems
can be smooth or covered with short hairs and coil
around a support for climbing (2-20 dm tall). The
leaves are alternate, compound and with 3 leaflets.
Leaflets are broadly lanceolate to ovate. The leaf
stalks (petioles) are 2-10 cm long. The hogpeanut
produces two sorts of flowers. The first is an
unbranched, elongated inflorescence with pedicellate
flowers maturing from the bottom up. These flowers
open before fertilization and are usually cross-
pollinated (chasmogamous). The other flowers are
self-fertilized without opening (cleistogamous) and
are produced on creeping branches near the ground.
The fruit is a sickle-shaped, thin-walled legume, 4-6
mm long.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: American hogpeanut is found in dry or
moist woodlands, along roadsides, and in prairie
ravines.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='American hogpeanut, as a member of the bean
family, will fix nitrogen that will benefit plants
growing around it. American hogpeanut requires a
moist, humus-rich soil. To germinate the seeds, pre-
soak them for 12 hours in warm water and sow them
in the spring in a semi-shaded area.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using a local seed
stock the American hogpeanut should not be prone to
debilitating pests.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, New York. 397pp.
Plants for a Future 2001. Amphicarpaea bracteata.
Devon, England. <.http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-
bin/arr_html?Amphicarpaea+bracteata >.. Accessed
20NOV01.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of plants by the indians of
the Missouri river region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. 109 pp.
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
great plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the prairie.
University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. 276
pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='ambr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
YERBA MANSA
Anemopsis californica (Nutt.)
Hook. &. Arn.
Plant Symbol = ANCA10
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
The bark was also harvested in autumn and boiled
into a deep red-wine color and drank to alleviate
ulcers or applied externally to wash open sores. The
Moapa Paiute boiled the leaves in a quantity of water
and used it as a bath for muscular pains and for sore
feet. The Shoshone mashed the roots and boiled
them to make a poultice for swellings, or the
decoctions used as an antiseptic wash. A tea from the
boiled roots can be taken for stomachache or more
commonly as a tonic for general debility following
colds. The Pima in the Southwest made an infusion
of dried roots which was taken for colds. They also
chewed the roots and swallowed them or made a
decoction of the roots which was taken for coughs.
Spanish settlers in California used the plant as a
liniment for skin troubles and as a tea for disorders of
the blood.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lizard’s Tail Family (Saururaceae). This
common herbaceous perennial has an aromatic,
creeping rhizome, which is thick and woody. The
flowers do have not true petals, but rather each
flower is subtended by an involucre bract 1-3 cm
long that is white, often tinged reddish. There are
about one hundred flowers to each conical-shaped
flower head. The conical spike is stout, 1-3 cm long
and is subtended by 4-8 unequal white petal-like
bracts, 1-2 cm long and rounded. The fruit is a
capsule. The leaves have a spicy smell and are
alternate and simple.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The plants are found in saline or alkaline soil in
damp or wet places in many different plant
community types, such as valley grassland, saltgrass
flats, and desert fan palm oases. The range of the
plant is from the Peninsular Ranges, South Coast
Ranges and Mojave Desert of California on the south,
and north through the Sacramento, San Joaquin
Valleys and San Francisco Bay Area. The plant also
inhabits the Channel Islands off the southern
California coast. Its range extends into Utah, central
Kansas, northcentral Oklahoma, Colorado at the foot
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Bear root
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The root of the plant was used as a
medicine by many tribes in California, Great Basin,
and the Southwest including the Wukchumni Yokuts,
Kawaiisu, Paiute, Shoshone, and Pima. Some Native
Americans still gather the plant today. The Kawaiisu,
for example, boiled the root and a decoction was then
drunk hot to alleviate colds and coughing. The
Tubatulabal of southern California for colds also took
a decoction of the plant. The Kamia of Imperial
Valley pulverized the seeds of yerba mansa in the
mortar and the meal was then cooked as mush in a
pot or baked as bread in hot ashes. The Yokuts
pounded up the root and soaked it in water. The
water was then drunk for a bad stomach. The
Costanoan made a decoction from the root, which
was used, for menstrual cramps and for general pain
remedy. A tea was used to wash sores and the plant,
dried and powdered, was sprinkled on wounds as a
disinfectant. The Cahuilla peeled, cut up, squeezed,
and boiled the roots into a decoction that was drank
as a cure for pleurisy. An infusion was also used as a
cure for stomach ulcers, chest congestion, and colds.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
of the Front Range, Arizona, northwest New Mexico,
and west Texas
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='This plant is not valued horticulturally, yet its white
bracts are quite attractive. This plant is hardy and
spreads rapidly, and can become invasive. Start the
plant from a fleshy root. Dig up the plants from an
already established area and transplant them in the
fall or winter. Directly outplant the plants in the
ground in full sun, giving them plenty of space.
Place the plants one-foot apart. The transplants will
fill in quickly, sending 2-3 feet of runners radiating
out from each plant. Water the transplants and keep
them moist year round. If growing the plants for
their roots for medicinal purposes, plant them in a
loose soil.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Weed around the plants periodically. Areas of yerba
mansa were burned periodically by the Wukchumni
Yokuts to maintain their quality and abundance.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ANCA is available from native plant nurseries within
its range.
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, CA.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany 38(2):240-255.
Chalfant, W.A. 1933. The story of Inyo. 229 p.
Curtin, L.S.M. 1949. By the prophet of the earth.
San Vicente Foundation, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Franco, H. 1993. That place needs a good fire.
News From Native California 7(2):17-19.
Jepson, W.L. 1925. A manual of the flowering plants
of California. University of California Press.
Berkeley, California.
Kaul, R.B. 1986. Saururaceae. p. 79 IN: Flora of
the Great Plains. R.L. McGregor, T.M. Barkley, R.E.
Brooks, E.K. Schofield (eds). University Press of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
McClintock, E. 1993. Saururaceae. pp. 1000-1002
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California. p. 480.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs &. W.A. Archer 1957.
Contributions toward a Flora of Nevada No. 45.
USDA, ARS, Plant Industry Station Beltsville,
Maryland.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs, &. W.A. Archer 1941.
Medicinal uses of plants by Indian tribes of Nevada.
Contributions Toward a Flora of Nevada No. 33.
USDA, The Division of Plant Exploration and
Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington
D.C.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records 2(1):1-84.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah
' WHERE symbol='anca10';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited 25jul00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
GROUNDNUT
Apios americana Medik.
Plant Symbol = APAM
© Jim Stasz
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Groundnut, wild
potato, Indian
potato, wild sweet
potato, American
potato bean, wild
bean, ground bean,
hopniss, Dakota
peas, sea vines, pea
vines, pomme de
terre, patates en
chapelet, American
potato bean
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic:
According to Kelly
Kindscher (1987),
“groundnut is a
common native food plant of temperate, eastern
North America. Its distribution reaches west to the
wet margins of prairies, where it was once used
extensively by the Native Americans.”
Groundnut was a source of food among the Omaha,
Dakota, Santee Sioux, Cheyenne, Osage, Pawnee,
and Hidatsa (Gilmore 1913, Grinnell 1962, Matthews
1961, Wilson 1987). Groundnut was excavated from
four Ozark bluff-dweller sites in Arkansas. The
Ozark peoples are regarded as pre-Columbian
(Beardsley 1939). Groundnuts “roots” were dug in
the winter. The tubers were gathered all year but
were best when harvested from late Fall through
early spring. They were eaten raw, cooked, or dried
and ground for flour. Some of the “roots” were
boiled, peeled, and dried for storage. The seeds are
cooked and eaten like peas in summer.
Groundnut was also an important food of New
England colonists (Hedrick 1919). Once the
colonists discovered the groundnut, they enacted a
town law to prevent Indians from digging groundnut
on English land. Groundnut tubers are a good source
Plant Guide
of carbohydrates and contain between 13 and 17
percent protein by dry weight, or about three times
more than potatoes or any other widely used
vegetable root (Yanovsky and Kingsbury 1938, Watt
and Merrill 1963).
Horticultural: This plant is an attractive ornamental.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Legume Family (Fabaceae). Groundnut
(Apios americana) is a perennial herb from slender
rhizomes with tuberous thickenings 1.3-4 cm (0.5-1.6
in) thick, and stems twining or climbing over other
plants. The leaves are alternate, pinnately, egg-
shaped, 2-10 cm (3/4-4 in) long, 1.8-7 cm (0.7-2.7 in)
wide, and sometimes hairy. The flowers are in
rounded clusters among leaves. Groundnut blooms
from July to October. The flowers have 5 parts, the
upper one round, white and reddish brown, the 2 side
wings curved down and brown-purple, the lower 2
petals sickle-shaped and brownish red. The fruits are
dry, straight or slightly curved, narrow, and 5-10 mm
(3/16-3/8 in) long. The fleshy legume fruits are 6-12
mm (0.2-.5 in) in diameter and indehiscent (the fruit
coils back after opening), usually with 1 seed. The
seeds are oblong or square, dark brown, with
wrinkled surfaces.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Groundnut is distributed through the great
prairie from Quebec to Minnesota, North Dakota,
south to north central Colorado, Florida, and Texas.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Groundnut grows in wet meadows, low
thickets, banks of streams and ponds, sloughs, moist
prairie ravines, and moist soil in woodlands.
Propagation from Cuttings: Plant tubers two to three
inches deep in the early spring (Kindscher 1992).
After shoots establishment, mulch to stop
competition from weeds and grass. Provide the
young shoots with a traverse or other objectives upon
which to climb. After one year of growth, several
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
one inch-thick tubers can be harvested from each
plant. Because of their vining nature, groundnut
would be hard to grow on a field' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='scale, and their
annual yield appears to be quite low in comparison to
other crops. Groundnut is difficult to cultivate
mechanically, because each tuber can sprout and
grow in the spring, filling in spaces between rows.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Under development.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
APAM is available from native plant nurseries within
its range.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Beardsley, G. 1939. The groundnut as used by the
Indians of Eastern North America. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters Paper 25:
507-515.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Gilmore, M. 1913a. A study in the ethnobotany of the
Omaha Indians. Nebraska State Historical Society
17: 314-357.
Gilmore, M. 1913b. Some native Nebraska plants
with their uses by the Dakota. Nebraska State
Historical Society Proceedings and Collections 17:
358-370.
Gilmore, M. 1913c. The aboriginal eography of the
Nebraska country. Mississippi Valley Historical
Association Proceedings 6:317-331.
Gilmore, M. 1921. The ground bean and the bean
mouse and their economic relations. Annals of Iowa
(Series 3) 12: 606-609.
Gilmore, M. 1925. The ground bean and its uses.
Indian Notes 2:178-187.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 Vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hedrick, U.P. 1919. Sturtevant’s notes on edible
plants. 27th Annual Report, Vol. 2, Part II. New
York Agricultural Experiment Station.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1:145-281.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mathews, J.J. 1961. The Osages, children of the
middle waters. University of Oklahoma Press,
Norman, Oklahoma.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) Flora of the Great Plains. Great
Plains Flora Association. University Press of Kansas.
1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000229. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Watt, B.K. &. A.L. Merrill 1963. Composition of
foods. Agricultural Handbook 8, USDA,
Washington, DC.
Wilson, G.L. 1987 (1917). Buffalo bird woman’s
garden. Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul,
Minnesota. 129 pp.
Page 3
Yanovsky, E. &. R.M. Kingsbury 1938. Analyses of
some Indian food plants. Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists 21(4): 648-655.
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='apam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 30nov00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
INDIAN HEMP
Apocynum cannabinum L.
Plant Symbol = APCA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
The fiber was particularly useful in making fishing
and carrying nets, for string and for ropes, and to
some extent for weaving rough cloth. In California,
Indian hemp and milkweed are used somewhat
interchangeably for cordage. The Luiseño of
southern California for their dance regalia used
Indian hemp. the golden eagle or other feathers are
tied to netting for the dance skirt for men (Merriam
1955). The wild hemp was also used by the
Chemeweve for snares for otter and rabbits (Ibid.)
Dogbane is very important to tribes in the Columbia
Plateau in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho for
basketry. The Quinalt, Kalispel, Nez Perce, Spokane,
Umatilla, Wasco, Wishram, Yakima, and Klikitat
used dogbane for cordage and basketry.
Families use the native twine to tie together the
frames for their winter lodges. They used it to sew
cattails and tules into sturdy mats to cover these
frames and to serve as carpeting, furniture, beds, and
utensils. Dip nets, set nets, and seines were made of
dogbane. The nets were strong enough to hold the
giant sturgeon caught in the Columbia River.
Of all the important uses for Indian hemp, the
itatamat , or ".counting the days". ball, was perhaps
the most significant for the people themselves. From
the time of her marriage, a woman would record a
calendar of her life s events by tying knots on a
length of hemp as important events occurred. She
marked births, deaths, and other extraordinary days
with beads, shells or other talismans. When the ball
got too large to handle easily, she started a new ball.
Flat twined bags (".sally bags".), round twined bags
and basketry caps were made with dogbane. Soft
bags were made using twine from Indian hemp or
milkweed decorated with cornhusk imbrication.
Basket bottoms and top margins were of woven cedar
bark. These soft bags conform to the shape of a load
of roots of camas or other plants.
Later explorers reported that the Nez Perce and other
tribes stored berries, roots, and nuts in bags about one
by two feet, and used larger bags up to three feet long
for clothing and other personal effects. Early visitor
to the Mid-Columbia also described piles of filled
bags in the corners or hung along the wall in native
homes. One weaver estimated that it took two to
three months to twine a large root-storage bag.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Dogbane, milkweed, honeybloom, bitter root, black
hemp, hemp dogbane, lechuguilla, westernwall
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Warning' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Indianhempcanbetoxicifingested TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Indianhempcanbetoxicifingested='without proper preparation.
Ethnobotanic: Indian hemp is harvested for fiber.
The stems are cut in the fall. they are then split open
and the long, silky fibers removed. The fibers are
then twisted into string, which provides cordage.
String, thread, rope, baskets, snares, netting, and
clothing were made from the bast fibers of the Indian
hemp plant because they are so silky yet strong.
Cordage was then used to make tump straps, belts,
netted bags, hairnets, and ceremonial regalia (capes,
skirts, and head-dresses).
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
As a medium of trade, barter, or wager, the bags in
the early days were considered only the wrapping or
container for the dried roots they held. The largest of
the bags would hold just under a half-bushel or nearly
four dry gallons of camas or bitterroot bulbs. Now,
the bags themselves are highly valued as trade items.
The flat twined bags have been widely traded to other
tribes, such as the Crow and Blackfeet of Montana.
Today, the wapanii sapk ukt, or ".twined handbag,". is
the most popular form of flat twined bags. It is
carried with great pride as part of ceremonial regalia,
the twined handbag emphasizing the distinct cultural
heritage of the person who carries it. Today, cotton
twine usually replaces Indian hemp in basketry.
however, very special ceremonial bags are still made
with Indian hemp.
The biochemical constituents in Indian hemp are
apocynin, apocynamarin, cymarin, and and rosin.
Indian hemp could be dried, crushed, and then
snuffed for coughs in head colds. The root was made
into a tea and was used to help a baby’s cold,
earache, headache, nervousness, dizziness, worms
and insanity. This tea was also taken for heart
palpitations, but care should be observed if using it
for cardiac disorders. It acts as a vaso-constrictor,
slows and strengthens the heartbeat, and raises blood
pressure. The root could also be used as an emetic,
diaphoretic, antispasmodic, cathartic, anodyne,
hypnotic, laxative, treats vomiting, diarrhea,
hydrocephalus, urinary difficulties, dropsy, jaundice,
liver problems, and stimulates the digestive system. It
has been successfully employed for alcoholism. A
wash made of crushed root can be shampooed into
the hair to stimulate growth, remove dandruff and
head lice. The milky juice can remove warts. A
poultice of the leaves reduces tumors, hemorrhoids,
and inflammation of the testicles. The poultice
placed over the eyelids works on opthalmia and eye
diseases. The leaves ground into powder can dress
wounds, sores and ulcers.
Erosion Control: The extensive root system on Indian
hemp provides good slope and streambank
stabilization and erosion control functions. The
flowers are attractive to bees, butterflies, and other
insects. The plant itself is toxic. so many forms of
wildlife do not eat it. Indian hemp is considered a
noxious weed because of its invasive nature and its
toxicity to domestic livestock.
Invasive Potential: This plant can be invasive in
orchards and cultivated areas, so is not a garden
plant. The small, inconspicuous flowers and weedy
growth form doesn t have horticultural appeal.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Dogbane Family (Apocynaceae). The plant
stem can be 0.61-1.83 m (2-6 feet) tall, and contains
milky juice. The elliptical leaves are small, about
5.0-7.6 cm (2-3 inches) long, and opposite. The
flowers are small and inconspicuous, cylindric to urn-
shaped, and greenish pink. The fruit is 6 - 9 cm (2.4-
3.5 cm) long and pendant, slender and cylindric.
When the fruit matures and splits open, the seeds are
wind dispersed with long tufts of silky hairs.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Indian hemp or dogbane proliferates in moist
places near riparian areas along streams, springs,
levees, roadsides, and waste places. This well-known
source of fibers is found in damp places, below 5,000
feet altitude through most of California, even here
and there in the deserts. Indian hemp grows
throughout California north to British Colombia and
east across the United States.
Indian hemp is found near the borders of woods,
along paths, in clearings, or in disturbed, waste places
like ditches. It is no longer very common in
California, and many traditional gathering sites are
gone.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Indian hemp plants are not widely available.
Transplanting bare rootstock or collecting seed for
direct reseeding into the ground will be necessary in
most areas. Use of plants which have been
traditionally used by the ancestors of that place, and
which are adapted to the climate, soils, and site
conditions of that place, is optimum.
Seed Collections: Collect seeds after pods have
ripened, but before they have split open. This usually
occurs in late summer, from August to September.
The seeds are wind dispersed, so be careful when
gathering to place them in a paper or burlap bag to
avoid losing them.
Seeds can be directly sown into the ground in the fall.
The seed is very viable. Planting seed the first fall
Page 3
after collecting seeds maximizes revegetation
success. It is not certain how long you can store the
seeds. Irrigation the first summer after planting will
improve plant survival. Once root are established,
extra watering will be unnecessary. Indian hemp is
fairly aggressive, and will usually out-compete other
plant species on its own. The latex in stems and
leaves protects the plant from most herbivores.
Live Plant Collections: Plants can be divided almost
any time of year, but revegetation is most successful
in fall after the plants senesce. Harvest and planting
of Indian hemp is optimum in October, or just after
the first fall rains. Stalks should be cut to a
conveniently manageable length before digging up
plants (approximately 25 to 35 cm).
No more than 1/4 of the plants in an area should be
collected. a depth of 15 cm (6 in) is sufficiently deep
for digging plugs. This will leave enough plants and
roots to grow back during the following growing
season.
Live transplants should be planted as soon as
possible. Plants should be transported and stored in a
cool location prior to planting. Plugs may be split
into smaller units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm
(2.4 x 2.4 in) with healthy roots and tops. Weeds in
the plugs should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots. The
roots should always remain moist or in water until
planted. Roots should be kept moist after the plants
have been dug up. Planting should occur at a spacing
of approximately one-foot centers. Plants should be
watered in. Irrigation may be necessary through the
first dry season. By the second year, roots should
have extended to the water table and irrigation should
no longer be necessary.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='When used for fiber, Indian hemp is collected in the
autumn after the leaves have begun to senesce or dry
up and the stalks turn a deep reddish brown color.
Plants are cut at the base of the stem. Cutting the
plants appears to stimulate new growth in the spring.
so as many stalks as possible are cut. Plants are then
split open and the fibers removed and processed into
cordage. After winter, the fibers have disintegrated
and the stems are still standing, but full of mush or
empty. The fibers can t be removed after one winter.
There are only two known large sites for traditional
harvest of Indian hemp for fiber in California. one at
Yosemite and one near Santa Rosa. In the Columbia
Basin, though Indian hemp might be found in many
low-lying areas, certain stands of hemp grew higher
and straighter, and the long strands produced were
prized for the strength of the twine made from them.
So special was this resource area that violent conflict
(otherwise uncommon) occurred between Wanapam
Sahaptins and Columbia Salish over access to the
hemp (Relander 1956)
Vast quantities of fiber plants are required for nets,
regalia, and cordage. Blackburn and Anderson
(1993) quote Craig Bates of the Yosemite Museum
that it takes approximately five stalks of milkweed or
Indian hemp to manufacture one foot of cordage. A
Sierra Miwok feather skirt or cape contain about 100
feet of cordage made from approximately 500 plant
stalks, while a deer net 40 feet in length (Barrett and
Gifford 1933:178) contained some 7,000 feet of
cordage, which would have required the harvesting of
a staggering 35,000 plant stalks. Therefore,
propagation and conservation of this species for fiber
is very important for production of traditionally
manufactured cordage, which is still used today.
Both milkweed and dogbane are burned in the fall to
eliminate dead stalks and stimulate new growth.
Burning causes new growth to have taller, straighter
stems (with longer fibers). It also stimulates flower
and seed production. ' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
APCA is available from native plant nurseries within
its range.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Ackerman, L.A. 1995. A song to the creator.
Traditional Arts of Native American Women of the
Plateau. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman and
London.
Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
103 pp.
Blackburn, T.C. &. K. Anderson 1993. Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by Native
Californians. A Ballena Press Publication. Menlo
Park, California. 476 pp.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1997. Wild plants
and native peoples of the Four Corners. Museum of
New Mexico Press. 312 pp.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press. 125 pp.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hunn, E.S. 1990. Nch i-Wana. ".The Big River.".
Mid-Columbia Indians and Their Land. University of
Washington Press, Seattle and London. 378 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal Wild Plants of the
Prairie. An Ethnobotanical Guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Merriam, C.H. 1955. Studies of California Indians.
University of California Press, Berkeley and Los
Angeles. 227 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press,
Riverside, California. 155 pp.
Relander, C. 1956. Drummers and dreamers. Caxton
Printers, Caldwell, Idaho.
Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River basketry. Gift
of the ancestors, gift of the earth. A Samual and
Althea Stroum Book. University of Washington
Press, Seattle and London. 232 pp.
Snyder, G. June 1996. Sonoma County supervisors
act to preserve dogbane. California Indian
Basketweavers Association Newsletter #15: page 7.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd. West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
Turner, N.J., R.Bouchard, &. D.I.D. Kennedy 1980.
Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of
British Columbia. British Columbia Provincial
Museum, Victoria, B.C. Occasional Paper No. 21.
' WHERE symbol='apca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
USDI, GS, NPWRC
Clements
Plant Symbol = ARCAC
SAGEWORT
WORMWOOD
Artemisia campestris L. ssp.
caudata (Michx.) Hall &.
with the twigs are the primary source of food for
antelope and mule deer. Other mammals that browse
the foliage and stems include jackrabbits,
black-tailed rabbits, white-tailed rabbits, cottontails,
chipmunks, gophers, ground squirrels, various
species of mice, prairie dogs, kangaroo rats, and
white-throated wood rats. Elk and mountain sheep
browse on the foliage and twigs. Range cattle also
make good use of sagebrush as forage.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sagewort wormwood (Artemisia
campestris) is a smooth-stemmed biennial herb 3-10
dm (1-4 ft) tall with stems arising singly from a
prominent taproot. This species is without the typical
sagebrush odor that is common to most Artemisia
species. The basal leaves are numerous, sometimes
persistent and sometimes deciduous. These leaves
are 2-3x compound, and each leaf is 2-10 dm long
and 1-4 dm wide. The cauline leaves are less divided
and become more reduced as they ascend the stem.
The inflorescence of numerous small heads is an
elongate but narrow panicle. The fruits are dry,
smooth, broadly cylindrical achenes. The mature
achenes are sub-cylindric and hairless. Sagewort
wormwood flowers from August to September.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='The lactone glycosides, santonin and artemisin, are
probably found in all Artemisia species and account
for their anthelmintic properties (Moore 1979).
Thujone, a terpene-like ketone and essential oil, is
also found in the plant and may be responsible for
some of its medicinal effects (Kinscher 1992).
However, it is poisonous in large doses. The Food
and Drug Administration classifies Artemisia as an
unsafe herb containing “a volatile oil which is an
active narcotic poison” (Duke 1985).
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Western sagewort
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanical: Both
the Lakota and the
Dakota used sagewort
wormwood (Artemisia
campestris) for
medicine (Kindscher
1992). The Lakota
made a tea from the
roots to remedy
constipation, inability
to urinate, and
difficulty in childbirth
(Ibid.). Blackfeet
runners chewed leaves
for stamina. The
Blackfeet also chewed
the leaves of sagewort
wormwood for
stomach troubles and
applied the chewed leaves to rheumatic joints and
sore eyes (Kindscher 1992). A tea of fresh leaves
was drunk to abort difficult pregnancies. The
Blackfeet stored the dried leaves for use in a tea that
was drank to relieve coughs and applied externally to
relieve eczema. The Shuswap use a decoction of
sagewort wormwood for coughs, colds, and
tuberculosis (Moerman 1986). They also make a
poultice of steamed branches and apply it to bruises
and sores.
Wildlife: Sagebrush furnishes essential cover for
many of the smaller desert animals (Martin et al.
1951). Its foliage and flower clusters constitute most
of the diet of the sage grouse, and these parts together
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation:' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Sagewort wormwood grows in open
places, and is often found growing in sandy soil.
Sagewort wormwood is circumboreal, and its
southern range occurs in Oregon, Arizona, Michigan,
and Vermont.
Most of the wild sages are abundant in their natural
habitats. White sage and other Artemisia species can
be propagated by seeds or by cuttings taken in the
early summer (Kindscher 1992).
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation from Cuttings: Sagewort wormwood
spreads vigorously from a prominent taproot. Plants
can easily be divided and replanted.
•
In greenhouse conditions, it is best to dig up and
separate plants in late fall or winter. This is the
“quiescent” period that follows seed maturation,
and leaves are senescent (dried up and brown
colored).
• Split the plant clump into pieces by hand, then
cut the plant into sections, each with one or more
buds.
• For dividing the whole plant, gently loosen the
soil around the plant, taking care to not damage
the roots, and then lift the plant gently with a
pitchfork. Shake off as much soil from the roots
as possible.
• Divide the plant into smaller pieces by hand,
retaining only healthy, vigorous sections, each
with new buds.
• Replant the divisions as soon as possible. It is
important the plants don’t dry out, so if
replanting is delayed a couple of hours, dip the
plants briefly in water and keep them in a sealed
plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you are
ready to plant them.
• Cut back the old top-growth and replant the
divided plant sections to the same depth as
before.
• When replanting, ensure that the roots are well
spread out in the planting hole and the plant
firmed in. Water newly planted divisions
thoroughly. take care not to expose the roots by
washing away soil when watering.
• Plants should be planted in the full sun in a light,
loose soil. Plants should be planted on 12-18”
centers.
• As plants are becoming established, the rooting
zone needs to be kept moist.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation by seed: When the soil has warmed to at
least 45ºF (7ºC) in the spring, sow hardy Artemisia
species where they are to flowers.
• Seeds can also be sown in pots or seed trays and
either out-planted in their final positions in late
fall or over-wintered in a cold frame to be out-
planted in spring. This technique is particularly
useful in gardens with clay soil that is slow to
warm up in spring.
• The two main methods of sowing outdoors are
broadcast and drills. For both, prepare the
seedbed first by digging over the soil to one
spade depth, then rake over and firm.
• Broadcast Sowing: Sprinkle seeds thinly and
evenly on the surface of the prepared seedbed
and rake them in lightly. Label the seedbeds,
then water the area gently, but thoroughly, with a
fine spray.
• Sowing in drills: Use either a trowel tip or the
corner of a hoe, mark out shallow drill holes 3-6”
(8-15 cm) apart, depending on the ultimate size
of the plant. Sow seeds thinly and evenly by
sprinkling or placing them along each drill at the
appropriate depth. Carefully cover with soil and
firm. Label each row and water gently but
thoroughly with a fine spray.
• To prevent overcrowding, the seedlings usually
need to be thinned. To minimize disturbance to
a seedling being retained, press the soil around it
after thinning the adjacent seedlings.
• Water the newly establishing seedlings fairly
frequently until the roots have developed.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The following information on the Traditional
Resource Management (TRM) was provided by Lynn
Youngbuck, who is Cherokee, Chiracahua, and Fox.
TRM includes the following:
• Take only what you need, leaving the best to
reproduce.
• Speak to the plant, leave an offering of tobacco
or sage before harvesting. The plant will grow
back two stems for every one cut.
• We humans are another strand in life. Plants
sustain us and should be treated as another living
being.
• Plants were taken care of by extended family
groups of women. They were taken care of and
watched each year for generations.
• Materials harvested were shared and traded with
the whole tribe.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ARCAC is available from native plant nurseries
within its range.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1: 116-118.
Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley,
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Duke, J.A. 1985. CRC handbook of medicinal herbs.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1: 145-281.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.). Flora of the Great Plains. Great
Plains Flora Association. University Press of Kansas.
1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, New Mexico.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000316. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
USDI, Geological Survey 2000. Native wildflowers
of the North Dakota grasslands. Version: 000316.
<.http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wildfl
wr/species/artecamp.htm>.. Northern Prairie Wildlife
Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota.
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='arcac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 04dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Natural Resources Conservation Service
DOUGLAS’ SAGEWORT
Artemisia douglasiana Bess.
Plant Symbol = ARDO3
Common Names: mugwort, western mugwort, California mugwort,
Douglas’ mugwort
Scientific Names: Artemisia campestris L. var. douglasiana
(Besser) B. Boivin, Artemisia vulgaris L. subsp. heterophylla
(Nutt.) H.M. Hall &. Clem., Artemisia vulgaris L. var. douglasiana
(Besser) H. St. John.
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='
General: Douglas’ sagewort is an aromatic perennial forb in the
sunflower family (Asteraceae) that is native to the western United
States. It is rhizomatous and has many slender, 3-5 ft. tall stems.
The leaf blades are 3-6 in. long, and can be as wide as 2 in. across.
In color, they are green to grey-green, silvery-white underneath, In
shape, they are narrowly elliptic to widely oblanceolate with 3-5
lateral lobes (Shultz, 2006,2014). The upper-surface is sparsely
hairy, while the lower surface is densely hairy. The grey flowering
heads are leafy-bracted panicles with short matted hairs. The
disciform heads are 0.1 – 0.2 in. diameter, inconspicuous in
clusters, with pistilate flowers (5-9) and disk flowers (6-25).
Bloom is from mid-spring through late fall. The fruits 0.05 x
0.1in.) are grey brown.
Distribution: Douglas’ sagewort is native to western North America from Washington and Idaho, through Oregon, in
Nevada, through California and the Baja Peninsular of Mexico. It is found along the Pacific coast and in riparian corridors
from sea level to 7,200 feet in elevation (USDA). For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this
species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Douglas’ sagewort is found primarily in drainages and riparian corridors (Shultz 2006). It grows well in dry or
moist shaded sites and is tolerant or a range of soil types. It may be found in meadows at higher elevations.
Douglas’ sagewort (Mugwort) growing at the Lockeford PMC. Photo
by Michal Tutka, Lockeford PMC June 2015.
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Douglas’ sagewort grows on a variety of soil types in riparian habitats. It dies back over the winter and also with summer
drought, the rhizomes spout with moisture and warmer temperatures in the spring.
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Ecological benefits of Douglas’ sagewort to wildlife include seed forage, perching spots, and vegetative cover for
birds, as well as nesting material for bees once the plant has senesced.
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning='Douglas’ sagewort extracts have been shown to be cytotoxic to human cells (Giordano et al., 1990). Pregnant women
should not ingest mugwort, as it is an abortifacient. Douglas’ sagewort contains the monoterpene thujone, a
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_neurotoxinwhichinhighdosescausesconvulsions_seizures_andevendeath_Becausethujoneisextractedbyalcohols_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_itisstronglyadvisednottomakemugworttinctures_Somaweeraatal_2013__Aqueoussolutionsofthujonearein TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_itisstronglyadvisednottomakemugworttinctures_Somaweeraatal_2013__Aqueoussolutionsofthujonearein='minute concentrations and so are probably safe for use (Adams and Garcia, 2006).
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Ethnobotany TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Ethnobotany='Medicinal: Douglas’ sagewort is highly esteemed by many
California tribes for its many medicinal applications. The Miwok
use the leaves to prepare a tea that is sipped to reduce swelling in
any part of the body, and use it to relive prostate problems.
(McCarthy et al 2012). Leaves are rubbed on the forehead to
relieve headaches (Personal observation and Train et al, 1957). It
is commonly used as a remedy for poison oak rash (Duncan, 1961.
McCarthy et al., 2012. Timbrook, 1990. 2007). In Argentina, the
chewed leaves are used to treat peptic ulcers and external sores and
studies have been conducted on other medicinal uses (Giordano et
al., 1990).
Reports in the literature from the Costanoans, Pomo, and Maidu
document its use as an analgesic to treat colds, fevers, and
respiratory problems such as bronchitis and asthma (Bocek, 1982.
Chestnut, 1902: Duncan, 1961). and for headaches and earaches
(Barrett and Gifford, 1933. Bocek, 1982). Douglas’ sagewort was
also used as a compress for wounds, to treat sores and peptic ulcers
(Heinrich et al., 1998, Timbrook, 2007) and urinary problems
(Bocek, 1982). It was used regularly for women’s health issues,
such as treating premenstrual syndrome and dysmenorrhea
(Adams and Garcia, 2006), to improve circulation after childbirth
(Chestnut, 1902) and to terminate difficult pregnancies
(Somaweera et al., 2013). Tongva girls bathed in tea in preparation
for puberty (Incayawar, 2010).' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Ceremonial: Douglas’ sagewort (mugwort) is revered by
indigenous tribes in California. It is used during ceremonies and
for other purposes, such as to ward off spirits and ghosts,
especially after the death of a family member and for repatriation
ceremonies (Duncan, 1961. MacCarthy, 2012). It is often placed in several locations in the home for protection (McCarthy et
al., 2012). The Paiute people used Douglas’ sagewort ceremoniously as a wash when coming out of ritual dances (Reid et al.,
2009). Mourning Miwok would plug their nostrils with its leaves, using the aroma to clear their heads (Barrett and Gifford,
1933). ' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Other uses: Douglas’ sagewort has insect repellant properties. Leaves were placed in baskets and food storage containers to
keep pests away. (Reid et al., 2009.). A Chumash myth indicates that leaves were used to line babies cradles (Timbrook,
2007). Leaves would be burned to stave off mosquitos (Bocek, 1982. Duncan, 1961). The Costanoans burned its branches to
smoke bees from nests (Bocek, 1982).' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Inflorescence of Douglas’ sagewort, ©Avis Boutell
Lower leaves and those of younger plants tend to be
toothed or lobed. Photo by Tutka.CAPMC
Fruit, 1.4x2.0 mm in size, ©John Macdonald
Left:
Right:
Bottom:
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly
managed. It is not considered a weed in natural areas, but can occasionally become weedy in such areas as drainage ditches
and low places in pastures (DiTomaso and Healy, (2007).
Please consult the PLANTS Web site (http://plants.usda.gov/) and your state’s Department of Natural Resources for this
plant’s current status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PlantingGuidelines TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PlantingGuidelines='Douglas’ sagewort seeds germinate at relatively cool temperatures to coincide with fall precipitation. Direct seeding can be
done throughout the late fall and winter on prepared sites at a seeding rate of 2.2 lb/acre drilled at a depth of ¼ inch, or 3
lb/acre broadcast. At Elkhorn Slough on the central California Coast field plantings were generally most successful in the
early spring (ESNERR, 2001). If seeding must be done later in the spring, stratification may be of benefit (Deitschman,
1974). Establishment from transplants is also successful as one- and 2-year-old seedlings can be field-planted early in the
spring, as fall transplanting is generally not successful (Deitschman 1974). Irrigation will assist with establishment for the
first year or two depending upon the location. It would be essential for drier sites. Douglas’ sagewort can also be effectively
propagated from rhizomes, using a protocol developed for Artemisia vulgaris, which showed that ~75% of 2-cm long
rhizome sections produced roots and shoots (Klingeman et al. 2004). Once established, Douglas’ sagewort spreads easily
from rhizomes and because of this, a few established plants can effectively populate a suitable site.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='
Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and
how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and
control methods named, and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='Collection and storage: Determination of fruit ripeness can be difficult because of the small fruit size. Douglas’ sagewort is
ready to harvest when fruits can be easily removed from the heads by shaking and are too hard to be easily crushed with a
thumbnail. Because the fruit matures so late in the season, it often has to be harvested quickly after maturity to avoid losses
and storm damage. The heads are clipped, placed in paper bags to dry, then rubbed over screens to remove the chaff and
stored in a dry cooler (ESNERR, 2001). For propagation, fruits are sown into plug trays filled with potting mix then lightly
covered with more potting mix. The trays are misted with an automatic irrigation system. Fifteen days after germination,
seedlings are transplanted into larger containers, then moved into a lath house, keeping them moist. Transplant survival
averages 85% and one or two year old plants can be used for planting out (Young 2001).
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area of origin)
Cultivars should be selected based on the local climate, resistance to local pests, and intended use. Consult with your local
land grant university, local extension or local USDA NRCS office for recommendations on adapted cultivars for use in your
area' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LiteratureCited TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LiteratureCited='Adams, J.D. Jr. and C. Garcia. 2006. Women’s health among the Chumash. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative
Barrett, S.A. and E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee.
Bocek, B. 1982. Ethnobotany of the Costanoan Indians, California, based on collections by John P. Harrington. Economic
Boutell, A. 2009. Asteraceae – Artemesia douglasiana (mugwort) https://www.flickr.com/photos/aboutell/3811470163/
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. US National Herbarium Contributions.
Medicine. 3:125-31.
2:117-376.
Botany. 38:240-55.
(accessed on 16 July 2015).
7:295-408.
Deitschman, G. H. 1974. Artemisia L. Sagebrush. Pp. 235-237 211 in Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Forest
DiTomaso, J.M. and E.A. Healy. 2007. Weeds of California and other Western States. University of California, Oakland
Service, USDA, Washington, DC.
Agriculture and Natural Resources Pub. 3488.
Duncan, J.W. 1961. Maidu Ethnobotany. Thesis, San Francisco State College, San Francisco, California.
ESNERR 2001. Native Species Planting Guide for the Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve.
www.elkhornslough.org/habitat-restoration/native_plants.pdf (accessed 8 June 2016).
Giordano, O., Guerreiro E, Pestchanker M, Guzmán J, Pastor D &. Guardia T. 1990. The gastric cytoprotective effect of
several sesquiterpene lactones. Journal of Natural Products. 53:803-809.
Heinrich, M, Robles, M., West, J.E., Ortiz de Montellano, B.R., and Rodríguez, E. 1998. Ethnopharmacology of Mexican
Asteraceae (Compositae). Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 38:539-565.
Incayawar, M. 2010. Kwiash. http://www.runajambi.net/tongva/mugwort.html (accessed 10 July 2015)
Klingeman, W.E., Robinson, D.K., McDaniel, G.L. 2004. Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) rhizome regeneration in pine bark,
soil and sand substrates. Hortscience 39:746-746.
Macdonald, J. 2007. Artemisia douglasiana [Photograph].
http://www.hazmac.biz/070312/070312ArtemisiaDouglasiana.html (accessed 16 July 2015).
McCarthy, H., A. Barajas, D. Berg, R. Cox, V. Day-Burciaga, J. Dick, R. Fuller, D. Hendricks, R. Hendricks, S. Hendricks, J.
Lavell, D. Lingo, G. Mangoang, P. Montgomery and V. Stone. 2012. Field Guide to Plants Important to the Central
Sierra Me-Wuk Indians: With Traditional Uses. Ed T. Norton. Tuolumne Band of Me-Wuk Indians of the Tuolumne
Rancheria of California
Reid, S., Wishingrad, V. and McCabe, S. 2009. Native American Uses of California Plants - Ethnobotany
http://arboretum.ucsc.edu/pdfs/ethnobotany-webversion.pdf (accessed 13 July 2015
Shultz, L.M. 2006. Artemisia douglasiana. Flora of North America Vol, 19, 20 and 21, p. 524. [Online]. url: (accessed 10
August 2015).
Shultz, L.M. 2014. Artemisia douglasiana, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora.
http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgibin/get_IJM.pl?tid=1187 (accessed 13 July 2015).
Page 4
Somaweera, H., Lai, G.C, Blackeye, R., Littlejohn, B., Aguirre, R.M., LaPena, V., Pasqua, A., Hintz, M.M. 2013. Ethanolic
extracts of California mugwort (Artemisia douglasiana Besser) are cytotoxic against normal and cancerous human
cells. Journal of herbal medicine. 3:47-51.
Timbrook, J. 1990. Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, based on collections by John P. Harrington. Economic
Timbrook, J. 2007. Chumash ethnobotany: plant knowledge among the Chumash people of southern California. Heyday
Botany. 44:236-253.
Books, Berkley, CA. Pp 37-39.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs and W.A. Archer, revised 1957, Medicinal Uses of Plants by Indian Tribes of Nevada, Washington
DC. U.S. Department of Agriculture, page 39
United States Department of Agriculture NRCS. PLANTS National Database Reports, Plant Profile: Artemisia douglasiana
Besser. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ARDO3 (accessed 13 July 2015).
Young, B. 2001. Propagation protocol for production of container Artemisia douglasiana Bess. San Francisco, California. In:
Native Plant Network. http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org (accessed 10 July 2015).
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Citation
Tutka, M. 2015. Plant Guide for California mugwort (Artemisia douglasiana). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Plant Materials Center, Lockeford, CA.
Published: August, 2016
Edited:
For more information about this and other plants, please contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation District at
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit the PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the
Plant Materials Program Web site:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability of other Web sites.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination against its customers, employees, and applicants for
employment on the bases of race, color, national origin, age, disability, sex, gender identity, religion, reprisal, and where applicable,
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If you wish to file an employment complaint, you must contact your agency s EEO Counselor (PDF) within 45 days of the date
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or by email. If you require alternative means of communication for program information (e.g., Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.)
please contact USDA s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
For any other information dealing with Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) issues, persons should either contact
the USDA SNAP Hotline Number at (800) 221-5689, which is also in Spanish or call the State Information/Hotline Numbers.
For any other information not pertaining to civil rights, please refer to the listing of the USDA Agencies and Offices for specific
agency information.
Helping People Help the Land
' WHERE symbol='ardo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDERANDEMPLOYER TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDERANDEMPLOYER='
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
TARRAGON
Artemisia dracunculus L.
Plant Symbol = ARDR4
Contributed by: USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values). It is
endangered in Illinois as of 2006.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with
your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension
Service office, or state natural resource or agriculture
department regarding its status and use. Weed
information is also available from the PLANTS Web
site.' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Tarragon is a
native perennial herb (5-15 dm tall). The stems form
clusters and are reddish in color. They can be smooth
or covered with short hairs. The leaves are linear to
linear-lanceolate. The leaves range in size from 2-8 cm
long and up to 6 mm wide. The inflorescences are
branched and elongated with pedicellate flowers that
mature from the bottom up. Both the whorl of bracts
subtending the flower and the stalk of the inflorescence
are hairless. The outer florets are fertile but lack
stamens. The center florets are sterile.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Tarragon is found in dry open places.
Common in areas of disturbance, tarragon, increases in
frequency where disturbance results in decreased
competition.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Tarragon is a fire-adapted species. It is top-killed by
low-intensity fire, however, it is able to reestablish
quickly from surviving rhizomes.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Tarragon is drought tolerant species. Tarragon grows
best in well-drained fertile soil and in full sunlight.
Division can achieve propagation. Tarragon also
produces numerous wind-dispersed achenes in the fall.
Each individual plant should be lifted and divided in
early spring every two years. The divisions should be
planted 24 inches apart and the roots should be place 2-
3 inches deep.
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='False tarragon, dragon sagewort
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Tarragon had a wide array of medicinal
uses among the Chippewa. The root was used as a
gynecological aid to reduce excessive flowing during
the menstrual cycle and to aid in difficult labor. The
leaves of tarragon were chewed for heart palpitations.
The root was also used to make a bath for strengthening
children and a steam for strengthening elders. The
Shuswap used the plant as a gynecological aid during
childbirth. The Shuswap also burned tarragon to keep
away mosquitoes. The Ramah Navaho made a lotion
from the plant to aid in healing cuts.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Vestal, R.A. 1952. The ethnobotany of the Ramah
Navaho. Papers of the Peabody Museaum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology 40(4):1-94.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 20nov01 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Tarragon may suffer from root rot or mildew if not
planted in well-drained soil.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from commercial
plant sources.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works
best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read
label and safety instructions for each control method.
Trade names and control measures appear in this
document only to provide specific information. USDA,
NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and
control methods named, and other products may be
equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='ardr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research Foundation,
Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, New York. 397pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the great
plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
1392 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native North
American peoples. The University of Michigan-
Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb.
Palmer, P.A. 1978. Shuswap indian ethnobotany. Syesis
8:29-51.
Sanders, T.W. 1895. Sanders’ encyclopedia of
gardening. A.G.L. Hellyer 1958. Revised. W.H. and L.
Collingridge Limited. New York, New York. 526 pp.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
2001. Fire effects information system.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/artdra
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
PACIFIC
SILVERWEED
Argentina egedii (Wormsk.)
Rydb.
Plant Symbol = AREG
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
It is purported to have potent medicinal properties.
The leaves contain tannin, an astringent, and have
been used as a tea to relieve diarrhea, lessen fevers,
as a purgative, to ease eye inflammations, and to
relieve sore throat. The roots were used by the
Blackfeet as an antidiarrheal.
Other Uses. The stoloniferous growth form aids in
substrate stabilization and erosion control.
Songbirds, such as snow buntings and rosey finches
east the seeds. Rabbits, cottontails, chipmunks, and
ground squirrels eat the foliage and seeds.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). Pacific
silverweed is a low-growing perennial native herb
which spreads by creeping stolons. It often forms
dense tangles. The pinnately compound and alternate
leaves are all basal, glossy green, with silver
undersides. The leaflets are deeply notched and
toothes, 3-50 cm long, with 5-10 leaflets per side.
The leaves dry out and become brown in the winter,
but remain intact. The buttercup-like yellow flowers
have 5 petals, 5 sepals, and have many stamens and
pistils. Pacific silverweed flowers form singly at the
nodes of the stolons. The petals are 7-20 mm long.
The 2 mm fruits are oval, flattened, and dark red-
brown.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. It is found in the Pacific
Northwest and New England into Labrador and
Newfoundland. It is found at elevations below 150 m
throughout coastal North America and Asia.
Habitat: Pacific silverweed typically occurs in high
tidal marshes, at or above the mean high water, where
it is often associated with tufted hairgrass
(Deschampsia caespitosa) and Lyngby sedge (Carex.
lyngbyei). It can also be found in nontidal freshwater
meadows and marshes. In these situations, it is often
associated with creeping buttercup (Ranunculus
repens), several species of grasses and sedges, and
the invasive reed canarygrass (Phalaris
arundinacea).
G.A. Cooper
Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution, Department of Botany
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Argentina egedii ssp. ededii, Argentina egedii ssp.
groenlandica, Greenland silverweed, Potentilla
pacifica, Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotany. Pacific silverweed roots were a staple
food in the northwest coast region, including Alaska
and Washington. Silverweed roots were dug in large
quantities, cooked, and often dried for winter and
used as a trade item. The roots were generally
harvested in the fall, after the leaves had started to
dies for the winter. Clumps of roots were pried up
with a digging stick, and the edible roots – long and
sometimes spindle-shaped, with striated, brown
skins, were broken off. The roots were always
cooked through boiling or roasting to remove the
bitter flavor. After cooking, they taste like parsnips.
They were often harvested and cooked together with
springbank clover rhizomes (Trifolium wormskioldii).
Pacific silverweed roots were also dried, before or
after cooking, and stored for the winter.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Pacific silverweed can be propagated easily from
container or bare root stock, as it produces many
stolons and rhizomes. It can also be propagated from
seed. Pacific silverweed is found in wetland areas
with very wet soils. It will tolerate brackish
conditions, so it can be used in salt marsh and
floodplain restoration. It provides good groundcover,
however, it can be invasive.
Pacific silverweed spreads vigorously from both
stolons and rhizomes. In greenhouse conditions, it is
best to dig up and separate plants in the late fall or
winter. This is the quiescent period that follows seed
maturation and leaves are senescent. They should be
planted in full sun in a light, loose soil. Plants should
be planted on 12-18 inch centers. They will fill into
solid stands in one year. Plants need to be kept moist
with frequent watering. Lightly fertize the plants
during the growing season. Pacific silverweed
tolerates brackish conditions. Plants may need to be
protected from hervivores, such as rabbits or gophers.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Keep the runners pruned back, because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every 3
to 4 years and start a new patch for increased vigor.
Younger plants are more vigorous and produce more
flowers and seeds.
Turner and Deur (1999) include the following for
traditional resource management:
- Ownership of individual patches and their output
silverweed roots to re-grow the following year.
- Weeding root patches. and
-
Individual patches and landscapes were burned
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
by Chief’s, ensuring long-term care and
enhancement of plant production.
- Root feasts as a means of redistribution plant
wealth and meeting ceremonial obligations.
Specialized digging sticks as a harvesting tool to
cultivate and turn over the soil.
-
- Replanting and leaving behind portions of
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414p.
Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publ. in
Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington Press,
Seattle.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, F.T. Davies, Jr. 1990.
Plant propagation principles and practices. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647p.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley. 1399p.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.). 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle. 730p.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library’s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries, Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261p.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner. 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology, Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632p.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publication, Inc., New York. 500p.
Norton, H.H., E.S. Hunn, C.S. Martinsen, &. P.B.
Keely. 1984. Vegetable food products of the foraging
economies of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology of Food
and Nutrition 14:219-228.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California’s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 156p.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria.
Page 3
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell. 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat. 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
Victoria. 99p.
Turner, &. H.V. Kuhnlein. 1983. Camas (Camassia
ssp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two Liliaceous
“root” foods of the Northwest Coast Indians.
Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson, &. R.T.
Ogilvie. 1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24. 165p.
USDA NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS web site.
Accessed: 070122. http://plants.usda.gov. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan, &. S
Hashisaki. 1994. A citizen’s guide to wetland
restoration. USEPA Region 10. 71p.
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, formerly USDA NRCS National
Plant Data Center, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='areg';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Davis, California
Edited: 070122 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
The Blackfeet used the leaves of prairie sandwort as a
preservative for stored meat (Hellson
and Gadd 1974). It was known by the Chilcotin as
horse food (Myers et al. Unpubl. Notes 1988).
According to Moerman (1986) Artemisia frigida was
used in the following ways:
• The Chippewa used it as an anti-convulsive, a
cure for “fits,” burned leaves to disinfect a
contagious patient, inhaled a moxa for
biliousness, put it on wounds to stop bleeding,
made a decoction of the roots for a stimulant or
tonic, and placed fresh leaves in nostrils and
mouth as protection when “working with the
dead.”
• Montana Indians used a decoction as a remedy
for lung troubles.
• The Navaho-Ramah used a decoction of leaves
to alleviate coughing, made a hot poultice of
leaves for toothaches, and used the root for “life
medicine.”
PRAIRIE SAGEWORT
Artemisia frigida Willd.
Plant Symbol = ARFR4
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
USDI, GS, NPWRC
mosquitoes.
flatulence.
cold remedy.
• The Potawatomi placed leaves and flowers on
live coals to revive comatose patients.
• The Shuswap burned the plant to keep away
• The Tewa chewed leaves for indigestion or
• The Zuni used an infusion of the whole plant as a
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Pasture sage, fringed sage, sweet sage, northern
wormwood
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanical: The Cheyenne used prairie sagewort
ceremonially as a smudge for purification in the Sun
Dance (Hart 1976. Kinscher 1992). The Delaware-
Okl chewed the leaves as a ceremonial medicine.
The Blackfeet chewed the leaves of prairie sagewort
for heartburn (McClintock 1923, Hellson 1974) and
applied the leaves to wounds to reduce swelling.
Prairie sagewort was also used to treat nosebleed by
stuffing the nose with the soft leaves. The roots and
tops were boiled and drank as a tea for “mountain
fever.” Other tribes, who used this species of sage
include the Arapaho, Comanche, Gros Ventre, Cree,
Navaho, Tewa, and Ute (Nickerson 1966, Carlson
and Jones 1939, Hart 1976, Thwaites 1905, Denig
1855, Elmore 1944, Robbins et al. 1916, Chamberlin
1909).
Cheyenne women used prairie sagewort to correct
menstrual irregularity (Hart 1976). During the time
of the month when women left their lodges and went
to the menstrual hut, they drank tea made from the
root of Artemisia frigida or the leaves of the white
sage (Artemisia ludoviciana). The Dakota, Omaha,
Pawnee, and Ponca women used a decoction of the
plant for irregular menstrual periods.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
The lactone glycosides, santonin and artemisin, are
probably found in all Artemisia species and account
for their anthelmintic properties (Moore 1979).
Thujone, a terpene-like ketone and essential oil, is
also found in the plant and may be responsible for
some of its medicinal effects (Kinscher 1992).
However, it is poisonous in large doses. The Food
and Drug Administration classifies Artemisia as an
unsafe herb containing “a volatile oil which is an
active narcotic poison” (Duke 1985). Although the
native species of Artemisia have never been listed as
official drugs in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia, A. frigida is
listed as a source of camphor (Kindscher 1992).
Wildlife: Sagebrush furnishes essential cover for
many of the smaller desert animals (Martin et al.
1951). Its foliage and flower clusters constitute most
of the diet of the sage grouse, and these parts together
with the twigs are the primary source of food for
antelope and mule deer. Range cattle also make good
Page 2
use of sagebrush as forage. Other mammals, which
browse the foliage and stems, include jackrabbits,
black-tailed rabbits, white-tailed rabbits, cottontails,
chipmunks, gophers, ground squirrels, and various
species of mice, prairie dogs, kangaroo rats, and
white-throated wood rats. Elk and mountain sheep
also browse on the foliage and twigs.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Prairie
sagewort is a spreading shrublet 1-4 dm (3.9-15.7 in)
tall, pleasantly fragrant, whitish or grayish tomentose,
and arising from a tough, woody crown. Tomentose
means having dense, velvety, fuzzy hairs. The leaves
are also tomentose and abundant, clustered toward
the base and scattered along the stem. The lower
leaves are petiolate, 12 mm (0.5 in) long, with the
upper leaves becoming sessile. The inflorescence is a
panicle with small, greenish flower heads. Prairie
sagewort flowers from July to August. The fruits are
dry, smooth, broadly cylindrical achenes.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The range is from western Minnesota,
southwest to eastern Colorado and from Wisconsin,
north to British Columbia, Alaska, and Siberia and
south to Arizona and northern New Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation: Prairie sagewort grows in the open high
plains, prairies, and semi-disturbed sites. Most of the
wild sages are abundant in their natural habitats.
Artemisia species can be propagated by seeds, by
division of the rootstock, or by cuttings taken in the
early summer (Kindscher 1992).
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation from Cuttings' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='Artemisia ' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_speciescan TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_speciescan='easily be divided and replanted.
•
In greenhouse conditions, it is best to dig up and
separate plants in late fall or winter. This is the
“quiescent” period that follows seed maturation,
and leaves are senescent (dried up and brown
colored).
• Split the plant clump into pieces by hand, then
cut the plant into sections, each with one or more
buds.
• For dividing the whole plant, gently loosen the
soil around the plant, taking care to not damage
the roots, and then lift the plant gently with a
pitchfork. Shake off as much soil from the roots
as possible.
• Divide the plant into smaller pieces by hand,
retaining only healthy, vigorous sections, each
with new buds.
• Replant the divisions as soon as possible. It is
important the plants don’t dry out, so if
replanting is delayed a couple of hours, dip the
plants briefly in water and keep them in a sealed
plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you are
ready to plant them.
corner of a hoe, mark out shallow drill holes 3-6”
(8-15 cm) apart, depending on the ultimate size
of the plant. Sow seeds thinly and evenly by
sprinkling or placing them along each drill at the
appropriate depth. Carefully cover with soil and
firm. Label each row and water gently but
thoroughly with a fine spray.
• The seedlings usually need to be thinned to
prevent overcrowding. To minimize disturbance
• Cut back the old top-growth and replant the
divided plant sections to the same depth as
before.
• When replanting, ensure that the roots are well
spread out in the planting hole and the plant
firmed in. Water newly planted divisions
thoroughly. take care not to expose the roots by
washing away soil when watering.
• Plants should be planted in the full sun in a light,
loose soil. Plants should be planted on 12-18”
centers.
• As plants are becoming established, the rooting
zone needs to be kept moist.
Propagation by seed: When the soil has warmed up
to at least 45ºF (7ºC) in the spring, sow hardy
Artemisia species where they are to flowers.
• Seeds can also be sown in pots or seed trays and
either planted out in their final positions in late
fall or over-wintered in a cold frame to be
planted in spring. This technique is particularly
useful in gardens with clay soil that is slow to
warm up in spring.
• The two main methods of sowing seeds outdoors
are broadcast and in drills. For both, prepare the
seedbed by digging over the soil to one spade
depth, then rake over and firm.
• Broadcast Sowing: Sprinkle seeds thinly and
evenly on the surface of the prepared seedbed
and rake them in lightly. Label the seedbeds,
then water the area gently but thoroughly with a
fine spray.
• Sowing in Drills: Use either a trowel tip or the
Page 3
• Water the newly establishing seedlings fairly
frequently until the roots have developed.
to a seedling being retained, press the soil around
it after thinning the adjacent seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Consult your local nurseries to choose the right
cultivar for your specific landscape. ARFR is
available through your local native plant nursery
within its range.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley,
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Chamberlin, R.V. 1909. Some plant names of the Ute
Indians. American Anthropologist 11: 27-40.
Denig, E.T. 1855. An account of medicine and
surgery as it exists among the Cree Indians. St.
Louis Medicinal and Surgical Journal 13: 312-318.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 97 pp.
Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
University of New Mexico, Monographs of the
School of American Research. Number 8.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 Vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana mative plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfeet
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service. Paper No. 19.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1:145-281.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.). Flora of the Great Plains. Great
Plains Flora Association, University Press of Kansas.
1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, New
Mexico.
Nickerson, G.S. 1966. Some data on plains and
great basin Indian uses of certain native plants.
Tebiwa 9.1: 45-47.
Robbins, W., J.P. Harrington, &. B. Freire-Marreco
1916. Ethnobotany of the Tewa. Smithsonian
Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin
5, Washington, D.C.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Ojibwa Indians. Bulletin of
the Public Musum of the City of Milwaukee 4(3):
327-325.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000316. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
USDI, Geological Survey 2000. Native wildflowers
of the North Dakota grasslands. Version: 000316.
<.http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wildfl
Page 4
wr/species/artefrig.htm>.. Northern Prairies Wildlife
Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota.
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='arfr4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 04dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
GIANT CANE
Arundinaria gigantea Muhl.
Plant Symbol = ARGI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plants Data
Team, Greensboro, NC
Plant Guide
hunting squirrels, rabbits, and various birds
(Bushnell 1909. Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975. Speck
1941. Kniffen et al. 1987). Young Cherokee boys
used giant cane blowguns armed with darts to
protect ripening cornfields from scavenging birds
and small mammals (Fogelson 2004). The Choctaw
used the butt end of a cane, where the outside skin
was thick, as a knife to cut meat, or as a weapon
(Swanton 1931). Tribes of Louisiana made flutes,
duck calls, and whistles out of cane (Kniffen et al.
1987). Cane is best harvested in the fall or winter
(October to February) for blow guns and flutes, and
plant stems, known as culms, are selected from
mature, hardened off plants with larger diameters.
Figure 1. Giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Photo taken on
tribal lands of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, taken by
Tim Oakes, 2011.
Alternate Names
Cane, Fishing-pole Cane, Mutton Grass, Rivercane,
Swampcane, Switchcane, Wild Bamboo
Uses
Cultural: Dense stands of cane, known as
canebrakes, have been likened to a “supermarket”
offering material for many purposes (Figure 2)
(Kniffen et al. 1987). Cane provided the Cherokee
with material for fuel and candles and the coarse,
hollow stems were made into hair ornaments, game
sticks, musical instruments, toys, weapons, and tools
(Hill 1997. Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). The
Houma, Koasati, Cherokee, Chitimacha, Chickasaw,
Choctaw, and Seminole made the stems into arrow
shafts, blowguns (Figure 3) and darts (Figure 4) for
Figure 2. Stand of giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea). Photo
taken on tribal lands of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians,
taken by Timothy Oakes, 2011.
Figure 3. A Choctaw man demonstrating how a blowgun is
positioned for shooting. The blowgun is about 7 feet in length and
made of a single piece of giant cane. Photo by David I. Bushnell,
Jr., 1909. Courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museum of
Natural History, National Anthropological Archives.
Page 2
Figure 4. Chitimacha blowgun darts of fire-treated split cane.
Courtesy of the Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian
Institution E76807.
Young shoots were cooked as a potherb and ripe
seeds were gathered in the summer or fall and
ground into flour for food (Morton 1963. Hitchcock
and Chase 1951). Flint (1828) says of a subspecies
of giant cane, Arundinaria gigantea ssp.
macrosperma: “It produces an abundant crop of
seed with heads like those of broom corn. The seeds
are farinaceous and are said to be not much inferior
to wheat, for which the Indians and occasionally the
first settlers substituted it.” Giant cane also has
medicinal properties. Both the Houma and the
Seminole made a decoction of the roots: the Houma
used it to stimulate the kidneys and renew strength,
and the Seminole used it as a cathartic (Speck 1941.
Sturtevant 1955 cited in Moerman 1998).
Cane was important for construction of indigenous
dwellings, as well as the creation of the mats and
baskets that formed a large part of household
furnishings (Galloway and Kidwell 2004). Entire
canes were used for Choctaw beds, house roofs, and
walls and they made pallets of whole canes on
which to spread hides (Swanton 1931). The
Cherokee constructed dwellings with cane webbing,
plastered with mud (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975).
The Pascagoula and the Biloxi made temples of
cane as a resting place for their chiefs and the
Choctaw placed their dead in giant cane hampers
(Brain et al. 2004. Swanton 1931). Woven mats of
cane covered ceremonial grounds, seats, floors, and
walls, and roofs were thatched with it (Hill 1997.
Swanton 1946). The Natchez made cane mats with
red and black designs, that were 4 ft. wide and 6 ft.
long (Swanton 1946). The houses of Seminole
chiefs were covered with checkered mats of canes
dyed different colors (Bartram 1996). The Houma,
Biloxi, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Koasati used cane
for the making of rafts, bedding, roofing, and floor
and wall coverings (Kniffen et al. 1987).
Archeological excavations have revealed that giant
cane was laid down in criss-crossed layers to mantle
the sloping sides of the bases of certain mounds
such as the Great Mound in east central Louisiana
(Neuman 2006).
One of the most important uses of giant cane stems
today and in ancient times is for forming the rich
natural yellow color in the baskets of the Alabama
Coushatta, Biloxi-Tunica, Caddo, Cherokee,
Chitimacha, Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, Seminole and
other tribes (Figures 5 and 6) (Brain et al. 2004.
Bushnell 1909. Gettys 1979. Gregory Jr. 2004.
Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975. Swanton 1942).
Figure 5. Haylaema, Choctaw, with a carrying basket made of
giant cane. Photograph by David I. Bushnell, Jr., St. Tammany
Parish, La., 1909. Courtesy of the Smithsonian National Museum
of Natural History, National Anthropological Archives,
1102.b.22.
Pack, berry, sifting, chafing, winnowing, catch,
storage, gift, and cooking baskets all carry stems of
this grass (Duggan and Riggs 1991. Gettys 1979.
2003). Venison, buffalo meat, pumpkins, hominy
and boiled beans were presented in serving vessels
made of giant cane. Choctaw mothers lay their
children in cradles of cane (Swanton 1946).
Cherokee fish traps were made of giant cane
(Leftwich 1970). As non-Indians began to settle in
the Southeastern United States, weavers from
various tribes began to trade their baskets with the
new settlers for items that they needed such as flour,
coffee, sugar, ribbons, and fabric. Thus, cane
basketry became part of the exchange-based
colonial economy (Duggan and Riggs 1991. Lee
2002. 2006). Matting and basketry technologies that
use giant cane have been found in archaeological
sites in Louisiana dating back to at least 2300 B.C.
(Neuman 2006).
Page 3
Figure 7. Dorothy Chapman, Mississippi Band of Choctaw
Indians, splitting giant cane into strips of approximately equal
size for a basket she will make. Photo by Bradley Isaac, Jr.,
Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.
Sarah H. Hill (1997) describes the next step of
preparation—the thinning of the strands: “…the
weaver repeatedly inserts the knife under the cane’s
outer cortex and then pulls the core back as she
guides the cut with her knife. She works down the
length of the stick, detaching the interior core until
only the exterior of the cane remains as a thin,
pliable split.” After the coarse inner fiber of the cane
is scraped and discarded, the cane splints are then
trimmed along each edge to make them of uniform
width (Leftwich 1970). The materials must be kept
damp or are re-dampened during the weaving
process. If not used, the strips are bundled for
storage (Kniffen et al. 1987). Historically, if stored
without splitting the culms first, the Choctaw kept
them in stacks covered an inch or two in water
(Swanton 1931).
Many kinds of plants were, and continue to be, used
to dye giant cane black, red, or yellow. The
Choctaw burned equal parts of the bark of the Texas
red oak (Quercus texana) and water tupelo (Nyssa
aquatica) to a fine ash which formed the red color in
their basketry (Bushnell 1909). The Cherokee dye
the grass with natural dyes such as black walnut
(Juglans nigra) root to obtain a black or deep brown
and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) to obtain a
reddish color and these materials formed designs in
Figure 6. Zula Chitto, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians,
weaving a basket of giant cane. Photo by Bradley Isaac, Jr.,
Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.
Giant cane was broken or cut to its base with a shell
or bone knife or other lithic devices, and in later
times other tools such as a sugar cane knife were
used. Today pruning shears are frequently
employed (Neuman 2006. Hill 1997. 2002). The
Jena Band of Choctaw look for culms at least four
feet long, of a solid color, and at least five to seven
years old (Lee 2002). The Eastern Band of Cherokee
select large canes about the size of the thumb that
are at least two years old (Leftwich 1970).
Chitimacha weavers select giant cane with long
lengths between the joints (Darden et al. 2006.
NRCS 2002. 2004).
In Choctaw basketry it was customary to collect
canes in the winter, because they were too brittle in
the summer (Swanton 1931). Today giant cane is
harvested in every season, but fall, winter, and early
spring are the preferred times for many weavers
because the cane is firm, but not too hard or too soft.
The cane is cut while still green, and the small
foliage end is cut off and discarded. The cane is then
washed in non-chlorinated water, and divided into
four or eight strips of approximately equal size
(Figure 7).
Page 4
baskets (Speck 1920). The Jena Band of Choctaw
use the berries of elderberry (Sambucus spp.) to dye
the cane red and the green husks of hickory nuts or
walnuts to make a black dye. The Chitimacha use
curly dock (Rumex crispus) and black walnut to dye
their cane baskets (Kniffen et al. 1987).
Early non-Indian settlers valued the canebrakes as
natural pastures for their domesticated animals
(Hughes 1951). According to environmental
historian Mart Stewart (2007), “Modern studies
have established that cane foliage was the highest
yielding native pasture in the South. It has up to
eighteen percent crude protein and is rich in
minerals essential for livestock health.” Livestock
eagerly eat the young plants, leaves, and seeds and
stands decline with overgrazing and rooting by hogs
(Hitchcock and Chase 1951).
Giant cane was sometimes slit and made into chair
bottoms, weavers’ shuttles, and the hollow stems for
inexpensive tubes (Porcher 1991). Non-Indian
settlers also used the giant cane for fishing poles,
weaving looms, scaffolds for drying cotton, pipe
stems and pipes, splints for baskets and mats, toys,
turkey-calls, and musical instruments (Marsh 1977).
Giant cane is an excellent plant to stabilize stream
and river banks. The roots and rhizomes link
together to create an underground mesh that ties the
soil and plant to the ground. The flexible culms
bend in high water and resist breakage, but also act
to seine floating organic matter out of the flood
waters causing it to drop within the brake. It is being
included in riparian buffer designs, serving as an
effective plant for erosion control. Giant cane is also
proving to be an effective intercept filter of
sediment, pesticides, and nutrients flowing from
agricultural watersheds which improves water
quality (Schoonover et al. 2010).
Wildlife: Canebrakes are an important ecosystem for
wildlife. Historical accounts along with recent
surveys identify at least 23 mammal species, 16 bird
species, four reptile species and seven invertebrates
that occur within canebrakes (Platt et al. 2001). A
rare neotropical migrant, the Swainson’s warbler
(Limnothlypis swainsonii) builds its nests in dense
cane thickets (Benson et al. 2009. Thomas et al.
1996). The copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix),
cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus), and
canebrake rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), an
endangered species, live and hunt in canebrakes.
The swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus) is
restricted to canebrakes along the northern border of
its geographic range. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) graze on tender cane shoots in early
spring (Silberhorn 1996).
Six species of butterflies are obligate bamboo
specialists, including the Creole pearly eye (Enodia
creola), southern pearly eye (E. portlandia),
Southern swamp skipper (Poanes yehl), cobweb
little skipper (Amblyscirtes aesculapius), cane little
skipper (A. reversa), and yellow little skipper (A.
carolina) (Scott 1986 cited in Brantley and Platt
2001). Canebrakes provide refuge and living
quarters for black bears (Ursus americanus),
bobcats (Lynx rufus), and cougars (Puma concolor).
Squirrels (Sciurus spp.) and wild turkeys (Meleagris
gallopavo) feed on the seeds of giant cane and
Carolina parakeets (Conuropsis carolinensis) and
passenger pigeons (Ectopistes migratorius), both
now extinct, used to feed on them (Platt and
Brantley 1997).
Status
Please consult t Please consult the PLANTS Web
site and your State Department of Natural Resources
for this plant’s current status (e.g., threatened or
endangered species, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values).
Weediness
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, state natural resource, or
state agriculture department regarding its status and
use. Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/. Please
consult the Related Web Sites on the Plant Profile
for this species for further information.
Description
General: A cool-season member of the grass family
(Poaceae), giant cane comes from the genus
Arundinaria and is the only bamboo native to the
United States. It has erect, perennial woody stems or
culms that are two cm thick that reach up to 10 m
and a diagnostic character for this genus is the
presence of culm sheaths at each node of the culm
(Brantley and Platt 2001. Hitchcock and Chase
1951. Hughes 1951).
In parts of Alabama, historical accounts report cane
growing “as high as a man on horse-back could
reach with an umbrella” (Harper 1928 cited in
Marsh 1977). The culm leaves are deciduous.
Foliage leaves are evergreen, eight-15 cm long, and
strongly cross veined (Clark and Triplett 2007). The
inflorescence is a raceme or panicle that dies after
fruiting or sometimes after two consecutive growing
seasons (Crow and Hellquist 2000. Platt et al. 2004).
In many populations the plants seldom flower,
usually only every 10 to 15 years (Silberhorn 1996).
Giant cane may be monocarpic, meaning that after
decades of vegetative growth, it flowers once and
then dies (Gagnon 2009). It has running, horizontal
rhizomes that are long and slender and sometimes
Page 5
hollow-centered (Marsh 1977. Clark and Triplett
2007).
Distribution: The grass occurs from Florida to
eastern Texas in the south, in parts of the Midwest,
and north to New York (Figure 8). It is found in at
least 22 states in the United States (Marsh 1977).
Figure 8. Giant cane distribution in North America, PLANTS
Database.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Giant cane is found from sea level on the
coastal plain and inland up to 670 m elevation in the
Appalachian Mountains and on soil types ranging
from sandy to highly acidic (Farrelly 1984. Platt and
Brantley 1997). It grows best in loose, well-drained
alluvium (Marsh 1977). Recent research has
indicated physiological differences between giant
cane and switchcane (A. gigantea ssp. tecta) with
respect to their ability to tolerate flooding. Giant
cane is adapted to the well-drained soils of the first
natural levees along a river course, while switchcane
is tolerant of longer periods of inundation (Mills et
al. 2011).
Cane has broad ecologic amplitude and is found in
the understory of many kinds of habitats including
loess bluffs, sandy bluff lands, sandy hillsides and
rock cliffs, loblolly-shortleaf pine forests, upland
hardwood forests, oak-hickory forests, beech-
magnolia forests, blackgum and white-cedar swamp
forests, and bottomland hardwood forests (Taylor
2006. Marsh 1977. Platt and Brantley 1997). It once
grew luxuriantly throughout the upper country of
South Carolina and Georgia, but in 1863 Francis
Porcher, a medical doctor, reported that the plants
“have been almost entirely consumed by animals”
(Porcher 1991). It used to extend also in large areas
in mono-dominant canebrakes in alluvial floodplains
along rivers and creeks such as the Arkansas, St.
Francis, Ozark, Grand, Verdigris, Illinois, Red,
Wabash, Ocmulgee, Oauchita, Jacks Fork,
Mississippi, Ohio, Tuckasegee, White, James, and
Cumberland rivers (Gagnon 2006.2009). Today
giant cane grows diffusely in the understory of
forests, in the light of forest gaps, and along rivers
and creeks, but the vast canebrakes are for the most
part gone (Gagnon and Platt 2008a). Canebrakes
have been reduced to less than 2 percent of their
former area and they are considered a critically
endangered ecosystem in the Southeastern United
States (Noss et al. 1995).
Adaptation
Canebrakes need some kind of disturbance to
maintain them (Meanley 1966). Giant cane is fire-
adapted, sprouting rapidly from rhizomes (Taylor
2006). If only aerial portions are killed by fire or
broken, new culms arise from the underground part
of the old culms (Hughes 1951 cited in Marsh
1977). Canebrake vegetation is adapted to
anthropogenic disturbance regimes in the form of
indigenous burning and natural disturbance regimes
in the form of riverine flooding, lightning fires,
overstory deadening by roosting flocks of passenger
pigeons in former times, and windstorms (Brantley
and Platt 2001). Cane develops well with periodic
flooding, but does not tolerate permanent saturation
(Marsh 1977). In the past, fire maintained open
Arundinaria-Ilex bog areas in the Southeast, keeping
beech-maple forest from encroaching (Marsh 1977).
Establishment
Because giant cane seldom flowers, a source of seed
is unpredictable. Giant cane also has naturally low
seed viability and flowering stands can fail to
produce seeds, limiting the availability of viable
seeds for seedling production (Neal et al. 2011).
Attempts to reestablish canebrakes using vegetative
propagation techniques have had limited success
(Cirtain 2003). In one study, Gagnon and Platt
(2008b) found that giant cane seed survival and
seedling establishment is improved with controlling
seed-predators and herbivores, and planting seeds
directly in a layer of leaf litter in moderate shade.
Seed should be planted on several sites with a range
of environmental conditions with multiple genetic
individuals that flower in-phase (Gagnon and Platt
2008b). Another method is to grow seedlings in a
greenhouse and outplant them after one year
(Gagnon and Platt 2008b). Nodal sections of giant
cane containing an axillary bud can be used as
explants material.
Giant cane can also be transplanted during the late
fall to early spring. Recent transplanting work in
Alabama and Mississippi indicates that winter
planting (December-March) will give the greatest
success in establishment (Hamlington et al. 2011).
Page 6
Plants at least one foot high, and with two feet long
rhizomes and roots attached, can be dug and
transplanted into a well-drained, fertile soil, three to
six inches deep. However, water must be available
for these transplants. If regular irrigation is not
available, transplanting must be done in the winter
months (December through the first weeks of
March).The soil should have a pH level of 6.8 to 7.2
and sandy soils and areas that have peat tend to
produce larger varieties of cane (Oakes 2006).
Giant cane should have at least three to four hours
of direct sunlight daily. Full sun exposure seems to
limit top growth, but strongly enhances rhizome and
root growth, allowing maximum overall growth of
the canebrake (Neal et al. 2011. Russell et al. 2011).
If planting giant cane on the grounds surrounding
the home, keep the plants moist during the first year,
but not waterlogged. After one year of
establishment, apply fertilizer that contains nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium (NPK), and every other
year, any type of composted manure (chicken,
horse, and cow) can be substituted (Oakes 2006).
Manure can be applied in late fall or early winter
(Oakes 2006).
Currently researchers are investigating methods of
vegetative propagation in order to increase the
supply of plant materials for restoration projects.
M.C. Mills (2011) found that planting giant cane
amongst established, clump-forming grasses such as
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and Indiangrass
(Sorgastrum nutans), may provide some
environmental facilitation, while reducing direct
competition because of the differing growth
strategies. Paul R. Gagnon (2009) implores
managers to consider fire-maintained plant
assemblages within bottomland hardwood forests as
part of restoration plans. Dr. Brian Baldwin (2009)
at Mississippi State University has, in collaboration
with EPA Region 4, NRCS-AWCC and the
Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI),
developed propagation techniques and re-
established cane in the Pearl River watershed on
land belonging to the Mississippi Choctaw (Jolley et
al. 2009).
Not only the MBCI but also other tribes have put
much effort into restoring cane stands so that they
can continue their traditions (Oakes 2006). Cane has
been re-established on the Chitimacha Reservation
in Louisiana and at Kituwha, North Carolina with
the Eastern Band of Cherokee (NRCS 2002. 2004).
Due to limited access to favorable habitat on tribal
lands, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is
working closely with local conservation groups and
land managers to preserve and expand existing cane,
establish new canebrakes, and secure access for
Cherokee artists (D. Cozzo, pers. comm. 2011).
Basketry traditions are being passed down to the
youth, as part of cultural revitalization (Figure 9).
Figure 9. High school student Jorree Wolfe, Eastern Band of
Cherokee Indians, making a basket of giant cane. Photo by Beth
Ross Johnson.
Management
Harvesting giant cane judiciously can be good for
the plant as Sarah H. Hill (1997) explains among the
Southeastern Cherokee: “Cutting cane also
stimulated its regeneration by creating openings for
the spread of new stems. Selective cutting of stalks
for baskets is an effective way to prune stands.”
Native Americans burned cane once every seven to
10 years (Campbell 1985. Hill 1997. Platt and
Brantley 1997). Writing about the prairies in south
central Arkansas, geologist Featherstonhaugh (1844)
recorded the burning of the cane and high grass by
the Indians to secure their game. Ecologists have
concluded that fire will maintain and even expand
canebrakes if occurring once every 10 years
(DeVivo 1991. Shepherd et al. 1951, Hughes 1957).
Fires set in fall, winter, or spring may improve
conditions for cane and with fire exclusion, cane
colonies lose vigor and are gradually replaced by
woody vegetation (Hughes 1957. Platt and Brantley
1997). Paul R. Gagnon and William J. Platt (2008a)
hypothesize that multiple disturbances that include
fire and windstorms or other space-opening
disturbances promote monotypic-stand formation in
Page 7
giant cane and fire spurs clonal growth in giant
cane’s mature phase.
As early as 1913, anthropologist Frank G. Speck
recorded among the Cherokee weavers in the Great
Smoky Mountains of western North Carolina that
the giant cane was getting scarcer (Speck 1920). In
1979, Libby Jo Devine (1979) completed a Master’s
Thesis at Georgia State University and she recorded
that “a [southeastern] basketmaker will have to
travel 60-100 miles for river cane, as it is becoming
scarce.” Many of the floodplain forests connected
with the river systems with canebrakes were
converted to agricultural lands. Canebrakes also
diminished with changes in hydrological regimes
with dams and the creation of recreational
impoundments, and overgrazing by domestic
livestock (Brantley and Platt 2001. Thomas et al.
1996). Many patches of cane have stopped
producing due to overcrowding of hardwoods and
pines and thinning the trees 50 to 75 percent will
allow cane to have less competition for growth and
increase productivity (Oakes 2006).
Fires, from lightning and Native Americans
rejuvenated canebrakes, but after European
settlement these fire regimes were altered,
sometimes converting giant cane to grasslands or
open savanna (Brantley and Platt 2001. Wells and
Whitford 1976 cited in Platt and Brantley 1997). In
the absence of enriching fire and flood, canebrakes
reach maturity in about ten years. Stalks then begin
to decline in vigor and gradually die. In contrast to
the rapid re-growth that follows disturbance,
undisturbed regeneration may take as long as several
decades (Hughes 1966).
Steven Platt and Christopher Brantley (1997)
suggest that the best strategy for cane restoration is
to manage and expand existing cane stands through
a combination of thinning the overstory, periodic
burning, and possibly fertilization. Hughes (1957)
also recommended controlled burning as a means to
renovating decadent cane stands.
Control
Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This plant is available from native plant nurseries.
Also check with your local NRCS Plant Materials
Center for possible sources of existing plant
materials. Research conducted on canebrakes that
are flowering but not producing seed indicates that
many canebrakes in some areas are composed of
only one individual, or two related individuals.
Giant cane is like people when it comes to
producing offspring. In order for restoration projects
using vegetative material or seed to be successful in
the long term, restoration plants should use a
mixture of genotypes (cane plants/propagules from
several locations or watersheds) (Baldwin 2010).
References
Baldwin, Brian S., M. Cirtain, D.S. Horton, J.
Ouellette, S. Franklin and J.E. Preece. 2009.
Propagation methods for rivercane [Arundinaria
gigantea L. (Walter) Muhl.]. Castanea 74(3):300-
316.
Baldwin, B., J. Wright, C. Perez, M. Kent-First, and
N. Reichert. 2010 Rivercane (Arundinaria
gigantea) flowering, but no seed production: A
potential answer. Seventh Eastern Native Grass
Symp. Knoxville, TN. Oct 5-8.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science, University of
Tenessee.
Bartram, W. 1996. William Bartram Travels and
Other Writings. Literary Classics of the United
States, Inc., New York, N.Y.
Benson, T.J., N.M. Anich, J.D. Brown, and J.C.
Bednarz. 2009. Swainson’s warbler nest-site
selection in eastern Arkansas. The Condor
11(4):694-705.
Brantley, C.G. and S.G. Platt. 2001. Canebrake
conservation in the Southeastern United States.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 29(4):1175-1181.
Brain, J.P., G. Roth, and W.J. De Reuse. Tunica,
Bioloxi, and Ofo. 2004. Pages 586-597 in:
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 14:
Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Bushnell, D.L., Jr. 1909. The Choctaw of Bayou
Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. Bureau
of American Ethnology Bulletin, Number 48.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Campbell, J.J.N. 1985. The Land of Cane and
Clover: Presettlement Vegetation in the So-called
Bluegrass Region of Kentucky. Report from the
Herbarium. University of Kentucky, Lexington.
Cirtain, M.C. 2003. Restoration of Arundinaria
gigantea (Walter) Muhl. Canebrakes Using
Micropropagation. Master’s Thesis. University of
Memphis, Tennessee.
Clark, L.G. and J.K. Triplett. 2007. Arundinaria.
Pages 17-20 in: Flora of North America vol. 24.
Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Poaceae,
Part 1. Flora of North American Editorial
Committee. Oxford University Press, New York,
N.Y.
Page 8
Crow, G.E. and C.B. Hellquist. 2000. Aquatic and
Wetland Plants of Northeastern North America.
Vol II: Angiosperms: Monocotyledons. A Revised
and Enlarge Edition of Norman C. Fassett’s A
Manual of Aquatic Plants. University of
Wisconsin Press, Madison.
Darden, J.P., S. Darden, and M.D. Brown. 2006. In
the family tradition: a conversation with
Chitimacha basketmakers. Pages 29-41 in: The
Work of Tribal Hands: Southeastern Indian Split
Cane Basketry. D.B. Lee and H.F. Gregory (eds.).
Northwestern State University Press,
Natchitoches, Louisiana.
Devine, L.J. 1979. Basketry in the Southeast United
States. Master’s Thesis. Art Education
Department. Georgia State University, Atlanta.
DeVivo, J. 1991. The Indian use of fire and land
clearance in the southern Appalachians. Pages
306-310 in: Fire and the Environment: Ecological
and Cultural Perspectives. S.C. Nodvin and T.A.
Waldrop (eds.). U.S. Department of Agriculture
Forest Service Southeast For. Exp. Stn., Gen.
Tech. Rep. SE-69.
Duggan, B.J. and B.H. Riggs. 1991. Studies in
Cherokee Basketry. Occasional Paper No. 9.
Frank H. McClung Museum. The University of
Tennessee, Knoxville.
Farrelly, D. 1984. The Book of Bamboo. Sierra
Club Books, San Francisco.
Flint, 1828. Western States. (complete citation not
available).
Fogelson, R.D. 2004. Cherokee in the East. Pages
337-353 in: Handbook of North American Indians
Vol. 14: Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Gagnon, P.R. 2006. Population Biology and
Disturbance Ecology of a Native North American
Bamboo (Arundinaria gigantea). PH.D.
dissertation, Department of Biological Sciences.
Louisian State University, Baton Rouge.
_____. 2009. Fire in floodplain forests in the
Southeastern USA: insights from disturbance
ecology of native bamboo. Wetlands 29(2):520-
526.
Gagnon, P.R. and W.J. Platt. 2008a. Multiple
disturbances accelerate clonal growth in a
potentially monodominant bamboo. Ecology
89(3):612-618.
_____. 2008b. Reproductive and seedling ecology
of a semelparous native bamboo (Arundinaria
gigantea, Poaceae).
Galloway, P. and C.S. Kidwell. 2004. Choctaw in
the East. Pages 499-519 in: Handbook of North
American Indians Vol. 14 Southeast. R.D.
Fogelson (Vol. ed.). Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.
Gettys, M. 1979. Basketry of the Eastern United
States. Self-published.
_____. 2003. Weave, Wattle &. Weir: Fiber Art of
the Native Southeast, September 7-October 19,
2003. Tennessee Valley Art Center. Tennessee
Valley Art Association, Tuscumbia , Ala.
Gregory, Jr. H.F. 2004. Survival and maintenance
among Louisiana tribes. Pages 653-658 in:
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 14:
Southeast. R.D. Fogelson Vol. ed. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Hamel, P.B. and M.U. Chiltoskey. 1975. Cherokee
Plants and their Uses—A 400 Year History.
Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina.
Hamlington, J.A., M.D. Smith, B.S. Baldwin and
C.J. Anderson. 2011. Native cane propagation
and site establishment in Alabama. Natl. Wildlife
Soc. Mtg. Waikoloa, HI, 5-10 Nov.
Harper, R.M. 1928. Economic Botany of Alabama.
Part 2: Catalogue of the Trees, Shrubs, and Vines
of Alabama with their Economic Properties and
Local Distribution. Monograph 9, Geological
Survey of Alabama. University of Alabama.
Hill, S.H. 1997. Weaving New Worlds:
Southeastern Cherokee Women and their
Basketry. The University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.
Hitchcock, A.S. and A. Chase. 1951. Manual of the
Grasses of the United States. U.S.D.A.
Miscellaneous Publication No. 200. United States
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Hughes, R.H. 1951. Observations of cane
(Arundinaria) flowers, seed, and seedlings in the
North Carolina Coastal Plain. Bulletin of the
Torrey Botanical Club 78(2):113-121.
_____. 1957. Response of cane to burning in the
North Carolina coastal plain. North Carolina
Agric. Exp. Stn., Tech. Bull. 402.
_____. 1966. Fire ecology of canebrakes. Pages
149-58 in: Fifth Annual Tall Timbers Fire
Ecology Conference Proceedings. Tall Timbers
Research Station, Tallahassee, Florida.
Jolley, R., B. Baldwin, D.M. Neal, and G. Ervin.
2009. Restoring endangered ecosystems:
Canebrakes. Symposium: Improving wildlife
habitat through the effective use of plants.
Wildlife Soc. 16th Ann. Conf. Monterey, CA.
20-24 Sep.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory, and G.A. Stokes. 1987.
Tribes of Louisiana from 1542 to the Present.
Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.
Lee, D.B. 2002. Uski Taposhik Cane Basketry
Traditions of the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians.
Video. NSU, Louisiana Regional Folklife
Program.
_____. 2006. The ties that bind: cane basketry
traditions among the Chitimacha and the Jena
Band of Choctaw Pages 43-71 in: The Work of
Tribal Hands: Southeastern Indian Split Cane
Basketry. D.B. Lee and H.F. Gregory (eds.).
Northwestern State University Press,
Natchitoches, Louisiana.
Leftwich, R.L. 1970. Arts and Crafts of the
Cherokee. Cherokee Publications, Cherokee, NC.
Page 9
Marsh, D.L. 1977. The taxonomy and ecology of
cane, Arundinaria gigantea (Walter) Muhlenburg.
Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Arkansas, Little
Rock.
Meanley, B. 1966. Some observations on habitats of
the Swianson’s warbler. Living Bird 5:151-165.
Mills, M.C. 2011. Empirical studies of Arundinaria
species for restoration purposes. Master’s degree
thesis, Mississippi State University, Starkville.
Mills, M.C., B.S. Baldwin, and G.N. Ervin. 2011.
Evaluating physiological and growth responses of
Arundinaria species to inundation. Castanea
76:371-385.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American
Ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Morton, J.F. 1963. Principal wild food plants of the
United States excluding Alaska and Hawaii.
Economic Botany 17(4):319-330.
Neal, D.M., B.S. Baldwin, G.N. Ervin, R.L. Jolley,
J.N.J. Campbell, M. Cirtain, J. Seymour, and J.W.
Neal. 2011. Assessment of seed storage
alternatives for rivercane [Arundinaria gigantean
L.(Walter) Muhl.]. Unpublished data.
Neuman, R.W. 2006. Split cane items in Louisiana:
a view from archeology and ethnology. Pages 5-
26 in: The Work of Tribal Hands: Southeastern
Indian Split Cane Basketry. D.B. Lee and H.F.
Gregory (eds.). Northwestern State University
Press, Natchitoches, Louisiana.
Noss, R.F., E.T. LaRoe III, and J.M. Scott. 1995.
Endangered Ecosystems of the United States: A
Preliminary Assessment of Loss and Degradation.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington,
D.C.
NRCS. 2002. Chitimacha River Cane Project
Results 2001-2002. Golden Meadow Plant
Materials Center, USDA NRCS, Galliano, LA.
NRCS. 2004. Chitimacha River Cane Project
Results 2004. Golden Meadow Plant Materials
Center, USDA NRCS, Galliano, LA.
Oakes, T. 2006. Native cane conservation guide:
Arundinaria gigantea ssp. tecta, traditionally
known as swamp cane. Pages 211-218 in: The
Work of Tribal Hands: Southeastern Indian Split
Cane Basketry. D.B. Lee and H.F. Gregory (eds.).
Northwestern State University Press,
Natchitoches, Louisiana.
Platt, S.G. and C.G. Brantley. 1997. Canebrakes: an
ecological and historical perspective. Castanea
62(1):8-21.
Platt, S.G., C.G. Brantley, and T.R. Rainwater.
2001. Canebrake fauna: wildlife diversity in a
critically endangered ecosystem. The Journal of
the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 117(1):1-19.
_____. 2004. Observations of flowering cane
(Arundinaria gigantea) in Louisiana, Mississippi,
and South Carolina.
Porcher, F.P. 1991. Resources of the Southern
Fields and Forests: Medical, Economical, and
Agricultural. Norman Publishing, San Francisco.
Originally published in 1863 by Steam-power
Press of Evans &. Cogswell, Charleston, South
Carolina.
Russell, D.P., D.M. Neal, J. Wright, R.L. Jolley,
B.S. Baldwin, G.N. Ervin and N.A. Reichert.
2011. Riparian stabilization with Arundinaria
gigantea in Choctaw land, Mississippi. Joint
meeting of the Intern. and Amer. Bamboo
Society. Lafayette, LA. 13-16 Oct.
Schoonover, J.E., K.W.J. Williard, C. Blattel, and C.
Yocum. 2010. The utility of giant cane as a
riparian buffer species in southern Illinois
agricultural landscapes. Agroforest Systems
80:97-107.
Scott, J.A. 1986. The Butterflies of North America.
Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
Silberhorn, G. 1996. Cane Arundinaria gigantea
(Walt.) Muhl. Technical Report No. 96-7.
Wetlands Program, School of Marine Science,
Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of
William and Mary. Gloucester Point, Virginia.
Speck, F.G. 1920. Decorative art and basketry of the
Cherokee. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the
City of Milwaukee 2(2):53-86.
_____. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained from
the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive Man
14:49-75.
Stewart, M.A. 2007. From king cane to king cotton:
razing cane in the Old South. Environmental
History 12:59-79.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1955. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Ph.D. Thesis, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut.
Swanton, J.R. 1931. Source material for the social
and ceremonial life of the Choctaw Indians.
Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American
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_____. 1942. Source material on the history and
ethnology of the Caddo Indians. Smithsonian
Institution Bureau of American Ethnology
Bulletin 132. United States Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.
_____. 1946. The Indians of the Southeastern
United States. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of
American Ethnology Bulletin 137. United States
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Taylor, J.E. 2006. Arundinaria gigantea. In: Fire
Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S.
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Laboratory (Producer). Available:
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Thomas, B.G., E.P. Wiggers, and R.L. Clawson.
1996. Habitat selection and breeding status of
Swainson’s warblers in Southern Missouri. The
Journal of Wildlife Management 60(3):611-616.
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Page 10
Prepared By: M. Kat Anderson and T. Oakes,
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Team,
Greensboro, NC.
Citation
Anderson, M.K. and T. Oakes, 2011. Plant Guide
for Giant Cane Arundinaria gigantea. USDA-
Natural Resources Conservation Service, National
Plant Data Team. Greensboro, NC 27401.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Brian Baldwin,
David Cozzo, Gary Ervin and Karla Keats
(Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians) for excellent
editing of this Plant Guide and to Jeremy West for
editing and formatting the document. Garret
Thomassie provided information on Chitimacha
giant cane restoration on their reservation.
Appreciation is expressed to Steve Dana for help
with the photos and to the Shields Library at UC
Davis for use of its vast library collections and
interlibrary loan services to find limited and obscure
library materials in book, microfilm, and video form
from many institutions across the country.
Published February 2012
Edited: 08Nov2011 jw. 16Feb2012 jad
For more information about this and other plants,
please contact your local NRCS field office or
Conservation District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
and visit the PLANTS Web site at
http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant Materials
Program Web site http://plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or
availability of other Web sites.
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Page 1
Plant Guide
WHITE SAGE
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.
Plant Symbol = ARLU
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. University of California-Davis Arboretum
or sweat lodge) with the flowering end toward the
fire. The leaves were burned as an incense to cleanse
and drive away bad spirits, evil influences, bad
dreams, bad thoughts, and sickness. A small pinch of
baneberry (Actea rubra) was often mixed with it for
this purpose. The smoke was used to purify people,
spaces, implements, utensils, horses, and rifles in
various ceremonies. The Lakota also make bracelets
for the Sun Dance from white sage (Rogers 1980).
The Cheyenne use the white sage in their Sun Dance
and Standing Against Thunder ceremonies (Hart
1976). Other tribes who used white sage include the
Arapaho, Comanche, Gros Ventre, Creek, Navaho,
Tewa, and Ute (Nickerson 1966, Carlson and Jones
1939, Hart 1976, Thwaites 1905, Denig 1855, Elmore
1944, Robbins et al. 1916, Chamberlin 1909).
The Dakota and other tribes used white sage tea for
stomach troubles and many other ailments (Gilmore
1977). The Cheyenne used the crushed leaves as
snuff for sinus attacks, nosebleeds, and headaches
(Hart 1976). The Crow made a salve for use on sores
by mixing white sage with neck-muscle fat (probably
from buffalo) (Hart 1976). They used a strong tea as
an astringent for eczema and as a deodorant and an
antiperspirant for underarms and feet. The Kiowa
made a bitter drink from white sage, which they used
to reduce phlegm and to relieve a variety of lung and
stomach complaints (Vestal and Shultes 1939).
Usually, they chewed the stem and leaves and
swallowed the juice.
The Kiowa-Apaches used a thin, sharp-pointed
section of the stem as a moxa to relieve headaches or
other pain (Jordan 1965). The Chinese also use an
Artemisia species as a moxa to relieve pain such as
arthritis. The Kiowa also used an infusion of white
sage plants for the lungs, to cut phlegm, and for
stomach trouble. The Mesquakie used the leaves as a
poultice to “cure sores of long standing” (Smith
1928). They also made a tea of the leaves to treat
tonsillitis and sore throat and a smudge of the leaves
to drive away mosquitoes. The Omaha used the
leaves in a tea for bathing and used the powdered
leaves to stop nosebleeds (Gilmore 1913).
Both the Pawnee and the Bannock women drank
Artemisia ludoviciana tea during their moon time, or
menstrual periods (Dunbar 1880). During the time
that women lived away from their lodges in a
menstrual hut, they drank the bitter tea made from
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Silver wormwood, white sagebrush, wild sage, prairie
sage, wormwood, white mugwort, western mugwort,
Louisiana sage, darkleaf mugwort, Mexican
sagewort, Chihuahua sagewort, Garfield tea, lobed
cudweed, man sage
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: Burning white sage and “smudge
sticks” (the process of harvesting sage stems and
tying the stem together into a “smudge stick”), was
and is used for cleansing and purification (Gilmore
1977, Kindscher 1992). White sage or “man sage”
was perhaps the most important ceremonial plant of
the Cheyenne (Hart 1976). The sage was spread
along the borders and on the altar in almost every
ceremonial lodge (including the stone peoples lodge
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
either the leaves of white sage or the root of A.
frigida (Gilmore 1930).
The Blackfeet use the white sage in sweat-lodge
rituals and as an ingredient in a stream vapor inhaled
for respiratory problems. The “Giver of Breath”
heals the ability to breathe with this powerful plant
medicine.
According to Moerman (1986) Artemisia ludoviciana
was used for the following:
• The Fox used a poultice of leaves to heal old
sores, a burning smudge to drive away
mosquitoes and to “smoke ponies when they
have the distemper”, and an infusion of leaves to
heal tonsillitis and sore throats.
• The Omaha used the leaves as a bath for fevers
and to prevent nosebleeds.
• The Paiute used a decoction of the plant as a
soaking bath to relieve aching feet, to heal
stomachaches, as a poultice for rheumatism or
other aches, as a poultice or compress for
headaches, to stop diarrhea, in a sweatbath for
rheumatism, and to relieve the itching and
discomfort of rashes and skin eruptions.
• The Shoshone took white sage for colds, coughs,
headaches, stomachaches, as a compress for
fevers, to stop diarrhea, as a physic, as a
regulator of menstrual disorders, and for
influenza.
• The Washoe used white sage as a cooling,
aromatic wash for headaches, colds, and coughs.
The lactone glycosides, santonin and artemisin, are
probably found in all Artemisia species and account
for their anthelmintic properties (Moore 1979).
Thujone, a terpene-like ketone and essential oil, is
also found in the plant and may be responsible for
some of its medicinal effects (Kinscher 1992).
However, it is poisonous in large doses. The Food
and Drug Administration classifies Artemisia as an
unsafe herb containing “a volatile oil which is an
active narcotic poison” (Duke 1985).
Wildlife &. Livestock: Sagebrush furnishes essential
cover for many of the smaller desert animals (Martin
et al. 1951). Its foliage and flower clusters constitute
most of the diet of the sage grouse, and these parts
together with the twigs bearing them are the primary
source of food for antelope and mule deer. Range
cattle also make good use of sagebrush as forage.
Other mammals, which browse the foliage and stems,
include jackrabbits, black-tailed rabbits, white-tailed
rabbits, cottontails, chipmunks, gophers, ground
squirrels, and various species of mice, prairie dogs,
kangaroo rats, and white-throated wood rats. Elk and
mountain sheep also browse on the foliage and twigs.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). White sage
is a white-woolly, perennial herb 3-7 dm (1-2 1/4 ft)
tall, with a strong odor of sagebrush. The stems are
erect and often clustered from creeping rhizomes.
The leaves are alternate, entire to irregularly toothed
or lobed, 3-11 cm (1.25-4.5 in) long, up to 1.5 cm
(9/16 in) wide. Flower heads are small tight greenish
clusters among the leaves near the ends of the stems.
White sage flowers from August through September.
The fruits are dry, smooth, broadly cylindrical
achenes. There are four subspecies of Artemisia
ludoviciana (Hickman 1993).
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='White sage occurs from east of the Cascade
Mountains in Washington and Oregon, in' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='California,
north to' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='eastern Canada, south to Texas and northern
Mexico, and in Montana, Utah, Colorado, and in the
Great Plains states. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: White sage grows in riparian areas along
both perennial and intermittent streams, in the
sagebrush steppe, in both shortgrass and tallgrass
prairies, and in semi-disturbed sites. It grows on dry,
sandy to rocky soils below 3500 m.
Most of the wild sages are abundant in their natural
habitats. White sage and other Artemisia species can
be propagated by seeds, by division of the rootstock,
or by cuttings taken in the early summer (Kindscher
1992).
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation from Cuttings: Artemisia ludoviciana
spreads vigorously from rhizomes. Plants can easily
be divided and replanted.
•
In greenhouse conditions, it is best to dig up and
separate plants in late fall or winter. This is the
“quiescent” period that follows seed maturation,
and leaves are senescent (dried up and brown
colored).
Page 3
• Split the plant clump into pieces by hand, then
cut the plant into sections, each with one or more
buds.
• For dividing the whole plant, gently loosen the
soil around the plant, taking care to not damage
the roots, and then lift the plant gently with a
pitchfork. shake off as much soil from the roots
as possible.
• Divide the plant into smaller pieces by hand,
retaining only healthy, vigorous sections, each
with new buds.
• Replant the divisions as soon as possible. It is
important the plants don’t dry out, so if
replanting is delayed a couple of hours, dip the
plants briefly in water and keep them in a sealed
plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you are
ready to plant them.
• Cut back the old top-growth and replant the
divided plant sections to the same depth as
before.
• When replanting, ensure that the roots are well
spread out in the planting hole and the plant
firmed in. Water newly planted divisions
thoroughly. take care not to expose the roots by
washing away soil when watering.
• Plants should be planted in the full sun in a light,
loose soil. Plants should be planted on 12-18”
centers.
• As plants are becoming established, the rooting
zone needs to be kept moist.
Propagation by Seed: When the soil has warmed to at
least 45ºF (7ºC) in the spring, sow hardy Artemisia
species where they are to flowers.
• Seeds can also be sown in pots or seed trays and
either out-planted in their final positions in late
fall or over-wintered in a cold frame to be out-
planted in spring. This technique is particularly
useful in gardens with clay soil that is slow to
warm up in spring.
• The two main methods of sowing outdoors are
broadcast and drills. For both, prepare the
seedbed first by digging over the soil to one
spade depth, then rake over and firm.
• Broadcast Sowing: Sprinkle seeds thinly and
evenly on the surface of the prepared seedbed
and rake them in lightly. Label the seedbeds,
then water the area gently but thoroughly with a
fine spray.
• Sowing in drills: Use either a trowel tip or the
corner of a hoe, mark out shallow drill holes 3-6”
(8-15 cm) apart, depending on the ultimate size
of the plant. Sow seeds thinly and evenly by
sprinkling or placing them along each drill at the
appropriate depth. Carefully cover with soil and
pack firmly. Label each row and water gently
but thoroughly with a fine spray.
• To prevent overcrowding, the seedlings usually
need to be thinned. to minimize disturbance to a
seedling being retained, press the soil around it
after thinning the adjacent seedlings.
• Water the newly establishing seedlings fairly
frequently until the roots have developed.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
‘Silver Bouquet’, ‘Silver Frost’, ‘Silver King’, ‘Silver
Queen’, and ‘Valerie Finnis’ are several cultivars that
have been used in varies planting throughout the
range of Artemisia ludoviciana. Consult your local
nurseries to choose the right cultivar for your specific
landscape. ARLU is available through your regional
native plant nursuries within the species range.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley.
London, New York, &. Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25:517-543.
Chamberlin, R.V. 1909. Some plant names of the Ute
Indians. American Anthropologist 11:27-40.
Denig, E.T. 1855. An account of medicine and
surgery as it exists among the Creek Indians. St.
Louis Medicinal and Surgical Journal 13:312-318.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Duke, J.A. 1985. CRC handbook of medicinal herbs.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Dunbar, J.D. 1880. The Pawnee Indians. Magazine
of American History 5(5):321-326.
Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
University of New Mexico, Monographs of the
School of American Research. Number 8.
Gilmore, M. 1913a. A study in the Ethnobotany of
the Omaha Indians. Nebraska State Historical
Society 17:314-357.
Page 4
Gilmore, M. 1913b. Some native Nebraska plants
with their uses by the Dakota. Nebraska State
Historical Society Proceedings and Collections
17:358-370.
Gilmore, M. 1913c. The aboriginal geography of the
Nebraska Country. Mississippi Valley Historical
Association Proceedings 6:317-331.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977 (1919). Uses of plants by the
Indians of the Missouri River region. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln Nebraska.
Reprint of a work first published as the 33rd Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
Washington, D.C.
Grinnell,G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.)1993. The Jepson manual higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1400 pp.
Jordan, J. A. 1965. Ethnobotany of the Kiowa-
Apache. Master’s Thesis, University of Oklahoma.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1:145-281.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
American. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, New
Mexico.
Nickerson, G.S. 1966. Some data on plains and
great basin Indian uses of certain native plants.
Tebiwa 9.1: 45-47.
Robbins, W., J.P. Harrington, &. B. Freire-Marreco
1916. Ethnobotany of the Tewa. Bulletin 5.
Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American
Ethnology. Washington, D.C.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Ojibwa Indians. Bulletin of
the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee
4(3):327-325.
Thwaites, R.G. (ed.) 1904. Original Journals of the
Lewis and Clark Expedition. 6 Vols. Dodd, Mead,
and Company, New York, New York.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Warren Roberts
Superintendent, Arboretum, University of California,
Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='arlu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Species Coordinator
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page 5
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
PACIFIC MADRONE
Arbutus menziesii Pursh
Plant Symbol = ARME
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© William R. Hewlett
California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
Water was poured into another watertight basket in
which rocks, heated in the coals of a fire, were added.
The rocks were constantly stirred to keep the basket
from burning. The heated water was then poured
over the meal until the entire flavor was extracted
from the berries.
Berries were strung to make necklaces, and leaves
and berries were used as decorations (Moerman
1998). The berries were also used as bait to catch
steelhead.
The Miwok and the Cahuilla chewed the leaves to
treat cramps and stomachaches (Barrett &. Gifford
1933. Bean &. Saubel 1972). Many tribes used an
infusion of madrone bark to treat sores on the skin.
The Pomo made a tannic tea from the bark that was
used to wash sores, but not poison oak (Goodrich et
al. 1980). However, it is probable that the Salinan
taught the Padres at Mission San Antonio de Padua
how to use the berries and leaves of Pacific madrone
and the related manzanita to make a wash used for
treating poison oak (Heinsen 1972). Bark tea was
drunk to treat colds and sore throats. Pomo women
used an infusion of the bark as an astringent beauty
wash to close the pores and soften the skin on their
faces.
Wildlife: Pacific madrone trees provide edible berries
and habitat for many bird species including robins,
cedar waxwings and bandtailed pigeons, varied
thrush, and quail. The trees provide perches and
nesting places for many bird species. Cavity nesting
birds that utilize Pacific madrone are red-breasted
sapsuckers, woodpeckers, downy woodpeckers,
mountain chickadees, house wrens, and western
bluebirds (McMurray 1989). Mule deer, raccoons,
ringtails, and bears eat the berries. Mule deer do not
generally browse on mature leaves except during
times of scarcity of other foliage. However, after fire
the plants will sprout up with new shoots that are
eaten by mule deer as well as domestic sheep, goats,
and cattle. The flowers attract bees.
Erosion control: Pacific madrone can prevent erosion
in sites that experience frequent disturbance. The
plants have a widely spreading root system and they
quickly reestablish after disturbance by re-sprouting
from the stump or underground burl (McMurray
1989).
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Madrone madroño, madroña, bearberry, strawberry
tree
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: In his diary of the Portolá expedition
of 1769, Pedro Fages (1937:59) lists madrone as one
of the foods of the Salinan. The Salinan, Miwok,
Pomo, and other California tribes have long used the
berries of Pacific madrone for food and to make
cider. Berries within reach were hand picked and
placed into baskets. The higher branches were
shaken or hit with a long stick to knock off the
berries into a basket held below or onto a cleared area
of ground beneath the tree. The gathered berries
were eaten fresh, made into cider, or cooked and
dried for later use. Fresh berries were eaten in small
quantities (Bocek 1984) probably because the high
tannin content makes them astringent. The Miwok
chewed the fresh or dried berries for flavor but did
not swallow them (Barrett &. Gifford 1933. Moerman
1998). Most often, the berries were used to make
unfermented cider. The berries were first pounded
into a course meal. The meal was placed into a
straining basket, which was placed over another
basket that was so tightly woven it could hold water.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Other: The dense, fine-grained, wood is heavy and
brittle. It has been used for flooring and cabinets but
is generally unsuitable for use in construction
because it does not dry uniformly and can crack and
split. Pacific madrone does make a beautiful veneer
and is used for pulp and firewood. Charcoal made
from madrone wood has been used in the past as a
component in gunpowder (Parsons 1966). The bark
was sometimes used for tanning leather.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Heath family (Ericaceae). Pacific madrone
is an evergreen tree that is native to the northwestern
Coast Ranges of North America. The trees have
single or multiple trunks with rounded, spreading
crowns. Mature trees reach heights of 6m to 30m or
more depending on environmental conditions. The
alternately arranged leaves are oval, (7 to 15 cm
long), thick, and have finely serrated margins. The
leaf surfaces are glossy dark green above with lighter
grayish green beneath. Leaves remain on the plant
for two years before they are shed. The striking
cinnamon red bark is thin and smooth. The bark on
young branches peels in large papery flakes to reveal
an attractive, satiny green surface beneath that
darkens with time to deep red. In midsummer, the
exfoliated bark, along with shed leaves in shades of
red to orange, form a lovely colorful carpet beneath
the tree canopy (Saunders 1923). Fragrant bell-
shaped flowers appear in large, showy clusters at the
ends of the branches during the spring, from March
through May, but sometimes as early as January. The
flowers (8mm) are yellowish-white to pink and
consist of 5 fused petals. The fruits are loose clusters
of bumpy, scarlet red berries (8 to 12mm) that
contain a mealy pulp and about 20 hard seeds. The
genus was named from the Celtic word “arboise,”
which means rough fruit (Young &. Young 1992).
The early Spanish Californians named the tree
“madroño” after the strawberry tree (Arbutus unido),
which grows in Spain and other nearby
Mediterranean countries (Parsons 1966). The edible
fruits ripen from the early fall until December or
January.
Distribution: Pacific madrone is native to the West
Coast of North America and occurs from the
Southern Coast Ranges of California to British
Columbia in the north from 100 to 1500 m.
Occasional populations are found in the Sierra
Nevada Range at middle elevations. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Pacific madrone is found on wooded slopes
and canyons in oak, redwood, and mixed evergreen
forests as well as in chaparral communities. The
trees are commonly associated with other species and
rarely occur in pure stands.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='These trees are adapted to humid coastal sites as well
as dry foothill slopes and canyons in areas with dry
summers and mild winters. They grow on soils with
low nitrogen and low moisture content.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The Pacific madrone is a spectacular tree. Its showy
bark, flowers and berries along with the gracefully
crooked branches inspired Bret Harte to compose a
poem about its loveliness (see Parsons 1966). But,
alas, they can be difficult to grow. These trees
should only be planted in very well drained soils in
areas with non-alkaline water. Although generally
started from seed, Pacific madrone may also be
propagated from cuttings, grafting, or layers.
To start from seed, gather the fruits from the trees
when they are ripe—generally from October to
December. Soften the berries by soaking them in
water and then separate the seeds from the pulp.
Completely dry the seeds before storing. Dried seeds
may be stored for up to 2 years at room temperature.
For best germination, use seeds that have been
stratified by pre-chilling for one to two months at 2 to
5 degrees C. Plant the seeds, in either spring or fall,
in containers that have been filled with a mix of peat,
sand, and gravel. Allow the seedlings to reach at
least two feet in height before transplanting.
Established trees can live up to 200 years or more
and do not transplant well, so select a site where the
tree can remain permanently. Choose a place with
full sun to partial shade well away from lawns and
other plants that require summer watering. Deeply
irrigate the seedlings once a month during the
summer months until established. Do not splash
water upon the trunk or leaves while watering, as the
trees are susceptible to fungus that resides in the soil.
Once established, the trees will require only
infrequent, deep irrigation during unusually dry
summers. The trees develop an underground, woody
organ called a ‘burl’ that re-sprouts if the stem is
destroyed.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In areas managed for conifer timber production,
Pacific madrone has been considered a “weedy” tree
species. This is because it can out-compete
replanting of timber species because of its ability to
resprout from its stump or burl after disturbance.
Interestingly, there is some evidence that Pacific
madrone can facilitate growth of Douglas fir at some
sites (McMurray 1989).
In natural areas, the situation is reversed from that of
timber production areas. Pacific madrone depends on
periodic fire to reduce the shading resulting from the
closing conifer overstay. Fire suppression causes
Pacific madrone to be out-competed by species that
can better tolerate shade. Currently Pacific madrone
is declining in many of these areas due to infrequent
fires and other factors including drought, insects, and
pathogens.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Insect pests include aphids, caterpillars, woodborers,
and Madrone psyllid. The trees are susceptible to
several fungal infections, which cause leaf diseases,
root rot, and crown rot (Labadie 1978). Pacific
madrone is also affected by “sudden oak death”
caused by the introduced fungus, Phytophthora.
To keep trees healthy, apply a thick layer of mulch to
the root zone area beneath the crown and do not
garden or compact this area in any way, avoid
frequent irrigation, prune only from June to
September (when the fungus and insects are less
active), and fertilize if the tree shows signs of
deficiency (Švihra et al. 2001).
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='Pacific madrone has been declining within its range
in the Pacific Northwest in both urban and managed
areas over the last 20 years (Bergendorf &. Chalker-
Scott 2001). The exact causes of the decline are
unknown, but probably do to a combination of factors
including soil compactions, fire suppression, drought,
and introduced diseases.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedandPlantProduction='Pacific madrone is a prolific seed producer, which
produces seed every year from the age of three to five
years. One pound of seeds will produce
approximately 1,000 plants (McMurray 1989).
However, seedlings grow slowly and are highly
susceptible to mortality.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park, CA.
388 pp.
Bean, L.J. &. K. S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh (from
the earth): Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of
plants. Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian
Reservation. 225 pp.
Bergendor, D. &. L. Chalker-Scott 2001. Soil bulk
density and health of Pacific madrone. HortScience
Vol. 36, No. 3, Pp. 529.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, California.
768 pp.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Heinsen, V. 1972. Mission San Antonio de Padua
Herbs: Medicinal herbs of early days. Third edition.
Lockwood, California. 142 pp.
Hewlett, W.R. 1999. Arbutus menziesii. California
Academy of Sciences. Digital Library Project,
University of California, Berkeley. [Online].
Available: http://www.calflora.org. Accessed [15
December 2001].
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
California. 248 pp.
McMurrray, N.E. 1989. Arbutus menziesii. In: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
2001, May. Fire Effects Information System,
[Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [20 October
2001].
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 425
pp.
Page 4
Saunders, C.F. 1923. With the flowers and trees in
California. Robert M. McBride &. Company, New
York, New York. 286 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 366 pp.
Wallace, G.D. 1993. Ericaceae, Heath family. In:
Hickman, J.D., Editor. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California. Pp.544-545.
Young, J. A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. Pp.248-266.
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
' WHERE symbol='arme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 05apr02 ahv. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Uses
Wildlife
Manzanita not only provides habitat to many Pacific
animals, but supplies food to them as well. It has thick
foliage (shrubbery) that offers many animals cover from
predation. Small mammals, song birds and game birds eat
and enjoy the fruits all throughout the summer (Kauffman
and Martin, 1991. Martin, 1951) (Table 1). Then through
fecal deposition the animals disperse A. viscida seeds
(Kauffman and Martin, 1991). Deer frequently forage on
the twigs and leaves (Martin et al., 1951) (Table 1).
Fruits (Birds)
Fruits (Mammals)
Leaves and Twigs
(Ungulates)
California Jays (Cyanocitta
stelleri and Aphelocoma
californica), Mocking Bird
(Mimus polyglottos), Fox Sparrow
(Passerella iliaca), Wild Turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo), Dusky or
Blue Grouse (Dendragapus
obscures), and Band Tailed
Pigeon (Columba fasciata)
(Sibley, 2000)
Raccoon (Procyon lotor),
California Skunk (Mephitis spp.),
Western Chipmunk (Tamias
spp.), CA Ground Squirrel
(Otospermophilus beecheyi),
Mantled Ground Squirrel
(Spermophilus lateralis), Rock
Squirrel (Spermophilus
atricapillus), Coyote (Canis
latrans), Black Bear (Ursus
americanus) , and dusky footed
woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes)
Black-tailed Deer (Odocoileus
hemionus columbianus), Mule
Deer (Odocoileus hemionus)
(Reed, 2006)
Table 1: Beneficial parts of Arctostaphylos viscida for Pacific
animals (Howard, 1992. Martin, 1951).
Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current
status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state
noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Description
General: Family (Ericaceae). The genus Arctostaphylos
consists of trees and shrubs. Out of the sixty species, fifty-
STICKY WHITELEAF
MANZANITA
Arctostaphylos viscida Parry
Plant Symbol = ARVI4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Lockeford Plant Materials
Center, Lockeford, CA
Figure 1: Arctostaphylos viscida , Walker Ridge CA 2009. Photo
Lockeford Plant Materials Center.
Alternate Names
Common Alternate Names: Sticky whiteleaf manzanita
Scientific Alternate Names: There are currently three
recognized subspecies:
A. viscida ssp. mariposa (Dudley) P.V. Wells
A. viscida ssp. pulchella (Howell) P.V. Wells
A. viscida ssp. viscida
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita commonly hybridizes with
hoary manzanita (Arctostaphylos canescens) and
greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) likely
hybridizes with A. viscida ssp. mariposa and A. viscida
ssp. viscida (Howard, 1992).
Page 2
seven are native to California. Manzanita has beautiful
red bark and, like the conifer, holds its leaves year round
(Stuart and Sawyer, 2001). Different manzanita species
often hybridize with each other because the distribution of
species tends to be local, so identification down to species
is difficult when habitats overlap (Ferris, 1968. Hickman,
1993. Stuart and Sawyer, 2001).
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita is an erect, tree-like shrub
growing from 3 to 12 feet in height. The stems and twigs
can be smooth and hairless, have short stiff hairs or have
glands or gland-like structures on them. The leaves stand
upright and have an ovate to round shape and can be
classified as evergreen (Figure 1). The surface of the leaf
can be smooth and hairless or have stiff hairs, glands and
rounded nipple-like bumps called papilla.
The flowering part of the plant (inflorescence) is panicle-
like (Hickman, 1993. Howard, 1992. McMinn, 1939.
Tucker, 2009). The flowers on manzanita are round and
often referred to as “urn or bell shaped” with five lobes
and are pinkish white. The flowering period is from
February to April (Howard, 1992. Keator, 1994. McMinn,
1939). The fruits resemble tiny apples (the Spanish name
for apple is manzana) which are sticky and are available
early to late summer through early fall (Keator, 1994.
Stuart and Sawyer, 2001).
Ethnobotany
Ethnobotanical: Sticky whiteleaf manzanita is a highly
beneficial plant native to California, the berries of sticky
whiteleaf manzanita were highly valued by the Maidu,
Miwok, Wintu and possibly other tribes for eating and the
making of a delicious cider (Merriam 1967). In making
cider, the Miwok tribe would crush the berries (pai) with
a grinding tool. Water was then poured over the crushed
berries, collecting the entire flavor as it passed through
(we can compare this process to making coffee) (Figure
2).
Figure 2: Making manzanita cider. Crushed manzanita berries are in
the top winnowing basket and water is poured over the berries and
caught in a water-tight basket below. Photograph courtesy of Yosemite
National Park.
If any of the berries passed through, the liquid would be
decanted (Barrett and Gifford, 1933. Du Bois, 1935). The
Indians at Chowchilla filtered manzanita cider using deep
round openwork bowl baskets (Merriam, 1955). The
beverage would keep without souring for up to four days.
The cider was sweet and always drank before
fermentation because fermentation would make it sour
(Barrett and Gifford, 1933. Du Bois, 1935).
Anthropologist Cora Du bois (1935:20) describes the
processing and cooking of the berries among the Wintu:
”Berries pounded into coarse flour, dampened, next
morning dried and parched with hot rocks. Winnowed.
Fine flour boiled with water and made into sweetish
soup.”
Tribes known to have eaten the berries raw and also dried
and stored for winter include the Wintu (Harrington,
1984. Knudtson, 1977). However, tribes in the Yosemite
region chewed the berries for flavor, but did not swallow
them (Barrett and Gifford, 1933). The Maidu pounded the
berries in mortars and ate them without other treatment
(Merriam 1967).
The berries were collected from the manzanita bush by
hand picking into burden baskets that were hung around
the neck or by using flat sifting baskets placed underneath
the shrub. The branches would then be shaken and the
berries would collect into the baskets (Barrett and
Gifford, 1933. Dubois, 1935).
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita was also used medicinally
among Native American tribes. The Wintu tribes used the
leaves in tea to alleviate diarrhea and they soaked the
leaves to relieve poison oak symptoms (Knutdson, 1977).
The Miwok tribes chewed the leaves to help ease pain
associated with cramps and stomachaches (Barrett and
Gifford, 1933).
Indigenous stewardship methods traditionally used for
management of this plant were frequent cool temperature
prescribed burns.
Distribution: Sticky whiteleaf manzanita ranges from the
Sierra Nevada foothills to the North Coast Ranges,
Klamath Ranges and Siskiyou Mountains at elevations of
152 to 1,524 meters. It is “most commonly found in the
Sierra Nevada foothills from Shasta County to Amador
County” (McMinn, 1939). For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Website.
Habitat: Manzanita can be found in chaparral, yellow-
pine forests, rocky slopes, woodlands, coniferous forest,
sandstone outcrops, shale outcrops, subalpine forest,
serpentine soils, ridges and open areas (Ferris, 1968.
Hickman, 1993).
Adaptation
Page 3
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita is shade intolerant, and
therefore, often becomes the dominant or co-dominant
plant in the landscape (Howard, 1992).
Establishment
A hot and forceful fire will wipe out all sticky whiteleaf
manzanita, but will also stimulate dormant seeds in the
soil (Howard, 1992. Hughes et al., 1987). Seeds will
germinate the first growing season after the fire (Howard,
1992). This plant will become dominant in the landscape
three to four years after a fire (Hughes et al., 1987).
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita stands will then reach sexual
maturity a decade after the original fire (Detling, 1961).
Management
To avoid severe wildfires, it is recommended to do
prescribed burns in these communities (Green, 1977).
Sticky whiteleaf manzanita fuels fire by consistently
shredding bark and having branches that die off during
drought years (Minore, 1988). The leaves and twigs
provide optimal air circulation because of their “surface-
to-volume” ratio which helps the plant completely burn
and intensifies the fire (Green, 1977). Furthermore,
terpenes and flammable oils are found in the leaves and
twigs (Philpot, 1969). In areas where fire is suppressed,
unusually high amounts of debris from sticky whiteleaf
manzanita will be left on the ground.
Pests and Potential Problems
Swiecki at el. (2003) found root and crown rot when A.
viscida habitat overlapped with Ione manzanita
(Arctostaphylos myrtifolia) on Ione Formation soil. The
pathogen was identified as Phytophthora cinnamomi.
However, this pathogen has not been reported as causing
significant damage to native California stands.
Environmental Concerns
There are no known environmental concerns associated
with sticky whiteleaf manzanita.
Seeds and Plant Production
Collect seeds in August through October (Kaufmann,
1991) in a small paper or cloth bag. Seeds should be
completely dried and then stored in a cool, dry room with
proper air circulation until propagation.
Seed propagation can be challenging because of the thick
coat around the seed (Hart, 2005). The seeds require at
least two months to germinate (Emery, 1988).Seeds have
to be scarified before germination either with fire or acid
(Stuart and Sawyer, 2001). For example, seeds can be
treated with dilute sulphuric acid for two to four hours.
Seeds and acid should be put in a glass container and
stirred periodically with a glass rod. After scarification,
seeds should be sown in a medium and placed outside. To
scarify with fire, spread seeds in a damp medium, then
place a layer of pine needles or excelsior on top to ensure
the fire becomes hot enough. After the fire, water the
seeds thoroughly and leave the container outside (caution:
never use plastic containers when treating with fire).
For vegetative propagation, cut the semi-mature previous
season’s growth between December and January. “Treat
with a hormone solution for 10 seconds. Place in medium
that is 1 peat: 10 perlite rooting mix” (Hart, 2005). Place
in a shaded area outside, mist and water as necessary.
After roots have established, place in a medium of “1
sand: 7 peat: 7 perlite.” Whiteleaf manzanita requires
proper drainage and aeration in the soil.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area
of origin)
These plant materials are available as seed and plants
from commercial sources in California.
No known cultivar for this species.
References
Barrett, S.A., and E.W. Gifford. 1933. Indian life of the
Yosemite region, Miwok material culture. Bull. of
Milwaukee Public Museum 2(4). The Yosemite
Assoc. El Portal, CA.
Detling, L.E., 1961. The chaparral formation of
Southwestern Oregon, with consideration of it’s
postglacial history. Ecology. 42(2): 348-357.
Du Bois, C.A., 1935. Wintu ethnography. American
Archaeology and Ethnology 36(1). University of
California Publications.
Emery, D. 1988. Seed propagation of native California
plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Gardens, Santa
Barbara, CA.
Ferris, R.S., 1968. Native shrubs of the San Francisco
Bay region. University of California Press,
Berkeley, CA.
Green, L.R., 1977. Fuel reduction without fire—current
technology and ecosystem impact. In: Mooney,
Harold A., Conrad, C.E, technical coordinators. Proc.
of the symp. on the environmental consequences of
fire and fuel management in Mediterranean
ecosystems. Palo Alto, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-3.
Washington, DC: USDA, Forest Service: 163-171.
Harrington, J.P. and B.R. Bocek., 1984. Ethnobotany of
Costanoan Indians, California. Economic Botany
38(2). New York Botanical Gardens, NY, NY.
Hart, L., 2005. Propogation and cultivation of
Arctostaphylos in relation to the environment in its
natural habitat in California. Combined Proceedings
International Plant Propagators’ Society 55.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.). 1993. The Jepson Manual. University
of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Howard, J. L. 1992. Arctostaphylos viscida. In: Fire
Effects Information System, [Online]. USDA, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2011, May 25].
Hughes, T.F., Christopher, R. L., Tappeiner, J.C. II,
Newton, M. 1987. Biomass and leaf-area estimates
for varnish leaf ceanothus, deerbrush, and whiteleaf
manzanita. Western Journal of Applied Forestry.
2(4).
Page 4
Kauffman, J.B. and R.E. Martin., 1991. Factors
influencing the scarification and germination of three
montane Sierra Nevada shrubs. Northwest Science.
65(4).
Keator, G., 1994. Complete garden guide to native shrubs
of California. Chronicle books, San Francisco, CA.
Knutdson, P.M., 1977. Wintun Indians of California and
their neighbors. Naturegraph.
Martin, A., Zim, H.S., and A. Nelson., 1951. American
wildlife and plants, a guide to wildlife food habits.
McGraw Hill, NY,
McMinn, H.E., 1939. An illustrated manual of California
Shrubs. University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA.
Merriam, C.H. 1967. Ethnographic notes on California
Indian tribes. III. Ethnological notes on central
California Indian tribes. Compiled and Edited by R.F.
Heizer. Reports of the California Archaeological
Survey No. 68, Part III. University of
California Archaeological Research Facility, Dept. of
Anthropology, Berkeley.
Merriam, C.H., 1955. Studies of California Indians.
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Minore, D., Weatherly, H.G., Means, J.E. 1988. Growth
of whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida
Parry). Forest Science. 34(4).
Philpot, C.W., 1969. Seasonal changes in heat content and
ether extractive content of chamise. Res. Pap. INT-
61. Ogden, UT: USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Reed, F.A., 2006. Peterson’s field guides, mammals of
North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., NY, NY.
Sibley, D.L., 2000. The Sibley guide to birds.
Chanticleer Press, Inc., NY, NY.
Stuart, J.D. and J.O. Sawyer., 2001. Trees and shrubs of
California. University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA.
Swiecki, T.J., Bernhardt, E.A. and M. Garbelotto.,
2003. First report of root and crown rot caused by
Phytophthora cinnamomi affecting native stands of
Arctostaphylos myrtifolia and A. viscida in
California. Plant Disease. 87: 1395.
Tucker, G.C., 2009. In: Flora of North America
Paeoniaceae to Ericaceae 8:
Magnoliophyta:
170. Oxford University Press. NY, NY. Available:
http://www.efloras.org/ [2011, June 7].
Prepared By: Cathy Shirley, USDA NRCS Plant
Materials Center, Lockeford, CA with support from the
BLM and the Chicago Botanical Garden.
Citation
Shirley, C. 2011. Plant Guide for sticky whiteleaf
manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida). USDA-Natural
Resources Conservation Service, California Plant
Materials Center, Lockeford, CA 95237.
Published: April, 2012
Edited: 24Aug2011aym. 06Sep2011mka. 29Mar2012jab.
For more information about this and other plants, please
contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation
District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit the
PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant
Materials Program Web site http://plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability
of other Web sites
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
CANADIAN
WILDGINGER
Asarum canadense L.
Plant Symbol = ASCA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
cramps. The Potawatomi used the root to flavor meat
or fish and render otherwise inedible food, palatable.
Wildlife: Canadian wildginger is an alternate food
source for the pipevine swallowtail butterfly (Battus
philenor).
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Birthwort Family (Aristolochiaceae). This
herbaceous perennial is hairy, especially the petioles
and calyx. The leaves are cordate-rotund to cordate-
reniform, mostly 8-12 cm wide at anthesis, and larger
at maturity. The solitary, red-brown flowers are 2-4
cm. They are short peduncled, arising between the
pair of leaves. The fruit is capsular, opening
irregularly. The seeds are large, ovoid, and wrinkled.
The rhizome produces annually a pair of petiolate,
broad, hairy leaves and these are deciduous at the end
of the season.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found in rich woods, usually in
colonies from New Brunswick and Quebec to Ontario
and Minnesota, south to North Carolina, northern
Alabama, and northern Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by seeds: This plant is somewhat
difficult to start from seed and much easier by
division. Gather the mealy fruits when they first
begin to split. Clean the seeds, washing off all of the
pulp that might inhibit germination and sow them
outdoors immediately. They should be planted in a
shaded seedbed and well watered throughout the
summer for good germination the following spring.
Note that the seeds of Canadian wildginger, if stored
before planting, should not be kept dry. They should
be placed in sealed plastic bags at 40° F and in
slightly moist vermiculite. Seeds can also be sown in
plugs and transferred several times to larger pots.
They should be place in a greenhouse for three
months and then moved to a cold frame for three
months before planting out in the garden.
© William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Canadian snakeroot
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Abnaki used a decoction of the
plant in combination with another plant for the
treatment of colds. The Ojibwe used the roots of this
plant as an appetizer by putting it in any food as it
was being cooked. It was also used for indigestion.
The Iroquois used the roots to treat scarlet fever,
colds, urinary disorders, and headaches. The
Cherokee used the plant for a wide variety of
medicinal purposes. The roots were used to treat
coughs, colds, heart trouble, and blood medicine.
The Meskwaki used the roots for many things. The
cooked root was put into the ear for earache or sore
ears. When one could not eat certain things, this root
was cooked with these foods and it rendered them
palatable. Mud catfish were cooked with Canadian
wildginger to improve its flavor. When the root was
chewed and the fisherman used the spittle on the bait,
it enabled him to catch catfish. The Menomini used
the fresh or dried roots of Canadian wildginger as a
mild stomachic. When the patient was weak or had a
weak stomach and it might be fatal to eat something
he craved, he was fed a part of this root. Whatever
he wanted could then be eaten with impunity. The
Micmac also used the root as a stomachic and to treat
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Propagation by division: Divide mature plants in
early autumn when they start to go dormant. With
the appropriate garden tool, cut through the rhizome
at intervals of 6-8 inches. Another method is to leave
the parent plant in place and divide sections from the
edges of the clump. Replant the new divisions right
away and water them thoroughly.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
native plant nurseries within the species range.
' WHERE symbol='asca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers of the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, New York.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden. Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press. Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:1(8-175).
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
Smith, H.H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:3(327-525).
Smith, H.H. 1933. Ethnobotany of the Forest
Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum
of the City of Milwaukee 7:1-230.
Taylor, LA. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain southeastern tribes. Botanical Museum of
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
PURPLE MILKWEED
Asclepias cordifolia (Benth.)
Jepson
Plant Symbol = ASCO
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
sometimes mixed with fibers of Indian hemp,
Apocynum cannabinum. The bark is removed and the
fibers released by first rubbing between the hands
and then drawing the fibers over a stock. Twisting
the fiber opposite each other and twining them
together formed the cord. often this was
accomplished by rolling the fibers on the thigh while
twisting them together.
Wildlife: Milkweed species are attractive to
butterflies, bees, and other insects. Accordingly, this
is a wonderful horticultural plant for beautiful floral
landscaping that attracts butterflies (particularly
Monarchs) and other insects.
Toxicity: The sap contains a lethal brew of
cardenolides (heart poison), which produces vomiting
in low doses and death in higher doses. Chemicals
from the milkweed plant make the monarch
caterpillar s flesh distasteful to most animals. At one
time milkweed was classified as a noxious weed due
to reported toxic effects on livestock, and efforts
were made to eradicate. Milkweeds are thought to be
poisonous to cows and sheep.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Milkweed Family (Asclepiadaceae).
Asclepias flowers look like crowns, with the corolla
reflexed and hoods elevated above the corolla.
Purple milkweed is a glabrous perennial with
ascending stems. Leaves are opposite, oval, cordate
and clasping at base, smooth, bluish green with
purplish tints. The corolla is spreading to reflexed,
dark red-purple. the pales pinkish to purplish hoods
are slightly elevated above the corolla base, with no
horns. Fruits are large, oblong, pointed follicles
tightly packed with flat, circular seeds.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Milkweed grows in clumps beside roadways
and on abandoned farmlands and other open areas,
reaching heights of 120 to 150 cm (4 to 5 ft) during
the summer. Milkweed species grow throughout the
United States. Purple milkweed occurs on rocky
slopes, talus, woods, chaparral, mixed evergreen
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Warning - Milkweed may be toxic when taken
internally, without sufficient preparation
Ethnobotanic: People have used milkweed for fiber,
food, and medicine all over the United States and
southern Canada. Fibers from the stems of milkweed
have been identified in prehistoric textiles in the
Pueblo region. Tewa-speaking people of the Rio
Grande still make string and rope from these fibers.
At Zuni the silky seed fibers are spun on a hand-held
wooden spindle and made into yarn and woven into
fabric, especially for dancers. Pueblo people ate
green milkweed pods and uncooked roots from one
of the species that forms fleshy tubers underground.
Milkweeds (especially Asclepias speciosa and
Asclepias eriocarpa) supply tough fibers for making
cords and ropes, and for weaving a coarse cloth
Milkweed stems were collected after the stalks dried
in late fall to early winter. The dried stalks were split
open to release the fibers. milkweed fibers were
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
forest, and lava flows, at elevations from 50 to 2000
m. Purple milkweed requires sun and porous soil,
and can tolerate moderate amounts of water during its
growing period.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed Collection: Collect seeds after pods have
ripened, but before they have split open. The seeds
are wind dispersed, so be careful when gathering to
place in a paper or burlap bag to avoid losing them.
Seeds can be directly sewn into the ground in the fall.
The seed is very viable. Planting seed the first fall
after collecting seeds maximizes revegetation
success. It is not certain how long you can store the
seeds. Cold treatment for three months improves
seed germination in some milkweed species from
higher elevations or colder climates (where it freezes
in the winter).
Revegetation successes with milkweeds seem to be
improved by planting seeds directly in the ground.
High mortality seems to occur with plants in pots and
Asclepias species don t over-winter well in pots.
Once young plants are potted, they often don t re-
emerge in the spring. Milkweed plants naturally die
back in winter, but will re-sprout during the next
growing season. However, those planted in pots will
not resprout.
Whole Plant Collections: For milkweed species with
rhizomes, propagation by cuttings of the tuberous
rhizome is also easy and reliable. The cuttings
should be made when the plant is dormant. Each
piece of the rhizome should have at least one bud
(they are about two inches apart). Timing of
propagation is important. Harvest or divide plants
and move them in October at the beginning of the
rainy season. Get the plants in the ground by late fall
so they can develop enough root growth to survive
the winter. Irrigation the first year will improve
survival, and by the second year the root system
should be well enough established so plants will
survive on their own.
Both seedlings and cuttings will usually bloom in
their second year, although cuttings will occasionally
bloom during their first year (Kindscher 1992).
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='When used for fiber, milkweed is collected in the
autumn after the leaves have begun to senesce or dry
up. Plants grow in places that have been disturbed
such as road grading and construction sites, logging
landing fills, etc. Pete Bunting (per comm 2-9-1999)
says, ".In the fall when the milkweed has dried I
check to see if they will break off at the ground line.
The plants are usually a yellow tan to gray depending
on how long they have dried. I like the gray for
softer string but the fibers are shorter. The tan stalks
have longer fibers but are also stiff and hard to work
but very long. I break off as many of the plants as I
can gather as they are going to re-sprout in the spring.
I try and let them dry some more. Then I process
them. I have used plants that have over-wintered
under snow and they were fine but had soft, short
fiber. After 2 winters they are usually no good but
you have another year s stalks to pick by then.". The
dried stalks are then split open and the fibers are
twisted into string.
Vast quantities of fiber plants are required for the
making of nets, regalia, and cordage by California
Indians. Blackburn and Anderson (1993) quote Craig
Bates of the Yosemite Museum that it takes
approximately five stalks of milkweed or Indian
hemp to manufacture one foot of cordage. A Sierra
Miwok feather skirt or cape contain about 100 feet of
cordage made from approximately 500 plant stalks,
while a deer net 40 feet in length (Barrett and Gifford
1933:178) contained some 7,000 feet of cordage,
which would have required the harvesting of a
staggering 35,000 plant stalks.
Both milkweed and dogbane were burned in the fall
by California Indian tribes to eliminate dead stalks
and stimulate new growth. Burning causes new
growth to have taller, straighter stems (with longer
fibers). It also stimulates flower and seed production.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Asclepias cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 102 pp.
Blackburn, T.C. &. K. Anderson 1993. Before the
wilderness: Environmental management by Native
Californians. A Ballena Press Publication. 476 pp.
Bouton, D.W. 1995. The Monarch butterfly: A
fragile tissue in the wind. Continuum Publishers,
Harpersville, New York.
Bunting, P. Pers comm 2-8-1999. Forester and
member of the Sierra Native American Tribal
Council.
Page 3
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo province. Exploring ancient and
enduring uses. Museum of Mexico Press, Santa Fe,
New Mexico. 289 pp.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1997. Wild plants
and native peoples of the Four Corners. Museum of
New Mexico Press. 312 pp.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press. 125 pp.
Grace, E.S. 1997. The world of the Monarch
butterfly. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco,
California. 114 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 686 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An Ethnobotanical Guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, Botany and Use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press. Berkeley
and Los Angeles, California. 878 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Powell, J.A. &. C.L. Hogue 1979. California insects.
University of California Press. 388 pp.
Schmidt, Marjorie G. 1980. Growing California
native plants. University of California Press. 366
pp.
Stewart, B. 1997. Common butterflies of California.
West Coast Lady Press. 255 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='asco';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Warning' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='Milkweed may be toxic when taken
internally, without sufficient preparation.
Ethnobotanic: People have used milkweed for fiber,
food, and medicine all over the United States and
southern Canada. Fibers from the stems of milkweed
have been identified in prehistoric textiles in the
Pueblo region. Tewa-speaking people of the Rio
Grande still make string and rope from these fibers.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
NARROW-LEAVED
MILKWEED
Asclepias fascicularis Decne.
Plant Symbol = ASFA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
Zuni people utilize the silky seed fibers, which are
spun on a hand-held wooden spindle, made into yarn,
and woven into fabric (especially for dancers).
Pueblo people eat green milkweed pods and
uncooked roots from one of the species that forms
fleshy tubers underground.
Milkweeds supply tough fibers for making cords and
ropes, and for weaving a coarse cloth. Milkweeds
stems are collected after the stalks dry in late fall to
early winter. The dried stalks are split open to
release the fibers. Milkweed fibers are sometimes
mixed with fibers of Indian hemp, Apocynum
cannabinum.
The Yokia Indians of Mendocino County, California,
ate the young blossoms of Asclepias fascicularis raw
but not in large amounts (Balls 1962). The most
common use for these plants, recorded among almost
all the tribes throughout California, was to obtain a
kind of chewing gum from the sap of Asclepias
fascicularis and other milkweed species. The sticky
white sap was heated slightly until it became solid,
then added to salmon fat or deer grease.
Wildlife: Milkweed species are attractive to
butterflies, bees, and other insects. Accordingly, this
is a wonderful horticultural plant for beautiful floral
landscaping that attracts butterflies (particularly
Monarchs) and other insects. Monarch butterflies are
specific to milkweed plants. This is the only type of
plant on which the eggs are laid and the larvae will
feed and mature into a chrysalis. Eggs are laid on the
underside of young healthy leaves. It is important to
have large clumps of milkweeds for the young
caterpillars. their response to predation is to drop to
the ground and ".play possum.". They cannot find
their way back to the milkweed stems, which they
need to survive, unless they are fairly densely spaced.
Monarch, Queen and Viceroy butterflies are
Müllerian mimics. all are toxic, and have co-evolved
similar warning patterns to avoid predation. Other
insects, which utilize milkweed, are the large
milkweed bug, common milkweed bug, red
milkweed beetle, blue milkweed beetle, and bees.
Toxicity: Milkweed sap contains a lethal brew of
cardenolides (heart poison), which produces vomiting
in low doses and death in higher doses. Chemicals
from the milkweed plant make the monarch
Page 2
caterpillar s flesh distasteful to most animals. At one
time, milkweed was classified as a noxious weed due
to reported toxic effects on livestock, and efforts
were made to eradicate it. Milkweeds are thought to
be poisonous to cows and sheep.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Milkweed Family (Asclepiadaceae).
Asclepias flowers look like crowns, with the corolla
reflexed and hoods elevated above the corolla. In
narrow-leaf milkweed, the corolla is reflexed,
greenish white, sometimes tinged purple. The hoods
are also greenish white. The horns are longer than
the hoods. Narrow-leaf milkweed is a glabrous
perennial with glabrous to ascending stems. Leaves
are in whorls of 3-5, often with axillary clusters of
small leaves. The leaf blades are narrowly lanceolate
with a tapered base.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Milkweed grows in clumps beside roadways
and on abandoned farmlands and other open areas,
reaching heights of 120 to 150 cm (4 to 5 ft) during
the summer. Milkweed species grow throughout the
United States. Narrow-leaf milkweed occurs on dry
ground and sunny spots in valleys and foothills at
elevations from 50 to 220 m. The range extends
through California to Washington, Utah and Baja
California.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed Collection: Collect seeds after pods have
ripened, but before they have split open. The seeds
are wind dispersed, so be careful when gathering to
place in a paper or burlap bag to avoid losing them.
Seeds can be directly sewn into the ground in the fall.
The seed is very viable. Planting seed the first fall
after collecting seeds maximizes revegetation
success. It is not certain how long you can store the
seeds. Cold treatment for three months improves
seed germination in some milkweed species from
higher elevations or colder climates (where it freezes
in the winter).
Revegetation success with milkweed seems to be
improved by planting seeds directly in the ground.
High mortality seems to occur with plants in pots.
Asclepias species don t over-winter well in pots.
Once young plants are potted, they often don t re-
emerge in the spring. Milkweed plants naturally die
back in winter. If you plant them in a pot, they don t
come back the next year. If you plant in the ground,
they do.
Whole Plant Collection: For milkweed species with
rhizomes, propagation by cuttings of the tuberous
rhizome is also easy and reliable. The cuttings
should be made when the plant is dormant. Each
piece of the rhizome should have at least one bud
(they are about two inches apart).
Timing of propagation is important. Harvest or
divide plants and move them in October at the
beginning of the rainy season. Get the plants in the
ground by late fall so they can develop enough root
growth to survive the winter. Irrigation the first year
will improve survival, and by the second year the
root system should be well enough established so
plants will survive on their own.
Both seedlings and cuttings will usually bloom in
their second year, although cuttings will occasionally
bloom during their first year (Kindscher 1992).
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='When used for fiber, milkweed is collected in the
autumn after the leaves have begun to senesce or dry
up. Plants generally grow in places that have been
disturbed, such as road grading and construction
sites, logging landing fills, etc. Pete Bunting (pers.
comm. 2-9-1999) says, ".In the fall when the
milkweed has dried, I check to see if they will break
off at the ground line. The plants are usually a
yellow tan to gray depending on how long they have
dried. I like the gray for softer string but the fibers
are shorter. The tan stalks have longer fibers but are
also stiff and hard to work but very long. I break off
many of the plants as I can gather as they are going to
re-sprout in the spring. I try and let them dry some
more. Then I process them. I have used plants that
have over-wintered under snow and they were fine
but had soft, short fiber. After 2 winters they are
usually no good but you have another year s stalks to
pick by then.". The dried stalks are then split open
and the fibers are twisted into string.
Vast quantities of fiber plants are required for the
making of nets, regalia, and cordage by California
Indians. Blackburn and Anderson (1993) quote Craig
Bates of the Yosemite Museum that it takes
approximately five stalks of milkweed or Indian
hemp to manufacture one foot of cordage. A Sierra
Miwok feather skirt or cape contain about 100 feet of
cordage made from approximately 500 plant stalks,
Page 3
while a deer net 40 feet in length (Barrett and Gifford
1933:178) contained some 7,000 feet of cordage,
which would have required the harvesting of 35,000
plant stalks.
Both milkweed and dogbane were burned in the fall
by California Indian tribes to eliminate dead stalks
and stimulate new growth. Burning causes new
growth to have taller, straighter stems (with longer
fibers). It also stimulates flower and seed production.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Asclepias cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Balls, E. K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 102 pp.
Blackburn, T. C. &. K. Anderson 1993. Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by Native
Californians. A Ballena Press Publication. 476 pp.
Bouton, D. W. 1995. The Monarch butterfly. A
fragile tissue in the wind. Continuum Publishers.
Harpersville, New York.
Bunting, Pete. Pers comm 2-8-1999. Forester and
member of the Sierra Native American Tribal
Council.
Cooke, S. S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dunmire, W. W. &. G. D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo province. Exploring Ancient and
Enduring Uses Museum of Mexico Press. Santa Fe,
New Mexico. 289 pp.
Dunmire, W. W. &. G. D. Tierney 1997. Wild plants
and native peoples of the Four Corners. Museum of
New Mexico Press. 312 pp.
Gilmore, M. R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press. 125 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc. New York. 686 pp.
Hickman, J. C. 1993. The Jepson manual. Higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1399 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kuhnlein, H. V. &. N. J. Turner. 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Martin, A. C., H. S. Zim, &.A. L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H. L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press. Berkeley
and Los Angeles, California. 878 pp.
Moser, C. L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Powell, J.A. &. C.L. Hogue 1979. California insects.
University of California Press. 388 pp.
Schmidt, M. G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press. 366 pp.
Stewart, B. 1997. Common butterflies of California.
West Coast Lady Press. 255 pp.
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='asfa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 17jan01 jsp. 17mar03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page 4
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMON
MILKWEED
Asclepias syriaca L.
Plant Symbol = ASSY
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Jim Stasz
@ PLANTS
Twisting the fiber opposite each other and twining
them together forms the cord. Often this is
accomplished by rolling the fibers on the thigh while
twisting them together.
The young shoots, stems, flower buds, immature
fruits, and roots of butterfly milkweed were boiled
and eaten as a vegetable by various indigenous
groups of eastern and mid-western America. The
Meskwaki steam the flower buds as a food source.
they are nutritious but not considered very flavorful.
The Cherokee drank an infusion of common
milkweed root and virgin’s bower (Clematis species)
for backaches (Moerman 1986). The Cherokee,
Iroquois, and Rappahannock used the sap to remove
warts, for ringworm, and for bee stings. The
Cherokee used the plant as a laxative, an antidote for
gravel and dropsy, and an infusion was given for
mastitis. The Cherokee took an infusion of the root
for venereal diseases. The Chippewa made a cold
decoction of common milkweed root and added it to
food to produce postpartum milk flow. The Iroquois
took an infusion of milkweed leaves for stomach
medicine. A compound decoction of plants was
taken to prevent hemorrhage after childbirth by the
Iroquois. The Menominee ate the buds or a
decoction of the root for chest discomfort. The
Ojibwa used the root as a female remedy. The
Potawatomi used the root for unspecified ailments.
Common milkweed was used by the Meskwaki as a
contraceptive (Kindscher 1992, Erichsen-Brown
1979, De Laszlo and Henshaw 1954). A Mohawk
anti-fertility concoction was prepared by boiling a
fistful of dried, pulverized milkweed and three jack-
in-the-pulpit rhizomes in a pint of water for 20
minutes. The infusion was drunk at the rate of one
cup an hour to induce temporary sterility (Kindscher
1992).
Milkweed species as a group are known to contain
cardiac glycosides that are poisonous to humans and
livestock, as well as other substances that may
account for their medicinal effect. Resinoids,
glycosides, and a small amount of alkaloids are
present in all parts of the plant. Symptoms of
poisoning by the cardiac glycosides include dullness,
weakness, bloating, inability to stand or walk, high
body temperature, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty
breathing, dilated pupils, spasms, and coma.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Virginia-silk, algodoncillo, silky swallowwort, herbe
à la ouate, Seidenpflanze
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Warning' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Milkweedmaybetoxicwhentaken TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Milkweedmaybetoxicwhentaken='internally, without sufficient preparation.
Ethnobotanic: People have used milkweed for fiber,
food, and medicine all over the United States and
southern Canada. Milkweeds supply tough fibers for
making cords and ropes, and for weaving a coarse
cloth. Milkweed stems are collected after the stalks
senesce in late fall-early winter. The dried stalks are
split open to release the fibers. milkweed fibers are
sometimes mixed with fibers of Indian hemp
(Apocynum cannabinum). The bark is removed and
the fibers released by first rubbing between the hands
and then drawing the fibers over a hard surface.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Wildlife: The cardiac glycoside in milkweed has also
been useful as a chemical defense for monarch
butterflies (Danaus plexippus). Chemicals from the
milkweed plant make the monarch caterpillar s flesh
distasteful to most predators. Monarch butterflies are
specific to milkweed plants. this is the only type of
plant on which the eggs are laid and the larvae will
feed and matures into a chrysalis. Eggs are laid on
the underside of young, healthy leaves. Monarch,
Queen, and Viceroy butterflies are Müllerian mimics.
all are toxic, and have co-evolved similar warning
patterns to avoid predation. Milkweed species are
attractive to many insect species, including the large
milkweed bug, common milkweed bug, red
milkweed beetle, blue milkweed beetle, and bees.
Accordingly, this is a wonderful horticultural plant
for landscaping to attract butterflies (particularly
monarchs), whose numbers are declining and
migratory routes changing due to lack of appropriate
habitat.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Milkweed Family (Asclepiadaceae).
Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) is a perennial
herb growing from a deep rhizome. The hairy stems
are usually solitary from a simple to branched and
thickened base, and are 6-20 dm (1.9-6.5 ft) tall. The
opposite leaves have broadly ovate to elliptic blades
that are 10-20 cm (3.9-7.9 in) long and 5-11 cm (1.9-
4.3 in) wide. The leaves are sparsely hairy above and
densely hairy below, and the petiole is 0.2-1.4 cm
(0.08-0.77 in) long. The inflorescence occurs in the
upper leaf axils, and there are 20-130 flowers per
inflorescence. The flowers are small, 11-17 mm (0.4-
0.7 in), and bloom from May to August. The five
petals are green to purple-tinged, and are topped by a
crown of five erect lobes that are rose to purple,
rarely white. The fruits are spindle-shaped follicles
covered with soft hairs. The small, round, hairy
seeds are 6-8 mm (0.2-0.3 in) in diameter.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. This plant grows throughout the
Great Plains ecoregion from southern Canada south
to NE Oklahoma, NW Georgia, and Texas, and east
from North Carolina to Maine.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Common milkweed grows in sandy,
clayey, or rocky calcareous soils. It occurs along the
banks or flood plains of lakes, ponds, and waterways,
in prairies, forest margins, roadsides, and waste
places. This species hybridizes with showy milkweed
(Asclepias speciosa).
Common milkweed is easily propagated by both seed
and rhizome cuttings. Both seedlings and cuttings
will usually bloom in their second year, although
cuttings will occasionally bloom during their first
year. Seeds and plants are available from many
nurseries. Common milkweed increases by
underground shoots and can be invasive. It is ideal in
semi-dry places where it can spread without
presenting problems for other ornamental species.
Propagation from Cuttings: Propagation by cuttings
of the tuberous rhizome is easy and reliable. The
cuttings should be made when the plant is dormant.
Each piece of the rhizome should have at least one
bud (they are about two inches apart). Timing of
propagation is important. Harvest or divide plants
and get the plants in the ground by late fall so they
can develop enough root growth to survive the
winter. Irrigation the first year will improve survival,
and by the second year the root system should be
well enough established so plants will survive on
their own.
Both seedlings and cuttings will usually bloom in
their second year, although cuttings will occasionally
bloom during their first year (Kindscher 1992).
Propagation from Seed: Common milkweed is easily
propagated from seed. Process as follows:
1) Collect seeds after the pods have ripened, but
before they have split open. The seeds are wind
dispersed, so be careful when gathering to place in a
paper or burlap bag to avoid losing them.
2) Eliminate weeds before planting. Strip off any
sod. Cultivate the soil to a fine tilth, firm the soil by
treading or rolling, and rake lightly.
3) Seeds can be directly sewn into the ground in the
fall. Sow the seed mixture (with fine sand for even
distribution) at a rate of 1/8 oz per sq. yd (4 g per sq.
meter) or as advised.
4) If planting in flats or in a greenhouse, common
milkweed seeds should be cold-treated for three
months.
5) The seed is very viable. It is not certain how long
you can store the seeds and maintain their viability.
6) During the first summer, weed invasive plants and
water as needed.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
Milkweed is burned in the fall to eliminate dead
stalks and stimulate new growth. Burning causes
Page 3
new growth to have taller, straighter stems (with
longer fibers). It also stimulates flower and seed
production. ' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
When used for fiber, milkweed is collected in the
autumn after the leaves have begun to fall off, the
stalks turn gray or tan, and the plant dries up. If the
milkweed stems will break off at the ground it s time
to harvest. Breaking off as many stalks as possible
encourages resprouting in the spring. The dried
stalks are then split open and the fibers are twisted
into string. Vast quantities of fiber plants are
required for nets, regalia, and cordage.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ASSY is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bouton, D.W. 1995. The monarch butterfly. A
fragile tissue in the wind. Continuum Publishers,
Harpersville, New York.
DeLaszlo, H. &. P.S. Henshaw 1954. Plant materials
used by primitive peoples to affect fertility. Science
119: 626-631.
Erichsen-Brown, C. 1979. Use of plants for the past
500 Years. Breezy Creeks Press, Aurora, Ontario,
Canada.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River Region. University of Nebraska
Press. 125 pp.
Grace, E.S. 1997. The world of the monarch
butterfly. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco,
California. 114 pp.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 686 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson Horticultural
Library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries, Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. Pp. 84-94.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. Technical Reports, Number 19.
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Pp. 156-158.
Munson, P.J. 1981. Contributions to Osage and
Lakota ethnobotany. Plains Anthropology 26: 229-
240.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000228. <.http://plants.usda.gov>. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='assy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 25jul00 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
PAWPAW
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal
Plant Symbol = ASTR
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© William S. Justice
Smithsonian Institution, Botany Department
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='False banana, pawpaw apple, custard apple, custard
banana, poor man’s banana, banana tree, Indiana
banana, Nebraska banana, Hoosier banana, Michigan
banana, white plum.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Some Native American tribes
cultivated the pawpaw for fruit and are responsible
for its widespread range today. The Cherokee and
many other tribes used the pawpaw fruit for food.
The fruit, which is the largest edible fruit native to
America, is high in amino acids. The Iroquois used
the mashed fruit to make small cakes that were dried
and stored. The dried cakes were soaked in water
and cooked to make a sauce or relish that was served
with corn bread. Raw and cooked fruits were dried
by the sun or on a fire. These were stored for use in
the future or taken on hunts. The Cherokee used the
inner bark to make cordage. By twisting the bark,
they made string and strong ropes.
Other: The twigs and leaves contain extracts that
have insecticidal properties. The leaves contain anti-
carcinogens.
Wildlife: Opossum, raccoon, foxes and squirrels eat
the fruits. Larvae of the lovely Zebra Swallowtail
butterfly (Eurytides marcellus) feed exclusively on
the leaves.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Custard-apple or Annona family
(Annonaceae). This perennial tree or shrub grows
from 3 to 12 m tall. The drooping, pear-shaped leaves
are alternate, from 10 to 30 cm long, with smooth
margins and pointed tips. The leaves are coated with
fine whitish hairs on the upper surface with rusty-
colored hairs on the under-side. Leaves are aromatic,
with a smell reminiscent of bell pepper.
Inconspicuous but interesting flowers (4 to 5cm in
diameter) with 3 sepals, are green upon opening and
turn to dark purple or maroon in color. From 1 to 4
flowers grow in the leaf axils before leafing, usually
in April or May. The six velvety petals (2cm-2.5cm
long) are stiff and curl slightly backwards. Yellowish
green to brown, cylindrical, mango-shaped fruits are
7-16 cm long and grow solitarily or 2 to 4 together.
The large fruits (5 to 16 ounces) ripen between
August and October. Fruits have a thin skin, which
contain a yellow custard-like pulp that is said to taste
like papaya. Some varieties contain a whitish-green
pulp that is less flavorful. Fruits contain several flat
2cm long seeds. The deciduous leaves turn bright
yellow before dropping in the fall.
Similar species: A. parivflora, is called the “dwarf
pawpaw” or “possum-simmon.” A. tetramera,
commonly known as ‘opossum pawpaw’, is a rare
and endangered species from southern Florida. Other
similar species include A. incarna, A. longifolia, A.
obovata, A. pygmaea, A. reticulata, A. X nashii.
Distribution: This plant grows over much of Eastern
North America from Ontario and Michigan south to
Florida and Texas. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Pawpaws grow in humid climates and are highly frost
tolerant. They grow in the shade in open woods
usually in wet, fertile bottomlands, but can grow in
upland areas on rich soils. Pawpaws occur as
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
understory trees in oak-hickory forest in the mid-
south where they are found in clusters or thickets.
They do not do well in coastal environments. The
plants purportedly may do well in the Pacific
Northwest and parts of California. Growth trials are
being conducted at Oregon State University.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The appearance of this tree gives a tropical flavor to
temperate gardens and provides edible landscaping.
Pawpaws can serve as a screen or can be grown in a
container as a specimen tree. Both trees and shrubs
have a conical pyramid-like shape when grown in
sun, and a more open structure if grown in shade.
They can be planted in the shade of tall, open trees or
in partial shade, although they fruit best in sun. If
planting in open sun, provide a shading structure to
allow filtered sun for the first few years. The plants
prefer moist, slightly acidic soils and require regular
watering, but are adaptable to many conditions. They
do not perform well in poorly drained soils and need
protection from the wind. At least two plants are
needed for cross-pollination.
Seeds: Seeds can be sown in the fall to over-winter
or can be stratified by exposing to cold temperature
(32-40 degrees) for 90 to 120 days. Seed should
never be allowed to dry out. If sowing seeds into
containers use deep pots or tubes to allow for healthy
roots.
Transplanting seedlings: Transplant seedlings in the
spring. Larger plants do not transplant well. The
roots are widely spreading, so purchase plants that
have been grown in deep pots or tubes to insure
healthy plants. The roots are brittle, so use care when
transferring from containers. Water the transplants
frequently during the growing season.
Vegetative propagation: Pawpaws can be propagated
by whip-and–tongue, bark inlay, cleft graft, or chip
budding techniques.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='This plant spreads quickly by suckers to form a
“pawpaw patch.” Remove suckers as they form if a
tree form is desired. Sucker formation slows as the
tree develops. Other than control of suckers, the
plants do not require pruning. The plants are disease
and pest resistant and they are not browsed by deer.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
‘Davis’ is commercially cultivated for fruit.
‘Sunflower,’ ‘Mary Foos Johnson,’ ‘Taylor,’
Overleese,’ ‘Sweet Alice,’ are popular cultivars. A.
parviflora is a dwarf variety of pawpaw. These plant
materials are somewhat available from commercial
sources.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, NY. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. 1999. PawPaw
Fruit Facts. <.http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/pawpaw.
html.>.(April 29, 2001).
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and Exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Hann, J.H. 1986. The use and processing of plants
by Indians of Spanish Florida. Southeastern
Archaeology 5(2):91-102.
Hummer, K. 1996. NCGR-Corvallis: Pawpaws in
Oregon. <.http://www.ars-grin.gov/ars/PacWest/
Corvallis/ncgr/cool/pawpaws.html>. (April 29, 2001).
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American
ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927
pp.
Ottesen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Podems, M. &. B. Bortz 1975. Ornamentals for
eating. Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania. 67 pp.
Pomper, K., S.C. Jones, R.N. Peterson, T.Turner, &.
D.R. Layne 1990. Paw Paw Planting Guide.
Kentucky Sate University Cooperative Extension
Page 3
Program. <.http://www.pawpaw.kysu.edu/
pawpaw/ppg.html>.. (April 29, 2001).
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Whitthoft, J. 1947. An early Cherokee
ethnobotanical note (Communicated by W.N.
Fenton). Journal of the Washington Academy of
Sciences:37(3): 73-75.
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='astr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 21May2001 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
BUTTERFLY
MILKWEED
Asclepias tuberosa L.
Plant Symbol = ASTU
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Kenneth Robertson
Illinois Dept. of Natural Resources 1999
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='orange milkweed, chigger weed
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Warning: Milkweed may be toxic when taken
internally, without sufficient preparation.
Ethnobotanic: Milkweed has been used for fiber,
food, and medicine by people all over the United
States and southern Canada. Fibers from the stems of
milkweed have been identified in prehistoric textiles
in the Pueblo region. Tewa-speaking people of the
Rio Grande still make string and rope from these
fibers. At the Zuni Pueblo, the silky seed fibers are
spun on a hand-held wooden spindle and made into
yarn and woven into fabric, especially for dancers.
Pueblo people ate green milkweed pods and
uncooked roots from one of the species that forms
fleshy tubers underground.
Milkweeds supply tough fibers for making cords and
ropes, and for weaving a coarse cloth. Milkweed
stems are collected after the stalks senesce in late fall
to early winter. The dried stalks are split open to
release the fibers. Milkweed fibers are sometimes
mixed with fibers of Indian-hemp (Apocynum
cannabinum). The bark is removed and the fibers
Plant Guide
released by first rubbing between the hands and then
drawing the fibers over a hard surface. The cord is
formed by twisting the fiber opposite each other and
twining them together. Often this is accomplished by
rolling the fibers on the thigh, while twisting them
together.
The young shoots, stems, flower buds, immature
fruits, and roots of butterfly milkweed were boiled
and eaten as a vegetable by various indigenous
groups of eastern and mid-western America.
Butterfly milkweed has many medicinal uses. The
Omahas and Poncas ate the raw root of the butterfly
milkweed for bronchial and pulmonary troubles.
Butterfly milkweed root was also chewed and placed
on wounds, or dried, pulverized, and blown into
wounds. The Omaha tribe used butterfly milkweed
medicine for rites belonging to the Shell Society.
The Dakotas used the butterfly milkweed as an
emetic. The Menominis considered the butterfly
milkweed, which they called the ".deceiver,". one of
their most important medicines.
Generalized medicinal uses for milkweed species
include 1) its use in a salve for scrofulous swelling,
2) as a diarrhea medicine, 3) drunk by mothers
unable to produce milk, 4) medicine for snow
blindness and other forms of blindness, 5) relief of
sore throat, 6) applied chewed root for swelling and
rashes, 7) to expel tapeworm, 8) to treat colic, 9) to
act as contraceptives, and 10) to cure snakebite.
European Americans used Asclepias tuberosa, called
".pleurisy root"., to relieve inflammation of the lining
of the lungs and thorax, and to relieve bronchial and
pulmonary trouble. Pleurisy root is a stimulant to the
vagus nerve, producing perspiration, expectoration,
and bronchial dilation. As its name signifies, it is
useful for pleurisy and mild pulmonary edema,
increasing fluid circulation, cilia function, and
lymphatic drainage. The root of the butterfly
milkweed, was officially listed in the U.S.
Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1905 and in the
National Formulary from 1916 to 1936.
Milkweed species, as a group, are known to contain
cardiac glycosides that are poisonous both to humans
and to livestock, as well as other substances that may
account for their medicinal effect. Resinoids,
glycosides, and a small amount of alkaloids are
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
present in all parts of the plant. Symptoms of
poisoning by the cardiac glycosides include dullness,
weakness, bloating, inability to stand or walk, high
body temperature, rapid and weak pulse, difficulty
breathing, dilated pupils, spasms, and coma.
The cardiac glycoside in milkweed has also been
useful as a chemical defense for monarch butterflies
(Danaus plexippus). Chemicals from the milkweed
plant make the monarch caterpillar s flesh distasteful
to most predators. Monarch butterflies are specific to
milkweed plants. This is the only type of plant on
which the eggs are laid and the larvae will feed and
mature into a chrysalis. Eggs are laid on the
underside of young healthy leaves. Monarch, Queen,
and Viceroy butterflies are Müllerian mimics, all are
toxic, and have co-evolved similar warning patterns
to avoid predation.
Wildlife: Milkweed species are attractive to many
insect species, including the large milkweed bug,
common milkweed bug, red milkweed beetle, blue
milkweed beetle, and bees. Accordingly, this is a
wonderful horticultural plant for landscaping to
attract butterflies (particularly monarchs), whose
numbers are declining and migratory routes changing
due to lack of appropriate habitat. Butterfly
milkweed also has strikingly beautiful flowers.
Caution: At one time, milkweed was classified as a
noxious weed due to reported toxic effects on
livestock, and efforts were made to eradicate it.
Milkweeds are thought to be poisonous to cows and
sheep. Milkweed also can have invasive
characteristics in disturbed areas.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Milkweed Family (Asclepiadaceae).
Asclepias tuberosa is a perennial herb 3-9 dm tall
with woody rootstocks. According to Kelly
Kindscher (1992), ".Asclepias comes from the name
of the Greek god of medicine, Asklepios. The
species name, tuberosa, means full of swellings or
knobs, referring to the enlarged root system.".
Butterfly milkweed stems are hairy, erect, and grow
in numerous clumps. There is a watery sap within
the stems and leaves. The leaves are alternate,
simple, crowded, lance-shaped, 5-10 cm long, shiny
green, smooth above and velvety beneath. The
flowers are in showy, rounded to flat-topped groups
near the ends of branches. Each flower has 5 petals,
bent downward, orange to red or sometimes yellow,
topped by a crown of 5 erect hoods, each one
containing a short horn. Fruits are hairy, spindle-
shaped pods 8-15 cm long. The numerous seeds each
have a tuft of long white hairs at the tip.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Milkweeds grow in clumps beside roadways, on
abandoned farmlands, and in other open areas
throughout the United States. Butterfly milkweed
grows on sandy, loamy, or rocky limestone soils of
prairies, open woodlands, roadsides, and disturbed
areas similar to other milkweed species. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Butterfly milkweed is easily propagated by both seed
and rhizome cuttings. Both seedlings and cuttings
will usually bloom in their second year, although
cuttings will occasionally bloom during their first
year. Seeds and plants of selected cultivars are
available from many nurseries. When the roots of the
butterfly milkweed were more commonly harvested
for their medicinal use, the plants were dug when
dormant in the late fall. Butterfly milkweed increases
by underground shoots and can be invasive. It is
ideal in semi-dry places where it can spread without
presenting problems for other ornamental species.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedCollections='Asclepias tuberosa is easily propagated from seed.
Collect seeds after the pods have ripened, but before
they have split open. The seeds are wind dispersed,
so be careful when gathering to place in a paper or
burlap bag to avoid losing them. Butterfly milkweed
seeds should be cold-treated for three months. Seeds
can be directly sewn into the ground in the fall. The
seed is very viable. It is not certain how long you can
store the seeds.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_WholePlantCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_WholePlantCollections='Propagation by cuttings of the tuberous rhizome is
also easy and reliable. The cuttings should be made
when the plant is dormant. Each piece of the rhizome
should have at least one bud (they are about two
inches apart). Timing of propagation is important.
Harvest or divide plants and get the plants in the
ground by late fall so they can develop enough root
growth to survive the winter. Irrigation the first year
will improve survival, and by the second year the
root system should be well enough established so
plants will survive on their own.
Page 3
Both seedlings and cuttings will usually bloom in
their second year, although cuttings will occasionally
bloom during their first year (Kindscher 1992).
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Both milkweed and dogbane are burned in the fall to
eliminate dead stalks and stimulate new growth.
Burning causes new growth to have taller, straighter
stems (with longer fibers). It also stimulates flower
and seed production. ' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
When used for fiber, milkweed is collected in the
autumn after the leaves have begun to fall off, the
stalks turn gray or tan, and the plant dries up. If the
milkweed stems will break off at the ground it s time
to harvest. Breaking off as many stalks as possible
encourages resprouting in the spring. The dried
stalks are then split open and the fibers are twisted
into string.
Vast quantities of fiber plants are required for nets,
regalia, and cordage. Blackburn and Anderson
(1993) quote Craig Bates of the Yosemite Museum
that it takes approximately five stalks of milkweed or
Indian hemp to manufacture one foot of cordage. A
Sierra Miwok feather skirt or cape contained about
100 feet of cordage made from approximately 500
plant stalks, while a deer net 40 feet in length (Barrett
and Gifford 1933:178) contained some 7,000 feet of
cordage, which would have required the harvesting of
a staggering 35,000 plant stalks.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ASTU is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Seeds and plants of
selected Asclepias cultivars are available from many
nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local
area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the
plants are to be grown.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Blackburn, T.C. &. M.K. Anderson 1993. Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by Native
Californians. A Ballena Press Publication. 476 pp.
Bouton, D.W. 1995. The monarch butterfly. A
fragile tissue in the wind. Continuum Publishers,
Harpersville, New York.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo province. Exploring ancient and
enduring uses. Museum of Mexico Press, Santa Fe,
New Mexico. 289 pp.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1997. Wild plants
and Native Peoples of the Four Corners. Museum of
New Mexico Press. 312 pp.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press. 125 pp.
Grace, E.S. 1997. The world of the monarch
butterfly. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco,
California. 114 pp.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 686 pp.
Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1999. The
tallgrass prairie of Illinois. Version: 000328.
<.http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/~kenr/prairieplants.html>..
Illinois Natural History Survey, Center for
Biodiversity, Champaign, Illinois.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Martin, Alexander C., Herbert S. Zim, &. Arnold L.
Nelson 1951. American wildlife and plants. A guide
to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 500 pp.
Powell, J.A. &. C.L. Hogue 1979. California insects.
University of California Press. 388 pp.
Stewart, B. 1997. Common butterflies of California.
West Coast Lady Press. 255 pp.
University of Kentucky 2000. Wildlflowers of
western Kentucky. Version: 000328.
<.http://sac.uky.edu/~mthom0/ormilkwd.htm>..
Lexington, Kentucky.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='astu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Page 4
Edited 17jan01 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLUE WILD INDIGO
Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br. ex
Ait. f.
Plant Symbol = BAAU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Kansas Plant
Materials Center
Cultural: Presently, Baptisia australis, is grown by
many as an ornamental in outdoor flower gardens or
as a decorative border. It has become popular
because it grows well in many areas outside its native
range when planted, does well without watering,
requires no fertilizer or pesticide treatments and
needs no pruning. The pods have been used in dried
flower arrangements. When in bloom the brightly
colored blue flowers arranged in spikes make it very
attractive. However, a bouquet of fresh cut flowers
does not last very long. The flowers and stems turn
black as soon as they begin to dry.
The Cherokees used the plant as a source of blue dye
for their clothes. Early pioneer settlers copied this
practice. A common name, false indigo, indicates it
is not the true indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria L.)
which was introduced from the India subcontinent
and cultivated for blue dye by many landowners
during the early settlement of America. Some Indian
tribes used it for medicinal purposes. The Osage
made eyewash from the plant. The Cherokees would
make a tea from it. A hot tea was taken as a
purgative and a cold tea to prevent vomiting. A
pulverized root or hot tea was held over a sore tooth
to relieve the pain. Indian children would use the
dried pods with the loose seeds inside as rattles.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
This plant is considered threatened in several states.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General:' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Blue wild indigo is a native, perennial, deep
rooted warm season legume which reproduces by
seed or rhizomes. The leaves are alternate and
trifoliate. The plant is erect, rising from a branched
root system which has root tubercles. It branches at
the top with the flowers in an erect short terminal
raceme at the pinnacle. The stems are stout and
glabrous. It may grow up to 5 feet tall and 3 feet
wide. Normally, it is about 3 feet tall and 2 feet
wide. The flowers are hermaphroditic, about 1 inch
long and may range in color from light blue to deep
purple. The fruit is an inflated hardened pod from 1
to 3 inches long and from 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter.
When mature the pods contain a number of small
seeds, which are loose. Depending on the region it
may flower from April (in the south) through August
©William S. Justice
Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution
Dept. of Systematic Biology-Botany
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='blue false indigo, wild indigo, plains wild indigo,
false indigo, baptisia, plains baptisia, rattlepod,
rattlebush, rattlebush wild indigo.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Conservation: It makes good ground cover in sunny
locations because of its bushy habit, extensive root
systems and perennial life form. It is a native
legume, fixes nitrogen in the soil, and can be part of a
good wildlife seed mixture when native grasses and
forbs are seeded.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
(in the north). It is in leaf approximately one month
before flowering to one month after the pods have
formed. In the autumn when full maturity is reached
the plant turns silvery-gray, and breaks off from the
root system at ground level. The pods stay with the
plant for some time while the wind tumbles it around
to a new location. The leaves and pods turn black
upon drying. When it is growing if a leaf is crushed
or stem is broken the sap turns a slate blue color
when exposed to the air.
Distribution: It occurs from Nebraska to Texas on the
west to the eastern seaboard states. It reaches into
Canada in its middle range and New Hampshire is the
extreme northeast area it occurs as a native. It is
rarely found near the Gulf or Atlantic coasts. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Larger populations can be found along tree
lines, bordering forested riparian areas and in open
prairies or native hay meadows. It does not grow
well in shaded habitats. It prefers gravelly, sandy or
well-drained loamy soils. It withstands prolonged
droughts. Like many legumes it can fix nitrogen in
the soil.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Blue wild indigo adapts to many areas outside its
native habitat. It can withstand freezing temperature
extremes of negative 30 degrees Fahrenheit for a
short period without any ill effects. It grows between
USDA hardiness zones 3 to 10.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Once it has become established blue wild indigo will
remain healthy for several years. It requires a
minimum of maintenance in a garden or outside
setting. It is not shade tolerant, so does not make a
good house plant. Herbicides used to control broad-
leaf weeds will also kill this plant. Care should be
taken whenever a pesticide is used to ensure only the
targeted pests are affected.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Parasitic weevils normally infest the seedpods in their
native habitats. Generally, it takes a large number of
seeds when they are harvested from a natural
ecosystem to have any success at finding viable
seeds.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='Toxicity:' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Some older poisonous plant literature has
blamed Baptisia species for killing cattle and horses.
More modern literature documents this genus as more
likely to cause severe diarrhea and anorexia. Baptisia
australis contains several quinolizidine alkaloids
including anagyrine, cystinine, lupaninne, N-
methylcystisine, rhombifoline, sparteine, and
tinctorine. Alkaloids have a bitter taste and make the
plant unpalatable for grazing animals. If other forage
is available it is unlikely any detrimental effects from
Baptisia will be seen. No poisonings of people or
pets have been recorded. Recent German research
indicates some Baptisia species may act as stimulants
to the human immune system.
Blue wild indigo is unlikely to become weedy or
invasive in most regions or habitats and rarely
displaces desirable vegetation.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='Collected seeds from plants growing in a native
setting have an extremely low germination rate due to
predation by weevils. The pods should be treated for
insects before bringing them into a greenhouse or the
seeds sorted prior to bringing them inside. If these
precautions are not taken it is likely several dozen
weevils will immediately escape when the pod is
opened. Like many other legumes it has a hard seed
coat. The seeds must be scarified if germination is to
occur within an artificial setting. Also, studies
involving stratification and soaking the seeds a full
day prior to planting show more success than
scarification alone. The seeds normally germinate
when the soil temperature nears 50 degrees
Fahrenheit. After seedlings emerge they can be
divided and further propagated.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
USDA lists no named cultivars, or genetically
improved varieties. There are three recognized
naturally occurring varieties of Baptisia australis (L.)
R. Br. ex Ait. f.:
variety aberrans (Larisey) M. Mendenhall
variety australis
variety minor (Lehm.) Fern.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government”. The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Allen, O.N.. Allen, E.K. 1981. The Leguminosae. A
Source Book of Characteristics, Uses, and
Nodulation. The University of Wisconsin Press,
Madison, Wisconsin USA. Pp. 89-90.
Page 3
Bailey, L.H. 1939. The Standard Cyclopedia of
Horticulture. The MacMillan Company, New York,
New York USA. Volume 1 of 2, Pp. 453.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Baskin, C.C.. Baskin, J.M. 2002. Propagation
protocol for production of container Baptisia
australis (L.) R. Br. ex Ait. F. plants: University of
Kentucky, Lexington Lancaster Press, Inc.,
Lancaster, Pennsylvania USA. Pp. 344.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Coffey, T. 1993. The History and Folklore of North
American Wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin Company,
New York, New York USA. Pp. 124., Kentucky. In:
Native Plant Network. URL:
http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org (accessed 15 July
2003). Moscow (ID): University of Idaho, College of
Natural Resources, Forest Research Nursery.
Britton, N.. Brown, A. 1936. An Illustrated Flora of
the Northern United States, Canada and the British
Possessions. New York Botanical Garden. ' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Denison, E. 1978. Missouri Wildflowers. Missouri
Department of Conservation. Jefferson City,
Missouri 65101 USA. Pp. 158.
Gates, F.C. 1941. Weeds in Kansas. Report of the
Kansas State Board of Agriculture. Volume LX No.
243. Topeka, Kansas USA. Pp. 223-224.
Freeman, C.C.. Schofield, E.K. 1991. Roadside
Flowers of the Southern Great Plains. University
Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas USA. Pp. 147.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Gleason, H. A. 1952. Illustrated Flora of the
Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada.
New York Botanical Garden. Lancaster Press, Inc.,
Lancaster, Pennsylvania USA. Volume 2 of 3, Pp.
391-392.
Hamel, P. B.. Chiltoskey, M. U. 1975. Cherokee
Plants. Pp. 40.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Hardin, J. W. 1973. Stock-Poisoning Plants of North
Carolina. North Carolina State University,
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 414
(Revised). Pp. 75.
Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS).
URL: (http://www.itis.usda.gov/) (accessed 28 July
2003). United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. USA.
Iverson, L.R.. Ketzner, D,. Karnes J. Illinois Plant
Information Network Database. URL at:
(http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/delaware/ilpin.html.)
(accessed 15 July 2003). Illinois Natural History
Survey and USDA Forest Service.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal Wild Plants of the
Prairie. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas USA. Pp. 70-71.
Kingsbury, J.M. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the
United States and Canada. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey USA. Pp. 149.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass Prairie Wildflowers.
Falcon Press, Helena, Montana USA. Pp. 36.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='McGregor, R.L.. Barkley, T.M., et. al. 1977. Atlas of
the Flora of the Great Plains. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, Iowa USA. Pp. 166.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
McGregor, R.L.. Barkley, T.M.. Brooks, R.E..
Schofield, E.K., et. al. 1986. Flora of the Great
Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas USA. Pp. 436-437.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Mohlenbrock, R.H. ed. 1975. Guide to the vascular
Flora of Illinois.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale, Illinois USA. Pp. 494.
National Genetics Resources Program (GRIN).' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='URL
at: (http://www.ars-grin.gov' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__=') (accessed 28 July
2003). Database Management Unit of the National
Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Plant Sciences
Institute, Beltsville Agricultural research Center,
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Beltsville,
Maryland USA.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Native American Ethnobotany. URL at:
(http://herb.umd.umich.edu/herb/search.pl) (accessed
28 July 2003). In: University of Michigan-
Dearborn. Dearborn, Michigan USA.
Plants For A Future. URL at:
(http://www.ibiblio.org/) (accessed 28 July 2003).
Blagdon Cross, EX215DF, UK.
Phillips Petroleum Company. 1963. Pasture and
range Plants. Bartlesville, Oklahoma 74004 USA.
Pp. 78.
Page 4
Porter, C.L. 1967. Taxonomy of Flowering Plants,
2nd edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco, California USA.
Steere, W.C. et. al. 1970. Wild Flowers of the United
States. Texas. New York Botanical Garden.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York
USA. Volume 3 of 3, Pp. 264-265.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Steere, W.C. et. al. 1973. Wild Flowers of the United
States. The Central Mountains and Plains. New
York Botanical Garden. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, New York USA. Volume 6 of
6, Pp. 396-397.
Stephens, H.A. 1980. Poisonous Plants of the
Central United States. The Regents Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas USA. Pp. 149.' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa USA. Pp. 1725.
Stubbendieck, J.. Conrad, E.C. 1989. Common
Legumes of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska USA. Pp. 111.
' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='Patrick J. Broyles, Soil Conservationist
USDA, NRCS, Kansas Plant Materials Center,
Manhattan, KS
Edited: 14jan04 jsp. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
USDA, NRCS, 2004. The PLANTS database,
version 3.5 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant
Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.
Wildflowers of the Southeastern United States. In:
2bnTheWild. URL at: (http.//2bnTheWIld.com)
(accessed 15 July 2003).' WHERE symbol='baau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Patrick J. Broyles, Soil Conservationist
USDA, NRCS, Kansas Plant Materials Center,
Manhattan, KS
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
HARVEST BRODIAEA
Brodiaea coronaria (Salisb.)
capsule. The 3-5 basal leaves are linear and the scape
is 5-25 cm tall.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant was a greater California Central Valley
plant at one time extending in vast numbers across
the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Due to
overgrazing, farming, and urban development this
plant is becoming rare. It is also found in
northwestern California, the central and northern
Sierra Nevada, the Cascade Range and British
Columbia at an elevational range from 0 to 1600 m.
The plant is found in multiple plant community types
including valley grassland, foothill woodland, mixed
conifer forests, and volcanic mesas.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of harvest brodiaea and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source. If planting flowering-size corms,
they can be directly planted outside. Plant the corms
in the fall in full sun. The less crowded the more the
corms will offset. Plant them 2 to 4 inches apart and
4 inches deep. A well-drained soil that is light and
loose will produce bigger corms. Water and weed
the patch regularly and protect it from small and large
mammals, insects, and birds. Keep the ground
slightly damp. If given too much water the corms
will rot. If it rains fairly regularly, don t water the
area. When the leaves on the plants have turned
yellow and dried up, stop watering. Allow the corms
to summer bake. The plants should be well
established after one year.
If planting seeds of harvest brodiaea, store the seeds
in a paper sack until autumn. Plant the seeds before
October 1st in a container and care for them for two
years before out-planting. Plant the seeds in six-inch
pots because the corms will pull themselves down to
the depth they require. Plant about 100 seeds per pot.
Place them on top of the soil and sprinkle a little soil
over them and put one-quarter inch gravel on top.
Set the pots in partial shade so they won t dry out so
fast. They can be outside or in a hot house. The seed
does not need to be stratified. Start watering the pots
right away and keep them slightly damp. Fertilize
the pots in late winter and early spring and protect the
plants from birds and other animals. If the pots are
outside, let the rains naturally water the pots and in a
Engl.
Plant Symbol = BRCO3
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Indian potato, topoderos, walla
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Corms were gathered with a wooden
digging stick and eaten by the Wiyot, Atsugewi,
Miwok, Yana and other tribes of California. The
Miwok dug the bulbs about the first of May when the
shoots were just appearing above the ground. They
cooked the corms in an earth oven. The Atsugewi
boiled the corms in water and sometimes cooked
them in an earth oven.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This herbaceous
perennial reproduces both by black seeds and brown
fibrous-coated corms. The umbel-shaped
inflorescence has 3 to 11 flowers--each flower is bell-
shaped and the color varies from blue-purple, pink-
purple to rose. The perianth lobes are ascending, 12-
25 mm, with tips recurved. The fruit is an ovoid
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
drought year, supplement with hand watering. Stop
watering as soon as the foliage of the plants turns
yellow. Resume watering the next fall, if rains are
insufficient. After the second year, separate the
plants and transplant them two inches apart in the fall
when the corms are dormant, and then water. Grow
them for one or two more years or to bloom,
repeating this cycle and then out-plant them in the
autumn.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The area planted in harvest brodiaea will require
regular weeding and the use of a very weak solution
of fertilizer twice only during the active growth in the
spring. The corms can be kept from overcrowding by
thinning them every three years. This involves
picking off the cormlets and replanting them
elsewhere in the garden.
There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds in the hole. 4) burning areas.
and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and thinning of
the corms, and popping off the cormlets and
replanting them may enhance grass nut numbers and
densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form of
tillage, which will increase the size of the gathering
tract, aerate the soil, lower weed competition, and
prepare the seedbed to increase seed germination
rates. If harvest brodiaea populations require
periodic disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least--populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
BRCO3 is somewhat available from native plant
nurseries within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government”. The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to table: the
indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in
California. Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149-169.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Garth, T.R. 1953. Atsugewi ethnography. University
of California Publications in American Archaeology
and Ethnology 14(2):129-212.
Keator, G. 1993. Brodiaea. pp. 1180-1183 IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California Pub.
in American Arch. and Ethnology. Vol. 14:3. pp.
221-436.
Sapir, E. &. L. Spier 1943. Notes on the culture of the
Yana. Anthropological Records 3(3):239-298.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
' WHERE symbol='brco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
AMERICAN
BEAUTYBERRY
Callicarpa americana L.
Plant Symbol = CAAM2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
fruit include armadillos, raccoons, wood rats, gray
foxes, opossums, and white-tailed deer. The long-
lasting fruits provide food for birds and animals well
into the winter months when other food-sources are
unavailable.
Other: Beautyberry shrubs are raised for their
ornamental flowers as well as their colorful clusters
of fruits.
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Vervain Family (Verbenaceae). American
beautyberry is a native, perennial shrub. These small,
deciduous shrubs reach from 1 to 2 m in height. The
leaves are opposite, elliptical to ovate in shape (7 to
15 cm long) and have saw-toothed margins. The
under-side of the leaves can be covered with white or
rust-colored woolly hairs. The inconspicuous blue,
violet, pink, or white flowers are borne in axillary
clusters that bloom from late spring to early summer.
The flowers are funnel-shaped with four clefs. The
round, showy, violet or magenta drupes or fruits are
4-5 mm in diameter. The very juicy fruits, containing
from 2 to 4 seeds, begin to ripen in August or
September. These colorful fruits remain on the
shrubs long after the leaves drop.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: American beautyberry shrubs occur in dry
open woods, moist woods, thickets and hammocks.
They occur as understudy species in upland pine
forests, upper slope pine-oak forests and old-growth
maritime forests. These shrubs are adapted to
climates with hot, humid summers and moderate
winters.
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='These shrubs may be propagated by softwood
cuttings, but they are primarily grown from seed.
The seeds do not require pretreatment for
germination. The many volunteers that this plant
produces are very hearty and can be dug up and
transplanted elsewhere in a more desirable location.
© William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='Beautyberry (Callicarpa means “beautyberry”),
French mulberry, American mulberry, wild goose’s
berries
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The roots, leaves and branches of the
American beautyberry were used by the Alabama,
Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, Seminole and other Native
American tribes for various medicinal purposes. The
roots, leaves and branches were made into a
decoction that was used in sweat baths to treat both
malarial fevers and rheumatism. The boiled plant
parts were poured into a big pan that was placed near
the patient inside a sweathouse. A similar decoction
of the roots was used to treat dizziness and
stomachaches. The roots of Callicarpa americana
were boiled with roots from Rubus spp. to make an
infusion to treat dysentery. The roots and berries
were boiled and drunk to treat colic. The bark from
the stems and roots was used to treat itchy skin. A
tea from the root bark was taken to treat urine
retention or “urine stopped-up sickness.”
Wildlife: The fruits of American beautyberry are an
important food source for many species of birds
including bobwhite quails, mockingbirds, robins,
towhees, and brown thrashers. Animals that eat the
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The plants do well in partial shade and sunny
locations in well-drained soils. The shrubs have a
denser habit and produce more fruit in sunny
locations.
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='This plant can produce abundant volunteers from the
many seeds that drop to the soil. The flowers are
produced on new growth, so prune plants after the
fruits are gone to increase the next year’s growth and
berry production. The plants can take a hard pruning
and may be pruned to the ground level in the winter if
desired.
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. The white-fruited C. Americana
var. lacteal is available from specialty nurseries.
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government”. The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Barbour, M.G., &. W.D. Billings, Editors 2000.
North American terrestrial vegetation, Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom. 708 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the southern United
States: Flowering plants and ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon. 493 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois.
1187 pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the south: Native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001)
Ottensen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Swanton, J.R. 2000. Creek religion and medicine.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
684 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory 2001. Fire effects information
system, [Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [19 June 2001].
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='caam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 28sep01 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
WHITE ROOT
Carex barbarae Dewey
Plant Symbol = CABA4
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Santa Barbara sedge, sedge
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: White root is a significant basketry
material used by central California Native
Americans, who use the long white rhizomes for the
sewing strand in coiled baskets. White root was used
by over one third of California tribes for basket
weaving. Traditionally tended white root plants may
have rhizomes as long as 4- 6 feet in length. untended
plants have short, twisted rhizomes. Sandy, moist
soils are the preferred locations for production of
long rhizomes.
Plant Guide
Other uses of white root include gathering the shoots
into a loose knot to hold worms for fishing or to
gather eggs. The Miwok occasionally used sedge
leaves to cover the floor where spectators sat in the
roundhouse. Today they use pine needles.
A significant portion of the riparian forest understory
was tended prior to European settlement. It is highly
likely that most areas with desirable rhizomes were
harvested every two to four years. This maintained a
lawn-like, grassy appearance under California
riparian forests. Given the high population of native
peoples in California, particularly in the low
elevation range of Carex barbarae, it is probable that
most available plants in suitable soils were
sustainably harvested.
White root is one of the most difficult plants for
basket weavers to obtain due to elimination of
traditional gathering sites and difficulty accessing
those still remaining. Valley oak riparian woodlands
have diminished to less than five percent of their
original range. Carex barbarae, as an understory
dominant, has been reduced even further. Many
traditional gathering sites have been eliminated or
destroyed. Where gathering sites still exist, access for
Indian people to private or public lands has been
difficult. Facilitating access for tending and
gathering traditional materials is a top priority for the
California Indian Basketweavers Association.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Ecological Restoration: Carex barbarae is
increasingly being recommended for riparian
restoration, streambank stabilization, and erosion
control. Plants establish readily in a wide variety of
environmental conditions. Adult plants produce
many rhizomes each year and each rhizome can be
used for revegetation. Subdivision of adult plants
also results in very high plant survival and rapid
colonization. Seeds are fairly easy to germinate, and
seedlings are easy to transport and replant.
Cultivation of Carex barbarae for nursery stock has
only been recently initiated and studies are underway
to determine optimum revegetation procedures. This
plant is useful for green stripping outside riparian
areas, causing fires to lay down before reaching the
forested areas along rivers. Mature plants have well-
developed, deep root systems and are therefore
resilient to low intensity fire.
Wildlife: Because of their wide availability in riparian
corridors, the lens-shaped seeds of sedges are eaten
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
by many kinds of wildlife. Waterfowl and ducks eat
sedge seeds frequently in small to fair amounts.
Sedges are also of value to rails, grouse and to seed-
eating songbirds. Carex species seeds, along with
insects, are the most regular item of diet of grouse
chicks. Birds known to eat sedge seeds include
coots, ducks (such as wood ducks, canvasbacks,
mallards, pintails, teal, shoveler), marsh birds and
shorebirds (dowichers, rails, and sandpipers), upland
gamebirds (grouse, pheasant, and wild turkey), and
songbirds (house finch, junco, sparrow, and towhee).
In addition to providing food for many wildlife
species, sedges are also valuable for cover.
Frequently they provide nesting cover for ducks, and
their tufted growth furnishes concealment and
bedding for other animals.
Wood ducks nest in the trees above the sedges. The
grassy beds soften the fall of fledglings as they
plunge from their nests to the ground. White root
seeds and leaves are eaten by black bear, jack rabbit,
porcupine, squirrels, moles and other small rodents.
The sedge plants provide cover and habitat for
reptiles and amphibians, rabbits, raccoons, deer,
porcupines, opossums, and skunks. Beavers, otters,
muskrats and minks make their way through the
sedges as they go to and from the water. White root
also stabilizes the bank and provides bank overhang
for fish and invertebrate species habitat.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge Family (Cyperaceae). White root is a
grass-like plant with long horizontal rhizomes. The
common name white root is based on these long
horizontal rhizomes used by Indian people for basket
weaving. Stems are 12 to 40 inches long Leaf blades
are light green and triangular shaped 0.25 to 0.75
inch in width. Flowers are on lateral spikelets, 1 to 4
inches long. The linear spikelets have the base of
lower spikelets staminate and narrowly tapered. The
pistillate (female) flower bract is distinctive in that it
has a long golden brown awn often over 0.2 inches in
length covering the pistillate flower (perigynia). This
plant has long rhizomes that can be 4 to 6 feet long.
Similar plants include the following: Carex senta,
Carex nebrascensis, and Carex schottii.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. White root grows from Ventura County in
southern California to southern Oregon. Plants grow
in riparian areas. moist places along streams or on
slopes, occasionally bordering marshes, and on open
or brush slopes and valley flats that are wet in the
spring. Plants grow from sea level to 3,000 feet
evaluation. The distribution of white root includes
the mountains of coastal southern California, San
Bernadino Mountains, Channel Islands, Coast Ranges
from Ventura County north to Humboldt county,
Central Valley, Sierra Nevada foothills from Fresno
County north to El Dorado County, and southern
Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: White root is an understory dominant of
the oak woodland gallery riparian forests (Holland
1986). Leymus triticoides and Carex praegracilis are
co-dominants in the understory. The oak woodland
gallery riparian community type is a dense, broad-
leafed, winter deciduous riparian forest dominated by
valley oak (Quercus lobata), cottonwood, (Populus
fremontii) and willow (Salix goodingii, S. lucida).
Understories are dense, with abundant vegetative
reproduction of canopy dominants plus box elder
(Acer negundo californica), walnut (Juglans hindsii),
sycamore (Platanus racemosa), red willow (Salix
laevigata), and gray willow (Salix exigua). Shade-
tolerant shrubs like buttonbush (Cephalanthus
occidentalis ) and Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia) are
also present. California grape (Vitis californica ) and
poison oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) are the
most conspicuous lianas.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: White root may be planted from bare
rootstock or seedlings from container stalk or directly
seeded into the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are
preferred revegetation methods, particularly where
there is moving water. Plants started as seed tend to
stay diminutive for over a year, with plant leaves
remaining stunted and fragile for a considerable
period of time.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. a depth of 15
cm (6 in) is sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This
will leave enough plants and roots to grow back
during the next growing season.
Live transplants should be planted as soon as
possible. Plants should be transported and stored in a
cool location prior to planting. Plugs may be split
into smaller units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm
(2.4 x 2.4 in) with healthy rhizomes and tops. Weeds
in the plugs should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots. The
Page 3
roots should always remain moist or in water until
planted.
Clip leaves and stems from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more energy
into root production. Planting densities of
approximately 1 meter centers provide full coverage
the first year (given good site conditions). Plant
densities should be increased with fine soils such as
clay or silt, steep slopes or prolonged inundation.
Use an annual grass cover with white root plantings
the first year to facilitate sediment deposition. When
plants are isolated clumps, erosion tends to occur
around each plant. The annual grass covers works
well for mid-slope sites with minimal erosion. For
more extreme hydrology or steeper slopes, use filter
fabric to stabilize sites.
Ideally, plants should be planted in late fall just after
the first rains (usually late October to November).
This enables plant root systems to become
established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Survival is highest when plants are
dormant, temperatures are cool, and soils are moist.
Plants usually need to be planted by hand, as soils are
too moist to use machines.
Seed Collections
• Seed can be harvested by hand or
mechanically with a stripper header. Collect
seeds when they are ripe, from July to
September. Make sure seed heads are full.
• Plant clean seeds in the fall in weed free,
moist seedbeds.
• Planting seeds after weeds have germinated.
Burning, disking, raking, hoeing, or weeding
by hand can control weeds.
• Most Indian people in gathering sites do not
approve of herbicides. Many other people
have objections to the use of herbicides, so
caution and sensitivity is advised.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
below the soil surface.
• Hold off watering so seeds doesn t float out.
• Some seeds may be lost due to scour or
flooding.
and seeds.
• Use erosion control blankets to protect soil
• Plants grown from seeds and planted from
container stock have higher transplant
survival than direct seeding.
• Recommended seed density is unknown at
this time. In greenhouse germination
experiment done by Stevens (1999), a high
temperature was required for germination.
Below 18°C, very little if any seed
germinated. Between 21°C and 30.5°C,
germination of pure live seed was 14 to 23%
for seeds grown in higher nitrate fertilizer
treatment, and 5 to 17% germination for
seeds grown at low nitrate fertilization
treatment. Above 31.5°C, seeds desiccated
or failed to germinate, and germination
results were very low.
• As expected, at high nitrate levels both high
rates of biomass and fecundity are greatly
increased. Fertilizing plants at moderate
nitrate levels increased flower stalk and seed
production, seed weight, and seed viability.
A number of studies show that increasing
temperatures from 21°C to 32°C increases
germination percentages.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seed germination in greenhouse
• Clean seeds by blowing out light seeds.
• Put in water with sphagnum moss.
• To grow seeds, plant in greenhouse in 1". x 1".
x 2". pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep
moist at 100 degrees F (plus or minus 5
degrees). Seeds begin to germinate after a
couple weeks in warm temperatures.
• Plants are ready as plugs in 100 to 120 days.
By planting seeds in August, plugs are ready
to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Since white root tolerates a wide range of shade,
grows from dry slopes to areas which are seasonally
inundated, and grows in a wide variety of soil
textures and fertility, this plant has wide ecological
amplitude.
Traditional Native American tending practices
removed competing species and impediments to
growth such as stones and branches. Tending
practices aerated the soil and stimulated growth
through pruning rhizomes. Plants were harvested
every two to four years, and less than one third of the
plants were harvested. The season of harvest was
late fall through early spring, coinciding with the
times that the plants were dormant and soils were
moist. In some cases, plants were replanted into new
areas.
Mowing, weeding by hand, or selective spraying with
herbicides the first year are rapid and cost effective
methods for weed control. Use of herbicides may be
inappropriate in traditional gathering sites. White
Page 4
root is a perennial plant. once established the first
year, it will subsequently dominate the site.' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Heavy grazing will eliminate Carex barbarae as well
as other native species from riparian corridors.
Historic records and personal interviews with Indian
people document destruction of tended sedge beds
from overgrazing. In addition, grazing of traditional
tended beds desecrates sacred space used by basket
weavers.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CABA4 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government”. The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Parks, California.
388 pp.
Brode, J. &. R.B. Bury. 1984. The importance of
riparian systems to amphibians and reptiles. Pages
30-36 IN: R.E. Warner and K. Hendrix, eds.
California riparian systems ecology, conservation and
productive management. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Bye, R.A. 1985. Botanical perspectives of
ethnobotany of the greater Southwest. Economic
Botany 39(4):375-386.
Conrad, S.G., R.L. Macdonald, &. R.F. Holland.
1976. Riparian vegetation and flora of the
Sacramento Valley. pp. 47-55 in Warner and K.
Hendrix, eds. California riparian systems ecology,
conservation and productive management. University
of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Gaines, D.A. 1977. The valley riparian forests of
California: their importance to bird populations.
Pages 57-85 IN: Anne Sands, ed. Riparian forests in
California: their ecology and conservation.
University. of California, Davis, Inst. of Ecol., Publ.
No. 15.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V.P. Lawson. 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1 400 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1995. Use of greenhouse
propagated wetland plants versus live transplants to
vegetate constructed or created wetlands.
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant Development
Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1994. Seed and live
transplant collection procedures for 7 wetland plant
species. Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant
Development Project, USDA. NRCS, Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Holland, R.F. 1986. Preliminary descriptions of the
terrestrial natural communities of California. State
of California Department of Fish and Game Natural
Diversity DataBase. Natural Communities.
Holstein, G. 1984. California riparian forests:
deciduous islands in an evergreen sea. pp. 2-22 IN:
R.E. Warner and K. Hendrix, eds. California riparian
systems ecology, conservation and productive
management. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Katibah, E.F., K.J. Dummer, &. N.E. Nedeff. 1984.
Current condition of riparian resources in the
Central Valley of California. pp. 314-322 IN: R.E.
Warner and K. Hendrix, eds. California riparian
systems ecology, conservation and productive
management. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkeley,
California.
Laymon, S.A. 1984. Riparian bird community
structure and dynamics: Dog Island, Red Bluff,
California. Pages 587-597 IN: R.E. Warner and K.
Hendrix, eds. California riparian systems ecology,
conservation and productive management.
University. of California Press, Berkeley, California.
1035 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Page 5
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 sjp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr., Eds. 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA,
Forest Service. California Department of Fish and
Game. and PG&.E.
Peri, D.W., S.M. Patterson, J.L. Goodrich, &. R.N.
Lerner 1983. Ethnobotanical mitigation Warm
Springs Dam - Lake Sonoma. Elgar Hill,
Environmental Analysis and Planning, Penngrove,
California 133 pp.
Peri, D.W. &. S.M. Patterson 1976. ".The basket is in
the roots, that s where it begin.". Pages 175-193, IN:
Thomas C. Blackburn and Kat Anderson. Before the
Wilderness. Environmental Management by Native
Californians. A Ballena Press Publication.
Ratliff, R.D. &. S.E. Westfall 1988. Biomass trends
in a Nebraska sedge meadow, Sierra National Forest,
California. Aquatic Botany 30: 109-124.
Roberts, W.G., J.G. Howe, &. J. Major 1980. A
survey of riparian forest flora and fauna in
California. pp. 3-19, IN: Anne Sands (ed.). 1980.
Riparian Forests in California: Their Ecology and
Conservation. Institute of Ecology Publication No.
15. 122 pp. University of California, Davis,
California.
Stevens, M.L. 1999. The effect of nitrogen
fertilization on the growth, reproduction, and
nitrogen use efficiency of (Carex barbarae). PhD
Dissertation, third paper. University of California,
Davis. In progress.
Vernor, J. 1980. Birds of California oak habitats:
management implications. Pages 246-264 IN: T.R.
Plumb (tech. coord.) Ecology, management and
utilization of California oaks. USDA, For. Serv.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-44, Berkeley, California.
Warner, R.E. 1984. Structural, floristic and
condition inventory of Central Valley riparian
systems. pp. 356-374 IN: Warner, R.E. and Hendrix,
1984. California Riparian Systems. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California. 1035 pp.
Zeiner, D.C, W.F. Laudenslayer, Jr., K.E. Mayer &.
M. White 1990. California s wildlife, Volume III,
mammals. State of California Department of Fish
and Game. Sacramento, California. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='caba4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
FRINGED REDMAIDS
Calandrinia ciliata (Ruiz &.
The contents were kept in motion to prevent the coals
from burning the basket. The parched seeds were
pulverized in bedrock mortars into an oily meal,
which was then prepared into balls and cakes.
Large quantities of Calandrinia ciliata seeds have
been recovered by archaeologists in burial sites in
Chumash territory in the Channel Islands of Southern
California (Timbrook 1993). Not only were the seeds
used as ceremonial offerings, as evidenced by these
burial sites, but also they are often mentioned in
Chumash myths (Timbrook 1990).
The Luiseño ate the tender young greens fresh
(Sparkman 1908), which are said to taste similar to
arugula. Fringed redmaid greens contain oxalic acid,
like spinach, and should be eaten sparingly. Cooking
reduces the amount of oxalic acid.
Wildlife: Many insects, small mammals, and birds,
including wild doves (Zenaida spp), eat the seeds.
Domestic animals: Cattle readily graze on fringed
redmaid plants.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Weediness
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov. ' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Description
General: Purslane family (Portulacaceae). Fringed
redmaids are annual forbs native to the Western
United States, Central America, and northern South
America.
These low growing, spreading plants vary in height
(15 to 33 cm) depending on environmental
conditions. The leaves are alternately arranged
leaves and lance shaped (1 to 10cm long). The
flowers growing in loose racemes appear in the early
Pavon) DC.
Plant Symbol = CACI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Beatrice F. Howitt
© California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Red maids, desert rockpurselane, wild portulaca
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Redmaid seeds and greens were an
important food source for many tribes in California
including those whose territory neighbored the
Salinan. Given their importance and their abundance,
they were undoubtedly utilized by the Salinan as
well. The shiny black seeds were a major ingredient
in pinole (from the Aztec word for seed flour, pinolli)
and were valued for their high oil content. The
Chumash called the seed xutash or pil (Timbrook
1986). The name pil is reported in Onlone usage for
redmaid seeds (Bocek 1984). Fages (1937) names pil
as the seed of a plant used by the Salinan.
The Miwok harvested the seeds in early summer
(Barrett &. Gifford1933). The plants were pulled and
spread out on a clean area to dry. The seeds were
separated by shaking or hitting the plants over the
cleaned area or into a basket. Then they were placed
into a tightly woven winnowing basket where they
were tossed, allowing the moving air to remove any
chaff. The seeds were then dried for storage or
parched in a cooking basket along with hot coals.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
spring. The five, notched petals (4 to 15mm long)
are rosy red with darker veins. The fruits bear 10 to
20 small (1 to 2.5mm wide) shiny black seeds.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Fringed redmaids thrive in open grasslands
as well as disturbed areas and cultivated fields below
2200m.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Calandrinia ciliata is an early colonizer of disturbed
areas. It increases in abundance following a fire
because of the increase in nutrients and the decrease
in competing grasses. The native Californians
burned grasslands periodically to increase harvests of
redmaids as well as other fire-following species.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fringed redmaids look lovely when grouped with
other low-growing wildflowers. The plants prefer
full sun and moderately dry to moist conditions.
They do best in sandy to loamy soils with low to
moderate nutrient availability.
These spring annuals do not transplant well and
should be sown directly into prepared beds in late fall
or very early spring. Mix the seeds with ten parts
moist sand to ensure even broadcasting. Broadcast
the sand and seed mixture over the prepared bed and
scuff or rake the seeds lightly into the soil. Water
lightly and keep the soil lightly moist until the seeds
sprout (generally within one to three weeks when
temperatures average 20°C). The plants are
moderately drought tolerant once established.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government”. The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 388 pp.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Chartoff, K.K. 1966. Appendix A: An ethnobotanical
study of the Paskenta-Newvill reservoir. In J.L.
Chartoff &. J Childress. An archaeological survey of
the proposed Paskenta-Newville Reservoir in Glenn
and Tehama Counties, Northern California.
Archives of California Archaeology Paper No. 24.
Fages, P. 1937. A historical, political, and natural
description of California. Translation by H.I.
Priestley, University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 83 pp.
Howitt, B.F. 1999. Calandrinia ciliata: Fringed
redmaids. CalFlora: Information on California
plants for education, research and conservation [web
application] 2001. Berkeley, California: The
CalFlora Database [a non-profit organization].
Available: http://www.calflora.org/. (Accessed: Feb.
19, 2002)
Kelley, W.A. 1993. IN: J.D. Hickman, Editor, The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Pp. 895-896.
Lowry, J.L. 1999. Gardening with a wild heart:
Restoring California’s native landscapes at home.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
252 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 425
pp.
Sparkman, P.S. April 7, 1908. The culture of the
Luiseño Indians. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology Vol. 8, No. 4. Pp. 187-234.
Timbrook, J. 1993. Island Chumash ethnobotany.
Reprint from: Archaeology on the Northern Channel
Page 3
Islands of California. Coyote Press Archives of
California Prehistory NO. 34. Coyote Press, Salinas,
California. Pp 47-61.895-896.
Timbrook, J. 1990 Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians,
California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany Vol. 44, No. 2. Pp
235-253.
Timbrook, J. 1986. Chia and the Chumash: A
reconsideration of sage seeds in Southern California.
Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology
Vol. 8, No. 1. Pp 50-64.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson &. D.D. Earle 1982.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. Journal of
California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol.4, No.
2, pp163-186.
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='caci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 12apr02 ahv. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SAGUARO CACTUS
Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.)
Britt. &. Rose
Plant Symbol = CAGI7
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
were used by the Pima as splints to bind injured
limbs and as cross pieces in the manufacture of
babies cradles. The Seri in Mexico used a piece of
the saguaro rib to make the mainshaft or handle of a
compound drill stick used in fire making. The ribs
also were used as walking canes and in the making of
wattle and daub house walls.
Wildlife: The white-wing dove feeds on saguaro
seeds during the fruiting season. Gila woodpeckers
and gilded flickers make holes in the trunks and use
them as nests. After these are abandoned, they are
inhabited by elf owls and starlings.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cactus Family (Cactaceae). This cactus has
an erect, branched stem 3-16 m tall and 30-75 cm in
diameter. The arms sometimes number as many as
50. The ribs are prominent and number from 12 to
30. Gray spines densely cover the stem. The
funnelform-campanulate flowers are 8.5-12.5 cm and
the outer parts are green with lighter borders and the
inner parts are petal-like and white. The nocturnal
flowers appear singly at the uppermost areoles and
they smell like ripe melons. When open, each flower
is filled with many white stamens. The fruit is scaly,
25-45 mm in diameter and obovoid with a dark red
interior and black seeds that are about 0.75 in
diameter.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This cactus is found on gravelly slopes, rocky
ridges and outwash fans below 1500 m in the Lower
Sonoran Zone, from northern Arizona and along the
Colorado River in Riverside and Imperial Counties,
California, to northern Sonora, Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Saguaro cacti need well-drained soil and full sunlight
for optimal development. They also cannot
withstand prolonged temperatures below freezing.
Since saguaros grow so slowly, it is best to obtain
nursery-grown plants. Plant saguaros in the ground
in October, being sure that the area selected is
Plant Herbarium
© Arizona State University
@ Arizona Trees and Shrubs
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='giant cactus
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The fruits and the seeds of the saguaro
were extensively utilized for food by the Papago,
Akimel and Tohono O odham (also known as Pima),
and Seri of Arizona and Mexico. In fact, families
established camps in specific cactus areas and in both
the Papago and Pima calendars, the saguaro harvest
marked the beginning of the new year. The fruits
were harvested with a special pole, often made of
saguaro ribs with a small crosspiece. Some families
still harvest the fruits today. A gruel was
traditionally made from the saguaro fruits and used as
a medicine by the Pima to make a mother s milk flow
after childbirth. The seeds were roasted and ground
on a metate and made into a mush. Other parts of the
saguaro also were useful. The dead saguaro ribs
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000229. <.http://plants.usda.gov>. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Environmental Horticulture,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
sheltered from full sun with a shade cloth or by other
means through the first summer. Plants should be
planted away from compacted areas that receive foot
travel or heavy equipment. Young plants can be
watered once a month during extended drought, but
established plants can survive solely upon natural
rainfall.
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CAGI7 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government”. The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cagi7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, E.F. 1993. Cactaceae. Pp. 450-458 IN:
The Jepson manual higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Arizona State University Plant Herbarium 2000.
Arizona trees and shrubs. Version: 000228.
<.http://ls.la.asu.edu/herbarium/treeshrub/pages/plants
/cargig.html>.. ASU Life Sciences, Tucson, Arizona.
Castetter, E.F. &. W.H. Bell 1942. Pima and Papago
Indian agriculture. University of New Mexico Press,
Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Curtin, L.S.M. 1984. By the prophet of the earth
ethnobotany of the Pima. University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Felger, R.S. &. M.B. Moser 1985. People of the
desert and sea ethnobotany of the Seri Indians.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Mielke, J. 1993. Native plants of southwestern
landscapes. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas
Rea, A.M. 1997. At the desert s green edge an
ethnobotany of the Gila River Pima. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Shreve, F. &. I.L. Wiggins 1964. Vegetation and
flora of the Sonoran Desert. Stanford University
Press, Palo Alto, California.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
PECAN
Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.)
K. Koch
Plant Symbol = CAIL2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
occasionally been used for flooring, furniture,
cabinetry, paneling, and agriculture implements.
Medicinal: Pecan was used by the Comanche as a
treatment for ringworm. They would pulverize the
leaves and rubbed them on the infected part of the
ringworm. The Kiowa would consume a decoction
made from the bark of pecan for tuberculosis
(Moerman 1998).
Wildlife: Seedling and lower branches of older pecan
trees are browsed heavily by white-tailed deer. Many
birds, opossums, raccoons, and squirrels eat pecan
nuts. This tree provides cover for a variety of birds
and mammals in the forests of southeastern United
States.
Agroforestry: Pecan trees are valuable species in
alley cropping systems. An agricultural crop is
grown simultaneously with a long-term tree crop to
provide annual income while the tree crop matures.
Fine hardwoods, such as pecan trees, are planted side
by side in alleys, or strips in alley cropping systems
and can potentially provide high value logs for
lumber or veneer.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Walnut Family (Junglandaceae). Pecan is a
native, medium to large sized deciduous tree ranging
from 100-140 feet. The leaves are alternate,
pinnately compound, ten to twenty inches long,
eleven to seventeen leaflets that are four to eight
inches long (Harrar &. Harrar 1962). The flowers are
unisexual, both sexes are borne in separate clusters
on the same tree. The fruit is thin-shelled nuts. four
winged from base to apex, borne in clusters of three
to twelve (Ibid.). A ridge is formed where the two
halves of the outer fruit come together. The fruit is
dark brown in color and covered with yellow scales.
The husk is thin and brittle. The husk often persists
on the branch into the winter after dropping the nut.
The nut is thin shelled with a reddish-brown color
and pointed at both ends. The bark is grayish brown
or light brown and is flat ridged and shallowly
furrowed.
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Sweet pecan, Illinois nut, faux hickory, pecan
hickory, pecan nut, pecan tree
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Economic: Pecan trees produce edible nuts that have
a high percentage of fat and are used extensively in
candies and cookies (Stephens 1973). These nuts are
sweet and delicious and are often added to bread,
cake, and ice cream. The oil from the rejected nuts is
used for cooking and cosmetics. Milk can be made
from the seed and is used to thicken soups and season
corn cakes (Facciola 1990). The wood has
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: Pecan is native from Iowa to Indiana to
Alabama, Texas and Mexico (Dirr 1990). This tree
follows the river basins very closely, principally
along the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Colorado
River in Texas, and along some of its tributaries in
Mexico. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Pecan trees commonly grow on rich, moist, well-
drained soils that are not subject to prolonged
flooding. It appears near river bottoms and on heavy
textured soil. This species grows in a humid climate
usually appearing with sweet gum, water oak,
poplars, honey locust, and American elm. It grows
best where summer temperatures average 24-30º C.
Pecan is susceptible to fire damage due to the low
insulating capacity of the bark. Post-fire re-
colonization occurs via seeds carried to the site by
animals and water.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seeds are best sown in a cold
frame as soon as they are ripe. Pecan seeds show
delayed germination and require a period of cold
stratification. Seeds should be stratified at 36-41º F
for thirty to sixty days and then followed by
incubation at room temperature. The seedlings
should be transplanted when they are large enough to
handle and planted in deep pots to accommodate the
taproot. Put the plants in their permanent positions as
soon as possible, preferable during the first summer,
and give them some protection from the cold for the
first winter (Sheat 1948). Pecan requires a frost-free
period of 6 to 9 months for nuts to be produced and
mature. The trees require 1 to 2 inches of rain per
week during the growing season.
Propogation by root sprouting: Nuts sown in the fall
are subjected to the necessary cold stratification and
will germinate in the spring in moist soils. Pecan can
also be propagated through root sprouting, but does
not respond well to transplanting. Pecan trees prefer
deep, moist soils, in full sun.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The best time to plant pecan trees is during the
months of December, January, and February. The
hole should preferable be dug six or eight inches
wider than extended lateral roots and eight inches
deeper than the length of the taproot. Very little
pruning is needed since pecan trees form a natural,
vase shaped canopy. Remove only diseased, dead, or
broken limbs on a regular basis.
Pecan trees are susceptible to a variety of insects,
pests and diseases. It is best to establish a good
disease and insect control program to protect this
species. Grown in its native habitat and using local
seed stock, pecan should not be prone to debilitating
pests. Pecan often suffers from zinc deficiency. To
compensate for this the trees should be sprayed every
2 to 4 weeks in the spring and early summer with
zinc sulfate. Soil tests will ensure the proper amount
of zinc sulfate is applied.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are readily available for commercial seed
sources. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Brown, C.A. 1965. Louisiana trees and shrubs.
Claitor’s Bookstore, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Brown, C.L. &. L.K. Kirkman 1990. Trees of
Georgia and adjacent states. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997 Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Inc.,
Portland, Oregon.
Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape
plants: their identification, ornamental
characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th
ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.
Floridata.com LC. 2002. www.floridata.com
Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia-a source book of
edible plants. Kampong Publications.
Page 3
Matthew Hurteau
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department, Davis,
California
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Harlow, W.M., E.S. Harrar, J.W. Hardin, &. F.M.
White 1996. Textbook of dendrology. 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, New York. 534pp.
Harrar, E.S. &. J.G. Harrar 1962. Guide to southern
trees. 2nd ed. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York.
Hunter, C.G. 1995. Trees, shrubs, and vines of
Arkansas. 2nd ed. The Ozark Society Foundation,
Little Rock, Arkansas.
Lemmon, R.S. 1952. The best loved trees of
America. The American Garden Guild and
Doubleday &. Company, Inc., Garden City, New
York.
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976. Hortus
Third. Macmillan Publishing Company. 1290 pp.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb
Preston, R.J. Jr. 1948. North American trees. 2nd ed.
The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
Preston, R.J. Jr. 1989. North American trees. 4th ed.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Sheat, W.G. 1948. Propagation of trees, shrubs, and
conifers. MacMillan &. Company.
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='USDA Forest Service 2001. Fire effects information
system. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Boise, Idaho.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/carill/in
dex.html
' WHERE symbol='cail2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
YELLOW MARIPOSA
LILY
Lindl.
Calochortus luteus Dougl. ex
Plant Symbol = CALU9
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
showy flowers have 1-7 per stem. The yellow petals
are bell-shaped and often have a central red-brown
blotch inside, sparsely slender-hairy near the base
and the crescent-shaped nectary is not depressed.
The fruit is an angled capsule, 3-6 cm long.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The plant is found in the Sierra Nevada foothills,
Sacramento Valley, central-western California,
northwestern California, northern Channel Islands.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Collect or buy seed from local sources. Place the
seeds in a paper bag until you are ready to plant
them. Plant them in a 5 inch or deeper pot in a soil
that has excellent drainage. Scatter the seeds at least
one-quarter inch apart. Sprinkle a light layer of soil
on top and then place quarter-inch gravel on top of
the soil. The seed should be planted in the fall and
requires no stratification. Let the pots sit outside
during the winter in partial shade. Water the pots,
keeping them slightly damp. Germination is
generally about February. Fertilize the plants in a
weak solution about once a month during active
growth until April. When the tips of the leaves turn
yellow, stop watering and fertilizing (about the end of
April). The bulbs are dormant by flowering time. In
the fall start watering again. Give the plants more
room in the fall of the second or third year by
transplanting them and spacing them 1-2 inches
apart. Plant the plants outside in the ground in the
third or fourth year. Plant them in full sun in summer
or fall. Start watering them in September. After they
have bloomed for the first time, they should be
established.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Weed around the plants regularly and protect them
from insects, birds, mammals, and other animals.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CALU9 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Mariposa, sego lily, yellow calochortus
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The bulbs were gathered for food with
a digging stick by the southern Paiute and the Sierra
Miwok. The Miwok dug the bulbs when buds
appeared on the plants in April or later in flowering.
The bulbs were roasted for about 20 minutes in ashes
of a fire that had died down. When retrieved they
were soft, like boiled potatoes. The bulbs also were
baked in an earth oven.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Populations of this
species are found in heavy soils in grassland,
woodland, and mixed-evergreen forest below 700 m.
The leaves are basal, 10-20 cm long, and linear. The
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Fiedler, P. &. B. Ness 1993. Calochortus. pp. 1183-
1189 IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of
California. J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
' WHERE symbol='calu9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 18sep00 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
SLOUGH SEDGE
Carex obnupta Bailey
Plant Symbol = CAOB3
Contributed By: USDA NRCS Idaho Plant Materials
Center &. the National Plant Data Center
or geometric patterns woven with dyed strands of
twining materials.
The Nitinaht believed that picking ".grasses". for
baskets and mats (such as, Carex obnupta and
Scirpus pungens) causes fog. The fisherman were
always getting annoyed with the women who
harvested these materials, because they were always
making it foggy. It is said that Hesaquiat men shaved
with this ".grass". because the edges are so sharp.
There is a saying in Hesaquiat which means ".you re
just like citapt, (Carex obnupta) you never change,".
because citapt is always the same and never seems to
change in appearance.
Erosion Control: Carex obnupta provides erosion
control and streambank stabilization. The dense
swards of slough sedge provide sediment retention
and nutrient uptake, thus contributing to water quality
improvement. Emergent wetland plant communities
dominated by slough sedge provide the following
hydrologic functions:
• maintaining river or stream meander patterns.
•
providing a broad, shallow plain where
streamflow velocities slow and sediment
deposition occurs.
stormwater abatement.
a mixing zone where brackish and
freshwaters meet. and
nutrient-rich habitat for aquatic organisms,
fish, waterfowl, and predators such as otter,
bald eagles, herons, and raccoons to feed.
•
•
•
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
Wildlife: The lens-shaped seeds of sedges are eaten
by many kinds of wildlife. Birds known to eat sedge
seeds include coots, ducks (such as wood ducks,
canvasbacks, mallards, pintails, teal, shoveler), marsh
birds and shorebirds (dowichers, rails, and
sandpipers), upland gamebirds (grouse, pheasant, and
wild turkey), and songbirds (house finch, junco,
sparrow, and towhee). Waterfowl and ducks eat
sedge seeds frequently in small to fair amounts. In
addition to providing food for many wildlife species,
sedges are also valuable for cover. Frequently they
provide nesting cover for ducks, and their tufted
growth furnishes concealment and bedding for other
animals. Beavers, otters, muskrats and minks make
their way through the sedges as they go to and from
the water.
Invasive Potential: This plant is densely rhizomatous,
and can be invasive in pastures or wet meadows.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Tall basket grass, sedge
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The leaves of Carex obnupta, are used
for both wrapping and twining in the ".grass". baskets
that are well known and widely marketed by Nitinaht
and Nootka women even today (Turner et al. 1983).
".Grass". baskets are created using ".three-cornered
grass". (Scirpus pungens) for the basket bottom and
ribs, slough sedge for the wrapping, and the top rim
is made of the inner bark of western red cedar (Thuja
plicata). The baskets usually have tightly fitting,
convex lids of the same weave, and usually both
basket and lid have designs of whales, birds, canoes,
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge Family (Cyperaceae). Slough sedge
is a robust sedge that grows 60-150 cm tall. this
densely tufted, grasslike plant has stout, creeping
rhizomes. The leaves are w-shaped, coarse, with the
margins rolled under. The 4-8 cylindrical flower
spikes are very large and long (5-12 cm) and loosely
aggregated at the tip. Carex lyngbyei is a similar
species.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Slough sedge is a coastal plant growing from
San Luis County in California north through Oregon
and Washington to British Columbia. Slough sedge
occurs at elevations below 900 m.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Slough sedge is an obligate wetland
species that prefers fresh water. It grows in wet,
shallow, inundated woods, meadows, roadside
ditches, coastal swamps, lakeshores, bogs, marshes,
and riverbanks. In muddy areas it can grow as a
dense, single-species stand. It often grows in
association with skunk cabbage (Lysichiton
americanum). Slough sedge is very similar to
Lyngbye s sedge in growth form and appearance.
Both species tolerate brackish often saline coastal
wetland areas. they often grow in similar habitats
where saltwater and freshwater meet, such as at the
mouths of rivers entering the Pacific Ocean, lagoons,
or the Puget Sound.
General: Carex obnupta may be planted from bare
root stock, seedlings from container stalk, or directly
seeded into the soil. Bare root stock or seedlings are
preferred revegetation methods, particularly in areas
with moving water. Since slough sedge often grows
in areas that are hydrologically quite dynamic, with
both tidal and fluvial influences, bare root stock
plantings are generally recommended. Seeds
generally wash away in these conditions. Also,
plants started from seeds tend to stay diminutive for
over a year, with plant leaves remaining stunted and
fragile for a considerable period of time.
Live Plant Collections: Live plant collections are
appropriate only under a very limited set of
conditions. Loss of wetland ecosystems exceeds
50% in most states and estuarine wetland losses have
been as high as 90%. Public lands that allow plant
collections, require permits. Permission from the
landowner must be acquired to collect on private
lands. No more than 1/4 of the plants in an area
should be collected. a depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep enough for digging plugs. This will
leave enough plants and roots to grow back during
the growing season.
Live transplants should be planted as soon as
possible. Plants should be transported and stored in a
cool location prior to planting. Plugs may be split
into smaller units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm
(2.4 x 2.4 in) with healthy rhizomes and tops. Weeds
in the plugs should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots. The
roots should always remain moist or in water until
planted.
Clip leaves and stem from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more energy
into root production and makes plants easier to
handle (the leaves can be sharp). Planting densities
of approximately 1 meter centers provide full
coverage the first year (given good site conditions).
If there is flowing water, increase planting densities
to 1/2-meter centers. Plant densities should also be
increased with fine soils such as clay or silt, steep
slopes or prolonged inundation.
Ideally, plants should be planted in fall just after the
first rains, depending on the climate and geographic
location. This enables plant root systems to become
established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Planting survival is highest when
plants are dormant, temperatures are cool, and soils
are moist. Plants usually need to be planted by hand,
as soils are too moist to use machines.
In some areas, winter storms and high tides would
wash away newly transplanted seedlings. While in
other areas, avoiding high tides and high floods is
recommended, because this combination will
minimize plant survival. Planting in the spring after
high floods may be warranted in this situation.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedGermination TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedGermination='• Seeds usually have to be harvested by hand,
as Carex obnupta Bailey grows in very wet
habitats that are inaccessible by machine.
Carex obnupta Bailey blooms from April to
July. Collect seeds when they are ripe, from
July to September. Make sure seed heads are
full.
• Plant cleaned seeds in fall.
• Plant seeds in clean, weed free, moist seed
bed.
• Broadcast seeds and roll in or rake 1/4". to
1/2". beneath the soil surface.
• Hold off watering so seeds doesn t float out.
Page 3
• Some seeds may be lost due to scour or
flooding.
and seeds.
• Use erosion control blankets to protect soil
• Plants grown from seeds and planted from
container stock have higher transplant
survival than direct seeding.
• Recommended seed density is unknown at
this time. Sedges tend to have low
germination rates. While exact seeding
prescriptions are unknown at this time,
estimates of from 25% to 50% would be
reasonable based on other Carex species.
• Nitrate fertilization greatly increases both
biomass production and fecundity.
Fertilizing plants at moderate nitrate levels
increases flower stalk and seed production,
seed weight, and seed viability.
Increasing temperatures from 21°C to 32°C
increases germination percentages.
•
Seed germination in greenhouse
• Clean seed - blow out light seeds.
• Put in water with sphagnum moss.
• Cold stratify seeds by putting in a cooler for
30 days to improve germination rates.
• To grow seeds, plant in greenhouse in 1". x 1".
x 2". pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep
moist at 100 ° F (plus or minus 5 degrees).
Sedges require high temperatures and
constant moisture for successful germination.
Seeds begin to germinate after two weeks in
warm temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come
out as plugs. These plants are very small. for
planting, larger plugs in spring will improve
revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The leaves of slough sedge are cut in late summer
(August) (Turner et al. 1983). A knife was used to
cut the plant at the base, as low to the ground as
possible. The best plants were said to be those
growing in 10 cm (4".) of water. The cluster of leaves
are cut off or pulled from the tender white bases,
where they break off at or just below the ground
level. Only the non-flowering, vegetative plants,
called the ".female". plants, were gathered.
The harvested sedge leaves are bundled and taken
home, where they are sorted according to size. the
longest ones, considered the best, were put together
and dried. After the leaves have dried slightly, they
are split exactly in half lengthwise, from bottom to
top, using the thumbnail. After being split, the leaves
are dried completely and bleached in the sun. They
can then be bundled or stored.
Traditional Resource Management: Conservation
practices include the following: 1) gathering only
during late summer after seeds are produced. 2)
gathering only infertile shoots without flowering
stalks. 3) weeding out competing species and
removing impediments to growth such a stones and
branches. 4) pruning shoots causes sedges to
retranslocate nutrients belowground, providing a
nutrient reserve to stimulate new growth the
following growing season. 5) removal of long, dense
shoots provides good opportunities for seedling
establishment and recruitment. 6) harvesting
aboveground biomass maintains the sedge clone in
juvenile and mature life stages, removing decadent
old portions of plants and stimulating new growth.
and 7) ownership of sedge beds provides the basis for
careful tending and sustainable yield of valued
resources.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CAOB3 is readily available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Baskin, C.C., E.W. Chester, &. J.M. Baskin 1996.
Effect of flooding on annual dormancy cycles in
buried seed of two wetland Carex species. Wetlands
16(1): 84-88.
Baskin, J.M. &. C.C. Baskin 1978. Seasonal changes
in the germination response of Cyperus inflexus seeds
to temperature and their ecological significance.
Bot. Gaz. 139 (2): 231-235.
Baskin, J.M. and C.C. Baskin 1971. Germination of
Cyperus inflexus seeds. Bot. Gaz. 132(1):3-9.
Bernard, J.M. 1989. Life history and reproduction in
Carex. Can. J. Bot. 68:1441-1448.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
Page 4
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington
Grime, J.P., G. Mason, A.V. Curtis, J. Rodman, S.R.
Band, M.A.G. Mowforth, A.M. Neal &. S. Shaw
1981. A comparative study of germination
characteristics in a local flora. Journal of Ecology
69:1017-1059.
Harper, J.L., J.T. Williams and G.R. Sagar 1964. The
behavior of soil surfaces and its role in determining
the establishment of plants from seed. Journal of
Ecology 53:273-286.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1995. Use of greenhouse
propagated wetland plants versus live transplants to
vegetate constructed or created wetlands.
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant Development
Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1994. Seed and live
transplant collection procedures for 7 wetland plant
species. Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant
Development Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Keddy, P.A. &. P. Constabel 1986. Germination of
ten shoreline plants in relation to seed size, soil
particle size and water level: an experimental study.
Journal of Ecology 74:133-141.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press. Berkeley
and Los Angeles, California. 878 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Stevens, M.L. 1999. The effect of nitrogen
fertilization on the growth, reproduction, and
nitrogen use efficiency of Carex barbarae. Ph.D.
Dissertation, third paper. University of California,
Davis, California. In progress.
Schütz, W. 1998. Seed dormancy cycles and
germination phenologies in sedges (Carex ) from
various habitats. Wetlands 18(2):288-297.
Thompson, K. &. J.P. Grime 1983. A comparative
study of germination responses to diurnally
fluctuating temperatures. Journal of applied ecology
20:141-156.
Thompson, K. &. J.P. Grime 1979. Seasonal
variation in the seed banks of herbaceous species in
ten contrasting habitats. Journal of Ecology 67:893-
921.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson, &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. Occasional Papers of the British
Columbia Provincial Museum No. 24. Province of
British Columbia. Ministry of Provincial Secretary
and Government Service. Government of Canada.
Parks Canada Western Region.
Turner, N.J. 1982. Ethnobotany of the Hesquiat
Indians of Vancouver Island. Cultural Recovery
Paper No. 2. British Columbia Provincial Museum.
Province of British Columbia. Ministry of Provincial
Secretary and Government Services.
Urbaniak, L. 1993. Variability characteristics and
comparison of Carex arenaria L. and Carex ligerica
Gray populations based on rhizome characters. Acta
Societatis Botanicorum Poloniai. 63(1):77-81.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
USDA, NRCS, Idaho Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho
' WHERE symbol='caob3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29apr03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
Page 5
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
COMMON CAMAS
Camassia quamash (Pursh)
Greene ssp. beviflora Gould
Plant Symbol = CAQUB2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Corvallis (OR) Plant Materials Center
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='small camas, blue camas. Camassia esculenta.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning_='Death camas (Zigadenus venenosus) can
be confused with edible camas bulbs and is toxic. Be
sure of your identification of camas bulbs before
eating them!
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Camas was and continues to be one of
the most important ".root". foods of western North
American indigenous peoples, from southwestern
British Columbia to Montana, and south to California
(Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). The part of the plant
that was relished is actually a bulb. Camas was used
Plant Guide
by Northwest Coast peoples, the Coast Salish of
Vancouver Island, western Washington groups,
Squamish, Sechelt, Comox, and Kwak-waka wakw of
the British Columbia coast. Camas was considered to
be one of the most important bulbs to local California
natives. The Maidu particularly valued great camas.
Except for choice varieties of dried salmon, no other
food item was more widely traded (Gunther 1973).
People traveled great distances to harvest the bulbs
and there is some suggestion that plants were
dispersed beyond their range by transplanting (Turner
and Efrat 1982. Turner et al. 1983). To the Nez
Perce people, camas is still the most important root in
trade, and trading is traditionally impossible without
camas bulbs (Harbinger 1964). Dried camas is the
most expensive form of camas, with baked and then
raw camas being less expensive. At marriage trades,
the girl’s family gives roots in corn husk bags. At
funeral trades, the widow gives camas roots to friends
and relatives. The Nez Perce traded camas roots with
the Warm Springs, Umatilla, Cayuse, Walla Walla,
Nespelem, Yakama, Crows, and Flatheads.
The bulbs were usually dug after flowering, in
summer, although some peoples dug them in spring.
Harvesting the bulbs traditionally took weeks or
months among the Nez Perce. Each family group
".owned". its own camping spot and harvesting spot.
These were passed down in families from generation
to generation. Turf was lifted out systematically in
small sections and then replaced after only larger
bulbs had been removed. The bulbs were dug with a
pointed digging stick. Bulbs were broken up and
replanted. Annual controlled burning was used to
maintain an open prairie-like habitat for optimum
camas production. Areas were harvested only every
few years.
Traditionally, camas bulbs were almost always pit-
cooked. Within the past 100 years, camas bulbs have
also been cooked by stovetop methods (Turner and
Kuhnlein 1983). The bulbs are allowed to cook for
24-36 hours when pit-cooked (Turner and Bell 1971).
It is probable that lengthy cooking is necessary for
maximum conversion of the inulin in Camassia to
fructose. The sweetness of cooked camas gave it
utility as a sweetener and enhancer of other foods.
Before sugar, European traders introduced molasses,
and honey. Sweetening agents were in short supply
among native peoples, and camas was highly valued
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
in this capacity. Sometimes other foods, such as the
rhizomes of springbank clover (Trifolium
wormskioldii) and the roots of Pacific silverweed
(Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica) were cooked with
the camas bulbs. The Kalapuyan of the Willamette
Valley in Oregon used to flavor camas with tarweed
(Madia elegans). Bulbs don’t keep well fresh. They
were cooked or sun-dried and stored for later use.
Sometimes camas bulbs were pressed flat and made
into camas cakes the size of biscuits before being
dried (Turner et al. 1983). Dried bulbs were re-
constituted by soaking in water, usually overnight.
Many of the traditional camas gathering sites, such as
Weippe Prairie and Camas Prairie in Idaho and the
Willamette Valley in Oregon, have been converted to
agriculture. The average size of a camas patch
needed to feed a five person family was 2.7 ha
(Thoms 1989). Camas roots are hard to find now.
Restoration of camas prairies and access to camas
bulbs are priorities of many Indian people. At one
time, “When camas was in bloom in wet meadows,
the flowers grow so thickly that they look like a blue
lake” (Murphey 1959).
Camas stalks and leaves were used for making
mattresses. It was sometimes used in place of grass
when baking camas in pits. Camas is used by the
Nez Perce as a cough medicine. It is boiled, and the
juice is strained and mixed with honey.
Ornamental: Horticulturally, this plant is used for cut
flowers, beds, borders, ground cover, rock gardens,
and prairie restoration.
Wildlife: Elk, deer, and moose reportedly graze
camas early in the spring (Craighead, Craighead, and
Davis 1963). Gophers eat camas and move the bulbs
to another area where they sprout and grow the next
year (Watson 1988). Indian women in Oregon’s
Umpqua Valley robbed camas bulbs from gopher
caches (Piper 1916). Herbivorous insects also eat
camas leaves.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Common camas
(Camassia quamash ssp. breviflora) is a stout, robust,
12-28 inches (30-70 cm) tall plant with a dense
inflorescence. Camases are liliaceous, perennial
herbs that grow from an edible bulb. The leaves are
long and narrow, grass-like, and emerge from the
base. Common camas flowers are light to deep blue.
more than 3 flowers in an inflorescence may be open
at one time. Camas flowers have 6 tepals, 6 stamens,
and 3 stigmas. The inflorescence is a spike-like
cluster borne on a leafless stem that is held above the
leaves. Common camas is distinguished from great
camas (Camassia quamash ssp.quamash) by the
following: the flowers are slightly irregular, with the
lowest tepal curving outward away from the stem. the
anthers are bright yellow. the plant is relatively short
and stout, with shorter flower stalks and smaller
bulbs. and there is no waxy powder on the leaves.
Common camas blooms from April through June.
The fruits are barrel-shaped to three-angled capsules,
splitting into three parts to release many black,
angled seeds.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Common camas grows in wet meadows, wet prairies,
swales, depressions, annual floodplains, moist
hillsides, and streamside areas. Camas habitat is
often ephemeral, drying out by late spring. Common
camas grows throughout the American West to
southwest Alberta, Montana, Wyoming, and Utah at
elevations below 3300 meters. The southern limit of
its range in California is the high Sierra Nevada
Mountains and Modoc Plateau. In British Columbia,
common camas is found in moist meadows, rocky
outcrops, bluffs, and islands in southwestern British
Columbia, mainly on southwestern Vancouver Island
and the Gulf Islands. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Common camas can be propagated from seeds or
bulbs. Common camas generally prefers full sun to
partial shade, with bulb depth ranging from 2-8
inches (most commonly 4-6 inches deep). The bulbs
of common camas can be substantially smaller in size
and occur at more shallow soil depths than great
camas. Bulb depth appears limited by shallow water
tables, anoxic conditions, or restrictive layers. The
occasional occurrence of a large, thick root beneath a
bulb may aid in re-locating or re-establishing it at a
greater depth. Plants require irrigation or moist soil
conditions to become established, and camas can be
difficult to establish in California.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Collections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Collections='Common camas is readily established by
transplanting wild or commercially grown bulbs.
Wild harvests should be restricted to salvage sites
with appropriate approvals or permits. Due to loss of
wetland habitat throughout the United States,
Page 3
harvesting plants from the wild is rarely appropriate
or legal except under salvage situations. Use of bulbs
or seeds from local nurseries or greenhouses is
strongly recommended.
The best time to excavate bulbs is from early summer
through mid-fall. This is the “quiescent” period that
follows seed maturation, foliar senescence, and
development of the daughter bulb. However,
commercial bulb harvest takes place when the leaves
are still green and must be done carefully to avoid
damage. The bulb tunic or covering is very thin (De
Hertogh and Le Nard 1993). Given that camas
commonly occupies sites high in silt and clay that dry
out in summer, windows for digging are often
narrow. There is a brief period when soils are moist
after flowering in the spring. the next time to harvest
is in the fall after the rains begin. Store the bulbs in a
dry, dark, cool, well ventilated place in a potting
medium such as dry peat moss, similar to
recommendations for fall planted/spring flowering
bulbs (such as daffodils and tulips). Keep the bulbs
from completely drying out and transport or store at
63-68° F (De Hertogh, Noone and Lutman 1990).
Common camas reproduces vegetatively by offset
bulblets (De Hertogh et. al. 1993). However, much
less than one percent of a wild population may
produce offsets and bulbs may be stimulated to do so
only as the result of a wound (Thoms 1989).
Plant camas outdoors in the fall or early winter, when
soils are moist enough to dig and prevailing soil
temperatures are cool. This is generally below 60°F.
Fall planting allows for better root development and
fulfillment of any chilling requirement for flowering
(De Hertogh et. al. 1993). Bulbs, bulblets, and
offsets can be utilized. However, if flowering is
desired the following spring, bulbs must be of
sufficient age (3-5 years old with 3-4 bulb leaves or
scales) and size (Thoms 1989). Bulb leaves are
laminate concentric layers that comprise much of the
bulb, reminiscent of an onion. Bulbs with just two
bulb leaves never flower, those with three routinely
flower, and those with four almost always flower.
Older bulbs will be found deeper in the ground, and
bulbs which flower will probably be at least 0.6-0.8
inch (1.5-2.0 cm) wide (Thoms 1989). In the
commercial bulb trade, the minimum size for export
and thus flowering is a circumference of 2.4 inches (6
cm) (De Hertogh and Le Nard 1993). This is roughly
equivalent to a diameter of 0.75 inch and about one-
half the diameter and circumference of great camas.
The larger the bulb, the greater the planting depth can
be. Planting depth ranges from 0.5-1 inches for 1-2
year old bulblets up to 4-6 inches for mature bulbs
(as measured to their base). Larger bulbs (1.5 inches
in diameter or greater) can be planted deeper (8-10
inches) if drainage is appropriate. Commercial
production involves planting from October to
November in well drained soil of pH 6-7 with at least
2% organic matter, covering with at least 3 inches of
soil above the bulb “nose”, applying 2 inches of
straw mulch, fertilizing with 7-14-28 fertilizer four
weeks after planting, and harvesting in July (De
Hertogh, Noone and Lutman 1990). Keep the camas
bed damp until it gets warm. Once plants senesce
after flowering, stop watering so seeds form and
bulbs cure. Suggested spacing for flower beds and
naturalized landscapes vary from 3-4 inches apart (8-
10 per sq. ft.) to 6-8 inches apart. Other publications
recommend 6-8 bulbs every 12 inches for outdoor
gardens. A dense “natural” stand may have 9
plants/sq. ft. (100/sq. meter) or more (Thoms 1989).
It may be necessary to bury bulbs with a protective
wire mesh to prevent herbivory. The mesh needs to
be coarse enough to allow shoots to grow through
(De Hertogh et. al. 1993).
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedCollections='Common camas propagates easily from seed. It can
be collected as soon as the pods mature (turn light
brown) or split open to reveal the mature black seeds.
Pods ripen from late May- July depending on
latitude, longitude, moisture conditions, or elevation.
Dry seeds can be stored frozen or in a cool, dry place
prior to planting.
Camas seed requires 42-100 days of cold
temperatures (34-40°F) under moist stratification for
maximum germination (90-100%)(Emery 1988,
Guerrant and Raven 1995, Deno 1993, Northway
pers. comm. 1998, Thoms 1989). “Moist
stratification” means placement of seeds which are
“imbibed”, or have soaked up water, in layers of a
moist medium at cool temperatures to allow for after-
ripening. Germination also requires cool conditions
and can occur in the dark (Northway pers. comm.
1998). The alternative is to plant seed outdoors in the
fall (Sept-Oct). One-leafed, grass-like seedlings will
emerge in February or March under suitable
conditions. Seedlings require moisture through the
spring growing period to survive. Warm
temperatures during seedling development can be
lethal.
Suggested site preparation methods and seeding rates
for wetland revegetation are not well known, but a
broadcast rate of 20 live seeds/sq. ft. for both
Camassia sub-species resulted in poor to good
seedling counts the following spring (0-10 or more
seedlings/sq. ft.) (Darris, pers. comm., 1999).
Page 4
Seedling success was dependent on weed
competition, hydrology, type of disturbance, mulch,
erosion, or other factors. Camas seedlings were
inhibited by dense stands of live grass such as Lolium
multiflorum. However, seedlings appeared to benefit
when grown in the mulch of native grass
(Deschampsia cespitosa), at least on well-drained,
stable, slightly higher ground (Ibid). In areas with
wet, mild winters, soil scarification for shallow seed
coverage or just constant moisture from irrigation or
winter rains can result in good germination. At least
one grower sows seed directly on the soil surface in
the fall (Robinson pers. comm. 1999). However,
other growers have found that a 1-2 inch covering of
organic mulch is required during the first growing
season to protect the tiny bulblet from exposure to
dry soil, surface cracking, and extreme temperatures.
Sawdust or a chemically killed dense stand of grass
works well (Watson pers. comm. 1999). Seeds
deeper than 0.4-0.8 inch (1-2 cm) will not germinate
successfully (Watson 1988).
Seeds per pound: Camassia quamash ssp. breviflora
– 131,000 (+/- 20,000)
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Camas is favored as forage by deer so fencing or
repellents may be useful, particularly during the first
growing season. Consistent soil moisture is required
every spring, but the soil can be allowed to dry out
soon after the pods mature or the leaves senesce (dry
up and turn brown). Moderate soil nutrient levels are
beneficial. In natural settings, minor soil disturbance
(loosening, surface scarification) adjacent to existing
specimens may enhance natural regeneration by seed.
Late summer field burning (where and when
permitted) may improve stand vigor, reduce
competition from brush and certain weeds, and aid in
regeneration. For optimal bulb development, avoid
mowing or grazing more than lightly, if at all, even
during foliar senescence. Individual plants may live
15-20 years.
Traditional Resource Management (TRM) was often
intensive, to the point of being considered “semi-
agricultural” by some. According to Dr. Nancy
Turner, TRM included the following:
• Ownership, demarcation, and inheritance of beds
or patches,
• Clearing of rock, brush, and weedy vegetation,
• Harvesting bulbs after seeds were produced,
during specific times of the year,
• Periodic field burning in summer after digging,
• In some cases, sod removal then bulb removal
followed by sod replacement,
• Digging or “cultivation” to keep the soil loose,
• “Selective breeding” by transplanting “better”
bulbs to the beds,
• Sustainable harvest techniques, including partial,
selective harvests and incidental or planned
promotion of camas colonization and
reproduction, and' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='• Death camas bulbs (Zigadenus venenosus) were
removed, so they wouldn’t accidentally be
mistaken for the edible camas bulbs. ' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
CAQUB2 is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Cultivars of common
camas are available from the flower bulb industry.
Camassia quamash ‘Orion’ is deep blue, while those
of ‘San Juan Form’ are an even deeper, more vibrant
blue. There is also a white form (Benzel 1995).
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Parks, California.
388 pp.
Barton, B.J. 1997. Gardening by mail. A source
book. A Mariner Book, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston &. New York.
Brenzel, K.N. (ed.) 1995. Sunset western garden
book. Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park,
California. 200 pp.
Bryan, J. 1989. Bulbs (2 volumes). Timber Press,
Portland, Oregon.
CalPhotos. 2000. Camassia quamash ssp. breviflora.
Version: 000328. Photo: Brother Alfred Brousseau.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=2643&.one=T>.. CalFlora, Inc., Berkeley,
California.
Craighead, J.J., F.C. Craighead, &. R.J. Davis 1963.
A field guide to Rocky Mountain wildflowers.
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Cooke, S.S. (ed.) 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
Page 5
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society &.
Washington Native Plant Society. 415 pp.
Deno, N.C. 1993. Seed germination theory and
practice. Self-published and self-distributed.
Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, State College,
Pennsylvania. 110 pp.
De Hertogh, A.A., L.B. Gallitano, G.H. Pemberton,
&. M.E. Traer 1993. Guidelines for the utilization of
flowering bulbs as perennial (naturalized) plants in
North American landscapes and gardens. Bulletin
No. 37. Holland flower bulb technical services,
Netherlands Flower Bulb Center (IBC). Hillegom,
the Netherlands.
De Hertogh, A.A. &. M. De Nard (eds.) 1993.
Chapter 37, general chapter on spring flowering
bulbs. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands and New York, New
York. Pp. 705-707.
De Hertogh, A.A., C. Noone, &. A. Lutman 1990.
Camassia. IN: Geophyte, Version 2.2. North
Carolina State University, Department of
Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina. 8 pp.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California. 44 pp.
Guard, J.B. 1995. Wetland plants of Oregon and
Washington. Lone Pine Publishing. Redmond, WA,
Vancouver, B.C., &. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. pp.
98-99.
Guerrant, E.O. Jr. &. A. Raven 1995. Seed
germination and storability studies of 69 plant taxa
native to the Willamette Valley wet prairie. The
Berry Botanic Garden, Portland, Oregon. 65 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945, rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Harbinger, L.J. 1964. The importance of food plants
in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural identity.
Thesis, Master of Arts in Anthropology, Washington
State University, Pullman, Washington. 82 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle &. London.
730 pp.
International Flower Bulb Center 1999. Spring bulb
guide (Camassia). <.http://www.bulb.com>..
Technical Information Service of the IFBC.
Hillegom, the Netherlands. 3 pp.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kruckeberg, A.R. 1996 (2nd edition). Gardening
with native plants of the Pacific Northwest.
University of Washington Press, Seattle &. London.
Greystone Books/Douglas &. McIntyre,
Vancouver/Toronto. 153 pp.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon &. Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Langaslag, J.J.J. (chairman) 1989. Camassia. IN:
Teelt en gerbruiksmogelijkheden van
bijgoedgewassen. Tweede Druk. Ministerie
Landbouw Visserij en Consulentschap Algemene
Dienst Bloembollenteelt. Lisse, The Netherlands. pp
76-78.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA,
Forest Service, California Department of Fish &.
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Piper, C.V. 1916. Notes on Quamasia with a
description of a new species. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 24:77.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon (eds.) 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia and Alaska. British Columbia
Ministry of Forests and Lone Pine Publishing. 108
pp.
Page 6
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Schopmeyer, Technical Coordinator 1974. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. USDA, Forest Service,
Washington, D.C.
Showers, M.A. &. K. Wiese (eds.) 1995. Nursery
sources for California native plants. DMG Open File
Report 90-04. California Dept. of Conservation,
Office of Mine Reclamation, Sacramento, California.
Thoms, A. 1989. The northern roots of hunter-
gatherer intensification: camas and the Pacific
Northwest. PhD dissertation. Dept. of
Anthropology, Washington State University,
Pullman, Washington. 521 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. The ethnobotany of
the Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. Cultural
Recovery Paper No. 2, British Columbia Provincial
Museum, Queen’s Printer, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. &. H.V. Kuhnlein 1983. Camas
(Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two
liliaceous “root” foods of the northwest coast
Indians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Watson, R.D. 1988. Interview data on Camas
growing in Moscow, Idaho. Interviewed (4-18-88)
by Alson V. Thoms. Notes on file, Center for
Northwest Anthropology, Washington State
University, Pullman, Washington.
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
Corvallis Plant Materials Center, Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='caqub2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
GREAT CAMAS
Camassia quamash (Pursh)
Greene ssp. quamash
Plant Symbol = CAQUQ
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Corvallis (OR) Plant Materials Center
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Leichtlin’s camas, large camas, Camassia leichtlinii
ssp. suksdorfii.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning_='Death camas (Zigadenus venenosus) can
be confused with edible camas bulbs and is toxic. Be
sure of your identification of camas bulbs before
eating them!
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Camas was and continues to be one of
the most important ".root". foods of western North
American indigenous peoples, from southwestern
British Columbia to Montana, and south to California
(Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). The part of the plant
that was relished is actually a bulb. Camas was used
by Northwest Coast peoples, the Coast Salish of
Vancouver Island, western Washington groups,
Squamish, Sechelt, Comox, and Kwak-waka wakw of
the British Columbia coast. Camas was considered to
be one of the most important bulbs to local California
natives. The Maidu particularly valued great camas.
Except for choice varieties of dried salmon, no other
food item was more widely traded (Gunther 1973).
People traveled great distances to harvest the bulbs
and there is some suggestion that plants were
dispersed beyond their range by transplanting (Turner
and Efrat 1982. Turner et al. 1983). To the Nez
Perce people, camas is still the most important root in
trade, and trading is traditionally impossible without
camas bulbs (Harbinger 1964). Dried camas is the
most expensive form of camas, with baked and then
raw camas being less expensive. At marriage trades,
the girl’s family gives roots in corn husk bags. At
funeral trades, camas roots are given to friends and
relatives by the widow. The Nez Perce traded camas
roots with the Warm Springs, Umatilla, Cayuse,
Walla Walla, Nespelem, Yakama, Crows, and
Flatheads.
The bulbs were usually dug after flowering, in
summer, although some peoples dug them in spring.
Harvesting the bulbs traditionally took weeks or
months among the Nez Perce. Each family group
".owned". its own camping spot and harvesting spot.
These were passed down in families from generation
to generation. Turf was lifted out systematically in
small sections and then replaced after only larger
bulbs had been removed. The bulbs were dug with a
pointed digging stick. Bulbs were broken up and
replanted. Annual controlled burning was used to
maintain an open prairie-like habitat for optimum
camas production. Areas were harvested only every
few years.
Traditionally, camas bulbs were almost always pit-
cooked. Within the past 100 years, camas bulbs have
also been cooked by stovetop methods (Turner and
Kuhnlein 1983). The bulbs are allowed to cook for
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
24-36 hours when pit-cooked (Turner and Bell 1971).
It is probable that lengthy cooking is necessary for
maximum conversion of the inulin in Camassia to
fructose. The sweetness of cooked camas gave it
utility as a sweetener and enhancer of other foods.
Before sugar, European traders introduced molasses,
and honey. Sweetening agents were in short supply
among native peoples, and camas was highly valued
in this capacity. Sometimes other foods, such as the
rhizomes of springbank clover (Trifolium
wormskioldii) and the roots of Pacific silverweed
(Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica) were cooked with
the camas bulbs. The Kalapuyan of the Willamette
Valley in Oregon used to flavor camas with tarweed
(Madia elegans). Bulbs don’t keep well fresh. They
were cooked or sun-dried and stored for later use.
Sometimes camas bulbs were pressed flat and made
into camas cakes the size of biscuits before being
dried (Turner et al. 1983). Dried bulbs were re-
constituted by soaking in water, usually overnight.
Many of the traditional camas gathering sites, such as
Weippe Prairie and Camas Prairie in Idaho and the
Willamette Valley in Oregon, have been converted to
agriculture. The average size of a camas patch
needed to feed a five person family was 2.7 ha
(Thoms 1989). Camas roots are hard to find now.
Restoration of camas prairies and access to camas
bulbs are priorities of many Indian people. At one
time, “When camas was in bloom in wet meadows,
the flowers grow so thickly that they look like a blue
lake” (Murphey 1959:14).
Camas stalks and leaves were used for making
mattresses. It was sometimes used in place of grass
when baking camas in pits. Camas is used by the
Nez Perce as a cough medicine. It is boiled, and the
juice is strained and mixed with honey.
Ornamental: Horticulturally, this plant is used for cut
flowers, beds, borders, ground cover, rock gardens,
and prairie restoration.
Wildlife: Elk, deer, and moose reportedly graze
camas early in the spring (Craighead, Craighead, and
Davis 1963). Gophers eat camas and move the bulbs
to another area where they sprout and grow the next
year (Watson 1988). Indian women in Oregon’s
Umpqua Valley robbed camas bulbs from gopher
caches (Piper 1916). Herbivorous insects also eat
camas leaves.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Great camas or
Leichtlin’s camas (Camassia quamash spp. quamash)
is a liliaceous, perennial herb that grows from an
edible bulb. The plant can grow from 24-48 inches
(60-120 cm) tall. Leaves are long and narrow, grass-
like, and emerge from the base. The inflorescence is
a spike-like cluster borne on a leafless stem that is
held above the leaves. Camas flowers are creamy-
white to deep blue-violet. they have 6 tepals, 6
stamens, and 3 stigmas. The white form is
considered to be native only to the Umpqua Valley of
Oregon. Great camas differs from common camas
(Camassia quamash ssp. breviflora) in the following
ways: the flowers are regular, with tepals that twist
together after anthesis and remain over the ovary.
anthers are dull yellow to violet. the plant is larger,
with longer flower stalks and bigger bulbs. and there
is a fine, waxy powder on the leaves. The seeds are
usually larger as well. The fruits are barrel-shaped to
three-angled capsules, splitting into three parts to
release many black, angled seeds.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Great camas grows in wet meadows, woods, prairies,
moist hillsides, and streamside areas. Camas habitat
is often ephemeral, and dries up by late spring. Great
camas grows from south Vancouver Island to
northern California, from the coast to the Cascade
and Sierra Nevada Mountains at elevations below
10,800 feet (3300 meters). This sub-species does not
extend east of the Cascades. In British Columbia,
great camas is restricted to wet flats, ditches, and
moist rocky areas on southern Vancouver Island and
the adjacent Gulf Islands. Great camas blooms in late
April to late June. Common and great camas often
grow together. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Great camas can be propagated from seeds or bulbs.
shade tolerance, moisture requirement, and preferred
planting depth may differ among specific phenotypes.
Great camas is frequently found in areas with soil
moisture persisting throughout most of the growing
season. Its preferred habitat includes shady
environments, such as those that occur along riparian
zones or under moderately dense deciduous forest
canopies in western Oregon. However, it can be
found in more open habitats elsewhere within its
natural range. The two camas sub-species are
generally found in the same environments. The bulbs
Page 3
of great camas can be substantially larger in size and
deeper in the soil than common camas, and
sometimes grow 16 inches or more below the surface.
Bulb depth appears limited by shallow water tables,
anoxic conditions, or restrictive layers. The
occasional occurrence of a large, thick root beneath a
bulb may aid in re-locating or re-establishing it at a
greater depth. Plants require irrigation or moist soil
conditions to become established. Great camas can
be difficult to establish in California.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Collections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Collections='Great camas is readily established by transplanting
wild or commercially grown bulbs. Wild harvests
should be restricted to salvage sites with appropriate
approvals or permits. Due to loss of wetland habitat
throughout the United States, harvesting plants from
the wild is rarely appropriate or legal except under
salvage situations. Use of bulbs or seeds from local
nurseries or greenhouses is strongly recommended.
The best time to excavate bulbs is from early summer
through mid-fall. This is the “quiescent” period that
follows seed maturation, foliar senescence, and
development of the daughter bulb. However,
commercial bulb harvest takes place when the leaves
are still green and must be done carefully to avoid
damage. The bulb tunic or covering is very thin (De
Hertogh and Le Nard 1993). Given that camas
commonly occupies sites high in silt and clay that dry
out in summer, windows for digging are often
narrow. There is a brief period when soils are moist
after flowering in the spring. the next time to harvest
is in the fall after the rains begin. Store the bulbs in a
dry, dark, cool, well ventilated place in a potting
medium such as dry peat moss, similar to
recommendations for fall planted/spring flowering
bulbs (such as daffodils and tulips). Keep the bulbs
from completely drying out and transport or store at
63-68° F (De Hertogh, Noone, and Lutman 1990).
Common camas reproduces vegetatively by offset
bulblets (De Hertogh et. al. 1993). However, much
less than one percent of a wild population may
produce offsets and bulbs may be stimulated to do so
only as the result of a wound (Thoms 1989).
Plant camas outdoors in the fall or early winter, when
soils are moist enough to dig and prevailing soil
temperatures are cool. This is generally below 60°F.
Fall planting allows for better root development and
fulfillment of any chilling requirement for flowering
(De Hertogh et. al. 1993). Bulbs, bulblets, and
offsets can be utilized. However, if flowering is
desired the following spring, bulbs must be of
sufficient age (3-5 years old with 3-4 bulb leaves or
scales) and size (Thoms 1989). Bulb leaves are
laminate concentric layers that comprise much of the
bulb, reminiscent of an onion. Bulbs with just two
bulb leaves never flower, those with three routinely
flower, and those with four almost always flower.
Older bulbs will be found deeper in the ground, and
bulbs which flower will probably be at least 0.6-0.8
inch (1.5-2.0 cm) wide (Thoms 1989). In the
commercial bulb trade, the minimum size for export
and thus flowering is a circumference of 2.4 inches (6
cm) (De Hertogh and Le Nard 1993).
The larger the bulb the greater the planting depth can
be. Planting depth ranges from 0.5-1 inches for 1-2
year old bulblets up to 4-6 inches for mature bulbs
(as measured to their base). Larger bulbs (1.5 inches
in diameter or greater) can be planted deeper (8-10
inches) if drainage is appropriate. Commercial
production involves planting from October to
November in well drained soil of pH 6-7 with at least
2% organic matter, covering with at least 3 inches of
soil above the bulb “nose”, applying 2 inches of
straw mulch, fertilizing with 7-14-28 fertilizer four
weeks after planting, and harvesting in July (De
Hertogh, Noone and Lutman 1990). Keep the camas
bed damp until it gets warm. Once plants senesce
after flowering, stop watering so seeds form and
bulbs cure. Suggested spacing for flower beds and
naturalized landscapes vary from 3-4 inches apart (8-
10 per sq. ft.) to 6-8 inches apart. Other publications
recommend 6-8 bulbs every 12 inches for outdoor
gardens. A dense “natural” stand may have 9
plants/sq. ft. (100/sq. meter) or more (Thoms 1989).
It may be necessary to bury bulbs with a protective
wire mesh to prevent herbivory. The mesh needs to
be coarse enough to allow shoots to grow through
(De Hertogh et. al. 1993).
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedCollections='Great camas propagates easily from seed. It can be
collected as soon as the pods mature (turn light
brown) or split open to reveal the mature black seeds.
Pods ripen from late May- July depending on
latitude, longitude, moisture conditions, or elevation.
Dry seeds can be stored frozen or in a cool, dry place
prior to planting.
Camas seed requires 42-100 days of cold
temperatures (34-40°F) under moist stratification for
maximum germination (90-100%), (Emery 1988,
Guerrant and Raven 1995, Deno 1993, Northway
pers. comm. 1998, Thoms 1989). “Moist
stratification” means placement of seeds which are
“imbibed”, or have soaked up water, in layers of a
moist medium at cool temperatures to allow for after-
ripening. Germination also requires cool conditions
and can occur in the dark (Northway pers. comm.
Page 4
1998). The alternative is to plant seed outdoors in the
fall (Sept-Oct). One-leafed, grass-like seedlings will
emerge in February or March under suitable
conditions. Seedlings require moisture through the
spring growing period to survive. Warm
temperatures during seedling development can be
lethal.
Suggested site preparation methods and seeding rates
for wetland revegetation are not well known, but a
broadcast rate of 20 live seeds/sq. ft. for both
Camassia sub-species resulted in poor to good
seedling counts the following spring (0-10 or more
seedlings/sq. ft.) (Darris, pers. comm., 1999).
Seedling success was dependent on weed
competition, hydrology, type of disturbance, mulch,
erosion, or other factors. Camas seedlings were
inhibited by dense stands of live grass such as Lolium
multiflorum. However, seedlings appeared to benefit
when grown in the mulch of native grass
(Deschampsia cespitosa), at least on well-drained,
stable, slightly higher ground (Ibid). In areas with
wet, mild winters, soil scarification for shallow seed
coverage or just constant moisture from irrigation or
winter rains can result in good germination. At least
one grower sows seed directly on the soil surface in
the fall (Robinson pers. comm. 1999). However,
other growers have found that a 1-2 inch covering of
organic mulch is required during the first growing
season to protect the tiny bulblet from exposure to
dry soil, surface cracking, and extreme temperatures.
Sawdust or a chemically killed dense stand of grass
works well (Watson pers. comm. 1999). Seeds
deeper than 0.4-0.8 inch (1-2 cm) will not germinate
successfully (Watson 1988).
Seeds per pound: Camassia quamash ssp. quamasa –
72,000 (+/- 10,000)
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Camas is favored as forage by deer so fencing or
repellents may be useful, particularly during the first
growing season. Consistent soil moisture is required
every spring, but the soil can be allowed to dry out
soon after the pods mature or the leaves senesce (dry
up and turn brown). Moderate soil nutrient levels are
beneficial. In natural settings, minor soil disturbance
(loosening, surface scarification) adjacent to existing
specimens may enhance natural regeneration by seed.
Late summer field burning (where and when
permitted) may improve stand vigor, reduce
competition from brush and certain weeds, and aid in
regeneration. For optimal bulb development, avoid
mowing or grazing more than lightly, if at all, even
during foliar senescence. Individual plants may live
15-20 years.
Traditional Resource Management (TRM) was often
intensive, to the point of being considered “semi-
agricultural” by some. According to Dr. Nancy
Turner, TRM included the following:
• Ownership, demarcation, and inheritance of beds
or patches,
• Clearing of rock, brush, and weedy vegetation,
• Harvesting bulbs after seeds were produced,
during specific times of the year,
• Periodic field burning in summer after digging,
•
In some cases, sod removal then bulb removal
followed by sod replacement,
• Digging or “cultivation” to keep the soil loose,
•
“Selective breeding” by transplanting “better”
bulbs to the beds,
• Sustainable harvest techniques, including partial,
selective harvests and incidental or planned
promotion of camas colonization and
reproduction, and' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='• Death camas bulbs (Zigadenus venenosus) were
removed, so they wouldn’t accidentally be
mistaken for the edible camas bulbs. ' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
Cultivars of Leichtlin’s camas are widely available in
the flower bulb industry. One cultivar, Camassia
leichtlinii ‘Alba’, is white (or bluish-white), while
‘Caerulea’ has light blue flowers, and ‘Plena’ has
double greenish yellow blooms (Brenzel 1995).
‘Blauwe Donau’ is described as having sea-lavender-
violet flowers and lilac anthers. ‘Lady Eve Price’ has
campanula-violet flowers with each segment having a
darker colored methyl-violet central stripe.
‘Semiplena’ has large, semi-double, creamy-white
flowers. The botanical variety or subspecies
suksdorfii has blue to violet flowers (Royal General
Bulbgrower’s Association 1991).
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Parks, California.
388 pp.
Page 5
Barton, B.J. 1997. Gardening by mail. A source
book. A Mariner Book, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston &. New York.
Brenzel, K.N. (ed.) 1995. Sunset western garden
book. Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park,
California. 200 pp.
Bryan, J. 1989. Bulbs (2 volumes). Timber Press,
Portland, Oregon.
CalPhotos. 2000. Camassia quamash ssp. quamash.
Version: 000328. Photo: Brother Alfred Brousseau.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=5898&.one=T>.. CalFlora, Inc., Berkeley,
California.
Craighead, J.J., F.C. Craighead, &. R.J. Davis 1963.
A field guide to Rocky Mountain wildflowers.
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Cooke, S.S. (ed.) 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society &.
Washington Native Plant Society. 415 pp.
Deno, N.C. 1993. Seed germination theory and
practice. Self-published and self-distributed.
Professor Emeritus of Chemistry, State College,
Pennsylvania. 110 pp.
De Hertogh, A.A., L.B. Gallitano, G.H. Pemberton,
&. M.E. Traer 1993. Guidelines for the utilization of
flowering bulbs as perennial (naturalized) plants in
North American landscapes and gardens. Bulletin
No. 37. Holland flower bulb technical services,
Netherlands Flower Bulb Center (IBC). Hillegom,
the Netherlands.
De Hertogh, A.A. &. M. De Nard (eds.) 1993.
Chapter 37, general chapter on spring flowering
bulbs. Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands and New York, New
York. Pp. 705-707.
De Hertogh, A.A., C. Noone, &. A. Lutman 1990.
Camassia. IN: Geophyte, Version 2.2. North
Carolina State University, Department of
Horticultural Science, Raleigh, North Carolina. 8 pp.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California. p 44.
Guard, J.B. 1995. Wetland plants of Oregon and
Washington. Lone Pine Publishing. Redmond, WA,
Vancouver, B.C., &. Edmonton, Alberta. Pp. 98-99.
Guerrant, E.O. Jr. &. A. Raven 1995. Seed
germination and storability studies of 69 plant taxa
native to the Willamette Valley wet prairie. The
Berry Botanic Garden, Portland, Oregon. 65 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945, rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Harbinger, L.J. 1964. The importance of food plants
in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural identity.
Thesis, Master of Arts in Anthropology, Washington
State University, Pullman, Washington. 82 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle &. London.
730 pp.
International Flower Bulb Center 1999. Spring bulb
guide (Camassia). <.http://www.bulb.com>..
Technical Information Service of the IFBC.
Hillegom, the Netherlands. 3pp.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kruckeberg, A.R. 1996 (2nd edition). Gardening
with native plants of the Pacific Northwest.
University of Washington Press, Seattle &. London.
Greystone Books/Douglas &. McIntyre,
Vancouver/Toronto. p 153.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon &. Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Langaslag, J.J.J. (chairman) 1989. Camassia. IN:
Teelt en gerbruiksmogelijkheden van
bijgoedgewassen. Tweede Druk. Ministerie
Landbouw Visserij en Consulentschap Algemene
Dienst Bloembollenteelt. Lisse, The Netherlands. pp
76-78.
Page 6
Watson, R.D. 1988. Interview data on Camas
growing in Moscow, Idaho. Interviewed (4-18-88)
by Alson V. Thoms. Notes on file, Center for
Northwest Anthropology, Washington State
University, Pullman, Washington.
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
Corvallis Plant Materials Center, Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='caquq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA,
Forest Service, California Department of Fish &.
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Piper, C.V. 1916. Notes on Quamasia with a
description of a new species. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of Washington 24:77.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon (eds.) 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia and Alaska. British Columbia
Ministry of Forests and Lone Pine Publishing. p 108.
Schopmeyer, Technical Coordinator 1974. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. USDA, Forest Service,
Washington, D.C.
Showers, M.A. &. K. Wiese (eds.) 1995. Nursery
sources for California native plants. DMG Open File
Report 90-04. California Dept. of Conservation,
Office of Mine Reclamation, Sacramento, California.
Thoms, A. 1989. The northern roots of hunter-
gatherer intensification: camas and the Pacific
Northwest. PhD dissertation. Dept. of
Anthropology, Washington State University,
Pullman, Washington. 521 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. The ethnobotany of
the Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. Cultural
Recovery Paper No. 2, British Columbia Provincial
Museum, Queen’s Printer, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. &. H.V. Kuhnlein 1983. Camas
(Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two
liliaceous “root” foods of the northwest coast
Indians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
MARIPOSA LILY
Calochortus superbus Purdy
ex J.T. Howell
Plant Symbol = CASU3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Butterfly Mariposa, Mariposa tulip, white Mariposa
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sweet bulbs of this plant were
eaten raw, roasted in ashes, boiled, or baked in an
earth oven and relished by many tribes in California
including the Pomo, Yuki, Sierra Miwok, Kawaiisu,
Wappo, Tubatulabal, Foothill Yokuts, and Wailaki.
The Sierra Miwok dug the bulbs in April when buds
appeared or after flowering, while the Wukchumni
Yokuts dug the plants in bloom about April or May.
The bulbs were rubbed across an open-twined basket
to remove the outer skin by some tribes. They were
reputed to grow in ".great tracts". on open hillsides in
Mendocino County, California in the early 1900 s.
They were harvested with a digging stick and eaten
within four or five days, as they do not store well.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_=' Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Calochortus
venustus and Calochortus superbus have overlapping
distributions and are hard to tell apart. They also
were not separated as two distinct species in the first
half of the 20th century when anthropologists were
doing their fieldwork among tribes. Therefore, it is
highly likely that tribes dug the bulbs of populations
of both species. The large showy flowers of
Calochortus venustus range from white, yellow,
purple, to dark red, and have a red-brown eyespot
above the gland on the inside of each petal.
Sometimes there is a paler blotch above the first. The
base of the plant is bulblet-bearing. The erect stems
are branched and 1 to 6-flowered. The linear leaves
are basal and 1-2 dm long. The fruit is erect, 5-6 cm,
linear and angled.
The main identifying features that distinguish
Calochortus superbus from Calochortus venustus is
the nectary. On Calochortus venustus it is square,
while on Calochortus superbus it is crescent or
chevron-shaped. Another difference is that the petals
on Calochortus venustus sometimes have a second
distal, paler spot, while with Calochortus superbus
the petal spot is always one, generally in the yellow
zone.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Calochortus superbus is found in open
grassland, oak woodland, dry meadows, and mixed
conifer forests below 1700 m in northwestern
California, the Cascade Range foothills, central
western California, the Sierra Nevada foothills, and
southwestern California.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Collect or buy seed from local sources. Place the
seeds in a paper bag until you are ready to plant
them. Plant them in a 5 inch or deeper pot in a soil
that has excellent drainage. Scatter the seeds at least
one-quarter inch apart. Sprinkle a light layer of soil
on top and then place quarter-inch gravel on top of
the soil. The seeds should be planted in the fall and
require no stratification. Let the pots sit outside
during the winter in partial shade. Water the pots,
keeping them slightly damp (if rains are insufficient).
Germination is generally about February. Fertilize
the plants in a weak solution about once a month
during active growth until April. When the tips of
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
the leaves turn yellow, stop watering and fertilizing
(about the end of April). The bulbs are dormant
during flowering. In the fall start watering again.
Give the plants more room in the fall of the second or
third year by transplanting them and spacing them 1-
2 inches apart. Plant the plants outside in the ground
in the third or fourth year. Plant them in full sun in
summer or fall. Start watering them in September.
After they have bloomed for the first time, they
should be established.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Weed around the plants regularly and protect them
from insects, birds, mammals, and other animals.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CASU3 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Fiedler, P. &. B. Ness. Calochortus. pp. 1183-1189
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Gayton, A.H. 1948. Yokuts and Western Mono
ethnography I: Tulare Lake, Southern Valley, and
Central Foothill Yokuts. University of California
Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. 144 pp.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records Vol 2:(1):1-84.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='casu3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
MARIPOSA LILY
Calochortus venustus Dougl.
ex Benth.
Plant Symbol = CAVE3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Calochortus
venustus and Calochortus superbus have overlapping
distributions and are hard to tell apart. They also
were not separated as two distinct species in the first
half of the 20th century when anthropologists were
doing their fieldwork among tribes. Therefore, it is
highly likely that tribes dug the bulbs of populations
of both species. The large showy flowers of
Calochortus venustus range from white, yellow,
purple, to dark red, and have a red-brown eyespot
above the gland on the inside of each petal.
Sometimes there is a paler blotch above the first. The
base of the plant is bulblet-bearing. The erect stems
are branched and 1 to 6-flowered. The linear leaves
are basal and 1-2 dm long. The fruit is erect, 5-6 cm,
linear and angled.
Key Characteristics: The main identifying features
that distinguish Calochortus superbus from
Calochortus venustus is the nectary. On Calochortus
venustus it is square, while on Calochortus superbus
it is crescent or chevron-shaped. Another difference
is that the petals on Calochortus venustus sometimes
have a second distal, paler spot, while with
Calochortus superbus the petal spot is always one,
generally in the yellow zone.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Calochortus venustus is found in open
grassland, oak woodland, and mixed conifer forests
between 300 and 2700 m in central western
California, the Sierra Nevada foothills, San Gabriel
Mountains, and western Transverse Ranges.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Collect or buy seed from local sources. Place the
seeds in a paper bag until you are ready to plant
them. Plant them in a 5 inch or deeper pot in a soil
that has excellent drainage. Scatter the seeds at least
one-quarter inch apart. Sprinkle a light layer of soil
on top and then place quarter-inch gravel on top of
the soil. The seeds should be planted in the fall and
require no stratification. Let the pots sit outside
during the winter in partial shade. Water the pots,
keeping them slightly damp (if rains are insufficient).
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Butterfly mariposa, Mariposa tulip, white mariposa
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sweet bulbs of this plant were
eaten raw, roasted in ashes, boiled, or baked in an
earth oven and relished by many tribes in California
including the Pomo, Sierra Miwok, Kawaiisu,
Wappo, Tubatulabal, and Foothill Yokuts. The
Sierra Miwok dug the bulbs in April when buds
appeared or after flowering, while the Wukchumni
Yokuts dug the plants in bloom about April or May.
The bulbs were rubbed across an open-twined basket
to remove the outer skin by some tribes. They were
harvested with a digging stick and eaten within four
or five days, as they do not store well.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Germination is generally about February. Fertilize
the plants in a weak solution about once a month
during active growth until April. When the tips of
the leaves turn yellow, stop watering and fertilizing
(about the end of April). The bulbs are dormant
during flowering. In the fall start watering again.
Give the plants more room in the fall of the second or
third year by transplanting them and spacing them 1-
2 inches apart. Plant the plants outside in the ground
in the third or fourth year. Plant them in full sun in
summer or fall. Start watering them in September.
After they have bloomed for the first time, they
should be established.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Weed around the plants regularly and protect them
from insects, birds, mammals, and other animals.
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='CAVE3 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cave3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Fiedler, P. &. B. Ness. Calochortus. pp. 1183-1189
IN: The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley.
Gayton, A.H. 1948. Yokuts and Western Mono
ethnography I: Tulare Lake, Southern Valley, and
Central Foothill Yokuts. University of California
Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 144 pp.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records Vol 2:(1):1-84.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Buckthorn Family (Rhamnaceae). New
Jersey tea is a native shrub ranging from 2-10 dm tall.
The leaves are broadly oblong-ovate, 5-10 cm long
by 2.5-6 cm wide. The leaves are wedge-shaped,
tapering to a point at the base with a blunt tip. New
Jersey tea has a branched, racemose inflorescence (1-
4 cm long) with flowers maturing from the bottom
upwards. The flower petals are dipper-shaped, 1-1.5
mm long, and white colored.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: New Jersey tea is usually found in the sandy
soils of open woodlands and prairies, and on rocky
hillsides.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='New Jersey tea is fire-adapted. It is typically top-
killed by fire, but is a prolific re-sprouter from the
surviving rootstock. Where frequent fire occurs,
New Jersey tea becomes a dominant species forming
clusters among prairie grasses.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='New Jersey tea is a drought tolerant species that
grows best in well-drained soils with full sun. New
Jersey tea is difficult to transplant, therefore
propagation by seed is recommended. Seeds should
be planted outside in the late fall or early winter. To
improve seed germination for spring planting the
seeds should be submerged in hot water (180 deg. F)
and allowed to soak overnight as the water cools then
planted outside.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='New Jersey tea is susceptible to leaf spot and
powdery mildew, however no serious insect or
disease problems exist.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
NEW JERSEY TEA
Ceanothus americanus L.
Plant Symbol = CEAM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Tribes of the Missouri River region
used the leaves for tea and burned the roots for fuel
on buffalo hunting trips when fuel wood was scarce.
The roots of New Jersey tea were used by the
Chippewa for pulmonary troubles and for
constipation coupled with shortness of breath and
bloating. The Cherokee held the root tea on an
aching tooth to ease the pain and consumed hot root
tea for bowel troubles.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Species Coordinator:
M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 31may06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='ceam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Easyliving Wildflowers 2001. Native perennial
wildflowers. Willow Springs, Missouri.
http://www.easywildflowers.com/quality/cea.amer.ht
m
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of plants by the indians of
the Missouri river region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. 109 pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
great plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 276 pp.
Missouri Botanical Garden 2000. Plant Finder.
http://www.mobot.org/hort/plantfinder/Code/A/G82.
htm
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn, Michigan.
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb.
Rydberg, P.A. 1932. Flora of the prairies and plains
of central North America. The Science Press Printing
Company, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 969 pp.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory 2001. Fire effects information
system. Accessed: 23jul2001.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrubs/ceaa
me/index.html
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
EASTERN REDBUD
Cercis canadensis L.
Plant Symbol = CECA4
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Legume Family (Fabaceae). Eastern redbud
is a native, perennial, deciduous tree or shrub. The
plants may vary in form from dense and round (to 6
m tall) when grown in sun, to an open, taller form (to
12 m tall) when grown in the shade. The trees
produce hundreds of small pink pea flowers in the
very early spring, even before other trees have leafed
out. The bright magenta-pink to lilac flowers, appear
in small clusters, primarily on older stems. The
flowers are irregular, 9 to 12 cm long, with ten
stamens. The unique, broadly heart-shaped leaves
are nearly circular (5 to 10 cm), with a long, slender
petiole. The leaves are alternate and have 5 to 9
prominent veins that radiate palmately from the base.
New leaves are a light green that darken with age and
finally turn yellow in the fall. The seeds are
contained in a flat, thin pod (4 to 10 cm long), which
turns from green to brown.
Distribution: Eastern redbud is native to the eastern
and south-central United States, southward to Texas.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Eastern redbud occurs in the forest
understory in moist rich woods, along the banks of
streams, in ravines, on bluffs, in open rocky woods,
and abandoned farmlands.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Eastern redbud is widely cultivated as an ornamental
because of the plants showy springtime flowers and
beautiful heart-shaped leaves. The plants are
graceful with arching branches that look lovely as a
specimen tree, in groupings, and in shrub borders.
The plants do well in soils of moderate to low
fertility and are very drought resistant. The seeds
have very hard seed coats that require both chilling
and scarification for germination, unless planted in
the fall. Cuttings are difficult to root. Mature plants
do not transplant well so buy young plants that are
balled-and-burlapped or container grown. Transplant
the plants in the spring or fall, in well-drained soils in
sun to part shade. Water the plants regularly until
established.
© William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='Redbud, Judas tree. this species has several varieties
recognized in the U.S.: Cercis canadensis var.
canadensis, Cercis canadensis var mexicana, and
Cercis canadensis var. texensis.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Alabama, Cherokee, Delaware,
Kiowa, and Oklahoma were among the Native
American tribes that used eastern redbud for various
purposes. The bark was made into a tea to treat
whooping cough. Taking cold infusions of the roots
and inner bark treated fevers and congestion. An
infusion of the bark was used to treat vomiting and
fever. During winters, the plants were used for
firewood. Because it is one of the first plants to
flower in the spring, the blossoming branches were
brought into the homes to “drive winter out.”
Children were “fond of eating the blossoms” of
eastern redbud.
Wildlife/Livestock: Many birds, including bobwhite
quails, eat the seeds. White-tailed deer are among the
animals that browse the foliage. Honeybees visit the
blossoms. Livestock will browse on Eastern redbud.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='These plants require very little maintenance. The
brown seedpods, which can cling to the branches
until late in the year, can be somewhat unattractive.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Eastern redbud has relatively few pests. Stem
canker, leaf spots, and verticillium wilt may be a
problem. The plants may experience some insect
damage from leaf rollers, treehoppers, scales,
leafhoppers, aphids, and spider mites, but damage is
rarely severe.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon. 493 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois.
1187 pp.
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Isley, D. 1990. Vascular flora of the Southeastern
United States, Volume 3, Part 2, Leguminosae
(Fabaceae). University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 258 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(27 June 2001).
Ottensen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Swanton, J.R. 2000. Creek religion and medicine.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
684 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Whitthoft, J. 1947. An early Cherokee
ethnobotanical note (Communicated by W.N.
Fenton). Journal of the Washington Academy of
Sciences 37(3): 73-75.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='ceca4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 01jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
parks and other recreational areas throughout its range.
Due to its fast-growing nature and nitrogen-fixing
capabilities, buckbrush is a great pioneer species for new
landscapes (Las Pilitas Nursery, 2011). It is also a
valuable shrub species for pollinator hedgerows, and
attracts many bees with its fragrant flowers in the early
spring. There are several cultivars of Ceanothus cuneatus
available at local nurseries.
Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current
status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state
noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Description
General: Buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae). California
buckbrush is an erect, perennial, evergreen shrub within
the California lilac (Ceanothus) genus. The species
ranges in size from 3 to 12 feet tall. As with other
California lilac species, buckbrush shrubs are distinct
from other woody chaparral plants with their unique
pattern of angular, rigid branchlets of unequal sizes. The
twigs are round and gray colored and do not have hairs or
spines. The evergreen leaves on this species are in an
opposite arrangement, generally 0.25 - 0.5 in long. The
leaves are generally smooth and entire, sometimes with a
toothed margin near the apex. The inflorescence,
generally less than 1 inch, is displayed as a raceme with
several umbellate clusters, each containing many fragrant
flowers. The flowering period of this species is between
March and May and the flower colors ranges from white
to several shades of blue and lavender. The fruits are 0.25
- 0.5 in long and have 3 distinct horns near the top
without crests or ridges. Each fruit capsule contains two
to three seeds (McMinn, 1939. Hickman, 1993).
Ethnobotany
As one of the dominant species in the chaparral
ecosystem, this shrub has been utilized by California
Native Americans for centuries.
Buckbrush shrubs contain a significant amount of woody
material and several California tribes including the
Kawaiisu and the Miwok used this species for firewood
(Zigmond, 1981. Merriam, 1967). The twigs were also
collected for a variety of hunting and fishing purposes.
The Kawaiisu used the straight twigs of this shrub as the
foreshafts for two-piece arrows. The arrows were created
by stripping and sharpening the Ceanothus twigs and
fitting them inside sections of hollow Carrizo grass of
“cane” (Zigmond, 1981). Indians of Mendocino used
buckbrush woody material to create fish dams (Chestnut,
1902).
BUCKBRUSH
Ceanothus cuneatus (Hook.) Nutt.
Plant Symbol = CECU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Lockeford Plant Materials
Center, Lockeford, CA
Figure 1: Ceanothus cuneatus branches. Photo M. DeSiervo Lockeford
Plant Material Center.
Alternate Names
Common Alternate Names:
buckbrush
buckbrush ceanothus
blue brush
cuneate ceanothus
wedgeleaf ceanothus
Native American traditional names include:
bä-käm’ (Pomo tribe)
hit (Wailaki tribe) (Chestnut, 1902).
Uses
Wildlife: Deer will forage on the leaves, shoots and
berries of buckbrush, preferring the tender young
seedlings to the mature plants. Additionally, small rodents
and birds including the quail and mourning dove feed on
the seeds (League, 2005). Buckbrush is also an important
cover species for wildlife, due to its size and abundance
of branchlets.
Buckbrush is also an important species for pollinators
such as bees, butterflies and hummingbirds.
Landscaping: Along with other native Ceanothus species,
Ceanothus cuneatus is an aesthetically pleasing shrub
commonly integrated in the outdoor landscape of homes,
Page 2
Buckbrush was also used for traditional Native American
tools. Seed beaters were constructed using the rigid
woody material of the shrub. Consisting of a basket with
a handle, the seed beaters were used to “thrust over the
spike or inflorescence of a grass of wildflower to knock
off the grains and seeds into a burden basket” (Anderson,
2005). The Paiute and Miwok tribes used the rigid
buckbrush wood to create digging sticks (Steward, 1933).
Barrett and Gifford (1933) describe this tool as a three to
four foot long stick that was hacked off with a sharp
stone, scraped with flint, and hardened by fire. The tool
was held as a staff and thrust into the ground as a digging
device. Sharpened buckbrush twigs were also utilized by
the Pit River tribe to create slender needles used in the
piercing of earlobes of young girls (Merriam, 1967).
Similarly, the Tubatulabal used the sharpened twigs as a
skewer for roasted pinyon nuts (Voegelin, 1938).
To this day, Ceanothus cuneatus is an extremely valuable
species for basketry. Several characteristics of buckbrush
including its color, length and strength make it an ideal
species for this craft. The young shoots in particular are
highly valued for basketry. The Miwok and Mono Indians
historically manipulated stands of buckbrush by pruning
and coppicing to induce rapid elongation of young growth
and burning to encourage new seedlings (Anderson, 1991,
2005).
Buckbrush branches are often used in the construction of
burden baskets. According to Barrett and Gifford (1933),
the burden baskets used by the Miwok Indians were
reinforced by using a hoop made of Ceanothus cuneatus
wood, placed midway down inside the basket. Buckbrush
branches were also used by the Mono for the hood of
cradleboards and the rims of winnowers and seed beaters
(Anderson, 2005). The Sierra Miwok made shallow
openwork scoop baskets of buckbrush called cham-ah,
used for drying green acorns, and in later times for drying
domesticated fruits such as peaches and figs. the
foundation of some Miwok coiled baskets used for acorn
mush are made of young buckbrush shoots (Merriam,
1967).
Distribution:
Ceanothus cuneatus is widely distributed through
California, Oregon and northern Baja California, Mexico,
generally at elevations less than 6000 ft. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this
species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat:
Buckbrush is one of the primary shrub species in the
chaparral ecosystem. It is commonly found on dry, rocky
slopes and ridges along with associated shrub species
including chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) and
whiteleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos viscida) (Baker,
1982). In some places, Ceanothus cuneatus outcompetes
other shrub species to form dense, impenetrable thickets
(McMinn, 1939). These ecosystems are known as
ceanothus chaparral vegetation type.
Ceanothus cuneatus is adapted to serpentine soils, and
can therefore serve as a good indicator species for field
identification of serpentine soils in California and Oregon
(Kruckeberg, 1984). It should be noted however, that this
species is more commonly found on non-serpentine soils
of sandstone origins (Safford and Harrison, 2004).
Buckbrush is also an important shrub species in the
montane ecosystem where it often grows as an understory
species in pine forests and oak woodland habitats. In the
coastal sage scrub habitat type, buckbrush is present in
areas in or near low elevation coastal aspects, along with
the dominant species, California sagebrush (Artemisia
californica). Buckbrush is also found in inland dune
habitats in small populations. (League, 2005).
Adaptation
Ceanothus cuneatus is adapted to the annual summer
drought in the Mediterranean climate zone. In a two year
study comparing the phenology of chaparral shrubs, it
was found that buckbrush undergoes branch elongation,
leaf initiation and flowering in late winter and early
spring before the onset of annual drought (Baker, 1982).
Buckbrush is also well adapted to chaparral fires, and is
widely considered to be a “fire recruiter” species. High
temperatures are necessary to melt and crack the cuticle
of buried seeds, facilitating high germination rates after
fire (League, 2005). McMinn (1939) noted that dense
colonies of this plant can be formed within a few years
after a major fire disturbance.
Establishment
The germination and establishment of Ceanothus
cuneatus in its natural habitat is highly correlated with
fire regime. Germination rates in the spring following fire
disturbance are generally quite high, but seedling survival
varies according to soil moisture (Sweeney, 1956). Since
establishment occurs after fire, buckbrush typically forms
even-aged stands (Keeley, 1982).
Management
Buckbrush stand maintenance is most successful with fire
intervals of 30-100 years (Minnich, 1999. Paysen et al.,
2000). This fire regime allows for larger quantities of
seeds to accumulate in the seed bank. In the mid-
twentieth century, it was believed that Native American
burning practices led to the increase of several chaparral
species, including Ceanothus cuneatus in oak woodlands
(Biswell, 1956).
Pests and Potential Problems
There are no known pests or problems associated with
buckbrush.
Page 3
Environmental Concerns
There are no known environmental concerns associated
with buckbrush.
Seeds and Plant Production
Ceanothus cuneatus fruits are usually ripe in late spring.
When the seeds are ripe, the mature capsule bursts open
with considerable force and the seeds can fall up to 35
feet from the plant (Biswell and Gilman, 1961). This
seed-ejecting mechanism, while beneficial for the plant,
can make seed collecting quite challenging. One
technique for seed collection is to tie cloth bags over
clusters of green seed pods (Conard and Reed, 2003).
Another method is to cut seedpod clusters before the
capsules have split. however you must insure the seeds
are mature, since prematurely collected seeds will not
germinate successfully (Emery, 1988).
Seed propagation is most successful using a combination
of scarification and stratification techniques. Seeds can
be scarified with fire, or by using a hydrochloric acid
mixture. Seeds should then be refrigerated and stored in
sealed containers for about two to three weeks. In a
greenhouse environment, germination of Ceanothus
cuneatus was most successful when seeds were planted at
depths of 0.5 to 1 inch (Adams, 1962. Belcher, 1985).
Plants can also be propagated from semi-hard cuttings in
the summer, or from root cuttings in the late fall to early
winter.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area
of origin)
Buckbrush container stock is readily available through
most nurseries within its range. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Sierra Snow is a cultivar with showy, white flowers that
grows2-3 meters tall and 2.5 meters wide. It prefers full
to partial sun and does well in plant hardiness zones 8, 9,
10 and 11. This cultivar thrives in dry, hot climates, is
drought-tolerant and low maintenance, but is susceptible
to aphids, root rot, and whiteflies (Sunny Gardens, 2011).
‘Sierra Mt. Lilac’ is another cultivar with fragrant blue
flowers. It typically grows into a large evergreen bush
(about 8 feet) with a showy inflorescence during the
spring. Due to its fast-growing nature and nitrogen fixing
capabilities, this cultivar is commonly planted as a
companion to slow-growing species such as oaks,
coffeeberry and toyon (Las Pilitas Nursery, 2011).
‘Snow Ball’ is a cultivar of Ceanothus cuneatus var.
rigidus, otherwise known as Monterey ceanothus. It
named for its showy white flowers which bloom in the
early spring. This cultivar grows best in the coastal range
climate, since it is endemic to this area and can be used as
a scale ground cover species (Las Pilitas Nursery, 2011).
Comparative phenology and growth in three
chaparral shrubs. Botanical Gazette. Vol. 143(1) pp.
94-100.
Barrett, S.A. and E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok Material
Culture: Indian life of the Yosemite Region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum. Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park, CA.
Belcher, E. 1985. Handbook on seeds of browse shrubs
and forbs. Technical Publication R8-TP8. USDA-FS-
Southern Region and Association of Official Seed
Analysts. Atlanta, Georgia.
Biswell, H.H. 1956. Ecology of California grasslands.
Journal of Forestry. Vol 9 pp19-24.
Biswell, H.H. and J.H. Gilman. 1961. Brush management
in relation to fire and other environmental factors on
the Tehama deer winter range. California Fish and
Game. Vol 47(4) pp. 357-389.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California Mendocino County
Historical Society. Contributions from the U.S.
National Herbarium. Vol. 7 pp. 295-408.
Conard, S.G. and M.J. Reed 2003. Ceanothus L. [Online].
In F.T. Bonner (ed.) Woody plant seed manual.
Available at
http://www.nsl.fs.fed.us/wpsm/Ceanothus.pdf
(accessed 31 May 2011). USDA-FS-National Tree
Seed Laboratory, Washington, DC.
References
Adams, L. 1962. Planting depths for seeds of three
species of Ceanothus. Res. Note PSW-194.USDA-
FS-Pacific Southwest For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
Berkeley, California.
Anderson, M.K. 1991. Wild plant management: cross-
cultural examples of the small farmers of Jaumave,
Mexico, and the southern Miwok of the Yosemite
region. Arid Lands Newsletter. Tucson, Arizona,
Office of Arid Lands Studies. Vol. 31 pp.18-23.
Anderson, M.K. 2005. Tending the Wild: Native
American Knowledge and the Management of
California’s Natural Resources. University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Baker, G.A., P.W. Rundel, and D.J. Parsons. 1982.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native California
plants. Leaflets Santa Barbara Botanical Garden. Vol.
1(10) pp. 90-91.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson Manual. University of
California Press. Berkeley, CA.
Keeley, J.E. 1982. Distribution of lightning- and man-
caused wildfires in California. pp. 431-437.
Kruckeberg, A.R. 1984. California serpentines: flora,
vegetation, geology, soils and management problems.
Publications in Botany. Vol. 48. University of
California Press. Berkeley, CA.
Las Pilitas Nursery. Ceanothus cuneatus. Sierra mt. lilac.
Available at http://www.laspilitas.com/
accessed 1 Jun. 2011). Santa Margarita, CA.
League, K.R. 2005. Ceanothus cuneatus. In Fire Effects
Information System [Online]. Available at
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ (accessed 1 Jun.
Page 4
2011). USDA-FS-Rocky Mountain Res. Stn., Fire
Sci. Lab.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An Illustrated manual of California
shrubs. University of California Press. Berkeley, CA.
Merriam, C.H. 1967. Ethnographic notes on California
Indian Tribes.III. Compiled and Edited by R.F.
Heizer. Reports of the California Archaeological
Survey No.58, Part III. University of California
Archaeological Research Facility. Berkeley, CA.
Minnich, R.A. 1999. Vegetation, fire regimes, and forest
dynamics. pp. 44-80.
Paysen, T.E., R.J. Ansley, J.K. Brown et al. 2000. Fire in
western shrubland, woodland, and grassland
ecosystems. p. 121-159. In J.K. Brown and J.K.
Smith (ed.) Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of
fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-v. 2.
USDA-FS- Rocky Mountain Res. Stn., Ogden, UT.
Safford, H.D., and S. Harrison. 2004. Fire effects on plant
diversity in serpentine vs. sandstone chaparral.
Ecology 85(2):539-548.
Steward, J.H. 1933. Ethnography of the Owens Valley
Paiute. Univ. of California Publ. in Am. Archaeology
and Ethnology 33(3):233-250.
Sunny Gardens. 2011. Sierra Snow Ceanothus. Available
at http://www.sunnygardens.com/(accessed 1 Jun.
2011).
Sweeney, J.R. 1956. Responses of vegetation to fire: a
study of the herbaceous vegetation following
chaparral fires. Univ. of California Publ. in Bot.
28(4):143-250.
USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program.
Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)
[Database].National Germplasm Resources
Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-
bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl (Accessed 2 July 2011).
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records 2(1):1-84.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany. University
of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Prepared By: Melissa DeSiervo, USDA NRCS Plant
Materials Center, Lockeford, CA with support from the
BLM and the Chicago Botanical Garden.
Citation
DeSiervo, M. 2011. Plant Guide for Buckbrush
(Ceanothus cuneatus). USDA-Natural Resources
Conservation Service, Lockeford Plant Materials Center,
Lockeford, CA 95237.
Published: April, 2012
Edited: 24Aug2011aym. 06Sep2011mka. 29Mar2012 jab.
For more information about this and other plants, please
contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation
District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit the
PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant
Materials Program Web site http://plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability
of other Web sites.
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
JERSEY TEA
Ceanothus herbaceus Raf.
Plant Symbol = CEHE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Thomas G. Barnes
Wildflowers and Ferns of Kentucky
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='red root, grub root
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The root of Jersey tea was used by the
Chippewa for a cough remedy. They would grate
approximately 5 inches of the root and mix it with
water. The Lakota used the leaves of the plant to brew
tea.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Buckthorn Family (Rhamnaceae). Jersey tea
is a bushy shrub reaching up to one meter in height.
The leaves are elliptical-oblong shaped to inversely
lanceolate and are attached at the narrower end. The
leaves are serrated with rounded teeth along the
margins. Veins arise unevenly just above the leaf base.
The upper leaf surface is almost smooth. The lower
leaf surface has long, soft, unmated hairs. The stalk of
the inflorescence is 1-2 cm long and is racemose with
flowers maturing from the bottom upwards. The
flowers are white and have 5 petals (1.5 mm long), 5
stamens, and 3 lobed ovaries. The fruits or capsules
are 3-4.5 mm wide and open at maturity to release the
seeds. The seeds are 2 mm long, brownish in color,
and have a glossy surface.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
Habitat: Jersey tea is found on rocky and open wooded
hillsides and in prairies.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Jersey tea is a drought tolerant species that grows best
in well-drained soils and in full sun. Jersey tea is
difficult to transplant, therefore propagation by seed is
recommended. Seeds can be planted in the late fall or
early winter. To plant seeds in the spring, soak the
seeds overnight in warm water and stratify.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Please consult your local land management agency, as
this plant is listed as threatened in many states.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Jersey tea is susceptible to leaf spot and powdery
mildew, however no serious insect or disease problems
exist.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='These materials are readily available from commercial
plant sources. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed
under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research Foundation,
Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, New York. 397pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of Michigan-
Dearborn, Michigan. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
Oklahoma Biological Survey 1999. Ceanothus
herbaceus. University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma.
http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/cean-her.htm
Parke, D 2000. Ceanothus herbaceum (sic).
Southwestern School of Botanical Medicine, Bisbee,
Arizona. Accessed: 09jan2002.
<.http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/Images/New4-9-
97/Ceanothus_herbaceum-2.jpg>.
Rogers, D.J. 1980. Lakota names and traditional uses
of plants by Sicangu (Brule) people in the Rosebud
area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational Society
Inc., St. Francis, South Dakota. 111pp.
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='cehe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 09jan02 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 01jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SUGARBERRY
Celtis laevigata Willd.
Plant Symbol = CELA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Texas sugarberry
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Sugarberry was used by a variety of
Native American tribes. The Houma used a
concentrate made from the bark to treat sore throats
and a decoction made from the bark and ground up
shells to treat venereal disease. The Comanche
would beat the fruits of sugarberry to a pulp. The
pulp was then mixed with animal fat, rolled into
balls, and roasted in the fire for food. The Acoma,
Navajo, and Tewa all consumed the berries for food.
The Navajo boiled the leaves and branches to make
dark brown and red dye for wool.
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Elm Family (Ulmaceae). Sugarberry is a
tree that can become up to 30 m tall and 1m in
diameter. It has a broad crown formed by spreading
branches, that are often drooped. The bark is light
gray in color and can be smooth or covered with
Plant Guide
corky warts. The branchlets are covered with short
hairs at first and eventually they become smooth.
The leaves are alternated, simple, and slightly serrate.
The leaves are 5 to 13 cm long and 3 to 5 cm wide.
The lance-shaped leaves gradually taper to a point
that is often curved. They are pale green on both the
upper and lower surfaces with conspicuous veins.
The flowers appear just before, or with the leaves in
the spring. The drupes are subspherical and 5 to 8
mm in diameter. They have a thick skin and the pit
surface has a netlike pattern. The drupes range in
color from orange to reddish-brown and are attached
by pedicels that are 6 to 15 mm long.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Sugarberry is found growing in sandy loam
or rocky soils along streams, in bottomlands, and in
woodlands.
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='When sugarberry is top-killed by fire it will resprout
from the root collar.
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sugarberry can be propagated by seed and cuttings,
planted in autumn. Sugarberry has no preference for
a particular soil type.
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, sugarberry should not be prone to debilitating
pests.
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Castetter, E.F. 1935. Ethnobiological studies in the
American Southwest I. Uncultivated native plants
used as sources of food. University of New Mexico
Bulletin 4:1-44.
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv . 01jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, New
Mexico. 136 pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Harlow, W.M., E.S. Harrar, J.W. Hardin, &. F.M.
White 1996. Textbook of dendrology. 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, New York. 534pp.
Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium Staff 1976. Hortus
Third. Macmillan Publishing Company. 1290 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
Robbins, W.W., J.P. Harrington, &. B. Freire-
Marreco 1916. Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians.
Unites States Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
55. 124 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curative obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man 14:49-75.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire
Sciences Laboratory. 2001.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/carill/in
dex.html
' WHERE symbol='cela';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Western redbud is highly valued by
Native American basket weavers in California for
their young, wine-red branches, harvested in the fall
and used in the warp, weft, and designs of baskets. If
the branches are harvested in the spring when the
bark slips, the white inner sapwood may also be used
as the weft or lacing in baskets.
Other: Uses include the following: landscaping,
furniture, browsing, and stream stabilization. Western
redbud is a good soil stabilizer along streams, and
can withstand periodic flooding. The flowers provide
nectar to bees and the young shoots, leaves, and
seedpods are browsed by goats, and too a limited
extent by deer, sheep, and cattle. The browse rating
though for sheep and cattle is poor. Horticulturists
have planted redbud in informal and formal gardens
and landscapes since 1886 and it has been called one
of California s most attractive flowering shrubs in
gardeners manuals and horticultural guides.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pea Family (Fabaceae). Western or
California redbud is a leguminous shrub that grows
from 7 to 20 feet tall with a dense rounded crown that
almost reaches the ground. Western redbud is
recognized as Cercis occidentalis in older floras. The
leaves are simple, thick, round or reniform, and
cordate at the base, and have from seven to nine
prominent veins. They are winter deciduous. their
autumn display of yellow turning to red and brown
rivaling that of some eastern hardwoods. The
striking pea-shaped flowers appear before the leaves,
in small fascicles along the branches. Each flower
has five petals that range in color from magenta pink
to reddish purple. Pollination is by bumblebees
(Bombus sp.) and orchard mason bees (Osmia
lignaria). Although the pink sprays can be seen from
February through April, any one shrub will remain in
flower only about two weeks. In autumn the
branches often bear many clusters of pointed, flat,
vary thin pods, the upper suture with a conspicuous
winged margin. In ripening, the pods are first purple
and then russet-brown, each containing an average of
WESTERN REDBUD
Cercis orbiculata Greene
Plant Symbol = CEOR9
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Redbud, California redbud. also recognized as Cercis
occidentalis Torr. ex Gray in The Jepson Manual
(Hickman 1993) and Cercis occidentalis var.
orbiculata (Greene) Tidestrom in other floras.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
seven hard, bean-like seeds. The mature pods persist
into the next winter. Known from the southwest U.S.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Native to California, Arizona, and Utah, redbud
is found in at least five plant communities including
oak woodland, chaparral, mixed conifer forest,
riparian woodland, and closed cone forest.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: It grows at elevations of 4,000 ft. or less,
in canyons and on rather steep slopes, in gravely, and
rocky soils along streams, where it is never flooded.
It also grows in the bottom of ephemeral streambeds
in little pockets, benches, or crannies of boulder
outcroppings. The plant is drought tolerant, sun-
loving, and grows in a wide variety of soils, but it is
usually found in rather harsh environments with
course, nutrient-poor soils that are well-drained. It
grows mostly singly, but sometimes, in sheltered
situations, in shrubby clumps.
If possible, gather the seed from local sources, to
maintain genetic diversity of redbud. The seedpods
can be collected in the fall of the year from
September to November from redbud branches.
Redbud seeds are adapted for prolonged periods of
dryness and cold and they require special
pretreatment to germinate, owing to an impervious
seed coat plus a dormant embryo. One method is to
place the seeds into a container and pour boiling
water over them and let the seeds soak overnight.
They can then be covered with damp peat moss and
refrigerated for two months or they can be planted
right away. The germination of redbud seed in the
wild is favored by fire, which cracks the seed coat
and generates the heat needed to stimulate
germination.
Plant the treated seed in the fall in flats, spacing the
seeds approximately one to two inches apart. Use a
slow-release fertilizer in the planting mix. Cover
with about a quarter-inch of soil (approximately 3 to
4 times the width of the seed). To reduce the
possibility of damping off, keep the flats outdoors in
a protected area with partial shade and little wind.
Water the flats through the winter and the let the
plants grow one full year before planting them out.
The seedlings will be about three inches to one foot
tall by the following fall. Plant the seedlings in a
sunny location with good drainage. If gophers are a
problem, plant redbud seedlings in cages. Watering
is not necessary until the following summer, in a
normal rainfall year. Give the young plants summer
water for the first three years in the ground. This
amounts to once every two weeks in a hot climate
and less in a coastal climate. Do not over water, as
redbud will not tolerate summer water in the root
crown area (at the soil level) and will suffer crown
rot (Phytophthora sp.) if over-watered. When leaves
first emerge in the spring, use liquid fertilizer to
boost growth.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Pruning: Periodic pruning of redbud, after it has
reached the minimum age of 5 years, can be
accomplished to remove dead or dying branches that
might harbor diseases or insects. Pruning should take
place in the fall, winter, or early spring, after leaf
drop and during the dormant period. Contemporary
Native American weavers practice two types of
pruning. One technique is coppicing where the
whole plant is cut to within several inches of the
ground. Redbud vigorously resprouts from the
coppice stool, sending up young straight shoots with
a beautiful red pigment. This can bring added color
to gardens and also these shoots are highly valued for
basket weaving. Coppicing, however, should only be
done on mature shrubs--at least a decade old.
Flowering will be lost, until the young sprouts are
two to three years old and shed the red pigment and
form true bark. The other technique is selective
pruning within the canopy to direct the growth of the
plant. This pruning, leaves some older flowering
branches, important for bees and butterflies.
Burning: Before Euro-American settlement of
California, Native Americans conducted purposeful
burning of hillsides in the fall of the year, after
redbud has shed its leaves, to encourage the growth
of young, straight shoots used extensively in
basketry. Redbud also resprouts vigorously after
fires.
A pathogen that infects redbud leaves is Alternaria
sp. while Botrytis sp. is a gray mold that causes
foliage or flower blight. Two fungi that cause root
rot in redbud include Fusarium solani and
Verticillium dahliae. A fungus that infects old
seedpods is Didymella leguminis-cytisis. Most of
these diseases will debilitate, but not kill redbud.
Fire is an effective tool to use to eliminate the above-
ground pathogens inhabiting redbud.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='CEOR9 is readily available through most nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Page 3
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Anderson, M.K. 1991. California Indian
horticulture: management and use of redbud by the
Southern Sierra Miwok. Journal of Ethnobiology
11(1):145-157.
Hickman, J.C. ed. 1993. The Jepson manual. Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California. 1400 p.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press:
Berkeley, California.
Sampson, A.W. &. B.S. Jesperson. 1963. California
range brushlands and browse plants. University of
California, Div. of Agricultural Sciences.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Extension Service.
Manual 33. 162 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 991206.
' WHERE symbol='ceor9';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 01jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SOAPROOT
Chlorogalum pomeridianum
(D.C.) Kunth
Plant Symbol = CHPO3
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
basket hopper when acorns are pounded and for
brushing the hair.
The bulb, if baked in an earth oven for a lengthy
period, usually overnight, becomes caramelized and
sweet-tasting and was a significant food to the Karuk,
Coast Miwok, Washoe, Foothill Yokuts and other
indigenous societies. The young shoots were
traditionally harvested by many tribes including the
Costanoan and Sierra Miwok, before flowering,
roasted, and eaten. The bulb was also used
medicinally by the Wailaki. They rubbed the fresh
bulb on the body for cramps and for rheumatism.
They also used a decoction of the bulb as a diuretic
and laxative, and for stomachache. The leaves were
used to make dolls by the Sierra Miwok.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This perennial
herbaceous plant reproduces both by black, rounded
seeds and bulbs. The bulb has a brown fibrous outer
coat and the bulb can become quite large--from 7-15
cm across. The leaves are linear and basal with
strongly wavy margins. The leaves are 2-7 dm. long
and shrink to scarious bracts in the flowering stage.
The flowers open in the evening and the
inflorescence is highly branched and can grow up to
3 m in height. The flowers are white with green or
purple midveins, recurved at flowering. They have 6
stamens and a style that is 3-cleft at the apex.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Populations of this species are found in multiple
habitats including bluffs, grassland, chaparral, coastal
sage scrub, and dry open oak woodland below 1500
m elevation. The plant is found throughout the
western California floristic province and up into
southwestern Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Soaproot is a weedy species and can become easily
established in the garden or wildland. Dig up the
bulbs in the summer when the plants have gone to
seed and the bulbs are dormant or purchase bulbs
from local sources to maintain genetic diversity and
© M. Kat Anderson
NPDC @ PLANTS
Sliced bulb of soaproot.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Amole, soap plant
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: This plant has multiple uses among
many California Indian tribes. The bulb was
gathered historically in large quantities with a
digging stick and it is still harvested today by various
cultural groups. Traditionally the bulbs were highly
valued for soap for washing the body, hair, baskets,
and utensils among the Luiseno, Pomo, Miwok,
Yuki, Western Mono, Karuk, Wiyot, Western Mono,
Tubatulabal, Foothill Yokuts, Cahuilla, and most
other cultural groups. It also served as an important
fish poison--the bulb being mashed and placed into
quiet pools of water to cause fish to become
immobilized and float to the water surface. The bulb
contains saponin--which may contribute to its
effectiveness as a soap and fish poison.
If the bulb is boiled or roasted, and mashed, the paste
is a good adhesive and is used as a glue for soaproot
brush handles, and attaching feathers to arrows. The
brushes are made by using the coarse ".horsehair-like".
fibrous coats for the brush bristles and the
mucilaginous bulb makes the handle. These brushes
are used to sweep acorn meal into the mortar or
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
plants adapted to local conditions. Make sure the
bulbs have healthy roots. Plant the bulbs in the fall
(by October 1st) in the ground. Plant them with their
fibrous coats in any soil type and in full sun. If you
are planting the bulbs and plan to use them in the
future, then plant them in a loose soil (not clay).
Plant the bulbs shallowly with their tops showing.
Do not water them and let the rains come.
If establishing the plants by seed, plant them in the
fall by October 1st and place the seeds in a deep 1-
gallon container (six inches deep). Water the
container thoroughly and let it drain. Plant the seed
the next day. Scatter the seed on top of sandy soil.
Sprinkle a light layer of soil over the top of the seeds.
Place one-quarter inch gravel on top of this soil. Set
the pots outside and let the rains come. If it is a
drought year, supplement with hand watering. The
containers should get early morning and late
afternoon sun, but shade in the middle of the day.
After the plants are a year-old during dormancy,
divide them to give them more space. Plant them two
inches or more apart. At the end of the second year,
in the summer or fall, plant them out.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The Pomo periodically burned areas where soaproot
grew, probably to recycle nutrients and keep
vegetation from encroaching into collection areas.
Many tribes spare plants, never taking more than they
need, leaving some for wildlife and future
production. Some tribes harvest soaproot bulbs after
seeding and dump the seeds in the holes to perpetuate
the plants. Another potentially sustainable harvesting
strategy practiced by the Sierra Miwok is to break the
bulbs off, purposefully leaving some bulb and root
tissue behind to regenerate.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CHPO3 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries throughout its range. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany 38(2):240-255.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc. Fort Bragg, California.
Collier, M.E.T. &. S.B. Thalman (editors). 1991.
Interviews with Tom Smith and Maria Copa: Isabel
Kelly s ethnographic notes on the Coast Miwok
Indians of Marin and southern Sonoma Counties,
California. Miwok Archeological Preserve of Marin
Occasional Papers Number 6.
Duncan, J.W. 1961. Maidu ethnobotany.
Unpublished Master s thesis. Anthropology
Department. California State University,
Sacramento, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. pp. 64-97 IN:
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D azevedo [Ed.]. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Gayton, A.H. 1948. Yokuts and Western Mono
ethnography I: Tulare Lake, Southern Valley, and
Central Foothill Yokuts. University of California
Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. 144 pp.
Gifford, E.W. 1932. The Northfork Mono. Univ. of
California Publications in Am. Arch. and Ethnology.
Vol 31. Univ. Of California, Berkeley, California.
pp. 15-65.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Monograph
Series Number II. American Indian Studies Center,
University of California, Los Angeles, California.
Jernstedt, J.A. 1993. Chlorogalum. pp. 1189-1190
IN: The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California
Kroeber, A.L. (1976) 1925. Handbook of the
Indians of California. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 78.
Page 3
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Latta, F.F. 1977. Handbook of the Yokuts Indians.
Kern County Museum.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot Territory. University of California Pub.
in American Arch. and Ethnology. Vol. 14:3. pp.
221-436.
Peri, D.W., S.M. Patterson, &. J.L. Goodrich. 1982.
Ethnobotanical mitigation Warm Springs Dam-Lake
Sonoma, California. E. Hill and R.N. Lerner (eds.).
Unpublished Report prepared by Elgar HIll,
Environmental Analysis and Planning. Penngrove,
California for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers San
Francisco District Contract No. DACW07-78-C-
0040.
Schenck, S.M. &. E.W. Gifford. 1952. Karok
ethnobotany. Anthropological Records 13(6):377-
392.
Sparkman, P.S. 1908. The culture of the Luiseno
Indians. Univ. of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol.
8:(4):187-234.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records Vol 2:(1):1-84.
' WHERE symbol='chpo3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 01jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
TARO
Plant Guide
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott
Plant Symbol = COES
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center and Pacific Islands West Area Office
All parts of taro can cause stomach aches, if ingested
without cooking. Contact with the sap can irritate
sensitive skin.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Please consult the links on the PLANTS Plant Profile
for this species for extensive information not
contained within this plant guide.
Ethnobotanical' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__=' Taro was the most important food
throughout the Hawaiian Islands. The mature root is
boiled as a starchy vegetable. It was the staple of the
Hawaiian diet and the plant used to make poi.
The leaves are high in minerals and vitamins A, B,
and C. These large leaves are cooked like mustard or
turnip greens and the resulting product is called
callaloo in the Caribbean.
The young leaves are cooked and used for human
consumption as a very nutritious vegetable and the
corms are used as staple in place of rice or potato
(Plucknett and White 1979). These young leaves are
boiled or covered with coconut cream, wrapped in
banana or breadfruit leaves and cooked on hot stones
(Kubo 1970).
The corms are generally cooked by baking, boiling or
baking in the traditional ovens.
The starch contained in the large corms of taro is
highly digestible, therefore making it a good source
for carbohydrate and to a lesser degree a source of
potassium and protein.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Taro corms have been used in the production of taro
chips, dehydrated stable commodities, starch, flour,
and in non-food application of taro starch in the
manufacture of biodegradable plastics.
Taro is good for people allergic to milk or cereals and
can be consumed by children who are sensitive to
milk (Roth and et.al., 1967).
The digestibility of taro starch has been estimated to
be 98.8 percent. Therefore taro flour and other
products have been used for infant formulae in the
United States and have formed an important
constituent of proprietary canned baby foods.
Medicinal: The Pinatubo Negritos of the Philippines
used taro as medicine. The leaves and corms were
Forest &. Kim Starr (USGS)
@ Plants of Hawaii (HEAR)
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Coco yam, dasheen, elephant’s ear, gabi, binata,
callaloo, eddo, eddy root, swamp taro
Chamorro: suni,
Chuukese: woot,
Hawaiian: kalo,
Marshallese: jibabwãi,
Palauan: bisupsal,
Pohnpeian: sawa
Samoan: talo,
Ulithian: ioth
Yapese: mal
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Caution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Caution=': If taro is not prepared and cooked well, the
acridity will cause itchiness in the mouth and throat.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
boiled and eaten by women experiencing a difficult
childbirth. Many tribes believed the early morning
dew that collected in the leaf was excellent medicinal
eyewash. Women with dysmenorrheal were made to
sit on taro leaves. Juice of the petioles is styptic and
was used to arrest arterial hemorrhage. Taro was
used in earache and as an external stimulant and
rubefacient. Taro was used as a laxative in cases of
hemorrhoids. Some tribes use taro as an antidote to
the stings of wasps and other biting or stinging
insects. Heated tubers were applied to painful parts
in rheumatism. Honey mixed with tuber ash was
used as a cure for apthae in the mouth.
In Hawaii, the raw juice mixed with sugar was taken
orally to reduce fever. Taro was used by Hawaiians
to treat illness ranging from constipation to
tuberculosis.
In Malaysia, warmed leaves were used to compress a
child s head to size if too long.
Horticultural/Landscape: Taro may be incorporated
into the general landscape or planted in the traditional
style in wet and dry paddies. Taro can be planted in
dry culture or non-flooded fields, but not all taros
genetic lines can be planted in wet culture or flooded
fields.
Livestock: Taro leaf blades and petioles have been
used in animal feed.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Arum Family (Araceae). Taro is an ancient crop
grown throughout the tropic and subtropics. Taro is
believed to have originated in South East Asia
including India and Malaysia. Spencer (1966) stated
that taro and other edible arioida were distributed
from east India to Formosa and the Solomon Islands.
Taro seeds were dispersed by birds, and palm civets
.(Panoff, 1972, Hambali, 1979).
Taro, sometimes called the ".potato of the tropics,". or
".elephant ears". is a wetland herbaceous perennial
with huge “elephant ear” like leaves. It produces
heart shaped leaves 2-3 long and 1-2 across on 3
long petioles that all emanate from an upright
tuberous rootstock, called a corm. The petioles are
thick, succulent, and often purplish. The leaf petiole
attaches near the center of the leaf. The corm is
shaped like a top with rough ridges, lumps and
spindly roots, and usually weighs around 1-2 pounds,
but can weigh eight pounds. The skin is brown with
white or pink flesh. Taros can produce smaller tubers
or ".cormels". which grow off the sides of the main
corm. Under ideal growing conditions, a single taro
plant can get 8 tall with an 8’canopy spread.
There are more than 200 cultivars of taro, selected for
their edible corms or cormels, or their tropical
looking ornamental foliage. These cultivars fall into
two main groups: wetland taros, the source of the
Polynesian food poi, which is made from the main
corm. and upland taros, which produce numerous
eddos that are used much like potatoes for cooking
and in processing.
Taro, although grown commercially in many areas of
the Pacific Basin, for the most part, is a backyard
crop planted usually in small plots near the house.
Because taro has a high water requirement and a long
growing season it can only grow where water is
available most of the year. Its ability to grow in
waterlogged conditions allows for the utilization of
hydromorphic soils which are unsuitable for other
crops (Onwueme, I.C. 1985)
Taro and other aroid food crops have traditionally
been a source of food energy for Pacific Islanders.
Taro is a plant that must be tilled and watered if it is
to grow and perform. The roots and suckers of many
varieties of taro were carried along the trade routes of
the world. The taro plant has a triple value in that the
stem may be used as salads, the tubers provide easily
digested starch, with the leaves are used as a green
vegetable. The leaves are also used as wrapping for
food, as plates, and as an umbrella in a rainstorm.
Cyrtosperma (giant taro) provides for a reserve food
crop, which grows well in low-lying areas and saline
swamps.
Distribution: For current U.S. distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation. Taro can grow in a wide range of soil
from upland or dry land soils that are well drained,
non-flooded soils to soils that are in high rainfall
areas or saturated for prolonged periods of time.
Taro can grow in areas that only it and rice can grow
because of standing water during the growing season.
The upland taro is usually grown on hillsides in soil
that is marginal in fertility and productivity. Soils in
these areas are usually well drained and friable.
While lowland or wetland taro is usually planted in
Page 3
low-lying areas where there is an abundant supply of
water. The soils in these areas are normally alluvial
and of high native fertility and production.
Taro can grow in areas ranging from sea level to
1,800 m in elevation under daily average temperature
of 21-27°C and rainfall of 250 cm annually. Taro is
usually planted at wide spacing of 1m x 1m at a
density of 10,000 plants/ha in dry areas and at
spacing as close as 45cm x 45cm or approximately
49,000 plants/ha in wetland areas.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Plantingmaterial TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Plantingmaterial='Taro is usually the first crop planted after the
clearance of a forest fallow because the soil if very
fertile. However after repeated use the soil becomes
less productive and will require organic or inorganic
fertilizer to maintain high yields. If commercial
fertilizer is used be sure not to place the fertilizer in
the bottom of the hole with the sucker because the
fertilizer will destroy the young sucker.
In the South Pacific, “tiapuli” or setts are prepared
from the suckers or main plant. The tiapuli consist of
the cormels with the petioles and are the main
material used of propagating taro. Small tiapuli used
for planting can have a considerable effect on yield if
weeding is delayed during early establishment.
Large size planting material grows more vigorously,
giving full ground cover earlier and hence providing
better weed control. Planting depth should be in a
furrow or hole about 30 cm deep. Planting should be
timed to rainfall with lower rainfall areas planted
during the early part of the rainy season for best
survival and production. In areas with well-
distributed rainfall or if one is using irrigation the
effect of planting dates is less important because
planting can occur throughout the year. Most of the
planting and production operation is manual in small
communities except for occasional chemical weed
control.
In Hawaii, the planting material is called huli. Huli
are the cormels ( oha or keiki) that have been
trimmed. When the kalo plant is harvested, the keiki
are cut off from the harvested makua plant and their
leaves and corms are cut off, leaving only about a
quarter of an inch attached to the stem. These huli are
then left in a cool, dry place for a day or two to allow
the cut to heal before they are planted again. The huli
should be kept moist so that they don’t dry out but
should not be left in standing water otherwise they
will rot. After a day or so, the huli will be ready for
planting.
Wet kalo is grown in the lowlands and on valley
floors in man made terraces (Lo i) that are irrigated
by diverted mountain streams. The huli may be
planted in rows or in mounds in the lo i. They will
grow to maturity in 9-14 months, depending on the
variety. Wet kalo must have cold water running
through it’s lo i because warm, standing water will
cause the kalo to rot.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Weeding must be preformed during the first six
months after planting. If weeding is not done on a
regular basis during the first six months, taro
production can be reduced by as much as 50 to 85
percent. Weeding after six months is usually not
important because the taro crop forms full ground
cover therefore preventing young weeds from
growing. Unwanted vegetation can be controlled
using mechanical means or through the use of
approved herbicides.
The taro must be weeded and mulched several times
during the crop’s growth. Commercial fertilizers are
also used to produce larger plants.
When the crop is ready to be harvested, the taro are
pulled out of the ground and the corms cut off. The
new planting material will also be prepared at this
time. If the taro is being grown for the leaves, the
leaves should be picked about two months after
planting when the leaves are large but still young. If
the taro is being grown for the corms, then they
should be harvested when the corms reach maturity.
Taro that is being grown for the corms should not be
used for leaves because picking the leaves while the
corm is developing will damage the corm.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Harvesting TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Harvesting='Harvesting of taro depends on the location of the crop
and the variety planted. However, most lowland
plantings can be harvested in 12 to 15 months after
planting if weeds are controlled. Taro growing on
the warmer upland sites with good solar radiation
will mature in about 12 months. Most of the taro
grown in the lowlands or wetland areas is harvested
by hand. The main corm and suckers are broken up
and loosened from the soil and rotated in a circular
fashion to cut and sever the roots. Mature taro leaves
turn yellowish in color.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Pests are major problems facing taro growers
throughout its growing range. Each of the following
pests can occasionally become major pest and require
control measures. The largest number of pests
usually attack the leaves of the plant. The most
common invertebrate pests are: Grasshoppers,
crickets, thrips, aphids, leafhoppers, mealy bugs,
Page 4
<.http://www.hear.org/pier/species/colocasia_esculent
a.htm>..
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore, Formerly USDA, NRCS, National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
And
John H. Lawrence, West Area Office, NRCS Pacific
Islands Area, Mongmong, Guam
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='John H. Lawrence, West Area Office, NRCS Pacific
Islands Area, Mongmong, Guam
Edited: 20Oct2003 1mm. 070213 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service.
plant hoppers, scales, whiteflies, several moths and
butterflies, beetles, termites, nematodes, snails and
slugs, ants, and mites. Vertebrate pests of taro
include porcupines, rats and mice, bush pigs and
rails. Taro diseases caused by biotic agents include
four main groups of fungi: Ascomycetes,
basidiomycetes, phycomycetes, and fungi imperfecti.
These biotic agents cause leaf blight, leaf spot, soft
rot, spongy black rot, and pocket rot of the corm.
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='coes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Hambali, G.G. 1979. The dispersal of taro by
common palm civets. Proc Sdt Symp. Inter. Soc.
Trop. Root Crops, Philippines
Kubo, P. 1970. The history of taro and taro products
in Hawaii. Typescript paper submitted for Hist. 424,
Dept of Hist., University of Hawaii., Honolulu.
.
Panoff, F. 1972. Manage taro and cordy1ine:
elements of a Melanesian key. J. Poly. Soc.
81(3):375-88.
Plucknett, D.L. 1976. Giant swamp taro. Proc. 4th
Symp. Tnter. Soc. Trop. Root Crops. Cali,
Colombia.
Plucknett, D.L., R.S. de la Pena, and F. Obrero. 1970.
Taro (Colocasia esculenta): a review. Field Crop
Abstracts 23(4), 413-426.
Plucknett, D.L., and M.S. White. 1979. Storage and
processing of taro in the People’s Republic of China.
In: Small-scale processing and storage of tropical
root crops, ed. D .L. Plucknett. 119-123. Westview
Trop. Agric. Sr., no.1 Boulder, Colorado.
Roth, A., R.M. Worth, I.J. Lichton. 1967. Use of poi
in the prevention of allergic diseases in potentially
allergic infants. Ann. of Allergy 25:505-506.
USDA Forest Service. 2006. Colocasia esculenta(L.)
Schott, Araceae. Pacific Island Ecosystems At Risk.
Accessed: 070213.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
REDOSIER
DOGWOOD
Cornus sericea L.
Plant Symbol = COSE16
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Carlinville (IL) Field Office
Robert H. Mohlenbrook
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
smoking the sacred pipe (Moerman 1986). The
leaves and/or inner bark of redosier dogwood are also
used as a smoking mixture by the Okanagan-Colville,
the Flathead, the Kootenay, and the Blackfeet peoples
in the western United States and Canada (Hellson
1974, Hart 1976, Turner 1978, Turner et al. 1980,
Johnston 1987). The Navaho-Kayentaf and Navaho-
Ramah used the plant ceremonially as a Mountain-
top-way emetic (Moerman 1986). An infusion of
redosier dogwood bark was used as an anti-diarrheal
by the Chippewa and the Potawatomi, an antidote for
weak kidneys by the Shuswap, and a pediatric aid for
children who wet the bed by the Shuswap. The
Chippewa used an infusion of the bark for eruptions
caused by poison ivy. The Chippewa and the
Micmac used a decoction of redosier dogwood root
for sore eyes and catarrh. The Okanagan and the
Thompson Indians took a decoction of the leaves.
Other remedies treated by redosier dogwood included
headaches, sore throats, a wash for ulcers, a substitute
for “larb”, and a decoction of bark was taken as an
antidote for weakness.
The Maidu of Northern California used redosier
dogwood as a tonic, a laxative, emetic, and cathartic
(Strike 1994). Maidu women took a dogwood
decoction after childbirth.
The Indians of the Missouri region (Densmore 1974)
ate the fruits. The berries are known to be tart and
bitter, but were nonetheless eaten by all of the
southern Interior peoples of British Columbia,
including the Nlaka’pamux, Lillooet, Okanagan-
Colville, Shuswap, Kootenay, Blackfeet, and the
Flathead of Alberta and Montana (Kuhnlein and
Turner 1991). The fruits were gathered from August
to October and eaten fresh, a few at a time, or, more
commonly, were pounded and mixed with other
fruits, such as chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) or
Saskatoons (Amelanchier almifolia). Some people
mashed the berries and dried them in cakes. others
dried and stored them. Eating a few raw fruits was
considered to be a good tonic among the
Nlaka’pamux and the Okanagan-Colville, who ate
them raw as a kind of “relish” (Turner 1978. Turner
et al. 1990).
Redosier dogwood is used for basketweaving.
Sometimes called red willow, both Salix species and
Cornus sericea are used interchangeably.
Differences in stem color create a multi-hued design
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
American dogwood, red willow, redstem dogwood,
Cornus sericea ssp. sericea. Cornus stolonifera var.
nevadensis Jepson and Cornus stolonifera Michaux
(Hickman 1993). A subspecies, Cornus sericia spp.
occidentalis (Torr. &. Gray) Fosberg is known as
western dogwood.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans smoke the inner
bark of redosier dogwood in tobacco mixtures used in
the sacred pipe ceremony. Dreamcatchers,
originating with the Potawotami, are made with the
stems of the sacred redosier dogwood. Some tribes
ate the white, sour berries, while others used the
branches for arrow-making, stakes, or other tools. In
California, peeled twigs were used as toothbrushes
for their whitening effect on teeth (Strike 1994).
Bows and arrows were made from Cornus shoots.
The inner bark is used for tanning or drying animal
hides.
The Apache, Cheyenne, Dakota, Montana Indians,
Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Omaha, Ponca, and Thompson
Indians all use the inner bark in a tobacco mixture for
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
element. Indian people from the mid-Columbia
River used redosier dogwood to make “ribbons” for
basket decorations (Schlick 1994). If gathered in the
early spring, the bark will retain its deep red color
when dried and could be mistaken for cherry. The
Hidatsa, Arikara, and Mandan made twill plaited
burden baskets with two-toned dark and light
designs. these baskets were made of willow (Salix
nigra), redosier dogwood, and boxelder (Acer
negundo) splints (Turnbaugh et al. 1986, Hart 1976).
Willow and redosier dogwood were used by the
Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Pawnee, and Teton
Sioux to make a coarsely coiled gambling basket for
dice.
The Ojibwa and the Chippewa used redosier
dogwood bark as a dye. The inner bark was mixed
with other plants or minerals and used to make a red
dye, a light red dye, a black dye, and an ecru or
“khaki” colored dye (Densmore 1974).
Wildlife: The fleshy fruits of dogwoods are very
valuable to wildlife, particularly in the Northeast
(Martin et al. 1951). The fruit ripens in late summer,
and besides being available through the fall, some of
the berries may persist on the plants into the winter
months. Wildlife browse the twigs, foliage, and
fruits. Birds known to eat the fruit include: wood
ducks, eastern bluebirds, cardinals, catbirds, long-
tailed chats, crows, purple finches, yellow-shafted
flickers, crested flycatchers, grosbeaks, kingbirds,
American magpies, mockingbirds, crested mynah
birds, orioles, robins, yellow-bellied sapsuckers,
European starlings, tree swallows, scarlet tanagers,
brown thrashers, thrushes, vireos, pine warblers,
cedar waxwings, and woodpeckers. Game birds who
eat both the fruits and buds include grouse, ring-
necked pheasants, band-tailed pigeons, greater prairie
chickens, bobwhite quail, and wild turkeys. The
shrubs provide excellent nesting habitat for
songbirds. Mammals that eat the fruit and foliage
include black bear, beaver, mountain beaver,
cottontail rabbits, raccoons, eastern skunks, squirrels,
chipmunks, mice, and rats. Deer, elk, Mountain goat,
and moose browse the twigs and foliage.
Landscaping &. ornamental: Redosier dogwood is
often planted as an ornamental, both to beautify the
landscape and to attract birds. Dogwood is often
used for landscaping and as a secondary plant in
windbreaks.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Dogwood Family (Cornaceae). Redosier
dogwood is a woody deciduous shrub generally 1.4-6
m (4.6-20 ft) tall. The bark and twigs are reddish to
purple and fairly smooth from autumn to late spring.
after the leaves have fallen, the deep burgundy
branches add color to the winter landscape. The
bark, twigs, and leaves are bright green in spring
through summer. The simple, opposite leaves are 5-
10 cm (2-4 in) long, dark green above and hairy and
lighter-colored below, with smooth margins, rounded
bases, pointed tips, and falsely parallel veins.
Flowering occurs from June to August. The
inflorescence is a cyme, with 2-3 mm (0.08-0.12 in)
white to cream-colored flowers. The white berries
are smooth on the faces, furrowed on the sides.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Redosier dogwood has a wide distribution from
California north to Alaska and throughout the country
to the eastern United States south to Mexico. It
generally grows at elevations below 2500 m.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation:' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Redosier dogwood grows in soils that are
saturated for at least a portion of the growing season.
Redosier dogwood is common on the edges of lakes,
ponds, within wetlands, and along streams. Not as
tolerant of long-term root saturation as are some
other shrubs, dogwood seems to prefer wetland
margins where soils are nitrogen-rich, saturated, and
shallowly inundated in the spring, and may be
completely dry by late summer. It is tolerant of
fluctuating water tables. The “osier” in redosier
dogwood is derived from French, meaning “willow-
like”. it is often called red willow because of its red
stems.
Propagation from cuttings: Redosier dogwood can be
started easily by division, french layering, and
hardwood cuttings. To propagate suckers by
division:
• Lift a root with suckers on it without disturbing
the parent plant. Check that there are fibrous
roots at the base of the suckers.
• Remove the suckering roots by cutting it off
close to the parent plant. Firm the soil around
the parent plant.
• Cut the main root back to the fibrous roots, then
divide the suckers so that each has its own roots.
Cut back the top-growth by about half.
Page 3
• Treat each sucker or hardwood cutting at the
base with IBA at 20,000 ppm liquid formulation
to promote rooting. Alternatively, treatment
with 2 percent IBA talc. this will promote
rooting on both suckers and stem cuttings.
• Replant the suckers in open ground in prepared
holes with good potting soil. Firm the soil
around the suckers and water.
• Before growth starts in the spring, lift the plant.
Break the clump into sections, retaining those
with vigorous shoots and well-developed roots.
• Prune any damaged roots, and cut back the top-
growth by one-third to a half to reduce water
loss. Replant the divisions in the open and water
in dry weather.
• Ultimately, simply lift a suckering root, sever it
from the parent plant, and then replant it in the
open.
To ensure survival of cuttings or suckers through the
following winter in cold climates, the potted cuttings
should be kept in heated cold frames or poly-houses
to hold the temperature between 0-7°C (32-45°F).
Rooted cuttings that had shoot growth in the fall, but
were not given nitrogen, had the best over-winter
survival in a cold frame with microfoam.
French layering: Layering is a method where a stem
is encouraged to develop roots before being removed
from the parent plant.
•
In spring, plant a rooted layer or young plant,
label it, and grow it for a season. Then, in the
dormant season, cut back the stem to within 3
inches (8 cm) of the ground.
In the following spring, apply a balanced
fertilizer at the rate of 2-4-oz/sq yd (60-110 g/sq
m). Space the stems evenly again. dropping each
into a 2-inch (5-cm) deep trench. Peg down each
stem and cover with soil, leaving the shoot tips
exposed. Hill up all but 2-3 inches (5-8 cm) of
the new shoots as they develop, until the mound
is 6 inches (15 cm) high. Water as needed.
•
• After leaf fall, carefully fork away the soil from
around the new shoots until the stems that were
laid horizontally are exposed. Cut these flush
with the basal area of the stems. Then cut the
stems to separate the rooted sections. Pot these
or plant them out in the open garden, and label
them. The same redosier dogwood basal area
may be used to propagate further layers.
Propagation by seed: Redosier dogwood is
established easily from seed. The best germination is
obtained if the seeds are gathered as soon as the fruit
starts to color or ripen, from August to October. If
the seeds are allowed to dry out, it is best to remove
seeds from the fruit and soak in water.
The best results are obtained from fall sowing of
freshly harvested seeds. Fruits collected too late to
sow in the fall should be stored, pre-chilled until the
next season, and sown outdoors the following fall.
To effectively condition the seed for germination,
store for two months in moist sand at 5ºC for 90 days.
After pre-chilling, expose the seeds to fluctuating
temperatures from 12/72ºC for 10 days (Young and
Young 1992). With some species, the warm
stratification period may be replaced by mechanical
scarification or soaking in sulfuric acid. Seeds sown
in nursery beds should be covered with 0.25-0.5 in
(0.6-1.25 cm) of soil. Fall-sown beds should be
mulched during the winter.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Redosier dogwood is often coppiced in late fall after
the leaves turn brown and fall off the stem. Cut all
stems to approximately 2-3 in (5-8 cm) from the base
before growth begins in spring. Apply fertilizer
around the shrub to promote new growth, then apply
mulch around the base. Coppicing stimulates the
growth of new, vigorous stems whose deep burgundy
color is especially vivid.
Traditional resource management: Redosier
dogwood was traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Often basket weavers will prune many redosier
dogwood stems, sometimes replanting the stems,
so there will be nice straight basketry material
the following year.
• Before gathering, offerings of thanks and prayers
for permission to gather are given. Often tobacco
or sage or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed along
streams have a much higher health risk for
humans when they are processed and used for
traditional materials.
Overgrazing, especially by livestock and big game,
frequently changes plant species composition and
growth form, density of stands, vigor, seed
production of plants, and insect production.
Livestock grazing can cause the replacement of bird
and mammal species requiring the vertical vegetation
structure of riparian habitat to species, which are
ubiquitous in their habitat preferences. Previous
heavy cattle grazing changed the bird and small
mammal community composition in riparian areas
through reduction of shrub and herbaceous cover.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Cultivars: ‘Alman’s Compacta’, ‘Allamans’,
‘Bailey’, ‘Cardinal’, ‘Coloradensis’, ‘Flaviromea’,
‘Isanti’, ‘Kelseyi’, ‘Lutea’, ‘Ruby’, ‘Silver’ and
‘Gold’, and ‘White Gold’ have been planted in the
growing range of redosier dogwood.
Consult your local nurseries to choose the right
cultivar for your specific landscape.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley.
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8: 1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8: 629-644.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of the plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River Region. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Grinnel, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
Cooper Square Publishers. New York, New York.
Hart, J.A. 1976. Montana: native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfeet
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Johnston, A. 1970. Blackfeet Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 24:301-24.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. pp. 84-94.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in
History and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus
Echinacea (Compositae). University of Kansas
Science Bulletin 48(4): 113-142.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of native
America. Research reports in ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. Ann
Arbor, Michigan. pp. 156-158.
Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River Basketry. Gift
of the ancestors, gift of the earth. A Samuel and
Althea Strowm Book. University of Washington
Press, Seattle and London. 232 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2): 175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the North
Central Plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds. pp. 156-164. In: Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (tech. coords.). Importance, preservation
Page 5
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
and management of riparian habitat: a symposium.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report RM-43.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA/Germany.
210 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior Peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., R. Bouchard, &. D.I.D. Kennedy 1980.
Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of
British Columbia and Washington. B.C. Provincial
Museum Occasional Paper No. 21. 179 pp.
Turnbaugh, S.P., &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
Young, A.J. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, Formerly USDA NRCS National
Plant Data Center
Ivan Dozier, USDA NRCS, Carlinville, Illinois
' WHERE symbol='cose16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 24may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
WESTERN
DOGWOOD
Cornus sericia L. ssp.
occidentalis (Torr. &. Gray)
Fosberg
Plant Symbol = COSEO
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Carlinville (IL) Field Office
(Hellson 1974, Hart 1976, Turner 1978, Turner et al.
1980, Johnston 1987). The Navaho-Kayentaf and
Navaho-Ramah used the plant ceremonially as a
Mountain-top-way emetic (Moerman 1986). An
infusion of redosier dogwood bark was used as an
anti-diarrheal by the Chippewa and the Potawatomi,
an antidote for weak kidneys by the Shuswap, and a
pediatric aid for children who wet the bed by the
Shuswap. The Chippewa used an infusion of the
bark for eruptions caused by poison ivy. The
Chippewa and the Micmac used a decoction of
redosier dogwood root for sore eyes and catarrh. The
Okanagan and the Thompson Indians took a
decoction of the leaves. Other remedies treated by
redosier dogwood included headaches, sore throats, a
wash for ulcers, a substitute for “larb”, and a
decoction of bark was taken as an antidote for
weakness.
The Maidu of Northern California used redosier
dogwood as a tonic, a laxative, emetic, and cathartic
(Strike 1994). Maidu women took a dogwood
decoction after childbirth.
The fruits were eaten by the Indians of the Missouri
region (Densmore 1974). The berries are known to
be tart and bitter, but were nonetheless eaten by all of
the southern Interior peoples of British Columbia,
including the Nlaka’pamux, Lillooet, Okanagan-
Colville, Shuswap, Kootenay, Blackfeet, and the
Flathead of Alberta and Montana (Kuhnlein and
Turner 1991). The fruits were gathered from August
to October and eaten fresh, a few at a time, or, more
commonly, were pounded and mixed with other
fruits, such as chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) or
Saskatoons (Amelanchier almifolia). Some people
mashed the berries and dried them in cakes. others
dried and stored them. Eating a few raw fruits was
considered to be a good tonic among the
Nlaka’pamux and the Okanagan-Colville, who ate
them raw as a kind of “relish” (Turner 1978. Turner
et al. 1990).
Redosier dogwood is used for basket weaving.
Sometimes called red willow, both Salix species and
Cornus sericea are used interchangeably.
Differences in stem color create a multi-hued design
element. Indian people from the mid-Columbia
River used redosier dogwood to make “ribbons” for
basket decorations (Schlick 1994). If gathered in the
early spring, the bark will retain its deep red color
Robert H. Mohlenbrook
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Red willow, redstem dogwood, redosier dogwood
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans smoke the inner
bark of redosier dogwood in tobacco mixtures used in
the sacred pipe ceremony. Dream catchers,
originating with the Potawotami, are made with the
stems of the sacred redosier dogwood. Some tribes
ate the white, sour berries, while others used the
branches for arrow-making, stakes, or other tools. In
California, peeled twigs were used as toothbrushes
for their whitening effect on teeth (Strike 1994).
Bows and arrows were made from Cornus shoots.
The inner bark is used for tanning or drying animal
hides.
The Apache, Cheyenne, Dakota, Montana Indians,
Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Omaha, Ponca, and Thompson
Indians all use the inner bark in a tobacco mixture for
smoking the sacred pipe (Moerman 1986). The
leaves and/or inner bark of redosier dogwood are also
used as a smoking mixture by the Okanagan-Colville,
the Flathead, the Kootenay, and the Blackfeet peoples
in the western United States and Canada
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
when dried and could be mistaken for cherry. The
Hidatsa, Arikara, and Mandan made twill plaited
burden baskets with two-toned dark and light
designs. these baskets were made of willow (Salix
nigra), redosier dogwood, and boxelder (Acer
negundo) splints (Turnbaugh et al. 1986, Hart 1976).
Willow and redosier dogwood were used by the
Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Pawnee, and Teton
Sioux to make a coarsely coiled gambling basket for
dice.
The Ojibwa and the Chippewa used redosier
dogwood bark as a dye. The inner bark was mixed
with other plants or minerals and used to make a red
dye, a light red dye, a black dye, and an ecru or
“khaki” colored dye (Densmore 1974).
Wildlife: The fleshy fruits of dogwoods are very
valuable to wildlife, particularly in the Northeast
(Martin et al. 1951). The fruit ripens in late summer,
and besides being available through the fall, some of
the berries may persist on the plants into the winter
months. Wildlife browse the twigs, foliage, and
fruits. Birds known to eat the fruit include: wood
ducks, eastern bluebirds, cardinals, catbirds, long-
tailed chats, crows, purple finches, yellow-shafted
flickers, crested flycatchers, grosbeaks, kingbirds,
American magpies, mockingbirds, crested mynah
birds, orioles, robins, yellow-bellied sapsuckers,
European starlings, tree swallows, scarlet tanagers,
brown thrashers, thrushes, vireos, pine warblers,
cedar waxwings, and woodpeckers. Gamebirds who
eat both the fruits and buds include grouse, ring-
necked pheasants, band-tailed pigeons, greater prairie
chickens, bobwhite quail, and wild turkeys. The
shrubs provide excellent nesting habitat for
songbirds. Mammals that eat the fruit and foliage
include black bear, beaver, mountain beaver,
cottontail rabbits, raccoons, eastern skunks, squirrels,
chipmunks, mice, and rats. Deer, elk, Mountain goat,
and moose browse the twigs and foliage.
Landscaping &. ornamental: Redosier dogwood is
often planted as an ornamental, both to beautify the
landscape and to attract birds. Dogwood is often
used for landscaping and as a secondary plant in
windbreaks.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Dogwood Family (Cornaceae). Redosier
dogwood is a woody deciduous shrub generally 1.4-6
m (4.6-20 ft) tall. The bark and twigs are reddish to
purple and fairly smooth from autumn to late spring.
after the leaves have fallen, the deep burgundy
branches add color to the winter landscape. The
bark, twigs, and leaves are bright green in spring
through summer. The simple, opposite leaves are 5-
10 cm (2-4 in) long, dark green above and hairy and
lighter-colored below, with smooth margins, rounded
bases, pointed tips, and falsely parallel veins.
Flowering occurs from June to August. The
inflorescence is a cyme, with 2-3 mm (0.08-0.12 in)
white to cream-colored flowers. The white berries
are smooth on the faces, furrowed on the sides.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Redosier dogwood has a wide distribution from
California north to Alaska and throughout the country
to the eastern United States south to Mexico. It
generally grows at elevations below 2500 m.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation:' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Redosier dogwood grows in soils that are
saturated for at least a portion of the growing season.
Redosier dogwood is common on the edges of lakes,
ponds, within wetlands, and along streams. Not as
tolerant of long-term root saturation as are some
other shrubs, dogwood seems to prefer wetland
margins where soils are nitrogen-rich, saturated, and
shallowly inundated in the spring, and may be
completely dry by late summer. It is tolerant of
fluctuating water tables. The “osier” in redosier
dogwood is derived from French, meaning “willow-
like”. it is often called red willow because of its red
stems.
Propagation from cuttings: Redosier dogwood can
be started easily by division, French layering, and
hardwood cuttings. To propagate suckers by
division:
• Lift a root with suckers on it without disturbing
• Cut the main root back to the fibrous roots, then
divide the suckers so that each has its own roots.
Cut back the top-growth by about half.
• Treat each sucker or hardwood cutting at the
base with IBA at 20,000 ppm liquid formulation
to promote rooting. Alternatively, treatment
the parent plant. Check that there are fibrous
roots at the base of the suckers.
• Remove the suckering roots by cutting it off
close to the parent plant. Firm the soil around
the parent plant.
Page 3
• Replant the suckers in open ground in prepared
holes with good potting soil. Firm the soil
around the suckers and water.
with 2 percent IBA talc. this will promote
rooting on both suckers and stem cuttings.
• Before growth starts in the spring, lift the plant.
Break the clump into sections, retaining those
with vigorous shoots and well-developed roots.
• Prune any damaged roots, and cut back the top-
growth by one-third to a half to reduce water
loss. Replant the divisions in the open and water
in dry weather.
• Ultimately, simply lift a suckering root, sever it
from the parent plant, and then replant it in the
open.
To ensure survival of cuttings or suckers through the
following winter in cold climates, the potted cuttings
should be kept in heated cold frames or poly-houses
to hold the temperature between 0-7°C (32-45°F).
Rooted cuttings that had shoot growth in the fall, but
were not given nitrogen, had the best over-winter
survival in a cold frame with microfoam.
French layering: Layering is a method where a stem
is encouraged to develop roots before being removed
from the parent plant.
•
In spring, plant a rooted layer or young plant,
label it, and grow it for a season. Then, in the
dormant season, cut back the stem to within 3
inches (8 cm) of the ground.
In the following spring, apply a balanced
fertilizer at the rate of 2-4-oz/sq yd (60-110 g/sq
m). Space the stems evenly again. dropping each
into a 2-inch (5-cm) deep trench. Peg down each
stem and cover with soil, leaving the shoot tips
exposed. Hill up all but 2-3 inches (5-8 cm) of
the new shoots as they develop, until the mound
is 6 inches (15 cm) high. Water as needed.
•
• After leaf fall, carefully fork away the soil from
around the new shoots until the stems that were
laid horizontally are exposed. Cut these flush
with the basal area of the stems. Then cut the
stems to separate the rooted sections. Pot these
or plant them out in the open garden, and label
them. The same redosier dogwood basal area
may be used to propagate further layers.
Propagation by seed: Redosier dogwood is
established easily from seed. The best germination is
obtained if the seeds are gathered as soon as the fruit
starts to color or ripen, from August to October. If
the seeds are allowed to dry out, it is best to remove
seeds from the fruit and soak in water.
The best results are obtained from fall sowing of
freshly harvested seeds. Fruits collected too late to
sow in the fall should be stored, pre-chilled until the
next season, and sown outdoors the following fall.
To effectively condition the seed for germination,
store for two months in moist sand at 5ºC for 90 days.
After pre-chilling, expose the seeds to fluctuating
temperatures from 12/72ºC for 10 days (Young and
Young 1992). With some species, the warm
stratification period may be replaced by mechanical
scarification or soaking in sulfuric acid. Seeds sown
in nursery beds should be covered with 0.25-0.5 in
(0.6-1.25 cm) of soil. Fall-sown beds should be
mulched during the winter.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Redosier dogwood is often coppiced in late fall after
the leaves turn brown and fall off the stem. Cut all
stems to approximately 2-3 in (5-8 cm) from the base
before growth begins in spring. Apply fertilizer
around the shrub to promote new growth, then apply
mulch around the base. Coppicing stimulates the
growth of new, vigorous stems whose deep burgundy
color is especially vivid.
Traditional resource management: Redosier
dogwood was traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Often basket weavers will prune many redosier
dogwood stems, sometimes replanting the stems,
so there will be nice straight basketry material
the following year.
• Before gathering, offerings of thanks and prayers
for permission to gather are given. Often tobacco
or sage or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed along
streams have a much higher health risk for
humans when they are processed and used for
traditional materials.
Overgrazing, especially by livestock and big game,
frequently changes plant species composition and
growth form, density of stands, vigor, seed
production of plants, and insect production.
Livestock grazing can cause the replacement of bird
and mammal species requiring the vertical vegetation
structure of riparian habitat to species, which are
ubiquitous in their habitat preferences. Previous
heavy cattle grazing changed the bird and small
mammal community composition in riparian areas
through reduction of shrub and herbaceous cover.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Cultivars: ‘Alman’s Compacta’, ‘Allamans’,
‘Bailey’, ‘Cardinal’, ‘Coloradensis’, ‘Flaviromea’,
‘Isanti’, ‘Kelseyi’, ‘Lutea’, ‘Ruby’, ‘Silver’ and
‘Gold’, and ‘White Gold’ have been planted in the
growing range of redosier dogwood.
Consult your local nurseries to choose the right
cultivar for your specific landscape.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley.
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8: 1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8: 629-644.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of the plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River Region. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Grinnel, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
Cooper Square Publishers. New York, New York.
Hart, J.A. 1976. Montana: native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfeet
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Johnston, A. 1970. Blackfeet Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 24:301-24.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. pp. 84-94.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in
History and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus
Echinacea (Compositae). University of Kansas
Science Bulletin 48(4): 113-142.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of native
America. Research reports in ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. Ann
Arbor, Michigan. pp. 156-158.
Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River Basketry. Gift
of the ancestors, gift of the earth. A Samuel and
Althea Strowm Book. University of Washington
Press, Seattle and London. 232 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2): 175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the North
Central Plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds. pp. 156-164. In: Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (tech. coords.). Importance, preservation
Page 5
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
and management of riparian habitat: a symposium.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report RM-43.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA/Germany.
210 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior Peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., R. Bouchard, &. D.I.D. Kennedy 1980.
Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of
British Columbia and Washington. B.C. Provincial
Museum Occasional Paper No. 21. 179 pp.
Turnbaugh, S.P., &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
Young, A.J. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Ivan Dozier
USDA, NRCS, Carlinville, Illinois
' WHERE symbol='coseo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Speciescoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Speciescoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 24may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
REDOSIER
DOGWOOD
Cornus sericea L. ssp sericea
Plant Symbol = COSES
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Carlinville (IL) Field Office
leaves and/or inner bark of redosier dogwood are also
used as a smoking mixture by the Okanagan-Colville,
the Flathead, the Kootenay, and the Blackfeet
peoples in the western United States and Canada
(Hellson 1974, Hart 1976, Turner 1978, Turner et al.
1980, Johnston 1987). The Navaho-Kayentaf and
Navaho-Ramah used the plant ceremonially as a
Mountain-top-way emetic (Moerman 1986). An
infusion of redosier dogwood bark was used as an
anti-diarrheal by the Chippewa and the Potawatomi,
an antidote for weak kidneys by the Shuswap, and a
pediatric aid for children who wet the bed by the
Shuswap. The Chippewa used an infusion of the
bark for eruptions caused by poison ivy. The
Chippewa and the Micmac used a decoction of
redosier dogwood root for sore eyes and catarrh. The
Okanagan and the Thompson Indians took a
decoction of the leaves. Other remedies treated by
redosier dogwood included headaches, sore throats, a
wash for ulcers, a substitute for “larb”, and a
decoction of bark was taken as an antidote for
weakness.
The Maidu of Northern California used redosier
dogwood as a tonic, a laxative, emetic, and cathartic
(Strike 1994). Maidu women took a dogwood
decoction after childbirth.
The fruits were eaten by the Indians of the Missouri
region (Densmore 1974). The berries are known to
be tart and bitter, but were nonetheless eaten by all of
the southern Interior peoples of British Columbia,
including the Nlaka’pamux, Lillooet, Okanagan-
Colville, Shuswap, Kootenay, Blackfeet, and the
Flathead of Alberta and Montana (Kuhnlein and
Turner 1991). The fruits were gathered from August
to October and eaten fresh, a few at a time, or, more
commonly, were pounded and mixed with other
fruits, such as chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) or
Saskatoons (Amelanchier almifolia). Some people
mashed the berries and dried them in cakes. others
dried and stored them. Eating a few raw fruits was
considered to be a good tonic among the
Nlaka’pamux and the Okanagan-Colville, who ate
them, raw as a kind of “relish” (Turner 1978. Turner
et al. 1990).
Redosier dogwood is used for basket weaving.
Sometimes called red willow, both Salix species and
Cornus sericea are used interchangeably.
Differences in stem color create a multi-hued design
Robert H. Mohlenbrook
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Red willow, redstem dogwood. Cornus stolonifera
var. nevadensis Jepson and Cornus stolonifera
Michaux (Hickman 1993). A related subspecies,
Cornus sericia spp. occidentalis (Torr. &. Gray)
Fosberg is known as western dogwood.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans smoke the inner
bark of redosier dogwood in tobacco mixtures used in
the sacred pipe ceremony. Dream catchers,
originating with the Potawotami, are made with the
stems of the sacred redosier dogwood. Some tribes
ate the white, sour berries, while others used the
branches for arrow-making, stakes, or other tools. In
California, peeled twigs were used as toothbrushes
for their whitening effect on teeth (Strike 1994).
Bows and arrows were made from Cornus shoots.
The inner bark is used for tanning or drying animal
hides.
The Apache, Cheyenne, Dakota, Montana Indians,
Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Omaha, Ponca, and Thompson
Indians all use the inner bark in a tobacco mixture for
smoking the sacred pipe (Moerman 1986). The
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
element. Indian people from the mid-Columbia
River used redosier dogwood to make “ribbons” for
basket decorations (Schlick 1994). If gathered in the
early spring, the bark will retain its deep red color
when dried and could be mistaken for cherry. The
Hidatsa, Arikara, and Mandan made twill plaited
burden baskets with two-toned dark and light
designs. these baskets were made of willow (Salix
nigra), redosier dogwood, and boxelder (Acer
negundo) splints (Turnbaugh et al. 1986, Hart 1976).
Willow and redosier dogwood were used by the
Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, Pawnee, and Teton
Sioux to make a coarsely coiled gambling basket for
dice.
The Ojibwa and the Chippewa used redosier
dogwood bark as a dye. The inner bark was mixed
with other plants or minerals and used to make a red
dye, a light red dye, a black dye, and an ecru or
“khaki” colored dye (Densmore 1974).
Wildlife: The fleshy fruits of dogwoods are very
valuable to wildlife, particularly in the Northeast
(Martin et al. 1951). The fruit ripens in late summer,
and besides being available through the fall, some of
the berries may persist on the plants into the winter
months. Wildlife browse the twigs, foliage, and
fruits. Birds known to eat the fruit include: wood
ducks, eastern bluebirds, cardinals, catbirds, long-
tailed chats, crows, purple finches, yellow-shafted
flickers, crested flycatchers, grosbeaks, kingbirds,
American magpies, mockingbirds, crested mynah
birds, orioles, robins, yellow-bellied sapsuckers,
European starlings, tree swallows, scarlet tanagers,
brown thrashers, thrushes, vireos, pine warblers,
cedar waxwings, and woodpeckers. Game birds who
eat both the fruits and buds include grouse, ring-
necked pheasants, band-tailed pigeons, greater prairie
chickens, bobwhite quail, and wild turkeys. The
shrubs provide excellent nesting habitat for
songbirds. Mammals that eat the fruit and foliage
include black bear, beaver, mountain beaver,
cottontail rabbits, raccoons, eastern skunks, squirrels,
chipmunks, mice, and rats. Deer, elk, Mountain goat,
and moose browse the twigs and foliage.
Landscaping &. ornamental: Redosier dogwood is
often planted as an ornamental, both to beautify the
landscape and to attract birds. Dogwood is often
used for landscaping and as a secondary plant in
windbreaks.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Dogwood Family (Cornaceae). Redosier
dogwood is a woody deciduous shrub generally 1.4-6
m (4.6-20 ft) tall. The bark and twigs are reddish to
purple and fairly smooth from autumn to late spring.
after the leaves have fallen, the deep burgundy
branches add color to the winter landscape. The
bark, twigs, and leaves are bright green in spring
through summer. The simple, opposite leaves are 5-
10 cm (2-4 in) long, dark green above and hairy and
lighter-colored below, with smooth margins, rounded
bases, pointed tips, and falsely parallel veins.
Flowering occurs from June to August. The
inflorescence is a cyme, with 2-3 mm (0.08-0.12 in)
white to cream-colored flowers. The white berries
are smooth on the faces, furrowed on the sides.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Redosier dogwood has a wide distribution from
California north to Alaska and throughout the country
to the eastern United States south to Mexico. It
generally grows at elevations below 2500 m.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation:' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Redosier dogwood grows in soils that are
saturated for at least a portion of the growing season.
Redosier dogwood is common on the edges of lakes,
ponds, within wetlands, and along streams. Not as
tolerant of long-term root saturation as are some
other shrubs, dogwood seems to prefer wetland
margins where soils are nitrogen-rich, saturated, and
shallowly inundated in the spring, and may be
completely dry by late summer. It is tolerant of
fluctuating water tables. The “osier” in redosier
dogwood is derived from French, meaning “willow-
like”. it is often called red willow because of its red
stems.
Propagation from cuttings: Redosier dogwood can be
started easily by division, French layering, and
hardwood cuttings. To propagate suckers by
division:
• Lift a root with suckers on it without disturbing
the parent plant. Check that there are fibrous
roots at the base of the suckers.
• Remove the suckering roots by cutting it off
close to the parent plant. Firm the soil around
the parent plant.
Page 3
• Cut the main root back to the fibrous roots, then
divide the suckers so that each has its own roots.
Cut back the top-growth by about half.
• Treat each sucker or hardwood cutting at the
base with IBA at 20,000 ppm liquid formulation
to promote rooting. Alternatively, treatment
with 2 percent IBA talc. this will promote
rooting on both suckers and stem cuttings.
• Replant the suckers in open ground in prepared
holes with good potting soil. Firm the soil
around the suckers and water.
• Before growth starts in the spring, lift the plant.
Break the clump into sections, retaining those
with vigorous shoots and well-developed roots.
• Prune any damaged roots, and cut back the top-
growth by one-third to a half to reduce water
loss. Replant the divisions in the open and water
in dry weather.
• Ultimately, simply lift a suckering root, sever it
from the parent plant, and then replant it in the
open.
To ensure survival of cuttings or suckers through the
following winter in cold climates, the potted cuttings
should be kept in heated cold frames or poly-houses
to hold the temperature between 0-7°C (32-45°F).
Rooted cuttings that had shoot growth in the fall, but
were not given nitrogen, had the best over-winter
survival in a cold frame with microfoam.
French layering: Layering is a method where a stem
is encouraged to develop roots before being removed
from the parent plant.
•
In spring, plant a rooted layer or young plant,
label it, and grow it for a season. Then, in the
dormant season, cut back the stem to within 3
inches (8 cm) of the ground.
In the following spring, apply a balanced
fertilizer at the rate of 2-4-oz/sq yd (60-110 g/sq
m). Space the stems evenly again. dropping each
into a 2-inch (5-cm) deep trench. Peg down each
stem and cover with soil, leaving the shoot tips
exposed. Hill up all but 2-3 inches (5-8 cm) of
the new shoots as they develop, until the mound
is 6 inches (15 cm) high. Water as needed.
•
• After leaf fall, carefully fork away the soil from
around the new shoots until the stems that were
laid horizontally are exposed. Cut these flush
with the basal area of the stems. Then cut the
stems to separate the rooted sections. Pot these
or plant them out in the open garden, and label
them. The same redosier dogwood basal area
may be used to propagate further layers.
Propagation by seed: Redosier dogwood is
established easily from seed. The best germination is
obtained if the seeds are gathered as soon as the fruit
starts to color or ripen, from August to October. If
the seeds are allowed to dry out, it is best to remove
seeds from the fruit and soak in water.
The best results are obtained from fall sowing of
freshly harvested seeds. Fruits collected too late to
sow in the fall should be stored, pre-chilled until the
next season, and sown outdoors the following fall.
To effectively condition the seed for germination,
store for two months in moist sand at 5ºC for 90 days.
After pre-chilling, expose the seeds to fluctuating
temperatures from 12/72ºC for 10 days (Young and
Young 1992). With some species, the warm
stratification period may be replaced by mechanical
scarification or soaking in sulfuric acid. Seeds sown
in nursery beds should be covered with 0.25-0.5 in
(0.6-1.25 cm) of soil. Fall-sown beds should be
mulched during the winter.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Redosier dogwood is often coppiced in late fall after
the leaves turn brown and fall off the stem. Cut all
stems to approximately 2-3 in (5-8 cm) from the base
before growth begins in spring. Apply fertilizer
around the shrub to promote new growth, then apply
mulch around the base. Coppicing stimulates the
growth of new, vigorous stems whose deep burgundy
color is especially vivid.
Traditional resource management: Redosier
dogwood was traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Often basket weavers will prune many redosier
dogwood stems, sometimes replanting the stems,
so there will be nice straight basketry material
the following year.
• Before gathering, offerings of thanks and prayers
for permission to gather are given. Often tobacco
or sage or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed along
streams have a much higher health risk for
humans when they are processed and used for
traditional materials.
Overgrazing, especially by livestock and big game,
frequently changes plant species composition and
growth form, density of stands, vigor, seed
production of plants, and insect production.
Livestock grazing can cause the replacement of bird
and mammal species requiring the vertical vegetation
structure of riparian habitat to species, which are
Page 4
ubiquitous in their habitat preferences. Previous
heavy cattle grazing changed the bird and small
mammal community composition in riparian areas
through reduction of shrub and herbaceous cover.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Cultivars: ‘Alman’s Compacta’, ‘Allamans’,
‘Bailey’, ‘Cardinal’, ‘Coloradensis’, ‘Flaviromea’,
‘Isanti’, ‘Kelseyi’, ‘Lutea’, ‘Ruby’, ‘Silver’ and
‘Gold’, and ‘White Gold’ have been planted in the
growing range of redosier dogwood.
Consult your local nurseries to choose the right
cultivar for your specific landscape.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley.
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8: 1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8: 629-644.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of the plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River Region. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Grinnel, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
Cooper Square Publishers. New York, New York.
Hart, J.A. 1976. Montana: native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfeet
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Johnston, A. 1970. Blackfeet Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 24:301-24.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. pp. 84-94.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in
History and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus
Echinacea (Compositae). University of Kansas
Science Bulletin 48(4): 113-142.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of native
America. Research reports in ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. Ann
Arbor, Michigan. pp. 156-158.
Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River Basketry. Gift
of the ancestors, gift of the earth. A Samuel and
Althea Strowm Book. University of Washington
Press, Seattle and London. 232 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2): 175-326.
Page 5
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Edited05dec00jsp_01may03ahv_24may06jsp TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Edited05dec00jsp_01may03ahv_24may06jsp='For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the North
Central Plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds. pp. 156-164. In: Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (tech. coords.). Importance, preservation
and management of riparian habitat: a symposium.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report RM-43.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA/Germany.
210 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior Peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J., R. Bouchard, &. D.I.D. Kennedy 1980.
Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of
British Columbia and Washington. B.C. Provincial
Museum Occasional Paper No. 21. 179 pp.
Turnbaugh, S.P., &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
Young, A.J. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
Ivan Dozier
USDA NRCS, Carlinville, Illinois
' WHERE symbol='coses';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Speciescoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Speciescoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN NUTSEDGE
Cyperus eragrostis Lam.
Plant Symbol = CYER
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
established, these plants tend to out-compete,
displace, or overrun others.
Wildlife: The seeds are important, commonly used
foods of ducks and of certain marshbirds and
shorebirds. Ducks, sandhill cranes, crow, other
waterfowl, and small mammals such as the kangaroo
rat eat the seeds. The tubers are eaten in the winter
by ducks and geese.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge Family (Cyperaceae). This perennial
herb has long, solid triangular stems from 10 - 90 cm
in height. The slender, grass-like leaves grow from
the base of the stem, and about 2-6 involucral leaves
exceed the inflorescence. The flowers are golden-
brown colored, umbellate or capitate, with the rays
extending out from a central point with clusters of
spikelets on the ends. Flowers and fruits spread out
in feathery spikes almost like the ends of an umbrella
(thus the name umbrella sedge). The plant has scaly
stolons terminating in nut-like tubers.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It occurs in many plant communities in most of
cismontane California, north to Oregon, south to
Mexico and temperate South America. A related
species, yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) is a
worldwide weed (Hickman 1993).
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation: These sedges prefer mud flats that are
underwater during the winter months. Nutsedges
grow in vernal pools, streambanks, ditches, lawns,
gardens, and disturbed places at elevations from 0 -
1000 m. Cyperus eragrostis is common in shallow
water and on moist ground at elevations from 0 - 700
m.
General: Cyperus species may be planted from bare
root stock, from seedlings from container stalk, or
directly seeded into the soil. Seed collection is easy,
efficient, cost-effective, and non-destructive. Bare
rootstock or seedlings are preferred revegetation
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Nutgrass, tall nutgrass, umbrella sedge, chufa, Earth
almond, nutgrass, zula nuts, edible galingale
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: On the rootlets of the sedge are small
tubers, the size of dried currants. These tubers make
an excellent meal, either raw or steamed. They are
hard and crisp when eaten raw. These tubers taste
between fresh coconut and raisins. When reduced to
meal and cooked as cereal, it is both nourishing and
appetizing. They can be soaked in water, then
pounded to release the milky juice, which can be
mixed with alcohol or water and sugar to make
delicious drinks. Peeled and roasted, the tubers can
be ground to become a coffee substitute or a sweet
flour. The base of the stem may be eaten raw. The
Yokuts in California ate the grass-nut of Cyperus
species and the seeds of the same (Powers 1877).
Native Americans use golden nutsedge as both
sewing and wrapping material in coiled baskets.
Nutsedge leaves were made into seats.
Erosion Control: Nutsedge is especially good for
stabilizing or restoring disturbed or degraded areas
(including logged or burned areas) for erosion and
slope control and for wildlife food and cover.
Cyperus species may be less suitable for general
garden use, as these plants are also invasive. Once
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
methods where there is moving water. No more than
1/4 of the plants in an area should be collected.
These plants establish extremely well from seed.
Seed production is prolific and germination rates are
high. In wetland areas, revegetation of Cyperus
occurs naturally where there is water, wind, or animal
dispersal, or from the seed bank. It is likely that
Cyperus will re-vegetate naturally. seeding or
planting in native plant communities is not a good
idea because of its invasive nature. This plant grows
in gardens that are irrigated, or where there is some
natural moisture.
Establishment from Seed
• Collect nutgrass seed in the fall and broadcast
seed in late fall or early spring. Seeds can be
broadcast on a moist and bare soil surface.
Cover with a shallow layer of soil.
• To collect and store seed, collect when seed is
ripe and store in a dry and cool place. Clean
seed by blowing out the light seed.
• Plant seeds in the greenhouse in 1". x 1". x 2".
pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep soil
surface moist. Put in temperature of 100 degrees
F (plus or minus 5 degrees). Seeds begin to
germinate after a couple weeks in warm
temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
• Nutsedge would do well grown in wild gardens
or cultivated for its edible tubers. Cyperus
species tolerate disturbance, moderate grazing,
and trampling.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation, success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
CYER is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrows, D.P. 1967. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press, Banning, California.
82 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (dd.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
University of California Press. 1400 pp.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press. 480 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 199?. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Sampson, A.W. &. B.S. Jespersen 1981. California
range brushlands and browse plants. Division of
Agricultural Sciences. University of California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Version: 990405.
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Tormerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='cyer';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLUEDICKS
Dichelostemma capitatum
(Benth.) Wood
Plant Symbol = DICA14
kinds of corms and bulbs specifically owned and
maintained by particular families. Today different
kinds of brodiaeas have gained popularity as cut-
flower crops.
Wildlife: Corms are eaten by both small and large
mammals included black bears, mule deer, exotic
wild pigs, and pocket gophers. The corms of blue
dicks are highly desirable to vertebrates, and it
appears that some corms are sacrificed to corm-eating
animals as a price for the dispersal of others. The
mammals detach the tiny corms as they go, aerating
soil, preparing the seedbed, thinning the plant
population, and leaving cormlets behind. Once
dislodged, cormlets may take less time to reach
flowering size.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Blue dicks is an
herbaceous perennial. Major identifying features of
blue dicks include a dense cluster of purple-blue or
occasional white flowers with six fertile stamens, a
twisted and fleshy stem, two basal leaves, a set of
membranous, petal-like stamen appendages around
the anthers, and angular black seeds. It reproduces
from seed and vegetative means in the form of corms.
The cormlets are attached to the parent corm by
stolons or sessile, produced in the axils of the old leaf
bases on the mature corm.
Blue dicks may reach two feet in height, thrives in
open disturbed environments, and it frequently occurs
on inventory lists as a common post-fire successional
species in chaparral studies
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='It is found from Oregon, throughout most of
California including the southern halfway of the Baja
California peninsula, southeast into New Mexico,
Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Blue dicks occur from sea level up to
2,100 meters. It inhabits a wide variety of plant
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. University of California-Davis Arboretum
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Brodiaea, wild hyacinth. There are two recognized
subspecies: Dichelostemma capitatum ssp. capitatum
and Dichelostemma capitatum ssp. pauciflorum
(Torr.) G. Keator.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Large quantities of corms were
gathered with digging sticks in over half of
California, parts of the Great Basin and Southwest.
These corms formed an important starch source in the
diet of native people. California Indians dug and
continue to dig the corms before flowering, during
flowering, or after seeding depending upon the tribe
and individual family. Traditional gathering sites
were visited annually, over long periods of time and
there are references to gathering tracts of different
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Beatrice F. Howitt.
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
Page 2
communities including vernal pools, coastal strand,
mixed evergreen forest, chaparral, valley grassland,
desert scrub, coniferous forests, oak woodlands,
montane scree, and on the fringe of coastal salt marsh
and redwood forest.
It appears that it does not colonize after fire by seed,
but rather is a permanent resident all along, occurring
as inconspicuous corms in the soil throughout mature
chaparral, often not flowering until an appropriate
disturbance. With fire, plants are released from
unfavorable shaded environments with brush
competition, and vigorously flower in open
environments with increased soil nutrients.
If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of blue dicks and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source.
Propagation by seed: Seeds sown in the fall usually
readily germinate and do not need special treatment.
If sown at other times of the year the seeds may need
one month s stratification. If planting seeds, they will
take several years to reach flowering size. Scatter
seeds and rake them lightly into the soil in full or
partial sunlight. If planting seeds in pots--then place
them in reduced sunlight on the east or north side of a
building or under a deciduous tree. Plant the seeds at
a depth, which equals the width of the seeds. They
should be planted in a well-drained soil. Water the
seeds after planting and don t let the soil dry out
completely. Water them again when the surface is
dry to the touch. Water the seeds gently so as not to
exhume the seed. If using a watering can, diffuse the
water flow with a sprinkler fan or head. Protect the
seeds from animals and cold, dry winds, and from
weed competition. The seedlings should be watered
through the spring. At the beginning of hot weather,
the leaves will start to yellow. At this time, cease
watering. If the seeds are in pots, then move them in
summer to a darker area, such as a carport or garage
and keep a screen on them to keep out foraging
animals. When the weather cools down once again,
move the pots back outside and go through a full rain
or watering cycle once again. After 24 months, the
corms can be planted in full sun or filtered shade in
October or November. Plant them about six inches
apart or scatter the corms and plant them where they
fall to give them a look of a ".natural". distribution.
After one bloom, the plants should be well
established so that they don t need to be weeded or
watered unless it is a dry winter. If it is a dry winter,
then water every three weeks.
Corms are the easiest to start. Plant bigger corms 3-4
inches deep and smaller corms 1-2 inches deep in
well-drained soil in full sun in the autumn, and the
plants can tolerate afternoon sun. Space the corms
one-inch apart. If pocket gophers are a problem, you
may want to dig a hole and line it with chicken wire
mesh, before planting corms. (Plastic mesh won t
stop gophers.) Water the plants (wet, but not soggy)
and then wait for the winter rains. The plant is
common in climates that have rain in winter and
spring, and a summer dry season. Therefore,
simulate these conditions in the garden. The plant is
intolerant of frequent summer water and should not
be planted near lawns or plants that require a lot of
moisture during the summer. Weed around the plants
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds in the hole. 4) burning areas.
and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and thinning of
the corms, and popping off the cormlets, and
replanting them may enhance blue dicks numbers and
densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form of
tillage, which will increase the size of the gathering
tract, aerate the soil, lower weed competition, and
prepare the seedbed to increase seed germination
rates. If blue dicks populations require periodic
disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes, if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least, populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
Traditionally, various tribes in California have
burned areas of blue dicks to reduce plant
competition, facilitate gathering, recycle nutrients,
and increase the size and number of corms. Today
grasslands that have been burned may exhibit
thousands of blue dicks plants where none appeared
to occur before. Corms and bulbs may sit for a
decade or more and wait for fire or other favorable
environmental conditions before breaking ground.
Suppression of fire may cause increased shade and
plant competition and decrease population numbers
of blue dicks.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
DICA14 is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to table: the
indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in
California. Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149-169.
Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol. 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc., Fort Bragg, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97, IN
W.L. D Azevedo, editor. Handbook of North
American Indians. Vol. 11: Great Basin.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Heffner, K. 1984. Following the smoke:
contemporary plant procurement by the Indians of
Northwest California. Unpublished report, USDA,
Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, California.
Keator, G. 1989. The brodiaeas. The Four Seasons
8(3):4-11.
Keator, G. 1992. Blue dicks brodiaea
(Dichelostemma capitatum): A common but
problematical species. The Four Seasons 9(2):31-42.
Keator, G. 1993. Dichelostemma. Pages 1190-1192,
IN J.C. Hickman, editor. The Jepson Manual:
Higher Plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Lawton, H.W., P.J. Wilke, M. DeDecker, &. W.M.
Mason 1993. Agriculture among the Paiute of
Owens Valley. Pages 329-378, IN T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson, editors. Before the wilderness:
Environmental management by Native Californians.
Ballena Press, Menlo Park, California.
Mayes, V.O. &. B.B. Lacy 1989. Nanisé: A Navajo
herbal. Navajo Community College Press, Tsaile,
Arizona.
Niehaus, T. 1971. A biosystematic study of the genus
Brodiaea (Amaryllidaceae). University of California
Publications in Botany 60, Berkeley, California.
Peri, D.W. 1985. Pomoan plant resource
management. Ridge Review 4(4). Mendocino,
California.
' WHERE symbol='dica14';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Davis Arboretum, University of California
Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Dichelostemma capitatum
(Benth.) Wood ssp. capitatum
Plant Symbol = DICAC5
BLUEDICKS
maintained by particular families. Today different
kinds of brodiaeas have gained popularity as cut-
flower crops.
Wildlife: Corms are eaten by both small and large
mammals included black bears, mule deer, exotic
wild pigs, and pocket gophers. The corms of blue
dicks are highly desirable to vertebrates, and it
appears that some corms are sacrificed to corm-eating
animals as a price for the dispersal of others. The
mammals detach the tiny corms as they go, aerating
soil, preparing the seedbed, thinning the plant
population, and leaving cormlets behind. Once
dislodged, cormlets may take less time to reach
flowering size.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Blue dicks is an
herbaceous perennial. Major identifying features of
blue dicks include a dense cluster of purple-blue or
occasional white flowers with six fertile stamens, a
twisted and fleshy stem, two basal leaves, a set of
membranous, petal-like stamen appendages around
the anthers, and angular black seeds. It reproduces
from seed and vegetative means in the form of corms.
The cormlets are attached to the parent corm by
stolons or sessile, produced in the axils of the old leaf
bases on the mature corm.
Blue dicks may reach two feet in height, thrives in
open disturbed environments, and it frequently occurs
on inventory lists as a common post-fire successional
species in chaparral studies
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='It is found from Oregon, throughout most of
California including the southern halfway of the Baja
California peninsula, southeast into New Mexico,
Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Blue dicks occurs from sea level up to
2,100 meters. It inhabits a wide variety of plant
communities including vernal pools, coastal strand,
Contributed By: USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center &. University of California-Davis Arboretum
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Brodiaea, wild hyacinth. A related subspecies is
Dichelostemma capitatum ssp. pauciflorum (Torr.) G.
Keator.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Large quantities of corms were
gathered with digging sticks in over half of
California, parts of the Great Basin and Southwest.
These corms formed an important starch source in the
diet of native people. California Indians dug and
continue to dig the corms before flowering, during
flowering, or after seeding depending upon the tribe
and individual family. Traditional gathering sites
were visited annually, over long periods of time and
there are references to gathering tracts of different
kinds of corms and bulbs specifically owned and
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Beatrice F. Howitt.
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
Page 2
mixed evergreen forest, chaparral, valley grassland,
desert scrub, coniferous forests, oak woodlands,
montane scree, and on the fringe of coastal salt marsh
and redwood forest.
It appears that it does not colonize after fire by seed,
but rather is a permanent resident all along, occurring
as inconspicuous corms in the soil throughout mature
chaparral, often not flowering until an appropriate
disturbance. With fire, plants are released from
unfavorable shaded environments with brush
competition, and vigorously flower in open
environments with increased soil nutrients.
If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of blue dicks and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source.
Propagation by seed: Seeds sown in the fall usually
readily germinate and do not need special treatment.
If sown at other times of the year the seeds may need
one month s stratification. If planting seeds, they will
take several years to reach flowering size. Scatter
seeds and rake them lightly into the soil in full or
partial sunlight. If planting seeds in pots--then place
them in reduced sunlight on the east or north side of a
building or under a deciduous tree. Plant the seeds at
a depth, which equals the width of the seeds. They
should be planted in a well-drained soil. Water the
seeds after planting and don t let the soil dry out
completely. Water them again when the surface is
dry to the touch. Water the seeds gently so as not to
exhume the seed. If using a watering can, diffuse the
water flow with a sprinkler fan or head. Protect the
seeds from animals and cold, dry winds, and from
weed competition. The seedlings should be watered
through the spring. At the beginning of hot weather,
the leaves will start to yellow. At this time, cease
watering. If the seeds are in pots, then move them in
summer to a darker area, such as a carport or garage
and keep a screen on them to keep out foraging
animals. When the weather cools down once again,
move the pots back outside and go through a full rain
or watering cycle once again. After 24 months, the
corms can be planted in full sun or filtered shade in
October or November. Plant them about six inches
apart or scatter the corms and plant them where they
fall to give them a look of a ".natural". distribution.
After one bloom, the plants should be well
established so that they don t need to be weeded or
watered unless it is a dry winter. If it is a dry winter,
then water every three weeks.
Corms are the easiest to start. Plant bigger corms 3-4
inches deep and smaller corms 1-2 inches deep in
well-drained soil in full sun in the autumn, and the
plants can tolerate afternoon sun. Space the corms
one-inch apart. If pocket gophers are a problem, you
may want to dig a hole and line it with chicken wire
mesh, before planting corms. (Plastic mesh won t
stop gophers.) Water the plants (wet, but not soggy)
and then wait for the winter rains. The plant is
common in climates that have rain in winter and
spring, and a summer dry season. Therefore,
simulate these conditions in the garden. The plant is
intolerant of frequent summer water and should not
be planted near lawns or plants that require a lot of
moisture during the summer. Weed around the plants
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds in the hole. 4) burning areas.
and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and thinning of
the corms, and popping off the cormlets, and
replanting them may enhance blue dicks numbers and
densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form of
tillage, which will increase the size of the gathering
tract, aerate the soil, lower weed competition, and
prepare the seedbed to increase seed germination
rates. If blue dicks populations require periodic
disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes, if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least, populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
Traditionally, various tribes in California have
burned areas of blue dicks to reduce plant
competition, facilitate gathering, recycle nutrients,
and increase the size and number of corms. Today
grasslands that have been burned may exhibit
thousands of blue dicks plants where none appeared
to occur before. Corms and bulbs may sit for a
decade or more and wait for fire or other favorable
environmental conditions before breaking ground.
Suppression of fire may cause increased shade and
plant competition and decrease population numbers
of blue dicks.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
DICAC5 is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to table: the
indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in
California. Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149-169.
Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol. 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc., Fort Bragg, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97, IN
W.L. D Azevedo, editor. Handbook of North
American Indians. Vol. 11: Great Basin.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Heffner, K. 1984. Following the smoke:
contemporary plant procurement by the Indians of
Northwest California. Unpublished report, USDA,
Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, California.
Keator, G. 1989. The brodiaeas. The Four Seasons
8(3):4-11.
Keator, G. 1992. Blue dicks brodiaea
(Dichelostemma capitatum): A common but
problematical species. The Four Seasons 9(2):31-42.
Keator, G. 1993. Dichelostemma. Pages 1190-1192,
IN J.C. Hickman, editor. The Jepson Manual:
Higher Plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Lawton, H.W., P.J. Wilke, M. DeDecker, &. W.M.
Mason 1993. Agriculture among the Paiute of
Owens Valley. Pages 329-378, IN T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson, editors. Before the wilderness:
Environmental management by Native Californians.
Ballena Press, Menlo Park, California.
Mayes, V.O. &. B.B. Lacy 1989. Nanisé: A Navajo
herbal. Navajo Community College Press, Tsaile,
Arizona.
Niehaus, T. 1971. A biosystematic study of the genus
Brodiaea (Amaryllidaceae). University of California
Publications in Botany 60, Berkeley, California.
Peri, D.W. 1985. Pomoan plant resource
management. Ridge Review 4(4). Mendocino,
California.
' WHERE symbol='dicac5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Davis Arboretum, University of California
Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLUEDICKS
Dichelostemma capitatum
(Benth.) Wood ssp.
pauciflorum (Torr.) G. Keator
Plant Symbol = DICAP
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. University of California-Davis Arboretum
© Larry Blakely
@ CalPhotos
mammals detach the tiny corms as they go, aerating
soil, preparing the seedbed, thinning the plant
population, and leaving cormlets behind. Once
dislodged, cormlets may take less time to reach
flowering size.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Blue dicks is an
herbaceous perennial. Major identifying features of
blue dicks include a dense cluster of purple-blue or
occasional white flowers with six fertile stamens, a
twisted and fleshy stem, two basal leaves, a set of
membranous, petal-like stamen appendages around
the anthers, and angular black seeds. It reproduces
from seed and vegetative means in the form of corms.
The cormlets are attached to the parent corm by
stolons or sessile, produced in the axils of the old leaf
bases on the mature corm.
Blue dicks may reach two feet in height, thrives in
open disturbed environments, and it frequently occurs
on inventory lists as a common post-fire successional
species in chaparral studies
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Blue dicks is found from Oregon, throughout most of
California including the southern halfway of the Baja
California peninsula, southeast into New Mexico,
Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Blue dicks occurs from sea level up to
2,100 meters. It inhabits a wide variety of plant
communities including vernal pools, coastal strand,
mixed evergreen forest, chaparral, valley grassland,
desert scrub, coniferous forests, oak woodlands,
montane scree, and on the fringe of coastal salt marsh
and redwood forest.
It appears that it does not colonize after fire by seed,
but rather is a permanent resident all along, occurring
as inconspicuous corms in the soil throughout mature
chaparral, often not flowering until an appropriate
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Few-flowered bluedicks, brodiaea, wild hyacinth. A
related subspecies is Dichelostemma capitatum ssp.
capitatum.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Large quantities of corms were
gathered with digging sticks in over half of
California, parts of the Great Basin and Southwest.
These corms formed an important starch source in the
diet of native people. California Indians dug and
continue to dig the corms before flowering, during
flowering, or after seeding depending upon the tribe
and individual family. Traditional gathering sites
were visited annually, over long periods of time and
there are references to gathering tracts of different
kinds of corms and bulbs specifically owned and
maintained by particular families. Today different
kinds of brodiaeas have gained popularity as cut-
flower crops.
Wildlife: Corms are eaten by both small and large
mammals included black bears, mule deer, exotic
wild pigs, and pocket gophers. The corms of blue
dicks are highly desirable to vertebrates, and it
appears that some corms are sacrificed to corm-eating
animals as a price for the dispersal of others. The
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
disturbance. With fire, plants are released from
unfavorable shaded environments with brush
competition, and vigorously flower in open
environments with increased soil nutrients.
If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of blue dicks and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source.
Propagation by seed: Seeds sown in the fall usually
readily germinate and do not need special treatment.
If sown at other times of the year the seeds may need
one month s stratification. If planting seeds, they will
take several years to reach flowering size. Scatter
seeds and rake them lightly into the soil in full or
partial sunlight. If planting seeds in pots--then place
them in reduced sunlight on the east or north side of a
building or under a deciduous tree. Plant the seeds at
a depth, which equals the width of the seeds. They
should be planted in a well-drained soil. Water the
seeds after planting and don t let the soil dry out
completely. Water them again when the surface is
dry to the touch. Water the seeds gently so as not to
exhume the seed. If using a watering can, diffuse the
water flow with a sprinkler fan or head. Protect the
seeds from animals and cold, dry winds, and from
weed competition. The seedlings should be watered
through the spring. At the beginning of hot weather,
the leaves will start to yellow. At this time, cease
watering. If the seeds are in pots, then move them in
summer to a darker area, such as a carport or garage
and keep a screen on them to keep out foraging
animals. When the weather cools down once again,
move the pots back outside and go through a full rain
or watering cycle once again. After 24 months, the
corms can be planted in full sun or filtered shade in
October or November. Plant them about six inches
apart or scatter the corms and plant them where they
fall to give them a look of a ".natural". distribution.
After one bloom, the plants should be well
established so that they don t need to be weeded or
watered unless it is a dry winter. If it is a dry winter,
then water every three weeks.
Corms are the easiest to start. Plant bigger corms 3-4
inches deep and smaller corms 1-2 inches deep in
well-drained soil in full sun in the autumn, and the
plants can tolerate afternoon sun. Space the corms
one-inch apart. If pocket gophers are a problem, you
may want to dig a hole and line it with chicken wire
mesh, before planting corms. (Plastic mesh won t
stop gophers.) Water the plants (wet, but not soggy)
and then wait for the winter rains. The plant is
common in climates that have rain in winter and
spring, and a summer dry season. Therefore,
simulate these conditions in the garden. The plant is
intolerant of frequent summer water and should not
be planted near lawns or plants that require a lot of
moisture during the summer. Weed around the plants
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds in the hole. 4) burning areas.
and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and thinning of
the corms, and popping off the cormlets, and
replanting them may enhance blue dicks numbers and
densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form of
tillage, which will increase the size of the gathering
tract, aerate the soil, lower weed competition, and
prepare the seedbed to increase seed germination
rates. If blue dicks populations require periodic
disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes, if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least, populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
Traditionally, various tribes in California have
burned areas of blue dicks to reduce plant
competition, facilitate gathering, recycle nutrients,
and increase the size and number of corms. Today
grasslands that have been burned may exhibit
thousands of blue dicks plants where none appeared
to occur before. Corms and bulbs may sit for a
decade or more and wait for fire or other favorable
environmental conditions before breaking ground.
Suppression of fire may cause increased shade and
plant competition and decrease population numbers
of blue dicks.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
DICAP is somewhat available from native plant
nurseries within the species range. Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Page 3
Niehaus, T. 1971. A biosystematic study of the genus
Brodiaea (Amaryllidaceae). University of California
Publications in Botany 60, Berkeley, California.
Peri, D.W. 1985. Pomoan plant resource
management. Ridge Review 4(4). Mendocino,
California.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Davis Arboretum, University of California
Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='dicap';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to table: the
indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in
California. Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149-169.
Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol. 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc., Fort Bragg, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97, IN
W.L. D Azevedo, editor. Handbook of North
American Indians. Vol. 11: Great Basin.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Heffner, K. 1984. Following the smoke:
contemporary plant procurement by the Indians of
Northwest California. Unpublished report, USDA,
Six Rivers National Forest, Eureka, California.
Keator, G. 1989. The brodiaeas. The Four Seasons
8(3):4-11.
Keator, G. 1992. Blue dicks brodiaea
(Dichelostemma capitatum): A common but
problematical species. The Four Seasons 9(2):31-42.
Keator, G. 1993. Dichelostemma. Pages 1190-1192,
IN J.C. Hickman, editor. The Jepson Manual:
Higher Plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Lawton, H.W., P.J. Wilke, M. DeDecker, &. W.M.
Mason 1993. Agriculture among the Paiute of
Owens Valley. Pages 329-378, IN T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson, editors. Before the wilderness:
Environmental management by Native Californians.
Ballena Press, Menlo Park, California.
Mayes, V.O. &. B.B. Lacy 1989. Nanisé: A Navajo
herbal. Navajo Community College Press, Tsaile,
Arizona.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
PURPLE
CONEFLOWER
Echinacea angustifolia DC.
Plant Symbol = ECAN2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Kurt Adolfson
USDI, GS, BRD, NPWRC
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Kansas snakeroot, echinacea, snakeroot, narrow-
leaved purple coneflower, scurvy root, comb flower,
black susans, and hedge hog
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The purple coneflower, Echinacea
angustifolia, was and still is the most widely used
medicinal plant of the Plains Indians (Kindscher
1992). It was used as a painkiller and for a variety of
ailments, including toothache, coughs, colds, sore
throats, and snake bite. Echinacea angustifolia was
used as an analgesic by the Cheyenne, the Dakota,
the Fox, and the Winnebago (Moerman 1986).
Purple coneflower is used as an antidote for
poisonous conditions, snake bite, and other poisonous
bites by the Winnebago, Ponca, Pawnee, Omaha,
Dakota, and by most Montana tribes (Gilmore 1977).
The root was used to relieve toothache by the Dakota,
Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca, Teton Sioux, and
Winnebago (Moerman 1986). The Cheyenne chewed
the root to stimulate the flow of saliva, which was
especially useful for Sun Dance participants as a
thirst preventative (Hart 1981). A wash was used as
Plant Guide
a dressing for burns to relieve pain by the Dakota,
Winnebago, Omaha, Pawnee, and Ponca.
The Fox used purple coneflower as an anti-
convulsive and gastro-intestinal aid. The Kiowa
chewed coneflower root for coughs and sore throats.
The Omaha and Pawnee used a smoke treatment as a
remedy for headache. A poultice of smashed roots
were applied as an anesthetic to arms and hands by
the Omaha, and a poultice was applied to enlarged
glands as a treatment for diseases such as mumps by
the Pawnee, Ponca, Dakota, and Winnebago. Purple
coneflower was used to increase endurance in the
sweat lodge ceremony by the Dakota, Pawnee,
Ponca, and Winnebago. The Lakota ate the root and
green fruit when they were thirsty or perspiring
(Rogers 1980, Munson 1981). The Teton Sioux used
coneflower to cure tonsillitis. The Omaha and Ponca
used the plant as eyewash. When the roots were
mixed with blazing star (Mentzelia laevicaulis) and
boiled, the resulting tea was drunk for smallpox
(Kindscher 1992). Purple coneflower roots mixed
with puffball (Lycoperdon species) spores and skunk
oil were used in the treatment of boils. The smoke
from burning purple coneflower was used as a
treatment for distemper in horses by the Ponca,
Dakota, Pawnee, and Winnebago.
The Omaha, the Lakota, and the Ponca sometimes
used the seed heads to comb their hair (Kindscher
1992). Purple coneflower stalks were used in play by
Pawnee children. They would whirl two flower
stalks one around the other, the two stalk touching by
the flower heads.
The purple coneflower was the only native prairie
plant popularized as a medicine by folk practitioners
and doctors, and was used extensively as a folk
remedy (Kindscher 1992). The use of the purple
coneflower root was used by early settlers in
Oklahoma as an aid in nearly every kind of sickness.
If a cow or a horse did not eat well, people
administered Echinacea in its feed.
Echinacea is widely used as an herbal remedy today,
primarily as an immuno-stimulant. Echinacea
angustifolia root was found to possess mild antibiotic
activity against Streptococcus and Staphyloccus
aureus (Stoll et al. 1950). A pentane-oil extracted
from the root was found to be inhibitory to Walker
carcinosarcoma 256 and P-388 lymphocytic leukemia
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
(Voaden and Jacobson 1972). Italian investigators
found the wound-healing effects of Echinacea to be
attributable to echinacin B (Bonadea et al. 1971).
Perhaps the most important finding so far is the
discovery of large, highly active polysaccharide
molecules in E. angustifolia that possess
immunostimulatory properties (Wagner and Proksch
1985, Wagner et al. 1985). Stimulation of the
immune system appears to be strongly influenced by
dose level. Recent pharmacological studies indicate
that a 10-mg/kg daily dose of the polysaccharide over
a ten-day period is effective as an immuno-stimulant.
Increases in the daily dosage beyond this level,
however, resulted in “markedly decreased
pharmacological activity” (Wagner and Proksch
1985, Wagner et al. 1985). Other research has shown
that the purple coneflower produces an anti-
inflammatory effect and has therapeutic value in
urology, gynecology, internal medicine, and
dermatology (Wagner and Proksch 1985).
Echinacea angustifolia also contains chemical
compounds that are insecticidal. One such
compound is toxic to mosquitoes and houseflies.
another substance, echinolone, disrupts insect
development (Hartzell 1947, Jacobson 1954, Voaden
and Jacobson 1972). Researchers in the Horticulture
Department of South Dakota State University are
currently attempting to identify the Echinacea
angustifolia germplasm containing the highest level
of echinolone. It will be used in manufacturing and
insecticide for sunflower crops (Foster 1991).
Ornamental: The purple coneflower is often grown
simply for its ornamental value, especially for its
showy flowers. The best possibility for obtaining a
new cultivar is in the hybrids between Echinacea
purpurea and Echinacea angustifolia var.
angustifolia, whose progeny are compact, rounded,
and bushy plants about two feet in diameter
(McGregor 1968).
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower family (Asteraceae). Purple
coneflower is a perennial herb 1.5-6 dm (0.5-2 ft)
tall, with a woody taproot. The plant has one to
several rough-hairy stems, mostly unbranched.
Leaves are alternate, simple, and narrowly lance-
shaped 5-30 cm (2-12 in) long, 1.5-4 cm (0.5-1.5 in)
wide, with entire margins. Flowers look like
lavender sunflowers with the heads 4-7.5 cm wide
(1.5-3 in) wide, at the ends of long stalks. Flowers
bloom from June to July. Ray flowers are 2-4 cm
(0.75-1.5 in) long, spreading or drooping, light pink
to pale purple. The disk flowers are 5-lobed,
brownish-purple, and situated among stiff bracts.
Pollen grains are yellow. Fruits are small, dark, 4-
angled achenes.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
The purple coneflower grows in open rocky prairies
and plains. It is found primarily in the Great Plains,
east of the Rocky Mountains from Texas to Montana
and Saskatchewan, to eastern Oklahoma, western
Iowa, and western Minnesota. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Native Echinacea species are dwindling in the wild
from loss of habitat and over-harvesting. Echinacea
angustifolia is threatened on one hand by conversion
of native habitat, and on the other hand by heavy
harvesting to serve the herbal pharmaceutical
industry. It takes three to four years for roots to
reach harvestable size (Foster 1991). Yields for
cultivated, dried roots of three-year-old Echinacea
purpurea grown at Trout Lake, Washington, were
131 kg/ha (1,200 lbs/acre) (Foster 1991). According
to Richo Cech (1995), a mature two-year old E.
purpurea plant yields 2.25 pounds of fresh flowering
aerial portions and 0.5 pounds of fresh root per plant.
Yield for the purple coneflower is not available, but
probably would be less because the plant is smaller.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PropagationfromCuttings TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PropagationfromCuttings='Purple coneflower can be propagated by division of
the crowns. This technique results in stronger plants
initially and eliminates the tedious nurturing and
tending of the slow-growing seedlings (Kindscher
1992). Harvest roots when plants are dormant, when
leaves begin to turn brown. Wash roots and remove
most for use. Then carefully divide the crown by
hand to make one to five “plantlets.” Replant the
divisions as soon as possible. It is important that they
don’t dry out, so if replanting is delayed a couple of
hours, dip the plants briefly in water and keep them
in a sealed plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you
are ready to replant them. When replanting, ensure
that the remaining fine roots are well spread out in
the planting hole and the soil is pressed firmly around
the plant. These plantlets can be grown in flats in the
greenhouse during the winter to re-establish their root
systems, then replanted in the field the following
spring for another round of production.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='• Echinacea angustifolia has a reputation for poor
germination. Actually, when the proper steps are
take, it has extremely dependable germination.
The following information is provided by Richo
Cech (1995).
• Seeds require a 12-week period of cold
conditioning, or cold stratification, to germinate.
• Outdoors, scatter seed thinly on well-limed,
weed-free, open beds in the fall or early winter,
covering the seed with a light sifting of potting
soil. The seed is thereby subjected to the optimal
conditions of oscillating temperatures, an
extremely important pre-germination
environment for Echinacea seed.
• An acceptable alternative to outdoor cold
conditioning is to mix the seeds with damp sand
and switch between the refrigerator and freezer
several times over a period of 12 weeks. This
seed may then be sown directly in the garden or
field. The conditioned seed may also be sown in
flats and placed in the greenhouse or outside.
• Another method of cold stratification is to wrap
the seeds in wet peat moss and place them in a
plastic bag in the refrigerator for two to four
months. Plant seeds in deep plug trays. this
allows the taproot to develop straight down to a
depth of six or eight inches prior to
transplanting. Seeds should be barely covered
with soil when planted.
• E. angustifolia seedlings have a tendency toward
transplant shock and slow growth, especially if
the development of the taproot is compromised
by keeping seedlings in the flats or plots too
long. Seedlings have little vigor and must be
carefully weeded and watered.
• For field cultivation, close spacing of the plants
allows for optimal root yield per area planted.
Plants may be thinned to 6-12 inch spacing in the
row or bed. Keep relatively free of weeds and
water occasionally during dry spells. Over-
watering should be avoided, for the root crowns
are subject to rotting. A sparing side dressing of
organic compost, usually in the mid-spring, will
assist this sometimes slow-growing herbaceous
perennial in outranking competitive weeds.
An ounce of well-cleaned E. angustifolia seed
contains approximately 8,000 seeds. A pound
contains around 128,000 seeds. Given a very tight
spacing of six inches between the plants and one foot
between the rows, an acre would contain 87,200
plants. Given a 68% germination rate, a pound of
good seed could produce an acre of plants. This
same acre, dormant harvested for the roots at the end
of the second year of growth, would produce (at ¼ lb.
per root) 21,800 lbs of fresh root.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_HarvestingandProcessingtheSeed TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_HarvestingandProcessingtheSeed='• Seed can be harvested during the fall of the
second year. Harvest the seed in autumn when
seeds are ripe, before the fall rains set in. Seed
should be from the largest and most vital plants.
• Stop watering when the seeds begin to mature –
excessive watering at this stage is not needed and
it may damage the seed crop.
• Snip the coneheads off and put them in buckets.
If the seed is still a little green, dry the coneheads
in the sun.
• Separate the seed from the chaffy debris. It is
important to break up the coneheads without
damaging the seed. Run the seed through a
hammermill or compost chopper at low RPM
through a one-inch screen. Then pass the seed
and chaff through a ¼ inch stationary screen.
Shake the remaining seed and chaff through a
screen that is too small for the seed to pass.
What you have left is the seed with only the
chaff that is the same size as the seed.
• Lay out a flannel sheet and pour a cupful of your
seed/chaff along the edge. Lift the top edge of
the sheet and roll the seed to the other end where
your partner is waiting to carefully funnel the
seed into a bowl.
• Make sure the seed is thoroughly dry. Store in
plastic bags in a cool, dry, and dark place.
Plastic bags allow the seed to respire, while glass
does not. Seed thus stored remains viable for
about three years.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Herbivores such as insects and deer are not a problem
with Echinacea. Gophers and moles can be a
problem, eating the roots. Goldfinches love the
Echinacea seed crop and can clear out all the seed in
a few days.
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ECAN2 is readily available from native plant
nurseries and seed companies throughout its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bonadeo, I., G. Bottazzi, &. M. Lavazza 1971 .
Echinacin B, an active polysaccharide from
Echinacea. Revista Italiana Essenze Profumi, Piante
Officinali, Aromi, Saponi, Csmetici, Aerosol 53:281-
295.
Cech, R.A. 1995. Echinacea Native American tonic
roots. A Horizon Herbs Publication, Williams,
Oregon.
Foster, S. 1991. Echinacea – nature’s immune
enhancer. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of the plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press.
Hart, J.A. 1976. Montana: Native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hartzell, A. 1947. Plant products for insecticidal
properties and summary of results to date.
Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute
15:21-34.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Jacobson, M. 1954. Occurrence of a pungent
insecticidal principle in American coneflower roots.
Science 120:125-129.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. Pp 84-94.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951 .
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus
Echinacea (Compositae). University of Kansas
Science Bulletin 48(4):113-142.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. Ann
Arbor, Michigan. Pp. 156-158.
Munson, P.J. 1981. Contributions to Osage and
Lakota ethnobotany. Plains Anthropology 26:229-
240.
Rogers, D.J. 1980. Lakota names and traditional
uses of native plants by Sicangu (Brule) people in the
Rosebud Area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational
Society, St. Francis, South Dakota.
Stoll, A., J. Renz, &. A. Brack 1950. Antibacterial
substances II. Isolation and constitution of
echinacoside, glycoside from the roots of Echinacea
angustifolia. Helvetical Chim. Acta 33:1877-93.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000322. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
USDI, GS 2000. Native wildflowers of the North
Dakota grasslands. Version: 000322.
<.http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wildfl
wr/species/echiangu.htm>.. Northern Prairie Wildlife
Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota.
Voaden, D.J. &. M. Jacobson 1972. Tumor inhibitors
3. Identification and synthesis of an oncolytic
hydrocarbon from American coneflower roots.
Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 15(6):619-623.
Wagner, H. &. A. Proksch 1985. Immunostimulatory
drugs of fungi and higher plants. IN: (H. Wagner et
al. Eds.) Economic and Medicinal Plant Research.
Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, New York.
Pp.113-153
Wagner, H., A. Proksche, I. Riess-Mauere, A.
Vollmar, S. Odenthal, H. Stuppner, K. Jurcie, M. Le
Turdu, &. J.N. Fang 1985. Immunstimulierend
wirkende polysaccharide (heteroglykane) aus
hoheren pflanzen. Arzneimittel-Forschung
35(8):1069-1075.
Page 5
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='ecan2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised 05dec00 jsp. 01may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
1986). The Delaware used an infusion of coneflower
root for gonorrhea and found it to be highly effective.
The purple coneflower was the only native prairie
plant popularized as a medicine by folk practitioners
and doctors. It was used extensively as a folk remedy
(Kindscher 1992). Purple coneflower root was used
by early settlers as an aid in nearly every kind of
sickness. If a cow or a horse did not eat well, people
administered Echinacea in its feed.
Echinacea is widely used as an herbal remedy today.
A purple coneflower product containing the juice of
the fresh aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea was
found to make mouse cells 50-80 percent resistant to
influenza, herpes, and vesicular somatitis viruses.
This product was available in Germany in 1978
(Wacker and Hilbig 1978). Perhaps the most
important finding so far is the discovery of immuno-
stimulatory properties in Echinacea purpurea and E.
angustifolia (Wagner and Proksch 1985, Wagner et
al. 1985). Stimulation of the immune system appears
to be strongly influenced by dose level. Recent
pharmacological studies indicate that a 10-mg/kg
daily dose of the polysaccharide over a ten-day
period is effective as an immuno-stimulant.
Increases in the daily dosage beyond this level,
however, resulted in “markedly decreased
pharmacological activity” (Wagner and Proksch
1985, Wagner et al. 1985). Other research has shown
that the purple coneflower produces an anti-
inflammatory effect and has therapeutic value in
urology, gynecology, internal medicine, and
dermatology (Wagner and Proksch 1985).
Ornamental: The purple coneflower is often grown
simply for its ornamental value, especially for its
showy flowers. The best possibility for obtaining a
new cultivar is in the hybrids between Echinacea
purpurea and E. angustifolia var. angustifolia, whose
progeny are compact, rounded, and bushy plants
about two feet in diameter (McGregor 1968).
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Echinacea
purpurea is a perennial herb 1.5-6 dm (0.5-2 ft) tall,
EASTERN PURPLE
CONEFLOWER
Echinacea purpurea (L.)
Moench.
Plant Symbol = ECPU
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
From TAMU-BWG Digital Library - Vascular Plant Images
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='echinacea, snakeroot, Kansas snakeroot, narrow-
leaved purple coneflower, scurvy root, Indian head,
comb flower, black susans, and hedge hog
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Purple coneflower (Echinacea
purpurea) was and still is a widely used medicinal
plant of the Plains Indians. It was used as a painkiller
and for a variety of ailments, including toothache,
coughs, colds, sore throats, and snake bite (Kindscher
1992). The Choctaw use purple coneflower as a
cough medicine and gastro-intestinal aid (Moerman
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
with a woody rhizome or tough caudex. The plant
has one to several rough-hairy stems, mostly
unbranched. Basal and lower cauline leaf blades are
ovate to ovate-lanceolate with serrate edges, up to 2
dm long and 1.5 dm wide, and slightly heart-shaped
at the base. Cauline leaves are similar but become
smaller as they extend up the stem. The flowers are
in heads like sunflowers with the disk up to 3.5 cm
across. The drooping ray florets have ligules 3-8 cm
long, and are reddish-purple, lavender, or rarely pink.
The disk florets are 4.5-5.5 mm long, and are situated
among stiff bracts. Flowers bloom from June to
August. Pollen grains are yellow. Fruits are small,
dark, 4-angled achenes.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='The purple coneflower grows in rocky prairie sites in
open, wooded regions. Echinacea purpurea extends
eastward through the Great Plains bioregion from
northeast Texas, Missouri, and Michigan. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Native Echinacea species are dwindling in the wild
from loss of habitat and over-harvesting. E.
purpurea is not as threatened as E. angustifolia. In
the wild, E. purpurea grows sporadically along
waterways, with a few scattered individuals. Plant
densities are too low for efficient harvest for
commercial purposes. E. purpurea is the most
widely adaptable species for cultivation. It is cold
and heat hardy, easy to grow, and boasts high yields.
Bioactive constituents of E. purpurea compare
favorably with E. angustifolia, although there are
proportional differences. E. angustifolia has more of
the alkylamides, while E. purpurea has more of the
equally immune enhancing caffeic acid derivatives.
They are both effective medicines. A combination of
both probably affords the most broad-spectrum
immune-enhancing effect. Historically, E. purpurea
was rarely utilized by pharmaceutical companies.
It takes three to four years for roots to reach
harvestable size (Foster 1991). Yields for cultivated,
dried roots of three-year-old Echinacea purpurea
grown at Trout Lake, Washington, were 131 kg/ha
(1,200 lbs/acre) (Foster 1991). According to Richo
Cech (1995), a mature two-year old E. purpurea
plant yields 2.25 pounds of fresh flowering aerial
portions and 0.5 pounds of fresh root per plant.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PropagationfromCuttings TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PropagationfromCuttings='Purple coneflower can be propagated by division of
the crowns. This technique results in stronger plants
initially and eliminates the tedious nurturing and
tending of the slow-growing seedlings (Kindscher
1992). Harvest roots when plants are dormant, when
leaves begin to turn brown. Wash roots and remove
most for use. Then carefully divide the crown by
hand to make one to five “plantlets.” Replant the
divisions as soon as possible. It is important that they
don’t dry out, so if replanting is delayed a couple of
hours, dip the plants briefly in water and keep them
in a sealed plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you
are ready to replant them. When replanting, ensure
that the remaining fine roots are well spread out in
the planting hole and the soil is pressed firmly around
the plant. These plantlets can be grown in flats in the
greenhouse during the winter to re-establish their root
systems, then replanted in the field the following
spring for another round of production.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='• Echinacea purpurea seed is easy to germinate.
The following information is provided by Richo
Cech (1995).
• The seed can be spring-planted without cold, or
cold stratification, to germinate.
• Propagation is easily done in flats, which are
sown with approximately ¼ ounce of seed per
flat, evenly sprinkled on the surface and covered
with about ¼ inch of potting soil.
• The flats are left outdoors through the winter and
watered if necessary.
• A light screen over the flats will diminish the
severity of heavy rain and snow, and will also
keep out cats.
• Spring germination can be greatly enhanced by
bringing the flat of cold-conditioned seed into
the greenhouse, whereupon rapid germination
may be expected.
• Once the second set of true leaves appears, the
seedlings are put into pots or are spaced at
approximately two inch centers in another deep
flat. Seedlings must be carefully weeded and
watered.
In late spring or early summer, the hardy
seedlings, now with a four-to-six inch root
system, may be transplanted into the field or
garden one or two feet apart.
•
• Regular spacing with one foot between the plants
and two feet between the rows will result in
approximately 21, 800 plants per acre. A
generous two-foot spacing with three feet
between the rows will result in approximately
7,500 plants per acre.
• Timely watering during dry periods greatly
increases the size of this plant. A sparing side
dressing of organic compost, usually in the mid-
spring, will assist this sometimes slow-growing
Page 3
herbaceous perennial in outranking competitive
weeds.
An ounce of well-cleaned E. purpurea seed contains
approximately 6,000 seeds. A pound contains around
96,000 seeds. Given a normal spacing of one foot
between the plants and two feet between the rows, an
acre would contain 21,800 plants. Given a 68%
germination rate, a pound of good seed could produce
three acres of plants. This same acre, dormant
harvested for the roots at the end of the second year
of growth, would produce (at 1/2 lb. per root) 10,900
lbs of fresh root.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_HarvestingandProcessingtheSeed TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_HarvestingandProcessingtheSeed='• Seed can be harvested during the fall of the
second year. Harvest the seed in autumn when
seeds are ripe, before the fall rains set in. Seed
should be from the largest and most vital plants.
• Stop watering when the seeds begin to mature –
excessive watering at this stage is not needed and
it may damage the seed crop.
• Snip the cone-heads off and put them in buckets.
If the seed is still a little green, dry the cone-
heads in the sun.
• Separate the seed from the chaffy debris. It is
important to break up the cone-heads without
damaging the seed. Run the seed through a
hammer mill or compost chopper at low RPM
through a one-inch screen. Then pass the seed
and chaff through a ¼ inch stationary screen.
Shake the remaining seed and chaff through a
screen that is too small for the seed to pass.
What you have left is the seed with only the
chaff that is the same size as the seed.
• Lay out a flannel sheet and pour a cupful of the
seed/chaff along the edge. Lift the top edge of
the sheet and roll the seed to the other end where
your partner is waiting to carefully funnel the
seed into a bowl.
• Make sure the seed is thoroughly dry. Store in
plastic bags in a cool, dry, and dark place.
Plastic bags allow the seed to respire, while glass
does not. Seed thus stored remains viable for
about three years.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Herbivores, such as insects and deer, are not a
problem with Echinacea. Gophers and moles can be
a problem as they eat the roots. Goldfinches love the
Echinacea seed crop and can clear out all the seed in
a few days.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
ECPU is widely available through most nurseries and
seed companies. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
Cultivars: King, Sombrero, Alba, Bright Star
Leuchste, Crimson Star, Magnus, Ovation,
Springbrook’s Crimson Star, Talent, Thompson and
Morgan Hybrids, White Flower Farm Strain, White
Lustre, and White Swan.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cech, R.A. 1995. Echinacea Native American tonic
roots. A Horizon Herbs Publication, Williams,
Oregon.
Foster, S. 1991. Echinacea – nature’s immune
enhancer. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of the plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Hart, J.A. 1976. Montana: Native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston and London. pp. 113-
117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kinscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. Pp. 84-94.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
Page 4
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
McGregor, R.L. 1968. The taxonomy of the genus
Echinacea (Compositae). University of Kansas
Science Bulletin 48(4):113-142.
Michigan State University Extension 1996. Home
horticulture: Echinacea purpurea. Version: 000327.
<.http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/mod03/01700
365.html>..
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. Technical Reports, Number 19,
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Pp. 156-158.
Texas A&.M University 1999. TAMU-BWG digital
library - vascular plant images. Version: 000327.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/cgi/gallery_quer
y?q=Echinacea+purpurea>.. Bioinformatics Working
Group, College Station, Texas.
Voaden, D.J. &. M. Jacobson 1972. Tumor inhibitors
3. Identification and synthesis of an oncolytic
hydrocarbon from American coneflower roots.
Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 15(6):619-623.
Wagner, H. &. A. Proksch 1985. Immunostimulatory
drugs of fungi and higher plants. IN: (H. Wagner et
al. Eds.) Economic and medicinal plant research.
Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York, New York.
Pp.113-153
Wagner, H., A. Proksche, I. Riess-Mauere, A.
Vollmar, S. Odenthal, H. Stuppner, K. Jurcie, M. Le
Turdu, &. J.N. Fang 1985. Immunstimulierend
wirkende polysaccharide (heteroglykane) aus
hoheren pflanzen. Arzneimittel-Forschung
35(8):1069-1075.
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='ecpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 13may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
GRAY EPHEDRA
Ephedra nevadensis S. Watson
Plant Symbol = EPNE
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Ephedra Family (Ephedraceae). Gray
ephedra is a dioecious, xerophytic shrub with jointed
or fluted stems and scale-like leaves. Leaf scales are
in twos, 2-6mm long, sheathing to about the middle,
and obtuse to acute at the apex. The inflorescence is
conelike and the staminate flowers have united
filaments. The ovulate spikes are distinctly stalked
and the seeds are usually paired.
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Gray ephedra occurs naturally on flats and slopes in
all the creosote bush deserts at mostly 1,000 to 4,000
ft (305-1,220 m) elevation and sometimes it is found
in the desert grassland up to 5,000 ft. (1,524 m). It
inhabits California in the eastern Mojave and
Colorado deserts, southern Nevada in Clark and
Lincoln counties, southwestern Utah, Arizona in the
Grand Canyon area and in the Mojave. It also occurs
in Arizona and Colorado deserts, New Mexico along
the Gila and Pecos river drainage, TransPecos Texas,
the Edwards Plateau, and at scattered locations on the
Rio Grande Plain, Baja California to Coahuila and
Central Mexico (Benson and Darrow 1981).
Characteristic species are creosotebush, white
bursage, Joshua tree, blackbrush, catclaw, burrobush,
big galleta, Indian ricegrass, black grama, bush
muhly, and desert needlegrass.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
On good seed years abundant collections of ephedra
seeds can be obtained by flailing the fruiting
branches over an open tray (Young 1986). Seed is
harvested by hand from native stands. No seed fields
have been established and no work has been done to
determine the best method of mechanically
harvesting the seed. The plants response to clipping
for harvest is also undetermined (USDA 1983).
Collected seed was cleaned with ease to a high purity
with a fanning mill equipped with a No. 12 top screen
and a No. 1/12 bottom screen (Kay 1975a).
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Tucson Plant Materials Center
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning_Ephedraisconsideredtoxicandshould TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning_Ephedraisconsideredtoxicandshould='be used with caution.
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Mormon tea, jointfir
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: Some tribes
steeped the twigs and drank the
tea as a general beverage
including the Kawaiisu in
California, the Zuni in New
Mexico, and the White
Mountain Apache of Arizona.
The plant is still prepared as a
beverage and drank today. The
Panamint and Owens Valley
Paiute of California ate the
seeds. The Moapa Paiute and
Shoshone in the Great Basin
brewed a tea from the twigs to
treat venereal diseases. The Shoshone also imbibed a
tea to stimulate urination and made the powdered
twigs into poultices for sores. The Kawaiisu steeped
a tea of the twigs for backache. The Cahuilla in
southern California made a tea to cure stomach and
kidney ailments and to cleanse their system. The
Zuni prepared and drunk a tea from the plant, minus
the root, to treat the first stage of syphilis.
Ephedra s unique and attractive evergreen or gray
foliage makes it a desirable species for environmental
plantings. It is also used in preparation of herbal teas
(Keeler 1989).
Wildlife and livestock: Mountain quail eat Ephedra
seeds. Deer, bison, and antelope browse the plant.
Gray ephedra is usually grazed heavily and seems to
be perfectly safe for grazing livestock since it induces
neither toxicity in ewes or cows, nor congenital
deformities in lambs (Keeler 1989). New seedlings
should be protected from grazing based on the key
species in the mix. Proper use is based on one-half
the current year s growth (USDA 1983).
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Alfred Brousseau
@ Brother Eric
Vogel, St. Mary’s
College
@ CalPhotos
Page 2
The seeds germinate best at alternating temperature
requirements with quite cold nighttime temperatures.
Seedlings grow rapidly and can be easily transplanted
(Young 1986). Germination of gray ephedra seed
was optimal when the temperature alternated between
20 C (16 hours) and 25 C (2 hours). It germinates
well in the range of 10 and 20 C, but is highest at 20
C (Kay 1977).
Gray ephedra should perform best on limy sites, most
textures, excluding clay and silty clay textures.
According to Young, Evans, and Kay (1977),
Ephedra nevadensis appears to have an adaptation for
seed germination under osmotic potentials as low as -
12 bars and thus could be seeded in salt-desert
conditions. Depth-of-planting studies resulted in the
emergence of 30% (42% on a viable-seed basis, with
insect damaged seed removed) from a depth of 1 cm
over a 10-day period with temperatures averaging
about 10 C. Total emergence was similar at 2 cm,
though slightly delayed. Roughly 13% (18% viable
seed) emergence, delayed further, was recorded for 4
cm (Kay 1975). Seed storage at room temperature
for 12 months after maturity reduced germinability
(Young 1977).
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
EPNE is available through native plant nurseries and
seed companies within its range. Seeds and plants of
selected Ephedra cultivars are available from many
nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local
area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the
plants are to be grown. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Benson &. Darrow 1981. Trees and shrubs of the
southwestern deserts. The University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Fowler, C.S. 1986 Subsistence. pp. 64-97, IN
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D azevedo [Ed.]. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington D.C.
Jordan, G.L. Range seeding and brush management
of Arizona rangelands. Cooperative Extension
Service, Agricultural Experiment Station, University
of Arizona, College of Agriculture.
Kay, B.L. 1975. Test of seeds of Mojave Desert
shrubs. Progress report. BLM Contract No. 53500-
CT4-2 (N). 24pp.
Kay, B.L. C.M. Ross, W.L. Graves, &. C.R. Brown
1977. Mojave revegetation notes. Agronomy and
Range Science No. 19.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Keeler, R.F. 1989. Investigation of material and
embryo/fetal toxicity of Ephedra viridis and Ephedra
nevadensis in sheep and cattle. Journal of Range
Management 42(1).
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Pater, M. 1991. Documentation of a plant accession
selected for advanced testing. USDA, NRCS,
Tucson Plant Materials Center, Tucson, Arizona.
Reagan, A.B. 1929. Plants used by the White
Mountain Apache Indians of Arizona. Wisconsin
Archeologist 8(4):143-160.
Stevenson, M.C. 1915. Ethnobotany of the Zuni
Indians. Pages 35-102 IN: Bureau of American
ethnology thirtieth annual report 1908-1909.
Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.
Strike, S.S. &. E.D. Roeder 1994. Ethnobotany of the
California Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of
California’s indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific
Books, Champaign, Illinois.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs, &. W.A. Archer 1941.
Contributions toward a flora of Nevada, No. 33.
Medicinal uses of plants by Indian tribes of Nevada.
USDA, The Division of Plant Exploration and
Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington,
D.C.
USDA, Soil Conservation Service 1983.
Management and uses of mormon-tea. Arizona State
Office, Phoenix, Arizona.
Wyman, L.C. &. S.K. Harris 1951. The ethnobotany
of the Kayenta Navaho. University of New Mexico
Publications in Biology 5. University of New
Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Page 3
Young, J.A. &. C.G. 1986. Collecting, processing
and germinating seeds of wildland plants. Timber
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Young, J.A., R.A. Evans, &. B.L. Kay 1977. Ephedra
seed germination. Agronomy Journal 69.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat &. Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Mark Pater
USDA, NRCS Tucson Plant Materials Center
Tucson, Arizona
' WHERE symbol='epne';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
GREEN EPHEDRA
Ephedra viridis Cov.
Plant Symbol = EPVI
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Tucson Plant Materials Center
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning_Ephedraisconsideredtoxicandshould TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning_Ephedraisconsideredtoxicandshould='be used with caution.
This plant is still highly valued as a beverage today
by many tribes and it is utilized as a tonic and blood
purifier. The twigs were mixed with the inner bark
of Purshia tridentata to make a tea for drinking by
the Shoshone to treat gonorrhea. The Hopi used the
plant in the treatment of syphilis. The Paiute and
Shoshone also used a steeped tea made from the
twigs as a regulator for kidney or sometimes bladder
disorders. Washoe women imbibed a tea for delayed
or difficult menstruation. The Kawaiisu of California
steeped a tea for backache. The Navaho of Arizona
gathered the twigs and leaves and boiled them with
alum to produce a light-tan color.
The vivid green foliage presents a striking contrast to
an often-dull gray desert environment. It has been
widely planted as an ornamental. This species is
used in seed mixtures for re-vegetating depleted
game ranges in the mountain shrub and juniper-
pinyon types and optionally in the sagebrush type in
Utah. Characteristics and qualities also are suited for
soil stabilization and highway and park
beautification.
Wildlife: The mountain quail eats The seeds of
Ephedra species and the plant is browsed by deer,
bison, and antelope.
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Ephedra Family (Ephedraceae). Green
ephedra is a dioecious, scraggly shrub rarely more
than 60 cm to 150 cm high. The naked seeds are the
features, which places Ephedra with the classical
group, the gymnosperms. The microsporophylls are
similar to the stamens of the flowering plant. they
also correspond with the spore-bearing scales in the
male cone of a pine tree (Benson and Darrow 1981).
The intricate network of brittle, practically leafless,
bright green branches is the salient feature of the
plant. The leaves are scale-like, 2 to 3 mm long, the
bases and middle portions conspicuously dark brown,
the rest light green and tending to be membranous, all
but the bases falling away with age. In the
springtime, the male plant becomes a conspicuous
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Mormon tea, jointfir
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: Green ephedra was traditionally used
as a beverage and medicine. Native Americans made
flour and a coffee-like beverage from the seeds. The
Sierra Miwok and Owens Valley Paiute made an
aromatic tea from the slender twigs by boiling them.
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
mass of yellow clusters of pollen sacs, and the green
ovules (later brown seeds) are an obvious but less
conspicuous feature of the female plant. At the
Tucson PMC, green ephedra begins flowering in
mid-to late-April. The pollen cones are spheroidal
and 3 to 4 mm in diameter. The pollen sacs are
relatively large, 0.5 mm long and 0.5 to 0.6 mm
broad, and are practically lacking stalks. The ovulate
cones have stalks 2 to 10 mm long, ovoid, and 5 to 7
mm long. The cone scales are in about 3 to 5 pairs,
not membranous, and ovately shaped. They are
green at the middles, lighter colored and thinner
toward the margins, 2 to 5 mm long, and not stalked.
The seeds are more or less boat-shaped, the flat
".deck". of each facing the other member of the pair.
They are dark greenish lead color, 5 to 7 mm long,
about 2 to 2.5 mm broad, and not beaked (Benson
and Darrow 1981).
At the onset of the flowering period, plants bearing
ovules exert a structure called a micropylar tube at
the apex of the ovule. The micropylar tube allows
the ovule to produce and display a small droplet from
the exerted end of the tube. This droplet is called a
pollination droplet and it serves as a receptacle for
airborne pollen (Pater 1991).
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Green ephedra occurs on rocky or sandy slopes and
plains in such plant communities as the lower
California oak woodland, Joshua tree woodland, the
northern juniper-pinyon woodland, the sagebrush
desert and higher creosotebush deserts, and the desert
grassland from 3,000 to 7,000 feet (915-2135 m)
elevation. Common associates include creosote bush
(Larrea tridentata), shadscale saltbush (Atriplex
confertifolia), four wing saltbrush (A. canescens), big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), galleta (Hilaria
jamesii), sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus),
Utah serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), junipers
(Juniperus spp.), and pinyons (Pinus spp.).
The plant occurs naturally in Arizona deserts from
the northern Mohave to Apache and northern
Yavapai Counties at elevations of 3,000 to 7,000 feet
(915-2135 m) (Benson and Darrow 1981). In
California, the plant is found east of the Sierra
Nevada from Lassen County southward to the
mountains of Inyo County, and westward through the
mountains of Kern County to eastern Ventura
County, and thence southeastward to the mountains
of southern San Bernardino county and the Western
edge of the Colorado desert. Green ephedra extends
into southwestern Wyoming, northern and central
Nevada, southward to the Charleston Mountains,
Clark County, Utah, except the northernmost part,
and western Colorado (Benson and Darrow 1981).
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Green ephedra is tolerant of calcareous,
weakly saline, and slightly saline-alkaline (sodic)
sites and it is sometimes found growing in clayey
soils. It thrives in dry, well-drained sites and it is
intolerant of wet sites and poor drainage. The plant is
drought-resistant, markedly so after initial seedling
establishment. Local plant materials are winter-
hardy. Distant southern or lower altitude seed
sources may be frost-sensitive, especially in the
seedling stage. Ephedra sites are not commonly
burned due to sparse, discontinuous fuels but some
plants survive wildfire and spread by roots. Green
ephedra is more vigorous in full sunlight but it also
grows in partial shade of open woodlands. Plants are
weakly competitive due to slow growth rate
compatible with other shrubs and herbs, but more so
after seedlings are firmly established (Pater 1991).
General: Harvest the seeds by knocking them from
the shrubs into containers or onto a dry, clean canvas
using an office clipper seed separator. A Shop-Vac
vacuum cleaner also has potential as a harvesting
tool. Seed quality is not standardized. There is 90%
purity, about 60% germination, 54% Pure Live Seed
(PLS), and an estimated 25,000 seeds per pound
(Pater 1991).
Propogration by seed: Plant seed 1 to 2 cm deep.
preferably by drilling in a well prepared, firm
seedbed. Always mix the seeds with other species
when re-vegetating game ranges to help control
weeds and counterbalance slow rates of growth and
establishment. One-half to one pound per acre of
seed is used in 17 to 19 and 28 to 30 pounds per acre
total seed mixes when drilling and broadcasting,
respectively. Seeding can be sown by airplane on
disked or plowed lands or such seeded areas can be
anchor-chained when no site preparation proceeds
seeding. Plant before the growing season with soil
moisture most dependably adequate for good
germination and seedling establishment. Seedings
are made in late fall, early winter, or spring in
intermountain areas (Pater 1991).
About half of the seed will germinate in 5 to 12 days,
and most germination is completed in 14 days in lab
tests. Alternating 59 degree F to 87 degrees F (15.0-
30.5 degrees C) day and 36 degrees F to 41 degrees F
Page 3
(2.2-5.0 degrees C) night temperatures are optimal
for germinating seed. Constant 55 degrees F (12.7
degrees C) also gave good germination. Germination
may be improved by an after ripening period.
Results from Utah game range revegetation
evaluations suggest seedling vigor and growth rate
are rather weak. plants take five to ten years to attain
two foot heights. Germination was reduced in -4 to -
16 bars osmotic potential solutions. optimum was 0
to -4 bars (Pater 1991).
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Reduce plant competition and animal populations, if
not already at low levels or excluded, during stand
establishment, and balance animal populations with
long term conservative usable herbage supply (Pater
1991).
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='EPVI is somewhat available through native plant
seed companies. Seeds and plants of selected
Ephedra cultivars are available from many nurseries.
It is best to plant species from your local area,
adapted to the specific site conditions where the
plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Benson &. Darrow 1981. Trees and shrubs of the
southwestern deserts. The University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Curtin, L.S.M. 1984. By the prophet of the earth
ethnobotany of the Pima. University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Pater, M. 1991. Documentation of a plant accession
selected for advanced testing. USDA, NRCS,
Tucson Plant Materials Center, Arizona
Reagan, A.B 1929. Plants used by the White
Mountain Apache Indians of Arizona. Wisconsin
Archeologist 8(4):143-160.
Strike, S.S. &. E.D. Roeder 1994. Ethnobotany of the
California Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of
California’s indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific
Books, Champaign.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs, &. W.A. Archer 1941.
Contributions toward a flora of Nevada, No. 33.
Medicinal uses of plants by Indian Tribes of Nevada.
USDA, The Division of Plant Exploration and
Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry. Washington,
D.C.
USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service
1999. Range site descriptions, D30-1-D41-3.
Arizona State Office, Phoenix, Arizona.
Whiting, A.F. 1966. Ethnobotany of the Hopi.
Museum of Northern Arizona, Flagstaff, Arizona..
Wyman, L.C. &. S.K. Harris 1951. The ethnobotany
of the Kayenta Navaho. University of New Mexico
Publications in Biology 5. University of New
Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Mark Pater
USDA, NRCS Tucson Plant Materials Center,
Tucson, Arizona
' WHERE symbol='epvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Environmental Horticulture,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
Page 4
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Choctaw used the plant to treat gonorrhea. The
Alabama and Koasati tribes used the plant
ceremonially as well as medicinally. The Koasati
believed the plant to contain magical powers, which
could kill an enemy merely by striking him with it.
The roots are collected in the autumn. Some Native
Americans still use the plant today.
Other: The unique shape and color of
rattlesnakemaster flower sprays make them an
unusual addition to fresh and dried flower
arrangements. For best results, cut the flowers before
they open completely.
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Carrot or parsley family (Apiaceae,
formerly Umbelliferae). These hardy, perennial or
biennial herbs, resembling a cross between a yucca
and a thistle, can be a little over a meter to two
meters tall. The solitary, erect stem has parallel ribs
and branches near the top, ending in globe-shaped
flowers. The stem has alternate leaves, which are
narrow, lance-shaped and pinnately veined. The
broad, stiff basal leaves (20-90cm long, 9cm wide),
are usually absent at the time of flowering. Leaves
can be slightly toothed along the edges. The plants
flower from spring to fall. The white to blue flower
heads are 1-1.5 cm with 2mm-long flower petals.
Spiny, bluish, leaflike bracts extend beyond the
flowering heads giving them an unusual appearance.
Fruits are short and oblong, from 2 to 4mm, with
scales.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: The species grows in wet soils, along
waters edges in fresh to brackish marshes, low
woods, meadows, bogs, swamps and ditches.
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='E. aquaticum is adapted to marshy or seasonally
flooded areas. It grows in soils that are regularly
saturated to irregularly inundated.
RATTLESNAKE-
MASTER
Eryngium aquaticum L.
Plant Symbol = ERAQ
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Corn-snakeroot, bitter snakeroot, marsh eryngo, sea
holly
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee, Choctaw, Koasati and
other Southwestern Native American tribes used a tea
made from the plants to treat “stomach disorders.”
The root was chewed for stomachache. An infusion,
made from the roots, was used to cause vomiting for
nausea, as a powerful expectorant to clear the lungs,
and a diuretic. The root was used as a stimulant as
well as an “anti-poison” to treat snakebite. The
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Both the sword-shaped foliage and the unusual
flowers of Rattlesnakemaster make them a unique
and beautiful sculptural addition to the garden.
Plants may be propagated from seed or by
transplanting purchased container-grown plants. To
collect your own seeds, gather the flower heads after
they have turned brown and dried upon the plant.
Sow seeds in the fall. The plants like moist, rich,
light soils in sunny locations. For heavy soils, add
compost before planting. Take care to select a place
where the plants can remain as the root system
dislikes disturbance. The plants may be propagated
by carefully divided them in the spring. Root
cuttings can be taken in the winter.
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='E. aquaticum is susceptible to tobacco mild green
mosaic tobamovirus
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Most of the material cultured under this name is
E. yuccifolium, which is adapted to drier habitats.
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Aquatic nurseries can be a good
source for these plants.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Botany Com. 2001. The encyclopedia of plants:
Eryngium. J.L. Clairmont Holdings Inc.
http://www.botany.com/eryngium.html. (May 19,
2001).
Brunt, A.A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M.J., Gibbs,
A.J., Watson, L. &. Zurcher, E.J. (eds.) 1996. Plant
Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the
VIDE Database. Version: 20th August 1996. Also,
Dallwitz (1980) and Dallwitz, Paine and Zurcher
(1993) http://biology.anu.edu.au/Groups/MES/vide/.
(May 19, 2001).
Campbell, T.N. 1951. Medicinal plants used by
Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians in the early
nineteenth century. Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences 41: 285-290.
Center for New Crops &. Plant Products, at Purdue
University 1998. Button Snake-root. From Sievers,
A.F. 1930. The Herb Hunters Guide. Misc. Publ.
No. 77. USDA, Washington DC.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/herbhunters/but
tonsnakeroot.html. (May 19, 2001).
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers in the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York.
322 pp.
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of Georgia
Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol 2.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 933
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and Exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Mellow Marsh Farms. 2001. Mellow Marsh Farm
plant list.
http://www.mellowmarshfarm.com/MMF95-
2_xls.pdf (May 19, 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 88
pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. 328 pp.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='eraq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29May2001 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CALIFORNIA YERBA
SANTA
Eriodictyon californicum
(Hook. &. Arn.) Torr.
Plant Symbol = ERCA6
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
tea, decoction, or poultice. The flowers and the
bitter, aromatic leaves may be used fresh or dried.
The leaves and flowers were made into a “bitter or
sweetish-soapy” tasting tea that was drunk to relieve
headaches and other symptoms of tuberculosis.
Infusions of Yerba santa leaves and flowers were
used to treat fevers, coughs, colds, stomachaches
asthma, rheumatism pleurisy, and to purify the blood.
The Kawaiisu drank Yerba Santa tea instead of water
for a month to treat gonorrhea (Zigmond 1981). The
Salinan used an infusion of the leaves as a balm for
the eyes. Later, those at the San Antonio mission
made eye balm by placing the leaves in corked glass
bottles and allowing them to sweat in the sun.
Leaves were smoked or chewed to relieve asthma,
coughs, colds, headaches, and stomachaches. Heated
leaves were placed on the forehead to relieve
headaches (Bocek 1984) and other aches and sores
(Barrett &. Gifford 1933). The sticky leaves
conveniently stay in place upon the skin. Mashed
leaves were applied externally to sores, cuts, wounds,
and aching muscles. Mashed leaves were also used
to reduce the swelling and relieve pain caused by
bone fractures (Barrett &. Gifford 1933). Yerba
Santa, used alone or combined with other herbs, was
applied to infected sores on humans and animals.
The branches and leaves were burned in steam baths
to treat rheumatism. The Ohlone wove the leaves
into skirts and aprons.
Wildlife: Bees visit the flowers of Yerba Santa, which
make a deliciously spicy amber honey. Seedlings
and young plants are relatively nutritious and
palatable but the bitter compounds in mature Yerba
Santa shrubs discourage most large herbivores.
However it is an important forage crop for black-
tailed deer in the winter when other food sources are
unavailable. Birds and small mammals eat the seed
capsules.
Livestock: Goats will sometimes eat the leaves and
stems. Cattle will avoid Yerba Santa in favor of
more palatable plants, which can be a problem in
highly grazed areas where it can become the
dominant plant (Howard 1992).
Other: Yerba Santa can be used for rehabilitating and
stabilizing disturbed areas (Howard 1992). The seeds
germinate readily in disturbed soils. The shallow,
spreading root system can help to stabilize areas
subject to erosion caused by runoff.
Br. Alfred Brousseau
© Saint Mary’s College
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Mountain balm, Palo Santo, holy plant
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Yerba Santa was highly valued by
many California tribes including the Salinan, Ohlone,
Miwok, Pomo, and Yokuts who continue to use it for
various medicinal purposes. The Spanish who came
to early California were so impressed with the plant
that they gave it the name Yerba Santa, meaning holy
plant. Yerba Santa was introduced to the Spanish
Padres at Mission San Antonio de Padua by the
Salinan tribe and it became one of three major
medicinal herbs used at the mission (Heinsen 1972).
The plants can be harvested at any stage, but are best
in the fall when the leaves are sticky and aromatic
(Hedges &. Beresford 1986). The Kashaya Pomo
recommend gathering the leaves just before the plant
begins to produce flowers (Goodrich et al. 1980).
The leaves, stems and flowers are used (Heizer &.
Elsasser 1980). They are either eaten or made into a
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Waterleaf family (Hydrophyllaceae). Yerba
Santa is a perennial evergreen shrub (5 to 22 dm)
native to California and Oregon. The stems are black
with shredding outer bark. The lance shaped leaves
(4 to 15cm long) are thick and leathery with a
glutinous upper surface. The leaves are dark green
above with lighter green beneath and can have either
smooth or saw-toothed edges. Older leaves often
turn black due to a condition called sooty fungus.
The white to purple trumpet-shaped flowers (8 to
17mm) grow in branched panicles at the stem ends.
The flowers bloom from May to June or July. The
small capsulate fruits (2-3mm) ripen in September
and contain from 2 to 20 small black seeds.
Distribution: Yerba Santa occurs from the Coast
Ranges in California from Monterey County to the
Klamath range in Siskiyou County as well as in the
Sierra Nevada Range from Kern County in California
to the Oregon counties of Klamath and Jackson in the
north (Howard 1992). For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Yerba Santa grows below 1600-m elevation
on dry rocky hillsides and ridges. It can be found in
patches on chaparral slopes, forests, canyons, and
along riverbanks. It is abundant in some annual
grasslands and oak woodlands. Yerba Santa is often
found in disturbed areas and early to mid
successional communities.
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Yerba Santa is adapted to the hot, dry summers and
mild, wet winter’s characteristic of the Mediterranean
climate of California. Yerba Santa is a “fire-
following” species (Emery 1988). Seeds stored in the
soil for decades germinate readily during the first
spring after a fire (Howard 1992). Older plants can
sprout from their underground stems, called
rhizomes, following disturbances such as fire.
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Gather seeds in September and October as the fruit
capsules ripen. Yerba Santa seeds can be planted in
the fall or early spring. The seeds will store
indefinitely if kept in a dry, cool location. Prior to
sowing, mix the seeds with several parts of moist
sand. This helps to ensure even distribution. Seeds
can be sown directly into a prepared bed or into flats
filled with a mixture of equal amounts of soil, sand,
and leafmold. Heating the seeds in an oven for 5
minutes at 194 °F may increase germination rates
(Emery 1988). Alternatively the seed coat can be
scarified in order to allow moisture and air to enter
(Mirov &. Kraebel 1939). This may be accomplished
by rubbing the seeds between two pieces of
sandpaper. Adding charate (burned and ground plant
stems) to the soil may also increase germination
success. When the seedlings are large enough to
handle they should be transplanted into larger pots.
The plants can be placed into the ground the
following spring.
The plants are sunloving and do not tolerate shade.
Plants may be grown in any texture of soil but prefer
it to be slightly acidic and moderately fertile. The
shallow roots allow them to establish in thin as well
as deep soils. The plants are tolerant of serpentine
soils.
When selecting a site keep in mind that after two
years Yerba Santa can reproduce vegetablely through
rhizomes. These underground stems can spread as
much as 2.5 m in one year under excellent conditions
(Howard 1992) and may overrun other plants (Halse
1993). This vegetative spread results in cloned
patches with plants spaced from 20 to 25cm apart.
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
The plants should only be pruned in the spring or
early summer.
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 388 pp.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Page 3
Brousseau, Br. A. 1995. Eriodictyon californicum St.
Mary’s College of California. Digital Library
Project, University of California, Berkeley. [Online].
Available: http://www.calflora.org. Accessed [15
December 2001].
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Halse, R.R. 1993. Hydrophyllaceae waterleaf
family. In: Hickman, J.D., Editor. The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California. Pp. 683-686.
Hedges, K. &. C. Beresford 1886. Santa Ysabel
ethnobotany. San Diego Museum of Man Ethnic
Technology Notes No. 20. San Diego, California. 58
pp.
Heinsen, V. 1972. Mission San Antonio de Padua
Herbs: Medicinal herbs of early days. Third edition.
Lockwood, California. 142pp.
Heizer, R.F. &. A.B. Elsasser 1980. The natural
world of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California. 271 pp.
Howard, J.L. 1992. Eriodictyon californicum. In:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory 2001, May. Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [20 December
2001].
Knudtsen, P.M. 1988. The Wintu Indians of
California. Naturegraph Publishers, Inc. Happy
Camp, California. 92 pp.
Mirov, N.T. &. C.J. Kraebel 1939. Collecting and
handling seeds of wild plants. Civilian Conservation
Corps Forestry Publication No. 5. US. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 42 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
[6 January 2002].
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society, Fort Bragg,
California. 81 pp.
Munz, P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, California. 1681 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 425
pp.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California. 480 pp.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. 102
pp.
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='erca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 15apr02 ahv. 19may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
was mixed with other herbs to also treat headaches
and inflammation of the nose and throat. The tea was
used to break fevers. The plant was boiled and mixed
with tallow to make a balm that could be spread upon
sores on the skin. It was used for as an eye medicine
to treat “dimness of sight.” It was used as an
astringent, a diuretic, and as an aid for kidneys or the
gout. The Cherokee and Houma tribes boiled the
roots to make a drink for “menstruation troubles” and
to induce miscarriages (to treat “suppressed
menstruation”). It was also used to treat hemorrhages
and for spitting of blood. The Catawba used a drink
from the plant to treat heart trouble.
Livestock: Cows graze this plant for forage.
Wildlife: Deer use this plant for food. Butterflies,
bees and moths pollinate the flowers.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower or composite family (Asteraceae.
Compositae). Philadelphia fleabane is a native,
biennial or short-lived, somewhat weedy, perennial
herb. The hemispherical, aster-like flowers (1.5 –
2.5cm diameter), which bloom in the spring, have
yellow centers of tubular disk flowers (2.5-3cm
long), surrounded by from 100-150 narrow, white to
pinkish-purple rays (5-10mm long). The flowers
grow on branches atop a 30 to 90cm-tall leafless,
usually single, stem that grows out of a sparse rosette
of basal leaves (4-16cm long). Each branch can bear
from a few to several flowers or drooping closed
buds. The opened flowers close at night. The basal
leaves are ovate (widest near the base) with toothed
margins. Another group of smaller, lanceolate leaves
surround and clasp the stem near the base. The leaves
PHILADELPHIA
FLEABANE
Erigeron philadelphicus L.
Plant Symbol = ERPH
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate names
Daisy fleabane, common fleabane, marsh, fleabane,
frost-root, skervish, poor robin’s plantain
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee and other Native
American tribes used Philadelphia fleabane for a
variety of medicinal purposes including epilepsy. A
poultice was made from the plant to treat headaches.
The roots were either made into tea or chewed to
treat colds and coughs. The smoke from incense
made from the plant was inhaled to treat head colds.
A snuff was made and sniffed also for head colds. It
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
and stems can be sparsely pubescent to quite hairy.
The genus name, Erigeron stems from the Greek eri,
".early". and geron ".old man,". probably because of the
plant’s hairy appearance. The common name
“fleabane” is from Old English and it refers to the
plant’s odor, which supposedly can repel fleas.
Similar species: Erigeron pulchellus has fewer ray
flowers (40-60). E. quercifolius is shorter with violet
or blue flowers. E. strigosus is an annual from 30-
90cm tall, which lacks the clasping leaves
surrounding the stem. Low Erigeron (E. pumilis
Nutt.) is from 5-30cm tall and can have white, pink,
or bluish rays.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Philadelphia fleabane grows in moist to very
wet conditions. Plants grow in wet meadows and
grassy openings, flood plains, lowland woodlands,
thickets, fields, stream banks, low pastures, wet
roadsides and seepage areas. The size of the plant
varies with habitat.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The plant will grow in a variety of soils. However, it
requires soils that are moist and moderately well
drained. It grows best in full sun but will tolerate
dappled shade.
Seeds: Wildflower seeds should be sown directly into
beds or scattered in the garden during early spring.
The seeds should germinate in about four weeks.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Philadelphia fleabane is a native wildflower that
occurs over much of the United States and will often
self sow if growing under favorable conditions.
However, this plant is listed as an invasive weed, so
be sure to determine if it can be a problem in your
area before planting.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Cronquist, A. 1980. Vascular flora of the
Southeastern United States. University of North
Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 261 pp.
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote. 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of southeastern United States. Vol 2.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 712
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. .L. Blomquist. 1953. Flowers of the
south: native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208pp.
Haddock, M. 2000. Philadelphia fleabane. Kansas
wildflowers and grasses
http://www.lib.ksu.edu/wildflower/philadelphia.html.
(May 4, 2001).
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey. 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American
ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927
pp.
Shemluck, M. 1982. Medicinal and other uses of the
Compositae by Indians in the United States and
Canada. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5: 303-358.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Page 3
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive Man
Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic Anthropological
Conference 14(4): 49-75.
Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center. 2001.
Native Wildflowers of the North Dakota Grasslands.
United States Geological Service
http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/wildflwr
/species/erigphil.htm. (May 4, 2001).
Erigeron philadelphicus. 2000. Plants for a future-
species database. www.pfaf.org. (May 4, 2001).
Wunderlin, R. P. &. B. F. Hansen. 2000. Atlas of
Florida Vascular Plants.
http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/.
[S. M. Landry and K.N. Campbell (application
development), Florida Center for Community Design
and Research.] Institute for Systematic Botany,
University of South Florida, Tampa. (May 4, 2001).
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='erph';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 29May2001 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CHOCOLATE LILY
Fritillaria affinis (Schultes)
Sealy
Plant Symbol = FRAF2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
like grains of rice. The bulbs grow relatively close to
the surface and are easily extracted. Bulbs were dug
in spring (before flowering) or in summer or fall
(after flowering) using a digging stick, a wooden
spade, or the fingers. Chocolate lily bulbs were
cooked immediately, or could be partially dried, then
stored in a cool place for winter use. They were
cooked for about 30 minutes in a cedarwood box, by
boiling for a short time then mashing to a paste, or
occasionally, by baking in ashes. Chocolate lily
bulbs were used as an item of trade. Even when
cooked, they are slightly bitter, and some people used
to soak them in water overnight to reduce the bitter
flavor. In Fritillaria species, the major carbohydrate
is reported to be starch (Yuanovsky and Kingsbury
1938).
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Chocolate lily
(Fritillaria affinis) is a tall herbaceous perennial
growing from white bulblets consisting of a few
fleshy scales and many rice-grain-like offsets. its
bulbs are usually smaller than Fritillaria
camchatcensis. The stems are 20-50 cm tall, sturdy
and unbranched, bearing 1-3 whorls of 5-11 lance-
shaped leaves. Chocolate lily has bowl-shaped,
distinctly nodding flowers with six tepals which are
brown-mottled with green or yellow. The capsules
are broadly winged.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Chocolate lily is found in open dry woods and
meadows from southern coastal British Columbia
eastward to the Okanagan in eastern Washington and
south to California. In California, chocolate lily
occurs commonly in oak or pine scrub and grasslands
below 1800 m in the Klamath Ranges, north Coast
Ranges, Cascade, northern Sierra Nevada Foothills,
San Francisco Bay area (Hickman 1993). Chocolate
lily grows on well-drained soils on open slopes. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fritillaria species have become quite uncommon in
the wild. Fritillaria affinis requires well-drained soil
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='checker lily, rice root fritillary, mission bells
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The bulbs of chocolate lily were eaten
by most Coast and Interior Salish peoples, either
boiled or steamed in pits. Chocolate lily, also called
“rice root” by Indian people, has bulblets that look
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
and moderate summer watering but is intolerant of
frequent watering (such as a lawn might receive).
This plant tolerates shade, but prefers sun. It may be
difficult to get established.
Fritillaria species are frequently found in areas with
soil moisture persisting throughout most of the
growing season. Fritillaria propagates readily from
seed, and the rice-like bulblets can be used for
propagation. This species grows well in well-
drained, loam soils that are neutral to slightly acid.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LivePlant_bulb_Cultivation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LivePlant_bulb_Cultivation='Fritillaria species have bulbs that do well in moist
shade. Bulbs may be planted in pots or in a
greenhouse bed or bulb frame. It is best to store
Fritillaria bulbs in slightly moist bark, peat, shredded
wood, or some other material. Buy the bulbs as early
as possible before they begin to grow. Bulbs tend to
deteriorate or rot if kept too long.
Plant bulbs in soil that is rich in nutrients and humus
and also retains moisture. Incorporate plenty of leafy
mold or some other organic matter, such as well-
rotted manure or compost, before planting. Acid-
loving woodland bulbs thrive in the peat garden
where at least half the soil is leaf mold, peat, or
compost.
Bulbs in containers should not be allowed to dry out
when in growth and should be fed regularly with a
high-potassium fertilizer to boost flower production.
Wait until seeds have set and foliage begins to
senesce before lifting bulbs out of soil, clean them,
and store them in a cool, moist place. Watch bulbs to
prevent them from rotting or being affected by a
fungal disease.
Bulbs can increase naturally by forming bulblets
around the bulb (the “rice” in “Indian rice”).
Propagate the bulbs by separating these bulblets from
the mother bulb and planting. Bulbs should be
separated every year or two.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedCultivation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedCultivation='This species grows readily from seed. Most bulbs
take 3-5 years to reach mature flowering stage.
Fritillaria species do not flower regularly even in
nature, and so are described as shy-flowering. When
seed capsules form, they begin to split when they are
ripe. Collect immediately, as seeds may be shed
quickly. Let the seeds dry without heat, and store
them until sown in labeled paper packets in a cool,
dry, airy place. Do not use plastic bags, as the seeds
are likely to rot.
The best times to sow seeds are fall, but if seed is
available earlier, sow immediately. Germination
should follow in early spring.
The recommended potting soil for seed germination
and emergence is a commercial sand-based mix. with
one-quarter part coarse sand added if the mixture
does not have a sandy appearance. Space large, flat
seeds of Fritillaria one seed’s width apart. Sieve a
light covering of the soil mix over the seeds so that
they are no longer visible, and then cover with a
generous layer of grit or aquarium gravel. Label the
pots with the plant name, seed source, and date.
Stand the pots in a shady place in the open garden, or
plunge them in a sand frame, and keep them moist.
When the seedlings have germinated, bring the pots
into full light in a cold frame or greenhouse. Keep
them moist until they show definite signs of dying
down, and then water them very sparingly.
Fritillaria seedlings should be kept slightly moist
during this senescent period. Start watering again in
early fall, or as soon as there is new growth, and keep
the pots watered until the growth dies down. Leave
most bulbs for two growing seasons before repotting,
unless they grow vigorously. Larger bulbs are
formed if these seedlings are fed the second year.
Use a commercial liquid feed as used for tomatoes,
but at half the manufacturer’s recommended strength.
After two years, remove the bulbs from the pots after
they have died back. Separate out the bulblets, clean
them gently, and repot them in clean, moist soil. For
Fritillaria species, use a soil mix of one part
sterilized leaf mold, one part peat or compost, and
one part sterilized soil, with a further 1.5 parts of
coarse horticultural sand or seed-grown perlite. It is
better to grow seedlings in pots for 3-4 years before
planting them outside.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional resource management of chocolate lily
includes the following (Turner and Deur 1999):
• Ownership of individual patches and their output
by chiefs, ensuring long-term care and
enhancement of plant production.
• Root feasts as a means of redistributing plant
wealth and meeting ceremonial obligations.
• Specialized digging sticks as a harvesting tool to
cultivate and turn over the soil.
• Harvesting at a set time of year, before or after
plants have set seed .
• Regular use of same sites over time/generations.
• Care and assiduity in harvest.
• Turning of the soil or sod.
• Extending periods of harvest time.
Page 3
• Replanting and leaving behind portions of
bulblets, to re-grow the following year.
• Weeding root patches.
•
Individual patches and landscapes were burned
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
FRAF2 is available from selected native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brickell, C. &. E. McDonald (eds.) 1993. The
American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of
gardening. The definitive practical guide to
gardening techniques, planning, and maintenance.
Darling Kindersten.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.). The Jepson manual. Higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1400 PP,
Hitchcock, C. L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle and London.
730 pp.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, Botany, and Use. Food and Nutrition in
History and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers. Pgs. 239-242.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 34. Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. D.E. Deur 1999. “Cultivating the
clover”: Managing plant resources on the northwest
coast. Presentation at Society of Ethnobiology
meetings, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. The ethnobotany of
the Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. British
Columbia Provincial Museum, Cultural Recovery
Paper No. 2, Queen’s Printer, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
99pp.
Turner, N.J. &. H.V. Kuhnlein 1983. Camas
(Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two
liliaceous “root” foods of the northwest coast
Indians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24, 165 pp.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000329. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='fraf2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Page 4
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
WHITE ASH
Fraxinus americana L.
Plant Symbol = FRAM2
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
R. Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Biltmore ash, Biltmore white ash, cane ash, small-
seed white ash
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='White ash is a good tree for open areas such as parks
and campuses. it also is used as a lawn, shade, and
street tree, even though its potential large size can
make it incongruous with a small area. It is an erect,
graceful tree, often with bronze-purple fall foliage. It
is easy to transplant and numerous cultivars have
been developed, including seedless (male) forms.
Other selections are based on yellow to orange and
purple fall colors, persistence of leaves in the fall,
height, crown shape (broadly to narrowly oval) and
density, growth vigor, and cold hardiness. White ash
also has been used in re-vegetating disturbed sites.
The wood of white ash is valued for its strength,
hardness, heavy weight, and elasticity (shock
resistance). Native Americans appreciated its
usefulness for tools and implements, and it is used
extensively today for tool handles. Its use in wooden
baseball bats is famous. The wood is also used in
furniture, doors, veneer, antique vehicle parts,
railroad cars and ties, canoe paddles, snowshoes,
boats, posts, ties, and fuel. White ash is the most
valuable timber tree of the various ashes.
White ash was used by Native Americans for a
variety of medicinal purposes: a decoction of the
leaves as a laxative and general tonic for women after
childbirth. the seeds as an aphrodisiac, a diuretic, an
appetite stimulant, a styptic, an emetic, and as a cure
for fevers. and a bark tea for an itching scalp, lice,
snakebite, and other sores. Juice from the leaves has
been applied to mosquito bites for relief of swelling
and itching.
White-tailed deer and cattle browse white ash and
beaver, porcupine, and rabbits may eat the bark of
young trees. The seeds are eaten by wood duck,
northern bobwhite, turkey, grouse, finches,
grosbeaks, cardinals, fox squirrel, mice, and many
other birds and small mammals. The tendency of
white ash to form trunk cavities makes it valuable for
cavity nesters such as redheaded, red-bellied, and
pileated woodpeckers. Once primary nest excavators
have opened up the bole, it is an excellent habitat for
secondary nesters such as wood ducks, owls,
nuthatches, and gray squirrels.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Olive family (Oleaceae). Native trees
growing to 20-30 m tall, maintaining a central leader
(strong apical dominance) in youth with an even
distribution of branches, developing a dense, conical
or rounded crown at maturity. The trunk is long,
straight, and free of branches for most of its length
(except when open grown). The bark is thick, dark
gray, with a uniform, diamond-shaped ridge and
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
furrow pattern. Leaves are deciduous, opposite,
pinnately compound, 20-38 cm long, leaflets usually
7(5-9), short-stalked, ovate to ovate-lanceolate or
elliptic, acuminate, 6-13 cm long and 3-6 cm wide,
sometimes with a few teeth near the tip, dark green
and smooth above, whitish below. Flowers are
numerous, very small, green to purplish, in small
branched clusters near the branch tips, usually either
male (staminate) or female (pistillate), a single tree
usually bearing only one sex (the species dioecious).
Fruits are samaras 2.5-5 cm long, hanging in clusters,
with a narrow wing extending about 1/3-1/4 of the
way down the cylindrical body. The common name
is in reference to the white color of the wood.
This species flowers in April-May, the male first,
before appearance of the leaves. fruiting August-
October, the seeds dispersed September-November.
The pollen is already airborne during the 7-10 days
when the female flowers are receptive.
Variation within the species: A number of variants
have been described within the species, including F.
americana var. biltmoreana (Beadle) J. Wright ex
Fern. (= F. biltmoreana Beadle) and F. americana
var. microcarpa A. Gray, but the distinctions
between these have not been generally confirmed and
formal variants are not currently recognized.
Diploids (2n=46), tetraploids (2n=92), and
hexaploids (2n=138) occur within the species, but it
is difficult to associate differences in ploidy level
with other patterns of variation.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='White ash grows over most of eastern North
America, absent only from the outer Atlantic and
Gulf coastal plains. It occurs from Nova Scotia west
to eastern Minnesota and south to Texas and northern
Florida, northward barely into southern Quebec and
Ontario. It is cultivated in Hawaii. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: White ash grows best on deep, well-
drained, moist soils with other hardwoods at
elevations of about 0-1050 meters. It rarely forms
pure stands. It occurs on middle slopes in the
Northeast, on slightly elevated ridges in the
floodplains of major streams in the coastal plain, and
on slopes along major streams in the central states.
Primary associates are eastern white pine, northern
red oak, white oak, sugar maple, red maple, yellow
birch, American beech, black cherry, eastern
hemlock, and yellow poplar.
White ash is primarily characteristic of early and
intermediate stages of succession. The seedlings are
shade tolerant but can also establish in full sun.
Mature individuals are shade intolerant – after
persisting for a few years in moderately dense shade,
trees developing inside closed stands reach the
overstory by responding quickly to openings in the
canopy.
General: White ash begins producing seed at a
minimum age of 20 years. A good seed crop is
produced at intervals of 2-3 years, although the males
flower heavily each year. To best overcome
dormancy, stratify under moist conditions for 30 days
at 14/30° C (night/day) then for 60 days at 5° C. A
forest floor seed bank may retain viable white ash
seeds for 3-4 years. Germination can occur on
mineral soil, humus, or leaf litter, and seedlings
develop best in partial sun. Mature trees may reach
200 years of age.
White ash resprouts from the root crown after
logging or fire. Sprouting ability decreases with age.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='White ash prefers moist, deep soils for best growth
but is adaptable to a wide range of soil pH. Full sun
is best. Young plants are easily transplanted and
established. White ash has been successfully used in
the reclamation of strip mines in Ohio, Kentucky, and
Pennsylvania. Seedlings provide a better start than
direct seeding, and planting should be in mixtures
with other hardwoods. White ash is more ornamental
than green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) but is less
adaptable, grows at a slower rate, and is more
susceptible to pests and diseases.
Bud grafting generally propagates white ash
cultivars. The species also can be propagated by
conventional methods of grafting and layering. open
field and bench grafting of unpotted stock have been
successful.
Fire kills the aboveground stem and crown of white
ash, but it resprouts from the root crown after fire.
White ash is moderately susceptible to decay and
insect damage induced through fire damage.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='Ash decline (or “ash dieback” or “ash yellows”) is
the most serious problem affecting white ash. The
decline is especially prevalent in New York,
Pennsylvania and Vermont but occurs from the Great
Plains to the Atlantic coast at 39°–45° N latitude.
Mycoplasma-like organisms (MLO, the cause of ash
yellows) have been found associated with most of the
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
dying trees.Not all dying trees are infected and ash
decline is thought to result from multiple causes –
MLO plus various fungi and viruses, as well as
atmospheric pollution and drought. Maintenance of
good tree vigor is the primary control
recommendation.
White ash is sensitive to ozone, sulfur dioxide,
nitrous oxides, and associated acid deposition, which
may cause the appearance of necrotic lesions on the
leaves. Most of recent ash decline has occurred in
areas with high levels of these gases.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.” These
plant materials are readily available from commercial
sources.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Griffith, R.S. 1991. Fraxinus americana. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://fire.org/feis/plants/tree/fraame/all_frames.htm
l>.
Schlesinger, R.C. 1990. Fraxinus americana L.
White Ash. Pp. 333-338, in R.M. Burns and B.H.
Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North America.
Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service Agric.
Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/volume
_2/fraxinus/americana.htm>.
USDA, NRCS 1993. Northeast wetland flora: Field
office guide to plant species. Wetland Science
Institute, Laurel, Maryland.
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom, Formerly BONAP, North Carolina
Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
' WHERE symbol='fram2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='Lincoln Moore, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 14feb03 ahv. 060801 jsp
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
INDIAN RICE
Fritillaria camchatcensis (L.)
Ker-Gawl
Plant Symbol = FRCA5
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
bitter, and some people soaked them in water
overnight to reduce the bitter flavor.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). Fritillaria
camchatcensis is a tall herbaceous perennial growing
from a white bulb surrounded by numerous, tightly
clustered rice-like bulblets. The stems are 20-50 cm
tall, sturdy and unbranched, bearing 1-3 whorls of 5-
11 lance-shaped leaves. The flowers of Indian rice
are bell-shaped and nodding, each with greenish-
brown to brownish- purple tepals, sometimes
streaked with yellow. The flowers have a
disagreeable odor. The capsules are angled and many
seeded. The species are attractive in native garden,
but are fast disappearing from much of their range.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Indian rice grows in moist areas, from tidal flats to
wet meadows, from Alaska to western Washington.
Indian rice grows in prairies and grassy bluffs to
woodland and coniferous forests from near sea level
to above 5,000 ft. in elevation. It occurs from British
Columbia to Oregon. In Washington, riceroot grows
on both sides of the Cascades, but it only grows on
the west side in Oregon. Riceroot extends east from
British Columbia and Washington to northern Idaho.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fritillaria camchatcensis has become quite
uncommon in the wild. In addition, salt marsh,
estuarine wetland, and freshwater wetland habitat has
declined by over 90 percent throughout much of the
United States. Wild harvesting for non-traditional
use should be restricted to salvage sites with
appropriate approvals and permits.
Fritillaria species are frequently found in areas with
soil moisture persisting throughout most of the
growing season. It is often found on coarse-grained
soils of glacial origin. Riceroot tolerates shade, but
prefers sun. Fritillaria propagates readily from seed,
and the rice-like bulblets can be used for propagation.
W.S. Atkinson
from Abrams (1940)
Used with permission of publishers
© Stanford University
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Kamchatka lily, rice root, black lily, Mission bells
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Virtually all Northwest Coast peoples
of British Columbia and southeast Alaska ate the
bulbs of “Indian rice,” which resemble tight clusters
of white rice. The bulblets grow relatively close to
the surface and are easily extracted. They were dug
up in the spring (before flowering), in the summer, or
the fall (after flowering) using a digging stick, a
wooden spade, or fingers. They were cooked
immediately, or could be partially dried, then stored
in a cool place for winter use. They were cooked for
about 30 minutes in a cedarwood box, by boiling for
a short time then mashing to a paste, or occasionally,
by baking in ashes. Indian rice bulbs were used as an
item of trade. Even when cooked, they are slightly
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
This species grows well in well-drained, loam soils
that are neutral to slightly acid.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Cultivation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LivePlant_Bulb_Cultivation='Fritillaria species have bulbs that do well in moist
shade. Bulbs may be planted in pots or in a
greenhouse bed or bulb frame. It is best to store
Fritillaria bulbs in slightly moist bark, peat, shredded
wood, or some other material. Buy the bulbs as early
as possible before they begin to grow. Bulbs tend to
deteriorate or rot if kept too long.
Plant bulbs in soil that is rich in nutrients and humus
and also retains moisture. Incorporate plenty of leafy
mold or some other organic matter, such as well-
rotted manure or compost, before planting. Acid-
loving woodland bulbs thrive in the peat garden,
where at least half the soil is leaf mold, peat, or
compost.
Bulbs in containers should not be allowed to dry out
when growing and should be fed regularly with a
high-potassium fertilizer to boost flower production.
Wait until seeds have set and foliage begins to
senesce before lifting bulbs out of soil, then clean
them and store them in a cool, moist place. Watch
bulbs to prevent them from rotting or being affected
by a fungal disease.
Bulbs can increase naturally by forming bulblets
around the bulb (the “rice” in “Indian rice”).
Propagate the bulbs by separating these bulblets from
the mother bulb and planting them. Bulbs should be
separated every year or two.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='This species grows readily from seed. Most bulbs
take 3-5 years to reach mature flowering stage.
Fritillaria species do not flower regularly even in
nature, and so are described as “shy-flowering.”
Collect seed immediately when capsules are ripe, as
they split and seeds may be shed quickly. Let the
seeds dry without heat, and store them until sown in
labeled paper packets in a cool, dry, airy place. Do
not use plastic bags, as the seeds are likely to rot.
The best times to sow seeds are fall, but if seed is
available earlier, sow immediately. Germination
should follow in early spring.
The recommended potting soil for seed germination
and emergence is a commercial sand-based mix. with
one-quarter part coarse sand added if the mixture
does not have a sandy appearance. Space large, flat
seeds of Fritillaria one seed’s width apart. Sieve a
light covering of the soil mix over the seeds so that
they are no longer visible and then cover with a
generous layer of grit or aquarium gravel. Label the
pots with the plant name, seed source, and date.
Stand the pots in a shady place in the open garden, or
plunge them in a sand frame, and keep them moist.
When the seedlings have germinated, bring the pots
into full light in a cold frame or greenhouse. Keep
them moist until they show definite signs of dying
down, and then water them very sparingly.
Fritillaria seedlings should be kept slightly moist
during this senescent period. Start watering again in
early fall, or as soon as there is new growth, and keep
the pots watered until the growth dies down. Leave
most bulbs for two growing seasons before repotting,
unless they grow vigorously. Larger bulbs are
formed if these seedlings are fed the second year.
Use a commercial liquid feed as used for tomatoes,
but at half the manufacturer’s recommended strength.
After two years, remove the bulbs from the pots after
they have died back. Separate out the bulblets, clean
them gently, and repot them in clean, moist soil. For
Fritillaria species, use a soil mix of one part
sterilized leaf mold, one part peat or compost, and
one part sterilized soil, with a further 1.5 parts of
coarse horticultural sand or seed-grown perlite. It is
better to grow seedlings in pots for 3-4 years before
planting them outside.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional resource management of Indian rice
includes the following (Turner and Deur 1999):
• Ownership of individual patches and their output
by chiefs, ensuring long-term care and
enhancement of plant production.
• Root feasts as a means of redistributing plant
wealth and meeting ceremonial obligations.
• Specialized digging sticks as a harvesting tool to
cultivate and turn over the soil.
• Harvesting at a set time of year before or after
plants have set seed.
• Regular use of same sites over time/generations.
• Care and assiduity in harvest.
• Turning of the soil or sod.
• Replanting and leaving bulblets behind, to re-
grow the following year.
• Weeding root patches.
•
Individual patches and landscapes were burned
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
FRCA2 is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Page 3
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. 1940. Illustrated flora of the Pacific
states. Vol. I. Ophioglossaceae to Aristolochiaceae.
Stanford University Press, Stanford University,
California. p. 423.
Brickell, C. &. E. McDonald (eds.) 1993. The
American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of
gardening. The definitive practical guide to
gardening techniques, planning, and maintenance.
Darling Kindersten.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hitchcock, C. L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle &. London.
730 pp.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, Botany, and Use. Food and Nutrition in
History and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon &.
Breach Science Publishers. Pgs. 239-242.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. D.E. Deur 1999. “Cultivating the
clover”: Managing plant resources on the northwest
coast. Presentation at Society of Ethnobiology
meetings, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. The ethnobotany of
the Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. British
Columbia Provincial Museum, Cultural Recovery
Paper No. 2, Queen’s Printer, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
99 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. H.V. Kuhnlein 1983. Camas
(Camassia spp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two
liliaceous “root” foods of the northwest coast
Indians. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24. 165 pp.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, B.C., Canada.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000327. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='frca5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page 4
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
FLANNELBUSH
Fremontodendron
californicum (Torr.) Coville
Plant Symbol = FRCA6
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Fremontia
Uses
Ethnobotanic: The bark is cut at one end of the
branches and peeled off in long strips. These are
washed and rubbed between the hands. Three strands
are rolled together on the upper thigh to make
cordage a type of string or rope that was made into a
pack strap and tumpline by the Kawaiisu. The wood
was also sometimes substituted for willow in the
making of Kawaiisu baby cradles. The inner bark
was soaked in water and the infusion drank as a
physic by the Kawaiisu. Many other California tribes
utilized the bark for cordage including the Owens
Valley Paiute, Sierra Miwok, Western Mono, and
Tubatulabal. The Sierra Miwok made a hoop of the
bark wrapped with buckskin for the hoop and pole
game. The Tubatulabal used rope made of
flannelbush to lash bundles of tules together for a
raft, to tie up crooks on pinyon staves, to bundle
firewood into a load, and for two ends of a pack
strap. The Western Mono used the young split
branches to tie together their looped stirring sticks
and to assemble different types of cone-shaped
storage bins for acorns and manzanita berries.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sterculia Family (Sterculiaceae). Named
after the explorer John C. Fremont, this shrub or
small tree reaches 3-8 m in height. The twigs have
dense stellate hairs. The shrub has ovate, soft to
leathery leaves with 3 main lobes with hairs on the
upper and lower surfaces. The spectacular solitary
flowers are 35-60 mm wide with no petals and
subtended by 3 showy yellow, sepal-like bracts. The
ovoid fruit is chambered.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The shrub is found from 400-2200 m in
chaparral, oak woodland, and pine forests in the
California Floristic Province, Arizona, and down to
Baja California.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
The plants grow in extremely rocky areas and are
often found in crevices of rocks. In southern
California, these plants are found in areas containing
very gritty soil and low rainfall. Buy small seedlings
and plant them in the fall in a pile of roadfill with no
clay (mostly gravel and rock and very little soil).
Plant the seedlings in mounds in full sun. Plant in
shallow holes and make sure that no soil covers the
top of the ball of soil that contains the seedlings.
Cover the soil with gravel and rock, then water.
Keep the mound moist until new growth is several
inches long (not over 4 inches), then stop watering.
Water at the edge of the mound making sure that the
water doesn t get within fifteen inches of the trunk of
the plant. Leave the shrub alone from then on and
use no fertilizer.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='You can prune this shrub at any time of the year.
Tribes in the Sierra Nevada burned individual shrubs
or areas where the shrubs grew in the fall or winter to
induce rapid elongation of young epicormic branches
which were harvested and split for cordage.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Steward, J.H. 1933. Ethnography of the Owens
Valley Paiute. University of California Publications
in American Archaeology and Ethnology 33(5):423-
438.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records 2(1):1-84.
Whetstone, R.D. &. T.A. Atkinson 1993.
Sterculiaceae. Pages 1077-1078 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='frca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
BEACH
Plant Guide
Mill.
Plant Symbol = FRCH
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P.
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by
seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons.
The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole
generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and
are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5
white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils
and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and
grassland communities of coastal California. It is
found from Alaska to coastal South America and
Hawaii. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with
soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground
in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil,
about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the
plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly
fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note
that those plants that have bigger flowers usually
have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have
more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer,
squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every
three to four years and start a new patch for increased
vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and
produce more berries.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Pacific beach strawberry. This species is recognized
as having four subspecies: chiloensis, lucida,
pacifica, and sandwicensis. Frageria chiloensis ssp.
sandwicensis is known as the Sandwich beach
strawberry.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more
fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great
flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah,
Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It
was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples
of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot,
Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the
fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the
Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on
burns.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P.Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Gunther, E. 1992. Ethnobotany of western
Washington: The knowledge and use of indigenous
plants by Native Americans. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology. 14(3):221-436.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='frch';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
BEACH
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P.
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
Mill. ssp. chiloensis
Plant Symbol = FRCHC
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by
seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons.
The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole
generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and
are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5
white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils
and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and
grassland communities of coastal California. It is
found from Alaska to coastal South America and
Hawaii. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with
soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground
in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil,
about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the
plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly
fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note
that those plants that have bigger flowers usually
have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have
more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer,
squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every
three to four years and start a new patch for increased
vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and
produce more berries.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.” Seeds and
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Pacific beach strawberry. This subspecies is
recognized as having three related subspecies: lucida,
pacifica, and sandwicensis. Frageria chiloensis ssp.
sandwicensis is known as the Sandwich beach
strawberry.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more
fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great
flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah,
Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It
was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples
of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot,
Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the
fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the
Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on
burns.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are available
from many nurseries. It is best to plant species from
your local area, adapted to the specific site conditions
where the plants are to be grown.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P.Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Gunther, E. 1992. Ethnobotany of western
Washington: The knowledge and use of indigenous
plants by Native Americans. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology. 14(3):221-436.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='frchc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
BEACH
Plant Guide
Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P.
Mill. ssp. lucida (Vilm.) Staudt
Plant Symbol = FRCHL
STRAWBERRY
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by
seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons.
The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole
generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and
are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5
white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils
and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and
grassland communities of coastal California. It is
found from Alaska to coastal South America and
Hawaii. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with
soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground
in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil,
about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the
plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly
fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note
that those plants that have bigger flowers usually
have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have
more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer,
squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every
three to four years and start a new patch for increased
vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and
produce more berries.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Pacific beach strawberry. This subspecies is
recognized as having three related subspecies:
chiloensis, pacifica, and sandwicensis. Frageria
chiloensis ssp. sandwicensis is known as the
Sandwich beach strawberry.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more
fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great
flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah,
Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It
was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples
of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot,
Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the
fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the
Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on
burns.
Wildlife: The Portola wood rat and the valley quail
eat the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P.Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Gunther, E. 1992. Ethnobotany of western
Washington: The knowledge and use of indigenous
plants by Native Americans. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology. 14(3):221-436.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='frchl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
PACIFIC BEACH
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P.
Mill. ssp. pacifica Staudt
Plant Symbol = FRCHP
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by
seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons.
The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole
generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and
are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5
white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils
and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and
grassland communities of coastal California. It is
found from Alaska to coastal South America and
Hawaii. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with
soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground
in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil,
about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the
plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly
fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note
that those plants that have bigger flowers usually
have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have
more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer,
squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every
three to four years and start a new patch for increased
vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and
produce more berries.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Beach strawberry. This subspecies is recognized as
having three related subspecies: chiloensis, lucida,
and sandwicensis. Frageria chiloensis ssp.
sandwicensis is known as the Sandwich beach
strawberry.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more
fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great
flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah,
Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It
was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples
of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot,
Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the
fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the
Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on
burns.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P.Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Gunther, E. 1992. Ethnobotany of western
Washington: The knowledge and use of indigenous
plants by Native Americans. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology. 14(3):221-436.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='frchp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: This herbaceous perennial plant spreads by
seed and also by short rhizomes and leafless stolons.
The toothed leaves are leathery, basal with a petiole
generally 2-20 cm. They appear in leaflets of 3 and
are glabrous (not hairy) above. The flowers have 5
white petals that are 10-18 mm, with numerous pistils
and 20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are unlobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found below 200 m, in dune and
grassland communities of coastal California. It is
found from Alaska to coastal South America and
Hawaii. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
summer. Be sure to cover the stems and roots with
soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the plants outdoors in the ground
in the fall or winter after the rains have started. They
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil,
about ten inches apart. It will not take long for the
plants to make a complete ground cover. Lightly
fertilize the plants during the growing season. Note
that those plants that have bigger flowers usually
have less fruit and those with smaller flowers have
more fruit. Protect the plants from gophers, deer,
squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every
three to four years and start a new patch for increased
vigor. Younger plants are more vigorous and
produce more berries.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Fragaria cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
SANDWICH BEACH
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria chiloensis (L.) P.
Mill. ssp. sandwicensis (Dcne.)
Staudt
Plant Symbol = FRCHS2
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Beach strawberry. This subspecies is recognized as
having three related subspecies: chiloensis, lucida,
and pacifica.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: This strawberry produces many more
fruits than the wood strawberry and has a great
flavor. It was gathered and eaten raw by the Makah,
Quileute, and Quinault of western Washington. It
was also harvested for its fruit by the native peoples
of Alaska and coastal British Columbia. The Wiyot,
Pomo, and other tribes in California savored the
fruits. The plant is also used medicinally by the
Quileute by chewing the leaves and spitting them on
burns.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
manual: Higher plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P.Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Studies
Center, University of California, Los Angeles,
California.
Gunther, E. 1992. Ethnobotany of western
Washington: The knowledge and use of indigenous
plants by Native Americans. University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Loud, L.L. 1918. Ethnogeography and archaeology
of the Wiyot territory. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology. 14(3):221-436.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='frchs2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLACK ASH
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Plant Symbol = FRNI
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
darker colored with more grain and used largely for
furniture and interior finish.
Ethnobotanic: Black ash is an important tree for the
making of lacrosse sticks used by the Mohawk and
other tribes of the Eastern United States. Trunks at
least 6 to 8 inches across are harvested for their bark.
The Abnaki, Ojibwa, Malecite, Meskwaki, and other
cultural groups use the bark to make baskets. The
inner bark of the black ash was used to make a bark
barrel by the Iroquois which was used for storing
dried vegetables, fruits, and seeds, as well as
clothing. The tree traditionally was a valuable
medicine to many tribes in Eastern North America.
The Iroquois steeped the bark of the tree together
with the roots and bark of other plants to treat
rheumatism. The Menomini used the inner bark of
the trunk as a valuable medicine and as a seasoner for
other medicines. The Meskwaki made a tea from a
mixture of the wood with the root of Smilacina
racemosa to loosen the bowels. They also used the
inner bark of the trunk as a remedy for any internal
ailments. Non-Indian settlers used a bark infusion as
a bitter tonic.
Black ash is not an outstanding ornamental, but it is
cold tolerant, good for wet soils, and relatively
tolerant of atmospheric pollution. Cultivars and
hybrids have been developed, emphasizing upright
growth, oval crown form, growth vigor, bright yellow
fall foliage, persistence of fall foliage, and
seedlessness.
Wildlife: The winged seeds are eaten by a number of
birds including wood ducks, quail, bobwhite, purple
finches, and pine grosbeaks. Mammals also eat the
seeds including beaver, porcupines, and white-footed
mice. Rodents and sometimes wild turkeys shuck off
the wing and eat only the seed inside. White-tailed
deer and moose feed on the twigs and foliage.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Olive family (Oleaceae). Native trees
growing mostly 12-18 m tall (9-13 m at 50 years. 15-
18 m at 100 years), the largest reaching 21 m, with
R. Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Basket ash, hoop ash, brown ash, swamp ash, water
ash
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='The wood of black ash is strongly ring-porous,
making it ideal for basketry splint, barrel hoops,
snowshoe frames, canoe ribs, and material for woven
chair seats. Each growth ring has a distinct porous
area (spring growth) and a dense area (summer
growth), the latter usable as splint, which can be
permanently bent. It separates into thin sheets when
soaked and pounded. The wood is softer, lighter
weight, and easier to work than white ash. It is
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
ascending branches, narrow crown, and slender trunk,
sometimes bent or leaning. bark gray, becoming
corky-ridged and shallowly furrowed, divided into
large irregular plates with thin, papery scales that rub
off easily. Leaves are deciduous, opposite, 15-40 cm
long, pinnately compound with 7-11 oval to lance-
shaped leaflets each 8-14 cm long, tapered to a long
slender tip, only the end leaflet stalked, with finely
toothed margins, dark green above, lighter green
beneath with some rusty hairs, turning purple to
brown in the fall. Flowers are small, purplish,
usually in clusters near the branch tips. some trees
produce either male flowers or female flowers, but
others have a mixture of the two kinds while others
have bisexual flowers (the species polygamo-
dioecious). Fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) 2-4.5
cm long and 1cm wide, winged to the base, borne in
terminal or axillary clusters, the cluster hanging at
maturity. The common name is perhaps in reference
to the dark wood. the other common names are
clearer in allusion.
Variation within the species: Variants have not
generally been recognized within black ash.
Distribution: Black ash is native to the Great Lakes
and Acadia regions of North America, in
southeastern Canada from Newfoundland to eastern
Manitoba, south to Iowa, Illinois, West Virginia, and
Virginia. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Black ash most commonly grows in moist to wet
muck or shallow organic soils, especially in swamps,
floodplains, terraces, ravines, and on small, poorly
drained upland pockets. It also may grow on sands
and loams with high water tables. It can tolerate
standing water for many weeks, but best growth is on
better-drained sites.
It is a shade intolerant pioneer species and normally
becomes established in even-aged pockets or stands
following some kind of disturbance. Seedlings,
saplings, and sprouts tend to dominate the
regeneration layer under partial openings in the
canopy. It sometimes occurs in pure stands,
especially on wetter upland sites, but usually is mixed
with eastern white cedar, tamarack, black spruce,
balsam fir, American elm, red maple, and silver
maple. It is also may be sparsely present in mature
forests dominated by larch, birch, and even beech-
maple.
Flowering: May-June, with the leaves or just before.
fruiting: June-September dispersed: July-October.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: The habitat of the tree is in wet woods
and swamps and it occurs in Delaware, West
Virginia, Indiana and Iowa, north into the Canadian
provinces of Newfoundland, Quebec, and Manitoba.
Planting: Black ash is difficult to grow. Good seed
crops in black ash are produced irregularly (1-8 year
intervals). Seeds may remain dormant for up to 8
years under natural conditions. Most do not
germinate until the second spring after being
released. The seed can germinate in hardwood leaf
litter or under 0.6-1.8 centimeters of soil. Grass,
brush, and hardwood reproduction must be controlled
for successful seedling establishment.
Ash fruits are usually gathered in the autumn when
their color has faded from green to yellow or brown.
Clusters should be collected by hand or with pruners
and seed hooks or gathered from the ground.
Samaras should be spread in shallow layers for
complete drying. Plant the seeds in the fall of the
year, one-half inch below the surface of the soil
through drilling or broadcasting. No stratification
methods appear to work. Some recommend
stratifying seeds 60 days at 14/30 C° (night/day), then
90 days at 5° C. Otherwise, stored seeds are best
sown as soon as possible in a cold frame or an
outdoor seedbed. In direct planting of the seed, one
must be patient as it may take two winters before the
seeds to germinate. During this time, keep the soil
moist during the growing season. The seeds usually
germinate the second spring--and after germination
the seedlings grow rapidly, up to one foot per year.
Shade the beds for a short time after germination.
Keep the bed weed-free even though the seeds
haven t germinated. Mulching with wood chips,
straw, or burlap helps keep down the weeds. Also,
the area needs to be deer-proofed, as the deer like to
browse the young seedlings. At the end of the second
year out-plant the seedlings during the spring, while
they still are dormant. The soil should have good
drainage and no standing water. The plants need full
sunlight. Space the plants 4 to 8 feet apart. After
out-planting, no care is needed. Pruning may be
required to keep straight stems for certain
ethnobotanical purposes.
Older trees of black ash are known to have reached
130 years, but older ones probably exist.
Page 3
Black ash produces fast-growing sprouts from stumps
up to 30 cm in diameter. Sprouts originate from
adventitious buds on the sides of the stump and at the
root crown. Trees also will root sucker.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Forests managed to yield black ash should be
selectively cut. Clearcutting often results in
inadequate natural regeneration or loss of advanced
regeneration because of rising water tables or
increased competition with grass and brush.
As with many other tree species on wet sites,
individuals of black ash are shallowly rooted and
subject to windthrow.
Black ash is easily damaged by fire and can be killed
or top-killed by severe fire but it probably sprouts
from the root crown following such damage. Burned
sites also may be re-colonized through the wind-
dispersed seed.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Fraxinus cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Coladonato, M. 1994. Fraxinus nigra. In: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Database]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://fire.org/feis/plants/tree/franig/>.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Lyford, C.A. 1945. Iroquois crafts. U.S. Department
of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington,
D.C.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Nuss, S. 2000. Black ash basketry. Web site.
<.http://basketry.about.com/hobbies/basketry/library/
weekly/aa123098.htm>. Accessed September 2000.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4(1):8-175.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Tardif, J., S. Dery, &. Y. Bergeron 1994. Sexual
regeneration of black ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh.) in
a boreal floodplain. Amer. Field Nat. 132:124-135.
Tardif, J. &. Y. Bergeron 1999. Population dynamics
of Fraxinus nigra in response flood-level variations,
in northwestern Québec. Ecol. Monogr. 61:107-125.
Vennum, T. 1994. American Indian lacrosse.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Wright, J.W. &. H.M. Rauscher 1990. Fraxinus nigra
Marsh. Black Ash. Pp. 000-000, IN: R.M. Burns
and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/volume
_2/fraxinus/nigra.htm>.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC, Davis, California
Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='frni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 30nov00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
Page 4
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
WOOD
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria vesca L.
Plant Symbol = FRVE
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Carl Lindman
©Gerhard Keuck from Bilder ur Nordens
@ Project Runeburg
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). This herbaceous
perennial plant spreads by seed, short rhizomes and
leafless stolons. The toothed leaves are thin and
basal with a petiole generally 3-12 cm. They appear
in leaflets of 3 and are sparsely hairy above. The
flowers have 5 white petals with numerous pistils and
20-35 stamens. The five bractlets are often 2-lobed.
The red fleshy fruit is covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It is found in northwestern California, the
Cascade Ranges, the Sierra Nevada, central-western
California, San Bernardino Mountains, Peninsular
Ranges, to eastern North America, and south to Baja
California and also Europe.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: This plant is found below 2000 m in
partial shade of closed-cone pine, evergreen, mixed
conifer forests, and chaparral and has a very wide
distribution.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Planting: Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them
in pots in summer, make sure to cover the stems and
roots in soil. Place the pots in a hothouse to establish
good, strong roots. Water the plants or runners and
keep them moist. Plant the seedlings outdoors in the
ground in the fall or winter after the rains have
started. They should be planted in full sun in a light,
loose soil, about ten inches apart. It will not take
long for the plants to make a complete ground cover.
Lightly fertilize the plants during the growing season.
Note that those plants that have bigger flowers
usually have less fruit while those with smaller
flowers have more fruit. Protect the plants from
gophers, deer, squirrels, raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every 3
to 4 years and start a new patch for increased vigor.
Younger plants are more vigorous and produce more
berries.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Woodland strawberry. California strawberry
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The fruit was gathered by native
peoples throughout the United States and Canada.
Such cultural groups include the Micmac, Huron,
Potawatomi, Creek, Blackfoot, Iroquois, and many
other groups. The fruit was eaten raw and not
preserved by California Indian tribes including the
Coast Yuki and the Karok. Furthermore, a tea was
made from the leaves by the Upriver Halkomelem
and Sechelt of British Columbia, the Cowlitz of
Washington and the Micmac of the maritimes.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
FRVE is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Dixon, R.B. 1905. The Huntington California
expedition: the Northern Maidu. Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History 17(3):119-346.
Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Gifford, E.W. 1965. The Coast Yuki. Sacramento
Anthropological Society Paper 2:1-97. Sacramento,
California.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
Nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
Schenck, S.M. &. E.W. Gifford 1952. Karok
ethnobotany. Anthropological Records 13(6):377-
392.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
' WHERE symbol='frve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
MOUNTAIN
STRAWBERRY
Fragaria virginiana Duchesne
Plant Symbol = FRVI
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
thin and basal with a petiole generally 1-12 cm. They
appear in leaflets of 3 and are generally glabrous
above. The flowers have 5 white petals that are 4-9
mm. with numerous pistils and 20-35 stamens. The
five bractlets are unlobed. The red fleshy fruit is
covered with achenes.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found between 1200 and 3300 m in
meadows and forest openings. It occurs in the
Klamath Ranges, high Cascade Range, Modoc
Plateau, Sierra Nevada, to eastern North America.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
This strawberry is best established at higher
elevations where a good frost occurs (over 600 m).
Dig up plantlets or runners and plant them in pots in
fall--being sure to cover the stems and roots in soil.
Place the pots in a sheltered place to establish good,
strong roots. Water the plants or runners and keep
them moist. Plant the seedlings outdoors in the
ground in late winter or early spring. They should be
planted in full sun, in a light loose soil, about ten
inches apart. It will not take long for the plants to
make a complete ground cover. Lightly fertilize the
plants during the growing season. Note that those
plants that have bigger flowers usually have less fruit
and those with smaller flowers have more fruit.
Protect the plants from gophers, deer, squirrels,
raccoons, and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep the runners pruned back because they can be
invasive. It is necessary to divide the patch every 3
to 4 years and start a new patch for increased vigor.
Younger plants are more vigorous and produce more
berries.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
FRVI is somewhat available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
© Michigan State Univ.
@ Kellogg Biological Research Station
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Wild strawberry, Virginia strawberry
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Indigenous peoples throughout parts of
Canada picked and ate the savory fruit of this plant.
Midwestern prairie and Great Lakes tribes, such as
the Omaha, Hidatsa, Mandan, Dakota, Pawnee,
Blackfoot, Cheyenne, and the Winnebago ate these
strawberries raw, cooked or dried. The Winnebago
and Blackfoot made a tea with an infusion of the
young leaves of this plant.
Wildlife: The Portola woodrat and the valley quail eat
the fruit and leaves of wild strawberries.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). This herbaceous
perennial plant spreads by seed and also by short
rhizomes and leafless stolons. The toothed leaves are
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Ertter, B. 1993. Fragaria. Page 952 IN: The Jepson
Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.C. Hickman
(ed.). University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie: An ethnobotanical guide.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
Nutrition, botany, and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
' WHERE symbol='frvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
BROOM
SNAKEWEED
Gutierrezia sarothrae Pursh
Plant Symbol = GUSA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='snakeweed
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Broom snakeweed was used by
numerous Native American tribes for a variety of
reasons. The Blackfoot use the roots of broom
snakeweed in an herbal steam as a treatment for
respiratory ailments. The Dakota use a concentrate
made from the flowers as a laxative for horses. The
Lakota took a decoction of the plant to treat colds,
coughs, and dizziness. The Navajo and Ramah
Navaho rubbed the ashes of broom snakeweed on
their bodies to treat headaches and dizziness. They
also chewed the plant and applied it to wounds,
snakebites, and areas swollen by insect bites and
stings. The Comanche used the stems of broom
snakeweed to make brooms for sweeping their
residences.
Wildlife:
Broom snakeweed is utilized by some large ungulates
including mule deer and pronghorn antelope. Broom
snakeweed can comprise up to 28% of the pronghorn
diet.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Broom
snakeweed is a perennial subshrub that ranges from 2
to 10 dm in height. It is native to the U.S. The stems
are bushy and branch upwards from the woody base.
The non-woody stems range from smooth to having
some short hairs. The stems may be resinous and
therefore sticky when touched. The leaves are
alternate and range from linear to linear and
threadlike in shape. The leaves are from 5 to 60 mm
long and 1 to 3 mm wide. Dense clusters of flowers
form at the ends of the stems. There are 3 to 8 ray
florets per cluster and 2 to 6 disk florets per cluster.
The flattened part of the ray corolla or ligule is
yellow in color and 1 to 3 mm long. The whorl of
bracts that is found at the base of the flower cluster is
3 to 6 mm tall and 2 mm across. The bracts are
narrow and green in color at the apex and along the
midnerve. The achenes have a modified calyx
consisting of 8 to 10 acute scales. The acute scales of
the ray achenes are about one-half as long as those of
the disk achenes.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Broom snakeweed is found in open, dry plains and
upland sites. Broom snakeweed is killed by fire. Re-
establishment occurs via wind dispersed seeds.
Broom snakeweed densities usually increase
following fire, if the seeds in the seed bank are left
undamaged by heat.
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Broom snakeweed flowers are pollinated by various
insects. Regeneration occurs primarily through wind
dispersed seeds. Most germination and seedling
establishment occurs during the winter and spring.
Broom snakeweed seeds are dormant at maturity and
require a 4 to 6 month after-ripening period prior to
germination. The most successful germination
occurs between 59 to 86 °F, at or near soil surface.
Broom snakeweed prefers full sun, well-drained soil,
and low moisture.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, broom snakeweed should not be prone to
debilitating pests.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Austin, D.D. &. P.J. Urness 1983. Overwinter forage
selection by mule deer on seeded big sagebrush-grass
range. Journal of Wildlife Management 47(4): 1203-
1207.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
City of Boulder, Colorado 2001. Open spaces and
mountain parks.
http://www.ci.boulder.co.us/openspace/nature/garden
s/grow-tip.htm
Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New
Mexico. 136 pp.
Gilmore, M.R. 1913. Some Native Nebraska plants
with their uses by the Dakota. Collections of the
Nebraska State Historical Society 17:358-370.
Hocking, G.M. 1956. Some plant materials used
medicinally and otherwise by the Navaho Indians in
the Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. El Palacio 56:146-
165.
Johnston, A. 1987. Plants and the Blackfoot.
Lethbridge Historical Society, Lethbridge, Alberta.
68pp.
Martin, S.C. 1975. Ecology and management of
southwestern semidesert grass-shrub ranges: the
status of our knowledge. RM-156. USDA Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. 39 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
Smith, A.D. &. D.M. Beale 1980. Pronghorn
antelope in Utah: some research and observations.
Publication No. 80-13. Utah Division of Wildlife
Resources, Salt Lake City, Utah. 88 pp.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service 2001. Fire effects information system.
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory, Boise, Idaho.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/gutsar
/index.html
Vestal, P.A. 1952. The ethnobotany of the Ramah
Navaho. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American
Archaeology and Ethnology 40:1-95.
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='gusa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
Page 3
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp . 19may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K.
Koch
Plant Symbol = GYDI
KENTUCKY
COFFEETREE
PARTS OF THIS PLANT ARE
POISONOUS-See Environmental Concerns
section of this document
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Timber, the strong, heavy wood is used in
general construction, cabinet work, sills, interior
finish, fine furniture, railway sleepers, bridge
timbers, crossties, fence posts and rails, and fuel
wood (Table 1) and (Table2). Fence posts may last
for more than 50 years, although the rot resistant
wood is soft and staples pull out easily. Kentucky
coffeetree lumber is available but not common. The
fruit is high in saponins and is used as soap. The
leaves have been used as a fly poison. Due to the
tree’s toxic plant parts such as the leaves and raw
seeds, there is little wildlife usage as a source of
food.
Ornamental: Used for ornamental purposes in large
area landscape plantings and parks. In the fall,
ripening pods contrast nicely with clear yellow fall
foliage. Decorative clusters of the large pods rattling
in the wind make for an exceptional winter
ornamental. The species was introduced into
cultivation before 1748. Kentucky coffeetree has
been slighted in the landscape industry.
Ethnobotanic: While native to North America, Native
Americans introduced the tree to some parts of the
continent as they used the pulp from the wood to treat
insanity. The pulp was also used in home remedies
to combat fever and treat headaches. The Omahas
mixed the bark of Kentucky coffeetree and
gayfeather (Liatris aspera Michx.) with a pulverized
portion of buffalo-gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima H.
B. K.) and used it as an appetizer and tonic. A tea
was also made from the leaves and pulp and used as a
laxative. Certain Indian tribes reportedly roasted the
beans (seeds) for food. Early settlers used the beans
of the tree as a substitute for coffee. CAUTION! The
seeds and pods are poisonous. ' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='They reportedly
contain cytisine, a quinolizidine alkaloid and
nicotinic receptor agonist, which can be dangerous.
However, researchers at Indiana State University
have been unable to find experimental data verifying
the presence of cytisine. A single major alkaloid was
found to be present in many coffeetree plant parts.
The alkaloid is thought to be neutralized in the
roasting process. Hydrocyanic acid has also been
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Plant Materials
Center, Manhattan, Kansas &. Kansas State
University, Research Forestry
Keith Lynch, Research Forestry, Kansas State
University
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames_=' American coffee bean, American
coffee berry, American mahogany, bean tree, chico
du Canada, chicot, chicot tree, chiot, chiot tree,
coffeebean, coffeebean-tree, coffeenut, coffeetree,
dead tree, geweihbaum, Kentucky coffee-tree,
Kentucky mahogany, mahogany, mahogany-bean,
nettle-tree, nicker tree, nicker treet, stump tree
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
suggested as a possible toxin. It can be destroyed by
thoroughly heating the beans for at least three hours
at 150˚C. The beans contain saponins which are
more toxic to fish than to other animals. Hunting
tribes traditionally put large quantities of the beans in
streams and lakes to stupefy or kill fish.
Pioneer settlers used the coarse-grained, light brown
to reddish-brown wood in cabinetry. Children used
the beans in their games.
Conservation: Kentucky coffeetree was formerly
planted around farmsteads. It is tolerant to a wide
range of conditions such as drought, chalk
(limestone), and urban conditions. The tree has been
planted on mine spoils for soil reclamation and
stabilization. Due to its reasonably strong wood
Kentucky coffeetree will tolerate some ice without
losing branches. This pest free tree is an alternative
to ash and elm where they have been ravaged by
insects and disease.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Kentucky coffeetree’s numbers are declining rapidly
due to over harvesting.' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='The species is not invasive. it
is only found in small clusters due to root sprouting
and makes up a rare component of any woodland. In
nature the seeds germinate with difficulty due to a
hard outer shell. Squirrels do not cache them, so the
seeds do not spread from the mother tree except
along streams where the seeds may be transported by
water down stream. Please consult the PLANTS Web
site and your State Department of Natural Resources
for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or
endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland
indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Kentucky coffeetree is the only member of
the genus Gymnocladus native to North America.
The word gymnocladus comes from the Greek for
naked branch, referring to the few stout twigs, which
are conspicuous year round. The word dioicus relates
to dioecious, meaning there are male and female
trees. The tree lies dormant for about 6 months of the
year, thus the name Dead Tree or Stump Tree.
Although a member of the legume family
(Fabaceae), Kentucky coffeetree is not a nitrogen
“fixer”. It is a medium to large, round-barked, native
deciduous tree reaching heights of 18 to 30-m with a
spread of 12 to 15-m. In open areas, the tree
produces an open, rounded crown, but in native
woods it grows to 23-m with few branches. Large
specimen trees, such as Georgia’s champion tree
stands 39.6-m tall in Pickens County, are uncommon.
(The National Registry of Big Trees reports a
specimen Kentucky coffeetree from Lake Co., Ohio,
standing at 25-m with a spread of 23.5-m and a
circumference of 5.2-m at DBH). Kentucky
coffeetree’s short trunk, 0.3 to 0.8-m in diameter,
divides into several large branches that end in
contorted, stout twigs. Its unique, thick, dark bark is
gray to grayish-brown, often marked with deep,
irregular furrows and plates that curl at their sides.
The alternate, bipinnately compound leaves are the
largest of any native species, measuring from 0.3 to
0.9-m in length by 4.6 to 6.1-dm in width, arranged
in feather-fashion in 5 to 9 pairs of pinnae, the lowest
are reduced to simple leaflets. Typically the leaves
consist of six to 14 entire. more or less ovate (almond
shaped) leaflets, 5 to 8-cm long, acute, rounded or
cuneate at the base, pubescent beneath when young,
short petioled, and swollen at the base. Leaves
emerge late in the spring with a striking pink-bronze
color, turning to a dark bluish-green above in
summer. Fall color is often a golden yellow, but the
leaves drop early.
Winter buds are small, reddish, and often placed
above one another in close formation (superposed).
Terminal buds are absent. The buds are small,
downy, almost entirely imbedded in twigs, and
surrounded by a hairy ring of bark.
The stout twigs are light brown to greenish-brown
with whitish patches, somewhat zigzag or wavy,
large heart shaped leaf scar, with a wide salmon-pink
to brown colored pith.
Flowering and Fruiting: The greenish-white
dioecious or polygamo-dioecious, inconspicous
flowers appear in May and June, after the leaves, and
are borne in terminal racemose clusters. The fruit is a
tardily dehiscent, flat, thick, woody legume that
ripens in September or October and usually persists
unopened on the tree until late winter or early spring.
The dark brown or red brown pod is 15 to 25-cm
long, 2.5 to 5-cm wide, and usually contains 4 to 8
olive-green or dark brown to almost black seed
separated by a mass of brown pulp.
Wood Characteristics: The wood is of heavy density
(specific gravity of 0.53 green, 0.60 dry) with a
coarse, straight grain. Its sapwood is narrow and
yellowish white and the heartwood is light red to red
or reddish brown. It is without characteristic odor or
taste. Growth rings are conspicuously ring porous,
resembling ash, honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos
L.) or sassafras [Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees.].
The wood is frequently confused with that of honey
Page 3
locust.' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='It must be dried carefully due to a tendency to
split. It is medium strong and has good to excellent
working characteristics. Occasionally, it will show
considerable ring shake, but is an attractive wood for
home workshops. The wood finishes to a smooth
surface and “polishes superbly”. It makes beautiful
paneling which weathers to a light chocolate brown.
When dry, the wood is stable and machines well.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Table1_FuelwoodfactsforKentuckycoffeetree_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weight TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weight='(lbs/cord)
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Heat_Cord TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_FuelOil TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Equivalent TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__gallons__ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Green TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Dry TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Million TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Million='BTUs)
3872
3112
21.6
154
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Rating TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Rating='Good
Medium
Good
Low
Few
Good
*140,000 BTU per gallon of fuel oil.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Table 2. Kentucky coffeetree firewood quality
ratings for five factors.
Factor
Coals
Ease of Splitting
Fragrance
Smoke
Sparks
Overall Quality
Distribution: Kentucky coffeetree is uncommon in its
native habitat. It can only be found in small colonies
in temperate forests. The natural range extends from
New York and Pennsylvania west to Minnesota,
southward to Oklahoma, and east to Kentucky and
Tennessee (Schopmeyer, 1974). The species is also
found in the Dakotas, Texas, Georgia, and the
Carolinas (PLANTS Database). naturalized in
Alabama, West Virginia, Virginia, and Delaware
(Steyermark, 1975). It is believed to have been
introduced into some areas by Native Americans.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Kentucky coffeetree grows in moist soils in
bottom-land woods or rocky open wooded hillsides
with other hardwood trees. It is commonly found on
limestone soils and seldom found on unglaciated
sites. The tree occurs sometimes in small colonies of
rather widely separated individuals resulting from
root suckers. Kentucky coffeetree can be found
growing in association with sweetgum, tupelo, oaks,
and hickories, also black walnut, basswood, elm, and
pawpaw in temperate forests.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Relatively hardy in zones 3 to 8, the tree adapts well
to urban conditions. It prefers full sun, humus-rich,
moist soil, and tolerates drought and occasional
flooding. Considering its cultural tolerances, it
should be on the list of “tough” trees. Kentucky
coffeetree is a fast-growing tree when young with
moderate to slow growth as the tree ages attaining 3.6
to 4.3-m in 10 years.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seedlings may be planted in the field after one year.
Transplant balled and burlapped trees into deep, rich,
moist soil for best growth.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fertilize with formulations that promote woody
growth rather than excessive foliar growth. Prune in
winter or early spring. wood may be somewhat
brittle. Longer, weaker branches should be pruned
when young to promote a stronger structure.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='
No serious insect or disease problems. Messy habit,
fallen leaf stalks and pods require some clean up.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Environmental Concerns
The leaves, seeds and pulp are poisonous and are
toxic to livestock, humans, and pets. Sprouts eaten in
the spring have produced toxicosis. Leaves, young
sprouts, and seeds with gelatinous mater around them
contain the toxin. Cattle have reportedly died after
drinking from pools of water contaminated by fallen
leaves and seeds from the tree. There is at least one
anecdotal report of a human poisoning by Kentucky
coffeetree.
Clinical Signs: “Clinical signs include rapid onset
(within 1 hour) of intense gastrointestinal irritation,
profuse diarrhea and straining, vomiting,
hypertension, bradycardia, respiratory depression,
muscle paralysis, and convulsions. Animals often
display depression. Death usually occurs within a
day after clinical signs appear.”
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='The seeds are oval, about 1.9-cm long with a thick,
very hard, and bony coat. They have been compared
to small jawbreakers only 2000 times as hard. The
seeds generally remain in the pod until it falls and is
broken up by decay, a process which may take 2
years or longer. The impermeable seed coat is the
only hindrance to germination. A 2 to 4 hour
Page 4
treatment of concentrated sulfuric acid is ideal for
breaking down the seed coat. Once treated the seeds
imbibe water quickly and will germinate uniformly
when sown. Large, bulky, purplish-brown, leather-
hard pods are produced that abscise differentially
from late fall into winter. The flat pods range in size
from 13 to 25-cm long and 4 to 5-cm wide. Pods
may be collected from the ground and run through
some type of flail device to expose the seeds. The
hard coated seeds will not be harmed. They can be
dried and store indefinitely.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Pretreated seeds should be sown in the spring in rows
spaced 46 to 76-cm apart (but no closer than 15-cm)
depending upon irrigation and cultivation methods.
Sow 12 to 18 seeds per 0.3 linear meter of row and
cover with about 2.5-cm of firm soil. In general,
about 60 to 75 percent of the seed sown will produce
plantable seedlings.
Root cuttings 4-cm long and 1-cm thick may be taken
in December through March. Plant the roots
horizontally in pots with sand or peat. This may be
the only effective way to vegetatively propagate the
trees as budding is reportedly unsuccessful.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
Several cultivars are available in the nursery trade
including selections that are predominately male such
as ‘Espresso’' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='‘J.C. McDaniel’ (Prairie Titan™), and
‘Stately Manor’, that produce no fruit. Espresso
exhibits an upward arching branch form resulting in
an elm-like vase shape. Prairie Titan is a very
symmetrical, upright spreading tree 18 to 21-m tall
with blue-green summer foliage, from the University
of Illinois campus near Davenport Hall. Stately
Manor is a narrow, upright form 10 x 6-m wide, is
possibly best for street tree use. ‘Variegata’ is a little
known, slower growing cultivar with streaks of
creamy white variegation and pink-purple new
growth. Availability of these cultivars may be
limited.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book
under”United States Government.” The Natural
Resources Conservation Service will be listed under
the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Animals should not be allowed to graze woodland
areas where Kentucky coffeetree grows or where it
has been cut and allowed to sprout, until spring
grasses and herbage are abundant. Sprouts can be
grubbed periodically as a preventative measure as
only a few of these trees will be found in any
woodland. Fence in large fruiting trees to prevent
livestock from eating the fallen pods. This measure
is desirable over removing a species that is so rare in
the landscape.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Alden, H. A. 1995. Hardwoods of North America.
Gen. Tech. Report FPL-GTR-83. Madison, WI. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest
Products Laboratory. 136p.
Barkley, T. ed. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains.
1986. Univ. Press of Kansas. Lawrence. 1392p.
Brenton Arboretum. 2006. Kentucky coffeetree.
(http://www.thebrentonarboretum.org/tree) [online:
cited 30 November 2006]. Dallas Center, IA.
Canada Gardens. 2006. The Kentucky coffee tree
Gymnocladus dioicus. (http://canada-
gardnes.com/2gymnocladusdioicus.html) [online:
cited 16 November 2006].
Countryman, D. W. and J. Kemperman. 2000.
Forestry reference handbook. Iowa State Univ. Ext.
72p.
(http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM18
50.pdf) [online: cited 18 January 2007] Iowa State
Univ. Dept. of Forestry and Iowa DNR, ISU Univ.
Ext.
Dewald, S., S. Josiah, and B. Erdkamp. 2005.
Heating with firewood: producing, harvesting, and
processing firewood. Neb Guide G1554. UNL-
Lincoln Ext. Institute of Agri. and Nat. Res. 4p.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants:
Their identification, ornamental characteristics,
culture, propagation and uses. Rev. 4th Ed.Stipes
Publishing Co. Champaign, Ill. 1187p.
Dirr, M.A. and C.W. Heuser, JR. 1987. The
Reference manual of woody plant propagation. From
seed to tissue culture. Varsity Press, Inc. Athens,
Georgia. 239p.
Eastern Kentucky Univ. Student Chapter of The
Wildlife Society. 2007. Coffeetree, Kentucky,
Gymnocladus dioicus. AWAKE Plants &. Wildlife.
(http://www.kentuckyawake.org/plantsWildlife/lifeHi
story.cfm?instanceID=22887) [online: cited 18
January 2007].
Page 5
Fitch, Richard W. 2006. Alkaloids of the Kentucky
coffeetree, Gymnocladus dioicus.
(http://www.phcog.org/annualMtg./2006/papers/P-
115.pdf) [online: cited 11 January 2007]. Indiana
State Univ.
Georgia Forestry Commission. 2005. Georgia’s
champion trees.
(http://www.gfc.state.ga.us/ForestManagement/docu
ments/GeorgiasChampionTrees.pdf[online: cited 11
January 2007].
Kansas Forest Service. 2006. Tree of the month. Out
on a Limb Vol. 1 (1) Summer.
KestralCreek.com. 2007. Kentucky coffee tree.
(http://www.kestrelcreek.com/Wood.htm) [online:
cited 11 January 2007].
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. Univ. of Kansas
Press. Lawrence. 340p.
National Register of Big Trees.
(http://www.americanforests.org/resources/bigtrees/r
egister.php?details=171) [online: cited 10 January
2007]. American Forests.
Kuhns, M. &. D. Mooter. 1992. Trees of Nebraska.
EC92-1774-X. University of Nebraska, Nebr. Coop.
Extension, Lincoln, Nebraska. 75p.
Missouri Dept. of Conservation. 2007. Kentucky
coffeetree Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch.
(http://www.mdc.mo.gov/documents/Forest/Woods/
K_coffee.pdf) [online: cited 18 January 2007].
Ohio Historical Society. 2006. What tree is it?
Kentucky coffeetree. [online: cited 16 November
2006].
(http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/coffeetree_
sweet/coffeetree_sweet.html)
Ohio State Univ. Extension Agriculture. 2006.
Gymnocladus. Kentucky coffeetree. Ohio Trees
Bulletin 700-00,
(http://ohioline.osu.edu/b700/b700_48.html) [online:
cited 16 November 2006].
Panshin, A.J. and C. deZeeuw. 1980. Textbook of
wood technology, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill Series in
Forest Resources. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York. 722p.
Phillips, G.R., F.J. Gibbs, and W.R. Mattoon. 1959.
Forest trees of Oklahoma. Forestry Division, State
Board of Agriculture. Pub. No. 1, Rev. Ed. No. 9.
135p.
Plants For A Future. 2007. Database Search Results.
Gymnocladus dioica.
(http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-
bin/arr_html?Gymnocladus+dioica&.CAN=COMIND
) [online: cited 25 January 2007].
Reisch, K.W., P.C. Kozel, and G.A. Weinstein. 1975.
Woody ornamentals for the Midwest. The Ohio State
University. 293p.
Schopmeyer, C.S. Tech. Cord. 1974. Seeds of woody
plants in the United States. USDA-FS Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. 883p.
Stephens, H.A. 1969. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines
in Kansas. Univ. of Kansas Press. Lawrence. 250p.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the North
Central Plains. Univ. of Kansas Press. Lawrence.
530p.
Steyermark, J. 1975. Flora of Missouri. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa. 1728p.' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Stone, K. 2005. Kris’s corner. Kentucky coffeetree.
Northern Kentucky Urban &. Community Forest
Council. Vol. 3 (3)
(http://www.nkyurbanforestry.org) [online: cited 16
November 2006].
TreeHelp.com. 2006. Trees: Species: Kentucky coffee
tree. (http://www.treehelp.com/trees/coffee-
tree/gymnocladus-dioicus.asp) [online: cited 16
November 2006].
Trees from Seeds. 2006.
(http://www.treesfromseeds.org/coffeetree.htm)
[online: cited 29 November 2006].
University of Illinois. 2006. Kentucky coffee tree
Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch.
(http://www.library.uicuc.edu/vex/toxic/kentucky/ken
tucky.htm) [online: cited 4 December 2006].
University of Kentucky – College of Agriculture.
2007. Gymnocladus dioicus (Kentucky coffeetree),
Pea Family (Fabaceae). Cooperative Extension
Service. ) [online: cited 3 January 2007].
(http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Horticulture/kytreewebsite/t
reeprofiles/text/gymnocladusinfo2.htm
Univ. of Missouri Center for Agroforestry. 2007.
Plant resource guide: Materials and management,
Page 6
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service.
Appendix Section 6: 117p. (http://www.center for
agroforestry.org/pubs/training/appendix6.pdf)
[online: cited 11 January 2007].
USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
Technology transfer fact sheet. Gymnocladus dioicus.
(http://www2.fpl.fs.fed.us/TechSheets/HardwoodNA/
html/Docs/gymnoeng.html) [online: cited 11 January
2007].
Virginia Tech Forestry Department. 2006. Kentucky
coffeetree. Fabaceae Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K.
Koch.
(http://www.fw.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/syllabus/fa
ctsheet.cfm?ID=158) [online: cited 16 November
2006].
Wcisel, K.J. 2004. Tree topics. 2000-2004.
(http://wcisel.com/plants/kentuckycoffeetree/index.ht
m) [online: cited 16 November 2006].
White, D.A. 2006. Kentucky coffeetree.
(http://www.ontarioprofessionals.com/tree4.htm)
[online: cited 16 November 2006].
Young, J.A. and C.G. Young. 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Revised Edition.
Dioscorides Press. Portland, Oregon. 407p.
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='John M. Row
USDA NRCS, Manhattan Plant Materials Center,
Manhattan, Kansas
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Wayne Geyer, Ph.D.
Forestry Division, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas
' WHERE symbol='gydi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='John M. Row
USDA NRCS, Manhattan Plant Materials Center,
Manhattan, Kansas
Edited: 0702 jd. 070227 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
ANNUAL
SUNFLOWER
Helianthus annuus L.
Plant Symbol = HEAN3
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
sunflowers were tall and in full bloom, the buffaloes
were fat and the meat good” (Gilmore 1977).
Helianthus seeds were eaten by many California
natives, and often ground up and mixed with other
seeds in pinole (Strike 1994). The sunflower was
used for food in Mexico and had reputed medicinal
value in soothing chest pains (Heiser 1976).
Francisco Hernandez, an early Spanish explorer,
ascribed aphrodisiac powers to the sunflower (Ibid.).
Charles H. Lange, an anthropologist at the University
of Texas, wrote that “among the Cochiti, a reliable
‘home remedy’ for cuts and other wounds is the juice
of freshly crushed sunflower stems. The juice is
smeared liberally over the wounds, bandaged, and
invariably results in a speedy recovery, with never a
case of infection” (Heiser 1976).
According to Moerman (1986) sunflowers were used
in the following ways:
• The Cherokee used an infusion of sunflower
Plant Guide
• The Dakota used an infusion of sunflowers for
chest pains and pulmonary troubles.
• The Gros Ventres, Rees, and Mandan used
sunflowers ceremonially. oil from the seeds were
used to lubricate or paint the face and body.
• The Gros Ventres, Mandan, Rees, and Hidatsa
used sunflower seeds as a stimulant, taken on a
war party or hunt to alleviate fatigue.
• The Hopi used the sunflower plant as a “spider
medicine” and dermatological aid.
• The Navajo ate sunflower seeds to stimulate the
appetite.
leaves to treat kidneys.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='common sunflower, Kansas sunflower, mirasol.
Helianthus comes from the Greek helios anthos,
meaning “sun flower” (Kindscher 1987). The species
name annuus means “annual.”
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sunflower is a native domesticated
crop. During the last 3,000 years, Indians increased
the seed size approximately 1,000 percent. They
gradually changed the genetic composition of the
plant by repeatedly selecting the largest seeds
(Yarnell 1978).
Originally cultivated by North American Indians, it
has a long and interesting history as a food plant
(Kindscher 1987). Sunflower seeds were and still are
eaten raw, roasted, cooked, dried, and ground, and
used as a source of oil. Flower buds were boiled.
The roasted seeds have been used as a coffee
substitute. The Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache
made extensive use of wild sunflowers. The Hidatsa
used wild verse cultivated sunflowers in the
production of cooking oil because the seeds of their
smaller flower heads produced superior oil (Wilson
1917). In the Northeast, sunflowers are part of the
Onandaga (Iroquois) creation myth (Gilmore 1977).
In the Southwest, the Hopi believe that when the
sunflowers are numerous, it is a sign that there will
be an abundant harvest (Whiting 1939). In the
prairies, the Teton Dakota had a saying, “when the
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
protect suckling children.
alleviate rheumatism.
• The Navaho-Kayenta used the plant for the sun
sand painting ceremony and as a disinfectant to
prevent prenatal infections caused by the solar
eclipse.
• The Navaho-Ramah used a salve of pulverized
seed and root to prevent injury from a horse
falling on a person and as a moxa of the pith to
remove warts.
• The Paiute used a decoction of sunflower root to
• Pawnee women ate a dry seed concoction to
• The Pima applied a poultice of warm ashes to the
stomach for worms and used a decoction of
leaves for high fevers and as a wash for horses’
sores caused by screwworms.
Page 2
• The Thompson Indians used powdered
sunflower leaves alone or in an ointment on
sores and swellings.
• The Zuni used a poultice of sunflower root to
treat snakebite, along with much ritual and
ceremony.
Purple and black dyes extracted from wild sunflowers
were used to dye basketry materials. A yellow dye
was also derived from the ray flowers. The Hopi
Indians grew a sunflower variety with deep purple
achenes, and obtained a purple dye by soaking them
in water (Heiser 1976). The dye was used to color
basketry or to decorate their bodies.
The Teton Dakotas boiled flower heads from which
the involucral bracts had been removed as a remedy
for pulmonary troubles (Gilmore 1977). Pawnee
women who became pregnant while still nursing a
child took a sunflower seed medicine to prevent
sickness in the child (Kindscher 1992). In the
southwest, Zuni medicine men cured rattlesnake bites
by chewing the fresh or dried root, then sucking the
snakebite wound (Camazine and Bye 1980).
The wild sunflower was worn in the hair of the Hopi
Indians of Arizona during various ceremonies, and
carved wooden sunflower disks found at a prehistoric
site in Arizona almost certainly were employed in
ceremonial rituals (Heiser 1976).
Agricultural: Early American colonists did not
cultivate sunflowers. The sunflower probably went
from Mexico to Spain, and from there to other parts
of Europe (Heiser 1976). The Russians developed
the Mammoth Russian or Russian Giant sunflower
and offered these varieties as seeds, which in 1893
were reintroduced to the United States. Sunflowers
are used as a source of vegetable oil. The seeds are
used for snacks and for bird food.
Medicinal: Medicinal uses for the sunflower utilized
by the Europeans include use as a remedy for
pulmonary affections, a preparation of the seeds has
been widely used for cold and coughs, in the
Caucasus the seeds have served as a substitute for
quinine in the treatment of malaria, and sunflower
seeds are used as a diuretic and expectorant (Heiser
1976). Sunflower pith has been used by the
Portuguese in making moxa, which was used in the
cauterization of wounds and infections. An infusion
from the flowers has been used to kill flies.
A variety of terpenoid compounds have been found
in Helianthus species, primarily sesquiterpene
lactones and diterpenes (Gershenzon and Mabry
1984). These substances probably offer sunflowers
protection against some insects.
Horticultural: Sunflowers are cultivated as
ornamentals or garden plants, where the blooms are
cherished for their beauty, and the seeds can be eaten
by both humans and wildlife. Game birds, songbirds,
and rodents (Martin et al. 1951) eat the large,
nutritious seeds of sunflowers. These attractive
weedy plants are of outstanding value to wildlife in
the prairies and other parts of the West. Birds eating
the seeds include Wilson snipes, doves, grouse, ring-
necked pheasants, quail, blackbirds, bobolinks, lazuli
buntings, black-capped chickadees, cowbirds, white-
winged crossbills, crows, house finches, goldfinches,
purple grackles, horned larks, longspurs,
meadowlarks, white-breasted nuthatches,
pyrrhuloxias, ravens, sparrows, and tufted titmice.
Small mammals who relish the seeds include the least
chipmunk, eastern pocket gopher, ground squirrels,
lemmings, meadow mice, pocket mice, white-footed
mice, prairie dogs, and kangaroo rats. Muskrats eat
the stems and foliage. Antelope, deer, and moose
browse on the plants.
Industry: Sunflower stalks have been used as fuel,
fodder for livestock, food for poultry, and ensilage
(Heiser 1976). In the Soviet Union, after the dried
flower stalks have been used for fuel, the ashes are
returned to the soil. The seed hulls could be used for
“litter” for poultry or returned to the soil or
composted. A few years ago, it was found that the
hulls could be used in fuels. Today the hulls are used
in the Soviet Union in manufacturing ethyl alcohol
and furfural, in lining plywood, and in growing yeast.
The stems have been used as a source of commercial
fiber. The Chinese have used this fiber for the
manufacturing of fabrics. Other countries are
experimenting with the use of fiber in paper.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). The
sunflower is an erect, coarse, tap-rooted annual with
rough-hairy stems 6-30 dm (2-10 ft) tall. The leaves
are mostly alternate, egg-shaped to triangular, and
entire or toothed. The flower heads are 7.5-15 cm (3-
6 in) wide and at the ends of branches. Ray flowers
are yellow and disk flowers are reddish-brown.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='The sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is a common and
widespread roadside weed. It is common in open
sites in many different habitats throughout North
America, southern Canada, and Mexico at elevations
below 1900 m. Helianthus annuus is highly variable
as a species, and hybridizes with several other
species. The heads and plants are very large in
cultivated forms.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sunflowers need full sun. Irrigation is required until
they become established.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seed Propagation: When the soil has warmed up to at
least 45ºF (7ºC) in the spring, sow hardy sunflower
seeds where they are to flower. Seeds can also be
sown in pots or seed trays and either planted out in
their final positions in late fall or overwintered in a
cold frame to be planted out in spring. This
technique is particularly useful in gardens with clay
soil that is slow to warm up in spring.
There are two main methods of sowing outdoors in
situ: broadcast and in drills. For both, prepare the
seedbed first. Dig over the soil to one spade’s depth,
then rake over and firm. Broadcast Sowing: Sprinkle
seeds thinly and evenly on the surface of the prepared
seedbed and rake them in lightly. Label seedbeds,
then water the area gently but thoroughly with a fine
spray. Sowing in Drills: Using either a trowel tip or
the corner of a hoe, mark out shallow drill holes 3-6”
(8-15 cm) apart, depending on the ultimate size of the
plant. Sow seeds thinly and evenly by sprinkling or
placing them along each drill at the appropriate
depth. Carefully cover with soil and firm. Label
each row and water gently but thoroughly with a fine
spray.
To prevent overcrowding, the seedlings usually need
to be thinned. To minimize disturbance to a seedling
being retained, press the soil around it after thinning
the adjacent seedlings. Water the newly establishing
seedlings fairly frequently until the roots have
developed. Support is required for the sunflower
stems. Stakes help support the stem and protect the
seedlings from rodent or bird damage. Birds and
small mammals love both the sunflower seeds and
the tender young seedlings. A scarecrow or netting
may be necessary to protect the plants from
herbivores.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In pre-European settlement times, the Hidatsa
cultivated sunflowers in the following ways (Wilson
1917):
1) Garden plots were created from wooded and
brushy areas in river bottomlands.
2) Brush cleared for planting was spread over the
plots and burned, for it was conventional wisdom that
burning trees and brush “softened the soil and left it
loose and mellow for planting”. Burning also added
nutrients to the soil.
Before setting fire to the fields, the dry grass, leaves,
and brush were removed from the edges of the fields
so the fire wouldn’t spread.
3) Plots were allowed to lay fallow, and were taken
out of production for two years to let them
rejuvenate.
4) Sunflowers were the first seeds planted in the
spring. Planting was done using a hoe. Three seeds
were planted in a hill, at the depth of the second joint
of a woman’s finger. The three seeds were planted
together, pressed into the loose soil by a single
motion, with the thumb and first two fingers. The
hill was heaped up and patted firm. Sunflowers were
planted only around the edges of a field. The hills
were placed eight or nine paces apart.
There were several varieties of sunflowers. black,
white, red, and striped colors occurred in the seeds.
5) Seeds were harvested by spreading sunflower
heads on the roof to dry. The heads were laid face
downward, with the backs to the sun. After the heads
had dried for four days, the heads were threshed by
laying them on the floor face downwards and beating
them as a stick. An average threshing filled a good-
sized basket, with enough seed left over to make a
small package.
6) Parched sunflower seeds were pounded in the corn
mortar to make meal. Sunflower meal was used in a
dish called four-vegetables-mixed. it included beans,
dried squash, pounded parched sunflower seed, and
pounded parched corn.
7) Sunflower seed balls were made of sunflower seed
meal. In the olden times, every warrior carried a bag
of soft skin with a sunflower-seed ball, wrapped in a
piece of buffalo-heart skin. When worn with fatigue
or overcome with sleep and weariness, the warrior
took out his sunflower-seed ball, and nibbled at it to
refresh himself.
Each garden plot was “owned” and tended by a
woman who cleared it. It was kept cleared of weeds
and birds were chased off.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Cultivars: Apache Brown Striped, Autumn Beauty
Hybrids, Aztec Gold, Bellezza d’Autuno, Big Smile,
Black Oil, Color Fashion Hybrids, Confection,
Daisetsuzan, Discovery, Evening Sun, Floristan, Full
Sun, Fun Sun, Gloriosa Polyheaded, Gold &. Silver,
Gray-Stripe, Hallo, Happy Face, Havasupai Striped,
Page 4
Henry Wilde, Holiday, Hopi Dye, Inca Jewels,
Incredible, Italian White, Lion’s Mane, Lemon
Queen, Luna, Mammoth Russian, Monster,
Moonwalker, Music Box, Orange Sun, Park’s Velvet
Tapestry, Paul Bunyan, Peredovik, Piccolo, Provance
Hybrids, Silverleaf, Sonja, Sun Hybrids, Sunbeam,
Sunbright, Sunburst Hybrids, Sunrise, Sunset,
Sunspot, Taiyo, Tangina, Teddy Bear, Tarahumara
White, Valentine, Vanilla Ice, Velvet Queen, and
Zebulon.
HEAN3 is widely available through local nurseries
and seed companies.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1: 116-118.
Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley,
London, New York, &. Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Camazine, S. &. R.A. Bye 1980. A study of the
medical ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians of New
Mexico. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2: 365-388.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Gershenzon, J. &. T.J. Mabry 1984. Sesquiterpene
Lactones from a Texas population of Helianthus
maximiliani. Phytochemistry 23: 1959-1966.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977 (1919). Uses of plants by the
Indians of the Missouri River region. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press. Reprint of a work first
published as the 33rd Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology. Washington, D.C.
Grinnell,G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 vols.
New York: Cooper Square Publishers.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Heiser, C.B. Jr. 1976. The sunflower. University of
Oklahoma Press. 198 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal Uses of California’s
Indigenous Plants. Kowltz Scientific Books. USA-
Germany. 210 pp.
Wilson, G.L. 1987 (1917). Buffalo Bird Woman’s
garden. Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians.
Minnesota Historical Society Press, St. Paul,
Minnesota. 129 pp.
Yarnell, R.A. 1978. Domestication of sunflower and
sumpweed in Eastern North America. In: The Nature
and Status of Ethnobotany. Richard I. Ford (ed.)
Anthropological Paper 67, Museum of Anthropology,
University of Michigan, pp. 289-299.
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='hean3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
Page 5
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
TOYON
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). This evergreen
shrub reaches up to 10 meters in height. It has a
grayish trunk and puberulent branches. The elliptic
to oblong leaves are simple and short petioled. They
have spines along the margins and are thick and
leathery. The small, white flowers are arranged in
large terminal clusters and each flower has 5 petals, 5
sepals, and 10 stamens. The fruits are bright red or
yellow drupe-like pomes with dry pulp and contain 3
to 6 seeds. They persist through winter.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The shrub is found in chaparral, oak woodland,
and mixed evergreen forest below 1300 m.
throughout the California floristic province and into
Baja California.
Establishment' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seeds: Clean off as much of the pulp as possible and
then put the fresh seeds in water and let them rot for
one week. This is a good technique for getting the
seed separated from the fleshy part of the fruit. If the
seeds have been stored, they need three months
stratification before planting. Plant the seeds directly
in the ground in the fall and water them. Plant them
in full sun in almost any soil type. If the seedlings
come up too thick, thin them. This shrub makes a
magnificent hedge plant and birds love the fruits.
Seeds may also be planted in containers for the first
year and then planted out in the second fall.
Cuttings: Cut 4-5 inch tips of the semi ripe wood in
early summer and strip off the lower half of the
leaves and dip each cutting into a rooting hormone.
Put the cuttings into a rooting medium such as
perlite-sand in four-inch pots spaced about one-half
inch apart. Keep the pots watered and sheltered from
wind and direct sun. The cuttings take about two to
three months to root. New growth on the tops of the
plants signifies root development. After rooting,
transplant each plant into individual pots, one plant
per pot. Plant each plant in a light, loose soil in
partial shade, and water it, keeping it moist and
protecting it from hot sun, winds, and animals. The
Heteromeles arbutifolia (Lind.)
M. Roemer
Plant Symbol = HEAR5
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
J.E. &. Bonnie McClellan
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Many tribes in California gathered the
fruit for food including the Salinan, Maidu, Karok,
Sierra Miwok, Pomo, Luiseno, Hupa, Wappo, and
Yuki. It is important to wait until the red fruits are
very ripe before picking and eating them. They are
boiled or roasted before consuming or sometimes
they are eaten raw. Among the Sierra Miwok, the
fruits were boiled and baked in a deep narrow earth
oven. Another preparation technique was to store the
fruits in a basket for two months until they had
softened and then they were parched with coals in a
basket and eaten. The fruits were reputed to be
slightly puckery. The Yuki made the leaves and bark
into a decoction for medicinal use in treating
stomachache and various body aches and pains.
Wildlife: Upland game birds such as band-tailed
pigeons and songbirds including northern red-
breasted sapsuckers, thrashers, and wren-tits consume
the fruits. Small mammals such as the large-eared
wood rat and the portola wood rat also feed on the
fruits.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
Sparkman, P.S. 1908. The culture of the Luiseno
Indians. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology 8(4).
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Version: 990513.
Wilken, D.H. 1993. Heteromeles. Page 953, IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California.
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California.
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
following fall if the plant is growing vigorously, plant
it out in full sun. If the plant is small and grows
slowly, wait a second year and plant it outdoors the
following fall.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Toyon can be pruned in winter, when the branches
with fruits are cut for decorations. The shrub may be
trained into a small tree by gradual removal of lower
branches, or pruned into a large shrub of multiple
boles and rounded crown. Trimming may increase
the abundance of berries by increasing the amount of
year-old wood.
' WHERE symbol='hear5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
HEAR5 is widely available from native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
References
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh:
Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants.
Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Chesnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted by
the Mendocino County Historical Society in 1974.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California. p. 480.
Schenck, S.M. &. E.W. Gifford 1952. Karok
ethnobotany. Anthropological Records 13(6):377-
392.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
TARWEED
Hemizonia fasciculata (DC.)
Torr. &. Gray
Plant Symbol = HEFA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Oregon juncos, California horned larks, western
meadowlarks, American pipist, sparrows, towhees,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, and mice. Cottontail
rabbits, ground squirrels, and chipmunks eat the
plants.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Hemizonia
fasiculata is an annual herb, 0.5-10 dm tall. The
stems are glabrous to sparsely short-bristly. The
lower leaves are 3.5-15 cm, dentate to deeply lobed,
and bristly. The upper cauline leaves are linear,
entire, and appressed to the stem. The inflorescence
is open to dense, with the 4.5-5.5 mm bell-shaped
involucre, with 5 deep ray flowers and 6 disc flowers
having yellow corollas and black anthers. The fruits
are 2.5-5 mm beaked achenes.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Hemizonia fasicularis is common in coastal
grasslands and woodlands below 900 m elevations. It
grows in southern California on the central coast,
southern outer Coast Ranges, from southwestern
California to central Baja California.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Hemizonia species seeds ripen in late summer,
usually in August in California. After gathering,
seeds can be stored in a cool, dry place for at least a
year and still maintain viability. Hemizonia species
require well-drained, fairly dry soils with full sun.
These annual species produce prolific seeds, and can
be planted directly in the soil or in seed flats. Plant
seeds at the soil surface or plant 1/8". to ¼". in a well-
drained soil. Water seedlings as the soil dries to
stimulate growth. It is best to plant seeds in the fall.
Fertilization stimulates growth and seed production.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional Resource Management: Resource
management of tarweed includes the following:
• Seeds were distributed during the process of
gathering seeds through seed beating.
Jeanne Russell Janish
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Clustered tarweed
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: This tarweed is one of the tarweeds
used in pinole, a staple food in the diets of the Indian
people in Santa Barbara, Ventura, and Santa Ynez,
California (Timbrook 1993). The seeds were toasted
and then pounded into a black, dry flour with an
agreeable taste. The roots of several Hemizonia
species were eaten by the Miwok, who considered
them to be an important part of their diet. The steam
from boiling Hemizonia fasiculata was inhaled by the
Kumeyaay to relieve headaches.
Wildlife: The dark seeds (achenes) of tarweeds are
used as food by many birds and small mammals,
including mourning doves, quail, blackbirds, finches,
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
• Burning occurred during September and October
after ripened seeds were harvested. Grassland
species were burned for plant improvement by
the tribes throughout California.
• Seeds were planted from wild plants. A
Diegueño woman reported her people always
cleared a small spot near their dwelling to plant
seeds of plants with greens, seeds, and roots.
• Ownership of seed-gathering grounds promoted
long term care and sustainable harvest practices.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
HEFA is widely available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Anderson, K. 1993. Native Californians as ancient
and contemporary cultivators. IN T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson (eds.). Before the wilderness.
Environmental management by native Californians.
Pages 151-174. Ballena Press.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933 Miwok material
culture Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Park, California.
388 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1977. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Morongo Indian
Reservation. Banning, California. 82 pp.
Bean, L.J. &. H.W. Lawton 1993. Some explanations
for the rise of cultural complexity in Native
California with comments on proto-agriculture and
agriculture. IN: T.C. Blackburn and K. Anderson
(eds.). Before the wilderness. Environmental
management by native Californians. Pages 27-54.
Ballena Press.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, and F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York. 500
pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 220 pp.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson, &. D.D. Earle 1993.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. IN: T.C.
Blackburn and K. Anderson. (eds.). Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by native
Californians. Pages 117-150. Ballena Press.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
USA. <.http://plants.usda.gov>. Version: 990518.
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Bart O’Brien
Director of Horticulture, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden, Claremont, California
' WHERE symbol='hefa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
Page 3
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SWEETGRASS
Hierochloe hirta (Schrank)
var. arctica (J. Presl) G.
Weim.
Plant Symbol = HIHIA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Montana Plant Materials Center
Ethnobotanic: Sweetgrass was and still is used
ceremonially through burning the dried and braided
grass stems for an incense or smudge. The fragrant
smoke is used for purification and to carry prayers to
the Great Spirit. Hierochloë literally translates from
Greek as sacred (hieros) and grass (chloë) or “holy
grass” (Hitchcock et al. 1973). Indian people call
sweetgrass the “grass that never dies.” Even when it
is cut, it retains its fragrance and spirit (Youngbuck
pers. comm. 1999). Today, sweetgrass is used inter-
tribally throughout the country. Sweetgrass was used
ceremonially by many tribes, including the Omaha,
Ponca, Kiowa, Dakota, Lakota, Blackfeet, Cheyenne,
Pawnee, and Winnebago (Jordan 1965, Moerman
1986). The Cheyenne, Blackfeet, and Lakota use
sweetgrass in the Sun Dance (Kindscher 1992, Hart
1976). Sweetgrass symbolizes life’s growth for the
Cheyenne (Ibid.).
Sweetgrass was the most popular perfumery of the
Blackfeet, who braided it and kept it with their
clothes like a sachet or carried it in small bags
(McClintock 1909). The Cheyenne mixed sweetgrass
with pineapple weed (Matricaria matricarioides) to
use as a perfume (Hart 1976). The Thompson
Indians used an infusion of the plant as a wash for the
hair and body (Moerman 1986). The Blackfeet and
the Gros Ventre used sweetgrass as a hair rinse to
achieve a lustrous shine (Hart 1976).
Blackfeet women made a tea from sweetgrass that
was drunk to stop vaginal bleeding after birth and to
expel the placenta (Hellson 1974). Women burned
sweetgrass braids after their moon time to finish the
cleansing. Blackfeet men drank sweetgrass tea to
treat venereal infections. Both sexes drank a tea from
this plant to treat coughs and sore throats. Windburn
and chapping were treated through an infusion of
sweetgrass stems soaked in water or a salve of
sweetgrass water and grease. The sweetgrass water
was also used as an eyewash. Sweetgrass was mixed
with seeds of meadow rue (Thalictrum occidentale)
to make a tea to clear congested nasal passages
(Kindscher 1992). The Karok of northern California
used an infusion of sweetgrass to treat women who
had suffered a miscarriage (Strike 1994). Pregnant
women drank this infusion to arrest fetus growth.
The Karok also fed sweetgrass to sick dogs.
Among the Chippewa, sweetgrass was used as an
incense or smudge in ceremony, as a spiritual
medicine, and in basketweaving (Densmore 1974).
Arne Anderberg
Used with permission from the “Den Virtuella Floran”
© Swedish Museum of Natural History
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='The plant “sweetgrass” consists of two different taxa:
Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv. HIOD and
Hierochloe hirta (Schrank) var. arctica (J.Presl)
G.Weim. HIHIA. Vanilla grass, holy grass, Seneca
grass, alpine sweetgrass
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Caution: Coumarin, a natural anticoagulant, gives
sweetgrass its characteristic sweet smell (Lewis
1977). It has potentially toxic properties and can
cause liver injury and hemorrhages. Research has
shown coumarin and related compounds to be
effective in reducing high-protein edemas, especially
lymphodema (Leung 1980).
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The use of incense is more characteristic of the Plains
Indians than of the Algonquian tribes (Ibid.).
According to Densmore, “Men would smudge before
hunting to purify body and spirit. Medicine men kept
sweetgrass in the bag with their medicinal roots and
herbs. Strands of sweetgrass were made into coiled
basketry by means of cotton thread. This took the
form of bowls, oval and round, and of flat mats.
Birch bark was sometimes used as the center of these
baskets, with the coils of sweetgrass being sewed
around it.”
Sweetgrass was used in coiled baskets, primarily in
the northeast. The Paiute used sweetgrass woven
with willow bark in the hoods of cradleboards. The
Central-Northern Algonkians, Iroquoians, and
Hurons edged woodsplint basketry and vessel borders
with sweetgrass (Turnbaugh et al. 1986). Central-
Northern Algonkian peoples are known for their
production of flexible weft-twined bags, and some
created bundle-coiled baskets of sweetgrass.
Northern New England basketry intermixed wood
splints with twisted or braided sweetgrass in one
basket (Pelletier 1982, Turnbaugh et al. 1986). In the
northeast, the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Winnebago,
Menominee, Mohawk, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy,
and Abenaki (Turnbaugh et al. 1986) made coiled
baskets of sweetgrass. In the Plains cultural area,
rawhide containers enjoyed much greater popularity
than did woven or stitched basketry. The Arapaho
and Mandan may have also used sweetgrass in their
coiled baskets (Ibid.).
Wildlife: Rodents and small mammals (such as pika)
browse on sweetgrass (Martin 1951).
Restoration: Sweetgrass is a useful plant for wetland
and riparian restoration and mitigation and spring
protection/renovation. Sweetgrass has potential for
conservation use for erosion control on moderately
sloping, hillside seeps. Seeps are sometimes erosive
because the soil stays liquid and the saturated
conditions inhibit the growth of many plants. The
sod-forming and moisture tolerant characteristics of
sweetgrass will stabilize the seep (Ivan Dozier pers.
comm. 1999).
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Grass Family (Poaceae). Sweetgrass is a
fragrant, rhizomatous, perennial grass that reaches a
height of 7 dm. (30 in.). The stems are hollow and
hairless with open sheaths. The leaf blades are flat at
maturity, usually glabrous, 10-30 cm. (3.9-11.8 in.)
long. The sweetgrass inflorescence is an open
panicle 4-9 cm. (1.6-3.5 in.) long. the lower branches
are drooping to spreading. The spikelets are three-
flowered, the two lowest florets staminate (male) and
the uppermost is perfect (both female and male).
Sweetgrass is an early blooming plant and flowers
from May to July.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The two sweetgrasses grow in wet meadows,
low prairies, and the edges of sloughs and marshes in
Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, South Dakota,
northwest Iowa, and western and central Montana. It
grows from Labrador to Alaska, south to New Jersey,
Indiana, Iowa, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is also
native to Eurasia. Sweetgrass grows below 1830 m
in California and is rare in the state, occurring in the
north High Cascade Ranges and extending north
(McGregor 1991).
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Sweetgrass is a rhizomatous perennial
that is native to cooler regions of North America and
Europe. It is found in moist, cool meadows, shaded
stream banks, and cool mountain canyons (Dorn
1984).
Caution: Due to prolific rhizome production, it can
be moderately invasive.
In its native habitat, sweetgrass grows primarily in
wetlands and riparian areas. Due to the loss of
wetland habitat throughout the United States, it is
rarely appropriate to harvest wild plants. Wild
harvests should be restricted to salvage sites with
appropriate approvals or permits. Sweetgrass
populations are declining due to harvesting for both
personal and commercial use. The species is subject
to over-collecting and is sensitive to grazing. Indian
elders are quoted as saying “Today sweetgrass has
become scarce and is hard to find” (Hart 1976).
The following information on the propagation of
sweetgrass is obtained from the Bridger Plant
Materials Center (1996 and 1999) and Susan
Winslow (1999).
Propagation from Cuttings: Sweetgrass can be
propagated easily from container or bare rootstock, as
it produces many rhizomes. It can also be propagated
from seed. However, in nature, sweetgrass is a
sporadic seed producer, and germination rates are
fairly low (25-30%), so propagation from seed is
Page 3
more difficult than from cuttings or division of
plants.
Handling and care requires commitment and attention
to detail to maximize survival. Initially, the plants
should remain in the pots for an additional 2-3 weeks
after you receive them, and watering must occur
every day while in the pots. This is because of the
possibility of lingering transplant shock and because
the soil in the pots dries out fairly quickly. The
plants will continue to grow and thrive in the original
containers for quite a period of time while site
location and preparation efforts are finalized.
Pick the sites where sweetgrass is to be transplanted
carefully, and prepare the site properly before
planting. It is advisable to keep the immediate
planting area clear of competing vegetation, which
may simply mean hand weeding around individual
plants, or a mechanical means may be required.
Sweetgrass grows in wetter areas in its natural
habitat, and during the establishment period irrigation
is likely to be required. Soil should be kept very wet
to moist.
For plants grown in greenhouse flats or collected
from the wild, it is best to dig up and separate plants
in late fall or winter (Hartman et al. 1990). This is
the “quiescent” period that follows seed maturation,
and leaves are senescent (dried up and brown
colored). When separating plants, ensure that each
“plantlet” has a rhizome or rhizome bud. Each plant
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil.
Plants should be planted on 3-foot centers. they will
fill in and make solid stands of sweetgrass in one to
two years. Plants need to be kept moist, and need
frequent watering. Plants may need to be protected
from herbivores, such as rabbits or gophers. Dogs
love sweetgrass and will selectively eat the shoots
and roll in the grass.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='After the plants have established and grown to a
minimum height of 4 to 6 inches (to avoid damaging
small seedlings), routinely weed and remove
unwanted vegetation. This will reduce competition
for light, nutrients, and water, and encourage
vigorous plant growth and development. Sweetgrass
prefers a moist environment, so regularly water the
site. The rhizomes (underground, horizontal stems)
develop early and will emerge during the first
growing season. The grass will continue to spread if
left unattended. The leaves will reach a length of
approximately 12-15 inches and can be harvested
once or twice a year. The foliage is very relaxed and
it will be necessary to carefully lift the leaves and cut
the stems close to the ground (leave 1 to 2 inches of
plant stem). The actual number of harvests per year
will depend on climatic conditions, seasonal timing,
and the traditional environmental knowledge of the
particular indigenous group tending the grass. Plan
the final harvest (late summer in northern climes) so
that there will be adequate time for the plants to
prepare for the onset of cold temperatures and winter
conditions. If this natural hardening-off process does
not occur, it will eventually have a detrimental effect
on the long-term persistent and survival of the stand.
Fertilizing is not recommended in the first year of
establishment, as weeds would reap the most benefit
during that time. The use of a balanced, all-around,
granular fertilizer is recommended after the first year.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Traditional Resource Management: The following
information on sweetgrass was provided by Lynn
Youngbuck, who is Cherokee, Chiracahua, and Fox:
1) take only what you need, leaving the best to
reproduce. 2) speak to the plant, leave an offering of
tobacco or sage before harvesting. the plant will grow
back two stems for every one cut. 3) we humans are
another strand in life. plants sustain us and should be
treated as another living being. 4) plants were taken
care of by extended family groups of women. they
were taken care of and watched each year for
generations. and 5) materials harvested were shared
and traded with the whole tribe.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
Sweetgrass is widely available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='Site Preparation: The site should be prepared well in
advance of planting, either late in the fall or very
early in the spring. Preparation includes the
following: removal of all weeds. rototilling or hand-
digging so that the soil is loose and friable. raking or
smoothing to a level, clump-free grade. packing or
rolling to firm the surface (afterwards, only light foot
imprints should be visible when walked across). and
moistening the soil evenly to a depth of 2 to 3 inches
(or when surface puddling is evident) with a sprinkler
or hand-held spray nozzle.
Seeding: Sweetgrass is a cool-season species that
requires a period of cold temperatures before it will
Page 4
germinate from seed. Late fall, late winter, or early
spring is the best time to plant the sweetgrass seed.
At the time of seeding, the soil should be moistened
to a depth of 1 inch. The seed should be fully ripened
(very firm when squeezed between fingernails or
when clipped with a fingernail clipper) and free of
debris. Sweetgrass seed is very small at
approximately 1.1 million seeds per pound.
Depending on the amount of seed available and the
plant density desired, the seed can be dribbled in
rows at a rate of up to 25 seeds per linear foot, or
broadcast at 50 seeds per square foot. This may
optimally result in 6 plants per row and/or 13 plants
per square foot (seed germination tests have averaged
25-30%). Planting depth should not exceed 0.25 to
0.5 inches. It is very important after seed placement
that the area be re-rolled or packed to ensure
satisfactory seed-to-soil contact. The tiny seed can
be easily washed away, so follow planting
immediately with a light watering. Keep the area
moist until seedling emergence, in about 10-14 days.
In soils (clayey) that are prone to crusting,
subsequent periodic, short-duration watering may be
necessary.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Densmore, F. 1974 (1928). How Indians use wild
plants for food medicine, and crafts. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
Dorn, R.D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana.
Mountain West Publishing. Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Dozier, I. 1999. Personal communication. District
Conservationist and Illinois NRCS Native American
Liaison.
Hart, J. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society Press, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
730 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. Indian herbalogy of North America.
Shambhala, Boston and London. Pp. 113-117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Jordan, J.A. 1965. Ethnobotany of the Kiowa-
Apache. Master’s Thesis, University of Oklahoma.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. Pp. 84-94.
Lewis, W.H. &. M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis 1977. Medical
botany: Plants affecting man’s health. John Wiley &.
Sons, Inc., New York, New York.
Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural
ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. Technical Reports, Number 19,
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Pp. 156-158.
Pelletier, G. 1982. Abenaki basketry. Mercury
Series, No. 85. National Museum of Man, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California’s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany.
Swedish Museum of Natural History 2000. Den
virtuella floran: Hierochloe odorata. Arne
Anderberg-photo. Version: 000228.
<.http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/mono/poa/hiero/hierodo.
html>. Stockholm, Sweden.
Page 5
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1996. Cultural and establishment
trials of culturally significant plants. 1993-1995
Technical Report, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 1999. Cultural and establishment
trials of culturally significant plants. 1996-1997
Technical Report, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana.
Winslow, S. 1999. Sweetgrass and cottonwood
production in Bridger, Montana. IN Plants: A
Growing Alternative. A National Publication of the
Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant
Materials Program. Volume 4. Beltsville, Maryland.
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Susan Winslow
USDA NRCS, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana
' WHERE symbol='hihia';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 07feb02 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
SWEETGRASS
Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv.
Plant Symbol = HIOD
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Montana Plant Materials Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA NRCS 1992. Western wetland flora
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Vanilla grass, holy grass, Seneca grass, alpine
sweetgrass
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Caution: Coumarin, a natural anticoagulant, gives
sweetgrass its characteristic sweet smell (Lewis
1977). It has potentially toxic properties and can
cause liver injury and hemorrhages. Research has
shown coumarin and related compounds to be
effective in reducing high-protein edemas, especially
lymphodema (Leung 1980).
Ethnobotanic: Sweetgrass was and still is used
ceremonially through burning the dried and braided
grass stems for an incense or smudge. The fragrant
smoke is used for purification and to carry prayers to
the Great Spirit. Hierochloë literally translates from
Greek as sacred (hieros) and grass (chloë) or “holy
grass” (Hitchcock et al. 1973). Indian people call
sweetgrass the “grass that never dies.” Even when it
is cut, it retains its fragrance and spirit (Youngbuck
pers. comm. 1999). Today, sweetgrass is used inter-
tribally throughout the country. Sweetgrass was used
ceremonially by many tribes, including the Omaha,
Ponca, Kiowa, Dakota, Lakota, Blackfeet, Cheyenne,
Pawnee, and Winnebago (Jordan 1965, Moerman
1986). The Cheyenne, Blackfeet, and Lakota use
sweetgrass in the Sun Dance (Kindscher 1992, Hart
1976). Sweetgrass symbolizes life’s growth for the
Cheyenne (Ibid.).
Sweetgrass was the most popular perfumery of the
Blackfeet, who braided it and kept it with their
clothes like a sachet or carried it in small bags
(McClintock 1909). The Cheyenne mixed sweetgrass
with pineapple weed (Matricaria matricarioides) to
use as a perfume (Hart 1976). The Thompson
Indians used an infusion of the plant as a wash for the
hair and body (Moerman 1986). The Blackfeet and
the Gros Ventre used sweetgrass as a hair rinse to
achieve a lustrous shine (Hart 1976).
Blackfeet women made a tea from sweetgrass that
was drunk to stop vaginal bleeding after birth and to
expel the placenta (Hellson 1974). Women burned
sweetgrass braids after their moon time to finish the
cleansing. Blackfeet men drank sweetgrass tea to
treat venereal infections. Both sexes drank a tea from
this plant to treat coughs and sore throats. Windburn
and chapping were treated through an infusion of
sweetgrass stems soaked in water or a salve of
sweetgrass water and grease. The sweetgrass water
was also used as an eyewash. Sweetgrass was mixed
with seeds of meadow rue (Thalictrum occidentale)
to make a tea to clear congested nasal passages
(Kindscher 1992). The Karok of northern California
used an infusion of sweetgrass to treat women who
had suffered a miscarriage (Strike 1994). Pregnant
women drank this infusion to arrest fetus growth.
The Karok also fed sweetgrass to sick dogs.
Among the Chippewa, sweetgrass was used as an
incense or smudge in ceremony, as a spiritual
medicine, and in basketweaving (Densmore 1974).
The use of incense is more characteristic of the Plains
Indians than of the Algonquian tribes (Ibid.).
According to Densmore, “Men would smudge before
hunting to purify body and spirit. Medicine men kept
sweetgrass in the bag with their medicinal roots and
herbs. Strands of sweetgrass were made into coiled
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
basketry by means of cotton thread. This took the
form of bowls, oval and round, and of flat mats.
Birch bark was sometimes used as the center of these
baskets, with the coils of sweetgrass being sewed
around it.”
Sweetgrass was used in coiled baskets, primarily in
the northeast. The Paiute used sweetgrass woven
with willow bark in the hoods of cradleboards. The
Central-Northern Algonkians, Iroquoians, and
Hurons edged woodsplint basketry and vessel borders
with sweetgrass (Turnbaugh et al. 1986). Central-
Northern Algonkian peoples are known for their
production of flexible weft-twined bags, and some
created bundle-coiled baskets of sweetgrass.
Northern New England basketry intermixed wood
splints with twisted or braided sweetgrass in one
basket (Pelletier 1982, Turnbaugh et al. 1986). In the
northeast, the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Winnebago,
Menominee, Mohawk, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy,
and Abenaki (Turnbaugh et al. 1986) made coiled
baskets of sweetgrass. In the Plains cultural area,
rawhide containers enjoyed much greater popularity
than did woven or stitched basketry. The Arapaho
and Mandan may have also used sweetgrass in their
coiled baskets (Ibid.).
Wildlife: Rodents and small mammals (such as pika)
browse on sweetgrass (Martin 1951).
Restoration: Sweetgrass is a useful plant for wetland
and riparian restoration and mitigation and spring
protection/renovation. Sweetgrass has potential for
conservation use for erosion control on moderately
sloping, hillside seeps. Seeps are sometimes erosive
because the soil stays liquid and the saturated
conditions inhibit the growth of many plants. The
sod-forming and moisture tolerant characteristics of
sweetgrass will stabilize the seep (Ivan Dozier pers.
comm. 1999).
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Grass Family (Poaceae). Sweetgrass is a
fragrant, rhizomatous, perennial grass that reaches a
height of 7 dm. (30 in.). The stems are hollow and
hairless with open sheaths. The leaf blades are flat at
maturity, usually glabrous, 10-30 cm. (3.9-11.8 in.)
long. The sweetgrass inflorescence is an open
panicle 4-9 cm. (1.6-3.5 in.) long. the lower branches
are drooping to spreading. The spikelets are three-
flowered, the two lowest florets staminate (male) and
the uppermost is perfect (both female and male).
Sweetgrass is an early blooming plant and flowers
from May to July.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Sweetgrass grows in wet meadows, low prairies,
and the edges of sloughs and marshes in Minnesota,
North Dakota, Montana, South Dakota, northwest
Iowa, and western and central Montana. It grows
from Labrador to Alaska, south to New Jersey,
Indiana, Iowa, New Mexico, and Arizona. It is also
native to Eurasia. Sweetgrass grows below 1830 m
in California and is rare in the state, occurring in the
north High Cascade Ranges and extending north
(McGregor 1991).
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Sweetgrass is a rhizomatous perennial
that is native to cooler regions of North America and
Europe. It is found in moist, cool meadows, shaded
stream banks, and cool mountain canyons (Dorn
1984).
Caution: Due to prolific rhizome production, it can
be moderately invasive.
In its native habitat, sweetgrass grows primarily in
wetlands and riparian areas. Due to the loss of
wetland habitat throughout the United States, it is
rarely appropriate to harvest wild plants. Wild
harvests should be restricted to salvage sites with
appropriate approvals or permits. Sweetgrass
populations are declining due to harvesting for both
personal and commercial use. The species is subject
to over-collecting and is sensitive to grazing. Indian
elders are quoted as saying “Today sweetgrass has
become scarce and is hard to find” (Hart 1976).
The following information on the propagation of
sweetgrass is obtained from the Bridger Plant
Materials Center (1996 and 1999) and Susan
Winslow (1999).
Propagation from Cuttings: Sweetgrass can be
propagated easily from container or bare rootstock, as
it produces many rhizomes. It can also be propagated
from seed. However, in nature, sweetgrass is a
sporadic seed producer, and germination rates are
fairly low (25-30%), so propagation from seed is
more difficult than from cuttings or division of
plants.
Handling and care requires commitment and attention
to detail to maximize survival. Initially, the plants
should remain in the pots for an additional 2-3 weeks
Page 3
after you receive them, and watering must occur
every day while in the pots. This is because of the
possibility of lingering transplant shock and because
the soil in the pots dries out fairly quickly. The
plants will continue to grow and thrive in the original
containers for quite a period of time while site
location and preparation efforts are finalized.
Pick the sites where sweetgrass is to be transplanted
carefully, and prepare the site properly before
planting. It is advisable to keep the immediate
planting area clear of competing vegetation, which
may simply mean hand weeding around individual
plants, or a mechanical means may be required.
Sweetgrass grows in wetter areas in its natural
habitat, and during the establishment period irrigation
is likely to be required. Soil should be kept very wet
to moist.
For plants grown in greenhouse flats or collected
from the wild, it is best to dig up and separate plants
in late fall or winter (Hartman et al. 1990). This is
the “quiescent” period that follows seed maturation,
and leaves are senescent (dried up and brown
colored). When separating plants, ensure that each
“plantlet” has a rhizome or rhizome bud. Each plant
should be planted in full sun in a light, loose soil.
Plants should be planted on 3-foot centers. they will
fill in and make solid stands of sweetgrass in one to
two years. Plants need to be kept moist, and need
frequent watering. Plants may need to be protected
from herbivores, such as rabbits or gophers. Dogs
love sweetgrass and will selectively eat the shoots
and roll in the grass.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='After the plants have established and grown to a
minimum height of 4 to 6 inches (to avoid damaging
small seedlings), routinely weed and remove
unwanted vegetation. This will reduce competition
for light, nutrients, and water, and encourage
vigorous plant growth and development. Sweetgrass
prefers a moist environment, so regularly water the
site. The rhizomes (underground, horizontal stems)
develop early and will emerge during the first
growing season. The grass will continue to spread if
left unattended. The leaves will reach a length of
approximately 12-15 inches and can be harvested
once or twice a year. The foliage is very relaxed and
it will be necessary to carefully lift the leaves and cut
the stems close to the ground (leave 1 to 2 inches of
plant stem). The actual number of harvests per year
will depend on climatic conditions, seasonal timing,
and the traditional environmental knowledge of the
particular indigenous group tending the grass. Plan
the final harvest (late summer in northern climes) so
that there will be adequate time for the plants to
prepare for the onset of cold temperatures and winter
conditions. If this natural hardening-off process does
not occur, it will eventually have a detrimental effect
on the long-term persistent and survival of the stand.
Fertilizing is not recommended in the first year of
establishment, as weeds would reap the most benefit
during that time. The use of a balanced, all-around,
granular fertilizer is recommended after the first year.
Traditional Resource Management: The following
information on sweetgrass was provided by Lynn
Youngbuck, who is Cherokee, Chiracahua, and Fox:
1) take only what you need, leaving the best to
reproduce. 2) speak to the plant, leave an offering of
tobacco or sage before harvesting. the plant will grow
back two stems for every one cut. 3) we humans are
another strand in life. plants sustain us and should be
treated as another living being. 4) plants were taken
care of by extended family groups of women. they
were taken care of and watched each year for
generations. and 5) materials harvested were shared
and traded with the whole tribe.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
HIOD is widely available through native plant
nurseries and seed companies within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='Site Preparation: The site should be prepared well in
advance of planting, either late in the fall or very
early in the spring. Preparation includes the
following: removal of all weeds. rototilling or hand-
digging so that the soil is loose and friable. raking or
smoothing to a level, clump-free grade. packing or
rolling to firm the surface (afterwards, only light foot
imprints should be visible when walked across). and
moistening the soil evenly to a depth of 2 to 3 inches
(or when surface puddling is evident) with a sprinkler
or hand-held spray nozzle.
Seeding: Sweetgrass is a cool-season species that
requires a period of cold temperatures before it will
germinate from seed. Late fall, late winter, or early
spring is the best time to plant the sweetgrass seed.
At the time of seeding, the soil should be moistened
to a depth of 1 inch. The seed should be fully ripened
(very firm when squeezed between fingernails or
when clipped with a fingernail clipper) and free of
Page 4
debris. Sweetgrass seed is very small at
approximately 1.1 million seeds per pound.
Depending on the amount of seed available and the
plant density desired, the seed can be dribbled in
rows at a rate of up to 25 seeds per linear foot, or
broadcast at 50 seeds per square foot. This may
optimally result in 6 plants per row and/or 13 plants
per square foot (seed germination tests have averaged
25-30%). Planting depth should not exceed 0.25 to
0.5 inches. It is very important after seed placement
that the area be re-rolled or packed to ensure
satisfactory seed-to-soil contact. The tiny seed can
be easily washed away, so follow planting
immediately with a light watering. Keep the area
moist until seedling emergence, in about 10-14 days.
In soils (clayey) that are prone to crusting,
subsequent periodic, short-duration watering may be
necessary.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Densmore, F. 1974 (1928). How Indians use wild
plants for food medicine, and crafts. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
Dorn, R.D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana.
Mountain West Publishing. Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Dozier, I. 1999. Personal communication. District
Conservationist and Illinois NRCS Native American
Liaison.
Hart, J. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society Press, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, &. F. T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.) 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
730 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. Indian herbalogy of North America.
Shambhala, Boston and London. Pp. 113-117.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Jordan, J.A. 1965. Ethnobotany of the Kiowa-
Apache. Master’s Thesis, University of Oklahoma.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. Pp. 84-94.
Lewis, W.H. &. M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis 1977. Medical
botany: Plants affecting man’s health. John Wiley &.
Sons, Inc., New York, New York.
Leung, A.Y. 1980. Encyclopedia of common natural
ingredients used in food, drugs, and cosmetics. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L. T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1991. Flora of the Great Plains.
University Press of Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2. Technical Reports, Number 19,
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology,
Ann Arbor, Michigan. Pp. 156-158.
Pelletier, G. 1982. Abenaki basketry. Mercury
Series, No. 85. National Museum of Man, Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California’s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany.
Swedish Museum of Natural History 2000. Den
virtuella floran: Hierochloe odorata. Arne
Anderberg-photo. Version: 000228.
<.http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/mono/poa/hiero/hierodo.
html>. Stockholm, Sweden.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffer Publishing Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 260 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1996. Cultural and establishment
trials of culturally significant plants. 1993-1995
Page 5
Technical Report, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 1999. Cultural and establishment
trials of culturally significant plants. 1996-1997
Technical Report, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana.
Winslow, S. 1999. Sweetgrass and cottonwood
production in Bridger, Montana. IN Plants: A
Growing Alternative. A National Publication of the
Natural Resources Conservation Service Plant
Materials Program. Volume 4. Beltsville, Maryland.
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Susan Winslow
USDA NRCS, Bridger Plant Materials Center,
Bridger, Montana
' WHERE symbol='hiod';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp. 060807 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
ST. ANDREW’S
CROSS
Hypericum hypericoides (L.)
Crantz ssp. hypericoides
Plant Symbol = HYHYH
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
USDA, NRCS
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='St. Andrew’s wort, St. Peter’s wort, Peterwort
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Alabama, Choctaw, Houma,
Koasat, Natchez, and other Native American tribes
used St. Andrew’s cross for medicinal purposes. It
was thought that infants would learn to walk at an
earlier age if they were bathed in a cold or warm tea
made from the roots of the plants. Children who
were too weak to walk were bathed with a decoction
mixture made from the mashed roots. Infusions of
the plant were administered to children who had
trouble urinating. Dysentery was treated with an
infusion made from the whole plant. An infusion of
the roots and branches was used to treat ulcerations
and swollen glands. The leaves were used to make
an infusion to wash sore eyes. Roots were gathered,
at any time of year, and made into a decoction used
to treat severe pain, especially in childbirth. A
decoction of the roots was also used to treat colic.
Rheumatism was treated with a decoction or infusion
of the leaves. The scraped roots and bark were used
to treat fevers. To treat toothaches, some bark was
scraped from the stem and packed into the offending
Plant Guide
tooth. The plant was used to treat horses that were
bitten by snakes.
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: St. Johnswort Family (Clusiaceae). St.
Andrew’s cross is a native, perennial shrub or sub-
shrub. The common name refers to the petals, which
make an oblique cross similar to the cross of Saint
Andrew the Apostle, patron saint of Scotland, Russia,
and Greece. The shrub has a single to several erect
stems with several axillary branches at the top (3 to
15 dm tall). Older stems are reddish-brown, with
sloughing or shredding bark. The linear leaf blades
are variable, ranging in shape from narrow to
elliptical (5 to 25 mm long, 1.5 to 6 mm wide). The
solitary flowers are at the terminal ends of the
branches, just above the last pair of leaves. The two
large and two small sepals are arranged in unequal
pairs. The four flower petals are pale yellow (8 to 10
mm long) with numerous stamens. The oval to
elliptical seed capsules (4 to 9 mm long) enclose
black, oblong seeds (1mm long). The plants may
flower from spring through fall, or all year depending
on the climate.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: St. Andrew’s cross occurs in a wide variety
of habitats. It may be found in dry woods, pine flat-
woods, pine barrens, moist to wet thickets,
hammocks, flood plains, wet woodlands, depressions,
and bogs.
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='These plants are easy to cultivate and may be
propagated by seed and greenwood cuttings. The
plants are useful in ornamental borders and rock
gardens.
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Coffey, T. 1993. The history &. folklore of North
American wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
MA. 356 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol 2.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 933
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and Exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp. Small, J.K. 1933.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference 14(4): Pp. 49-75.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
' WHERE symbol='hyhyh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
YAUPON
Ilex vomitoria Ait.
Plant Symbol = ILVO
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
William S. Justice @ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Caution: Poisonous plant-berries can cause nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='Yaupon holly, cassena, cassina, cassine, evergreen
cassena, evergreen holly, Indian blackdrink,
Christmas berry
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Most if not all of the Native American
tribes in the Southeastern United States including the
Alabama, Cherokee, Creek, Natchez, and Seminole
used Yaupon for medicinal as well as other purposes.
A decoction was made from the leaves and shoots,
called “black drink”, which was used medicinally,
ceremonially, and was also served as a social drink.
The leaves and shoots, which contain caffeine, were
roasted in an earthenware container over a fire, much
like coffee beans are roasted. The black drink was
drunk socially and offered to visitors to indicate
friendly intensions. Its primary medicinal use was as
an emetic, to induce vomiting and as a purgative or
laxative. It was taken to cure “a tremor in the
nerves.” The drink was used in ceremonial medicine
as an emetic to “clear out the system and produce
ceremonial purity.” In some tribes, women and boys
were prohibited from imbibing the drink. The
Florida Seminoles still brew a “black drink” for their
annual Green Corn Dance, although it is not always
made with Yaupon, but from other plants. The plant
Plant Guide
was also used as a hallucinogen to “evoke ecstasies.”
The bark was used to treat nightmares where the
patient sees ghosts and talks during sleep. Sore eyes
were treated with eyewash made by scraping off the
inner bark and boiling it in water for several hours.
The wood was used to make arrows and ramrods that
were used in hunting and fishing. In addition to
trading Yaupon with nearby neighbors, Native
American tribes in the Southeastern United States
probably increased the distribution of yaupon. There
is evidence that they transplanted and cared for the
trees (see Hammett 1992 for references).
Wildlife: The showy red berries of yaupon attract
wildlife and are an important food for many
songbirds, gamebirds and waterfowl. Bluebirds,
catbirds, mockingbirds, robins, yellow-shafted
flickers, red-naped sapsuckers, yellow-bellied
sapsuckers, white-throated sparrows and cedar
waxwings are among the many songbirds that feed on
the berries. Florida ducks, black ducks, mourning
doves, ruffed grouse, bobwhite quail and wild turkeys
also consume the berries. Armadillos, black bears,
gray foxes, western foxes, raccoons and skunks eat
the fruits. White-tailed deer browse the foliage and
twigs. The evergreen nature of the yaupon is
important to wildlife as it provides cover during the
winter months.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Holly Family (Aquifoliaceae). Yaupon is a
native, perennial, evergreen shrub or a small tree (8
m tall). The leathery leaf blades (1 to 2.5 cm long)
are alternate, elliptical or oval with shallow teeth at
the margins. The upper surface is a lustrous green
with a lighter green lower surface. The leaves
contain caffeine. Yaupon is the only native plant in
North America that contains caffeine. Flowers (5 to
5.5 mm) with four greenish white petals appear from
March through May. Blooms appear on axillary
clusters on year-old wood. Male flowers appear in
clusters while female flowers grow either solitarily or
in pairs. Young stems are covered with a purplish
down which changes to whitish gray with age. The
bark is light in color, from white to gray. The
heartwood is hard and close-grained. Female plants
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
have beautiful, round fruits that are a translucent red
(5 to 6 mm in diameter) and contain four nutlets. The
fruits frequently stay on the bush until the following
spring.
Distribution: Yaupon occurs in the Coastal Plain of
the Southeastern United States. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Yaupon generally occurs in coastal areas in
well-drained sandy soils. It can be found on the
upper edges of brackish and salt marshes, sandy
hammocks, coastal sand dunes, inner-dune
depressions, sandhills, maritime forests, nontidal
forested wetlands, well-drained forests and pine
flatwoods.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Yaupon is a picturesque tree with an upright stature
and irregular branches. The plants may be used as
screens, hedges and mass plantings. They make good
specimen trees and can be espaliered or used as a
topiary plant. The trees are one of the toughest of the
hollies, easy to transplant, medium to fast growing
and grow well on a variety of soils. They can grow
in dry to fairly wet soils and are tolerant of salt spray.
They make excellent plants for coastal areas but also
do well a considerable distance from the coast.
Yaupon is better adapted to warmer climates than
other evergreen hollies. Be sure to include at least
one male plant in order to insure adequate pollination
for fruit set.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The tree commonly forms thickets by sending up
suckers that sprout from the roots. The tree responds
well to pruning and shearing. Limbs may be
removed in order to expose the bark, which is a
lovely grayish white.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Yaupon has no serious pest or disease problems
although leafminers have been reported to
occasionally be a problem.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Brown, R.C. 1994. Florida’s first people: 12,000
years of human history. Pineapple Press, Inc.,
Sarasota, Florida. 262 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois.
1187 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol 2.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 933
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Hammett, J.E. 1992. The shapes of adaptation:
Historical ecology of anthropogenic landscapes in
the Southeastern United States. Landscape Ecology
7(2): 123-135.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Merrill, W. L. 1979. The beloved tree: Ilex vomitoria
among the Indians of the Southeast and adjacent
region pp 40-82 in Charles M. Hudson, Editor.
Black Drink: A Native American Tea. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 175 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001).
Neill, W.T. 1956. Florida’s Seminole Indians.
Second Edition. Great Outdoors Publishing Co., St.
Petersburg, Florida. 128 pp.
Page 3
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Swanton, J.R. 2000. Creek religion and medicine.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
684 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. 328 pp.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory 2001, May. Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [19 June 2001].
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='ilvo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
DOUGLAS IRIS
Iris douglasiana Herbert
Plant Symbol = IRDO
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
spread a delicate network of the same material to
draw in the loop. One Indian stated that ".it takes
nearly six weeks to make a rope twelve feet long.". In
spite of the tremendous labor of preparing this
material, the iris fiber was one of the most generally
employed in northwestern California. The threads
and cords of this fiber were used to make fishing
nets, camping bags and snares for catching deer,
birds, and other game.
Since iris is fine and can be bent at sharp angles, it
makes an excellent starting knot in coiled baskets. It
is said that babies were wrapped in the soft green
leaves of Iris douglasiana while their mothers
collected manzanita berries, to keep the babies cool
and to prevent dehydration.
The Monache and the Southern Yokuts in California
make flour from iris seed. The Pomo placed acorn
meal in a shallow pit and covered the meal with Iris
leaves before pouring water over the meal to leach
out tannic acid.
A poultice of the raw rhizome is especially effective
against staph sores. Externally, iris is successfully
used in infected wounds, ulcers, and fistulas, plus to
take away freckles. Only the dry root should be used
internally. Iris is active as a cathartic, has a
stimulating effect on the production of both
pancreatic enzymes and bile, is a strong diuretic, and
will stimulate both saliva and sweat. This is a useful
medicinal plant, but in general should be used with
care and preferably in combinations where less
energetic plants form the bulk of a medicinal
formula.
Tea from iris roots was used for kidney trouble by
several California Indian peoples (Murphey 1959).
The Yana chewed iris roots to cure coughs. The
Modoc used an iris root decoction to soothe sore
eyes. A piece of iris root was inserted in a tooth
cavity to kill the nerve, so the tooth will come out.
Tests showed slight bactericidal effects, slight effects
on rabbit pneumonia, and an ascorbic acid content of
4% (Archer 1957). Roots were burned and the
smoke inhaled to alleviate dizziness. A root
decoction was used as a cathartic and emetic, but
large doses could cause severe digestive problems.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: The beautiful and variable
blossoms lend themselves to landscaping, where they
naturalize and require minimal maintenance.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Warning' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_='
Ethnobotanical: Iris makes some of the finest
cordage. the fibers are particularly strong and
flexible. Only two fibers can be taken from each iris
leaf margin. Huge bunches of leaves were harvested
in the fall and stored until needed. Iris cordage was
used for fishing nets, string, rope, snares, hairnets,
and regalia. The fibers are fine like silk, but
surprisingly strong.
Rope was made from fibers, which occur, on the
outside of iris leaves. The iris leaves were gathered
in large bundles and a single silky fiber was taken
from each margin of the leaf. None of the other fibers
was used. Using a mussel-shell or abalone
".thumbnail". the women stripped the fibers from the
leaves. The fibers are detached from the leaves and
scraped clean of all tissues. The men, mostly while
sitting around in their sweathouses twisted the
threads on the bare thigh. The men always knotted
the fishing nets. A deer rope is near 20 feet long with
lasso at one end, and about half an inch in diameter.
This loop was set over a deer trail to catch the head
or antlers. Within the set loop over the trail was
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Horticulturally, it is used for rock gardens, ground
cover, borders, wetlands, ponds, and streams. Native
irises are free flowering, most are long lived, require
very little attention, and provide an abundance of
seeds. Iris flowers attract insects and birds. Irises
provide nectar to hummingbirds. The mountain
beaver (Aplodontia rufa ) is also known to feed on
the leaves and stems of iris that occur in the vicinity
of its tunnels.
Invasive Potential: Irises are sometimes invasive.
Irises can become noxious weeds in pastures, because
the leaves are unpalatable and bitter.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). The native irises
are perennial herbs, usually evergreen and growing
from a creeping, tuberous rhizome. Irises can be
identified by their double row of leaves, which
overlap like praying hands. The leaves are long and
linear with parallel venation. Flower stems are erect
and simple. Blossoms vary somewhat in spacing of
the parts, width of sepals, and the inner, erect
standards (petals). Iris douglasiana has pale cream to
light, dark lavender or deep reddish purple flowers
that bloom from May to June.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Iris douglasiana grows abundantly along the
coast from north Santa Barbara County, California,
into Oregon. It is found in shade with moist soils
with ample organic matter. This plant is common in
grassy places, especially near the coast, at elevations
generally less than 100 m. It grows naturally in the
coastal prairie and mixed evergreen forest
communities.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The native irises are excellent in shade situations,
even dense shade of walls and fences (Schmidt
1980). They will tolerate sun for most of the day in
mild areas, and should have afternoon shade and
ample water in the interior regions. Plants may be
watered the year round. Fertilization increases
biomass and seed production. This iris has a
clumping rhizome system, and is readily propagated
by plant division in fall or winter.
When allowed to increase freely, plants will
naturalize and eventually form extensive ground
cover. Unless the seed vessels are removed there will
be many volunteer plants, but if inferior flower size
or color appears it should be culled immediately.
Irises start growing with the first cool weather and
rains in fall, reaching the height of their growth in
spring and early summer. They go dormant after
seed set, in hot dry summer.
Propagation by Plant Division: Iris douglasiana is
clonal, radiating outward in growth from the center.
The best propagation method for these is division, in
fall or winter after the first new roots are established
but before the flowers form.
Native irises in the wild tend to produce only a small,
dry rhizome with stringy roots, which is difficult to
dig. Vigorous garden or greenhouse plants produce
firm, white, growing roots especially in winter and
spring growing seasons, and clumps are easily
divided at those time. Remove a new fan with fleshy
roots set in a prepared site, water it, and provide
shade for a few days if the plant is placed in full sun.
Frequent division appears to keep the plants
vigorous, as well as being the best method of
increasing the supply of superior forms.
Propagation by Seed: Iris seed is easily collected
from the large capsules. The capsules turn from
green to brown and open at the top when they are
ripe. They have to be watched closely, because they
disperse rapidly. Two days after ripening, the seed is
gone. Collect capsules carefully to avoid spilling
seeds. Each capsule has from 20 to 80 seeds.
Seeds should be stored in paper envelopes at room
temperature until they are planted. The seeds of all
species will keep up to 10 years at room temperature.
Plant seeds in 6-inch pots, using a combination of
leaf mold and peat moss. Cover seeds with 1/2 inch
of same material. Any good potting soil that s acidic
is good for seed germination.
After planting, over-winter the pots outdoors in
November or December. They will come up in 2-3
months, depending on the weather. Germination
increases the second year, because there s always a
percentage of hard seeds that won t germinate the
first year. Part of the seed waits for the next year, to
increase the probability for good weather conditions
and optimize germination success.
Plant the seedlings in May, when the young plants
are usually 3 to 6 inches tall or even taller. Plant
Page 3
from 6 inches to one-foot spacing. If a natural look is
desired, scatter and clump the plantings. Water
plants through the dry season until the roots have
established. After the first year the plants should be
self-maintaining without additional watering, unless
there is an unusually hot, dry spell. Plants will begin
to bloom by their second year if growth has been
continuous.
Direct seeding is possible in places that can be left
undisturbed, as among shrubs, or among low
perennials where the seedlings can be sheltered. If
planting seeds in the ground, autumn is the best time
for seeding. germination begins in two or three
months and often continues beyond that time. A
friable seed mixture of sand, loam, and either peat or
screened leaf mold is best, covering the seed with
sphagnum moss to aid in preventing damping-off of
seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In autumn old leaves should be removed from the
center of large clumps, the foliage cut back, and a
mulch applied, especially if the irises are being
naturalized in a semi-dry area. Traditional resource
management included harvesting huge bunches of iris
leaves in the fall, and storing these leaves until
needed. The fibers are then harvested from the
leaves. This naturally accomplished the pruning and
mulching that modern horticulturists practice to
maintain iris beds.
The PCI Borer (Amphipoea americana var. pacifica )
and Iris Borer are serious pests of iris. The Iris Borer
stays in the rhizome through the winter, then
metamorphoses, coming out in the spring as a
nocturnal moth. Controlling the moth when its flying,
to prevent it from laying its eggs on the iris, would
control the borer. The UC Botanical Garden used the
biological control Bacillus thuringienis, but it didn t
help. At this time, it is recommended to dig the
infected plant out entirely, put it a plastic bag, and
put them in the garbage can to avoid contamination
of other plants.
Milkweed (Asclepias species) and dogbane
(Apocynum cannibinum ) were traditionally burned
by native people in the fall to maintain vigorous plant
production, to stimulate plant growth, to optimize
long and abundant fiber production from leaves and
stalks, and to stimulate seed production. It is
probable that iris was burned for the same reasons.
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Cultivars: Seeds and plants of selected iris cultivars
are available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='American Iris Society. SPCNI. 4333 Oak Hill Road.
Oakland, CA 94605.
Archer, W.A. 1957. Abstract of pharmacological
research. IN ".Medicinal Uses of Plants by Indian
Tribes of Nevada,". by Percy Train, James R.
Henrichs and W. Andrew Archer, PP. 108-131.
Contributions Toward a Flora of Nevada, No. 45.
Beltsville, Maryland: USDA, Plant Industry Station.
[Facsimile Reprint: Quarterman Publications,
Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1978.]
Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 103 pp.
Cohen, V.A. 1967. Guide to the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and photos. British Iris
Society. This monograph has been reprinted by the
Society for Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI), 4333
Oak Hill Road, Oakland, California 94605.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the cattail-eater Northern Paiute
people of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
Number 5. USDI, Fish and Wildlife Service, Region
1, Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, Formerly USDA, NRCS, National
Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='irdo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Hunn, E. &. J. Selam and family 1990. Nch i-Wana
".The Big River.". Mid-Columbia Indians and Their
Land. University of Washington Press, Seattle and
London. 378 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston &. London. 382 pp.
Lawyer, A. et al. January/February 1996. Growing
and hybridizing your own iris. Growing Native. The
Newsletter of the Growing Native Research Institute.
15 pp.
Lenz, L. 1958. Revision of the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and site maps for both
species and naturally occurring hybrids. Originally
published in RSABG s publication Aliso in 1958, it
has been reprinted by the Society for Pacific Coast
Native Iris (SPCNI). 4333 Oak Hill Road. Oakland
CA 94605.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California. 878 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press. 366 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA\Germany.
210 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Warburton, B. date unknown. The world of irises.
American Iris Society, 718 West 67th Street, Tulsa,
Oklahoma 74132-1808.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
FERNALD’S IRIS
Iris fernaldii R.C. Foster
Plant Symbol = IRFE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
thigh by the men, mostly while sitting around in their
sweathouses. The men knotted the material into
fishing nets. To catch deer, a rope was made of about
20 feet in length with lasso at one end and about half
an inch in diameter. This loop was set over a deer
trail to catch the head or antlers. Within the set loop
over the trail was spread a delicate network of the
same material to draw in the loop. One Indian stated
that ".it takes nearly six weeks to make a rope twelve
feet long.".
A poultice of the raw rhizome is especially effective
against staph sores. Externally, iris is successfully
used in infected wounds, ulcers, fistulas and to take
away freckles. Only the dry root should be used
internally. Iris is active as a cathartic, has a
stimulating effect on the production of both
pancreatic enzymes and bile, is a strong diuretic, and
will stimulate both saliva and sweat. This is a useful
drug plant but should be used with care and
preferably in combinations where less energetic
plants form the bulk of a medicinal formula.
Tea from iris roots was used for kidney trouble by
several California Indian peoples (Murphey 1959).
The Yana chewed iris roots to cure coughs. The
Modoc used an Iris root decoction to soothe sore
eyes. A piece of iris root was inserted in a tooth
cavity to kill the nerve, so the tooth would come out.
Roots were burned and the smoke inhaled to alleviate
dizziness. A root decoction was used as a cathartic
and emetic, but large doses could cause severe
digestive problems.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: The beautiful and variable
blossoms lend themselves to landscaping, where they
require minimal maintenance. Native irises are free
flowering, most are long lived, require very little
attention, and provide an abundance of seeds. In
some situations, such as pastures, iris can be invasive.
Iris flowers attract insects and birds while providing
both nectar and insects to hummingbirds.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). Iris fernaldii has
narrowed. dark gray-green leaves with beet red
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Warning' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_='
Ethnobotanic: Flour was made from iris seed by the
Monache and the Southern Yokuts in California. The
Pomo placed acorn meal in a shallow pit and covered
the meal with iris leaves before pouring water over
the meal to leach out tannic acid.
Iris makes some of the finest cordage. The fibers are
particularly strong and flexible. Only two fibers can
be taken from each iris leaf margin. Huge numbers
of leaves were harvested in the fall and stored until
needed. Iris cordage was used for fishing nets, string,
rope, snares, hairnets, camping bags, and regalia.
The fibers are fine like silk, but surprisingly strong.
The iris leaves were gathered in large bundles and a
single silky fiber was taken from each margin of the
leaf. None of the other fibers were used. In spite of
the tremendous labor of preparing this material, the
iris fiber was one of the most generally employed in
northwestern California. Since iris is fine and can be
bent at sharp angles, it also makes an excellent
starting knot in coiled baskets.
Using a mussel-shell or abalone ".thumbnail,". the
women stripped the fibers from the leaves. The
fibers are detached from the leaves and scraped clean
of all tissues. The threads were twisted on the bare
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
staining at the base and often up the broad stems and
even into the spathes. It has cream-yellowish flowers
with lavender to red-brown veining and blooms from
April-May. This perennial, evergreen iris has two
flowers to a stem. The rhizomes average 6 mm in
diameter.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Fernald’s iris grows in woods from Santa Cruz
north to Sonoma, Solano, and Lake Counties in
California.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: It is able to tolerate sun to high shade,
and requires moderate moisture. In the wild,
Fernald’s iris grows in shady places from 50 to 2000
m in elevation. This iris is native to shady sloped in
the mixed evergreen forest. Horticulturally, it is used
for borders, among trees and shrubs. This iris is not a
clumping form. it will reseed densely in good
conditions. Iris fernaldii hybridizes with Iris
macrosiphon and the hybrid populations threaten the
pure strains.
The native irises are excellent in shade situations,
even dense shade of walls and fences (Schmidt
1980). They will tolerate sun for most of the day in
mild areas, and should have afternoon shade and
ample water in the interior regions. These plants are
intolerant of frequent summer water. they should not
be planted near lawns or other moisture-loving
plants. These plants require excellent drainage.
Compacted or other water-holding soils may need to
be modified. Fertilization increases biomass and
seed production.
When allowed to increase freely, plants will
naturalize and eventually form extensive ground
cover. Unless the seed vessels are removed there will
be many volunteer plants, but if inferior flower size
or color appears it should be culled immediately.
Irises start growing with the first cool weather and
rains in fall, reaching the height of their growth in
spring and early summer.
Propagation by Plant Division: Iris species are
clonal, radiating in their growth outward from the
center. The best propagation method for these is
division, in fall or winter after the first new roots are
established but before the flowers form.
Native irises in the wild tend to produce only a small,
dry rhizome with stringy roots which is difficult to
dig. Vigorous garden or greenhouse plants produce
firm, white, growing roots especially in winter and
spring growing seasons, and clumps are easily
divided at those time. Remove a new fan with fleshy
roots set in a prepared site, water it, and provide
shade for a few days if the plant is placed in full sun.
Frequent division appears to keep the plants
vigorous, as well as being the best method of
increasing the supply of superior forms.
Propagation by Seed: Iris seed is easily collected
from the large capsules. The capsules turn from
green to brown and open at the top when they are
ripe. You have to watch them closely, they split very
rapidly, then two days later the seed is spilled out.
Collect capsules carefully to avoid spilling seeds.
Each capsule contains from 20 to 80 seeds.
Seeds should be stored in paper envelopes at room
temperature until they are planted. The seeds of all
species will keep up to 10 years at room temperature.
Plant seeds in 6-inch pots, using a combination of
leaf mold and peat moss. Cover seeds with 1/2 inch
of same material. Any good potting soil that s acidic
is good for seed germination.
After planting, over-winter the pots outdoors in
November or December. They will come up in 2-3
months, depending on the weather. Germination
increases the second year, because there s always a
percentage of a hard seed that won t germinate the
first year. Part of the seed waits for the next year, to
increase the probability for good weather conditions
and optimize germination success.
Plant the seedlings in May, when the young plants
are usually 3 to 6 inches tall or even taller. Plants are
likely to require watering the first year while roots
are being established. Plant from 6 inches to one-
foot when spacing. If a natural look is desired,
scatter and clump the plantings. Plants will begin to
bloom by their second year if growth has been
continuous.
Direct seeding is possible in places that can be left
undisturbed, as among shrubs, or among low
perennials where the seedlings can be sheltered. If
planting seeds in the ground, autumn is the best time
for seeding. germination begins in two or three
months and often continues beyond that time. A
friable seed mixture of sand, loam, and either peat or
screened leaf mold is best, covering the seed with
Page 3
sphagnum moss to aid in preventing damping-off of
seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In autumn old leaves should be removed from the
center of large clumps, the foliage cut back, and a
mulch applied, especially if the irises are being
naturalized in a semi-dry area. Traditional resource
management included harvesting huge bunches of iris
leaves in the fall, and storing these leaves until
needed. The fibers are then harvested from the
leaves. This naturally accomplished the pruning and
mulching that modern horticulturists practice to
maintain iris beds.
The PCI borer (Amphipoea americana var. pacifica )
and iris borer are serious pests of iris. The iris borer
stays in the rhizome through the winter then
metamorphose, coming out sometime in the spring as
a nocturnal moth. Controlling the moth when its
flying, to prevent it from laying its eggs on the Iris,
would control the borer. At this time, it is
recommended to dig the infected plant out entirely,
put it a plastic bag, and put them in the garbage can
to avoid contamination of other plants.
Milkweed (Asclepias species) and dogbane
(Apocynum cannibinum) were traditionally burned by
native people in the fall to maintain vigorous plant
production, to stimulate plant growth, to optimize
long and abundant fiber production from leaves and
stalks, and to stimulate seed production. It is
probable that iris was burned for the same reasons.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
IRFE is widely available through native plant
nurseries throughout its range. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='American Iris Society. SPCNI. 4333 Oak Hill Road,
Oakland, California.
Archer, W.A. 1957. Abstract of Pharmacological
Research. pp. 108-131 IN: ".Medicinal Uses of Plants
by Indian Tribes of Nevada,". by Percy Train, James
R. Henrichs and W. Andrew Archer. Contributions
Toward a Flora of Nevada, No. 45. Beltsville, MD:
USDA, Plant Industry Station. [Facsimile Reprint:
Quarterman Publications, Lawrence, Massachusets,
1978.]
Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 103 pp.
Cohen, V.A. 1967. Guide to the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and photos. British Iris
Society. This monograph has been reprinted by the
Society for Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI), 4333
Oak Hill Road, Oakland, California.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
Northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the cattail-eater Northern Paiute
People of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
Number 5. USDI, FWS, Region 1, Stillwater
National Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hunn, E. &. J. Selam and family. 1990. Nch i-Wana
".The Big River".. Mid-Columbia Indians and their
land. University of Washington Press, Seattle and
London. 378 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston &. London. 382 pp.
Lawyer, A. and L. (January/February) 1996.
Growing and hybridizing your own iris. Growing
Native. The Newsletter of the Growing Native
Research Institute. 15 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Lenz, L,W.A. 1958. Revision of the Pacific Coast
irises. A monograph with drawings and site maps for
both species and naturally occurring hybrids.
Originally published in RSABG s publication Also in
1958, it has been reprinted by the Society for Pacific
Page 4
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Coast Native Iris (SPCNI), 4333 Oak Hill Road,
Oakland, California.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A glora of the marshes of
California. University of California. 878 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press. 366 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA\Germany.
210 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990412.
Warburton, Bee. date unknown. The world of irises.
American Iris Society, 718 West 67th Street, Tulsa,
Oklahoma.
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='irfe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
BOWLTUBE IRIS
Iris macrosiphon Torr.
Plant Symbol = IRMA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
birds, and other game. Since iris is fine and can be
bent at sharp angles, it makes an excellent starting
knot in coiled baskets.
The Pomo placed acorn meal in a shallow pit and
covered the meal with iris leaves before pouring
water over the meal to leach out tannic acid. The
Monache and the Southern Yokuts in California
make flour from iris seed.
A poultice of the raw rhizome is especially effective
against staph sores. Externally iris is successfully
used in infected wounds, ulcers, fistulas and to take
away freckles. Only the dry root should be used
internally. Iris is active as an cathartic, has a
stimulating effect on the production of both
pancreatic enzymes and bile, is a strong diuretic, and
will stimulate both saliva and sweat. This is a useful
drug plant but in general should be used with care
and preferably in combinations where less energetic
plants form the bulk of a medicinal formula.
Tea from iris roots was used for kidney trouble by
several California Indian peoples (Murphy 1959).
The Yana chewed iris roots to cure coughs. The
Modoc used an iris root decoction to soothe sore
eyes. A piece of iris root was inserted in a tooth
cavity to kill the nerve, so the tooth will come out.
Roots were burned and the smoke inhaled to alleviate
dizziness. A root decoction was used as a cathartic
and emetic, but large doses could cause severe
digestive problems.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: The beautiful and variable
blossoms lend themselves to landscaping, where they
naturalize and require minimal maintenance. Native
irises are free flowering, most are long lived, require
very little attention, and provide an abundance of
seeds. Iris flowers attract insects and birds. Irises
provide both nectar and insects to hummingbirds.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
Description' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). The native bowl-
tube iris has green or blue-green leaves from 2-5 mm
wide, generally colorless at the bases that are longer
than the stems. It has golden yellow to apricot to
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Warning' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_='
Ethnobotanic: Iris makes some of the finest cordage
with fibers that are particularly strong and flexible.
The fibers are fine like silk. Only two fibers can be
taken from each iris leaf margin with the remainder
discarded. Significant numbers of leaves were
harvested in the fall and stored until needed. Iris
cordage was used for fishing nets, string, rope,
snares, hairnets, and regalia.
The men knotted the fishing nets from this material.
Iris rope was used to catch animals. A deer rope is
near 20 feet long with a lasso at one end, and about
half an inch in diameter. This loop was set over a
deer trail to catch the head or antlers. Within the set
loop over the trail was spread a delicate network of
the same material to draw in the loop. One Indian
stated that ".it takes nearly six weeks to make a rope
twelve feet long.".
In spite of the tremendous labor of preparing this
material, the iris fiber was one of the most generally
employed in northwestern California. The threads
and cords of this fiber were used to make fishing
nets, camping bags and snares for catching deer,
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
cream to deep blue-purple to violet flowers with
rounded sepals. It blooms from April to May. This
perennial, evergreen iris has one to two flowers close
to the ground. The rhizomes average 8 mm in
diameter.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. In California, bowl-tube iris does not occur on
the west slopes of the outer Coast Ranges, but is
found over a very large area throughout the rest of
those ranges from Santa Cruz County northward.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: The plant grows in sun to broken shade
with moderate moisture and porous soil. This iris
occurs in open to partly shaded slopes, in the foothill
and north oak woodland, mixed evergreen, and mixed
conifer communities, generally less than 1000 m in
elevation. Horticulturally, it is used for cover,
edging, rock gardens, and variation in flower color.
This species is more of an upland species than Iris
douglasiana. This iris does not form clumps and
must be started from seed. It does not grow
vigorously in the garden. Iris fernaldii hybridizes
with Iris macrosiphon and the hybrid populations
threaten the pure strains.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: The native irises are excellent in shade
situations, even dense shade of walls and fences
(Schmidt 1980). They will tolerate sun for most of
the day in mild areas, and should have afternoon
shade and ample water in the interior regions. These
plants are intolerant of frequent summer water. they
should not be planted near lawns or other moisture-
loving plants. These plants require excellent
drainage. Compacted or other water-holding soils
may need to be modified. Fertilization increases
biomass and seed production.
Irises start growing with the first cool weather and
rains in fall, reaching the height of their growth in
spring and early summer.
Propagation by Plant Division: Bowl-tube iris does
not form clumps, and it is recommended that the
plants be started from seed. However, this iris is still
clonal, radiating in growth outward from the center of
the plant. This iris can be propagated from plant
division, in fall or winter after the first new roots are
established but before the flowers form.
Native irises in the wild tend to produce only a small,
dry rhizome with stringy roots, which is difficult to
dig. Vigorous garden or greenhouse plants produce
firm, white, growing roots especially in winter and
spring growing seasons, and clumps are easily
divided at those time. Remove a new fan with fleshy
roots set in a prepared site, water it, and provide
shade for a few days if the plant is placed in full sun.
Frequent division appears to keep the plants
vigorous, as well as being the best method of
increasing the supply of superior forms.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation by Seed: Iris seed is easily collected
from the large capsules. The seedpods from bowl-
tube iris are sometimes right on the ground, almost
like a peanut. The capsules turn from green to brown
and open at the top when they are ripe. The ripe fruit
disperse very rapidly. Two days after splitting, the
seed is gone. Collect capsules carefully to avoid
spilling seeds. Each capsule has from 20 to 80 seeds.
Seeds should be stored in paper envelopes at room
temperature until they are planted. The seeds of all
species will keep up to 10 years at room temperature.
Plant seeds in 6-inch pots, using a combination of
leaf mold and peat moss. Cover seeds with 1/2 inch
of same material. Any good potting soil that s acidic
is good for seed germination.
After planting, over-winter the pots outdoors in
November or December. They will come up in 2-3
months, depending on the weather. Germination
increases the second year, because there s always a
percentage of hard seeds that won t germinate the
first year. Some seeds do not germinate until the
second year, to increase the probability for good
weather conditions and optimize germination
success.
Plant the seedlings in May, when the young plants
are usually 3 to 6 inches tall or even taller. Plants are
likely to require watering the first year while roots
are being established. Plant from 6 inches to one-
foot spacing. If a natural look is desired, scatter and
clump the plantings. Plants will begin to bloom by
their second year if growth has been continuous.
Direct seeding is possible in places that can be left
undisturbed, as among shrubs, or among low
perennials where the seedlings can be sheltered. If
planting seeds in the ground, autumn is the best time
for seeding. germination begins in two or three
months and often continues beyond that time. A
friable seed mixture of sand, loam, and either peat or
screened leaf mold is best, covering the seed with
sphagnum moss to aid in preventing damping-off of
seedlings.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In autumn old leaves should be removed from the
center of large clumps, the foliage cut back, and a
mulch applied, especially if the irises are being
naturalized in a semi-dry area. Traditional resource
management included harvesting huge bunches of iris
leaves in the fall, and storing these leaves until
needed. The fibers are then harvested from the
leaves. This naturally accomplished the pruning and
mulching that modern horticulturists practice to
maintain iris beds.
The PCI borer (Amphipoea americana var. pacifica)
and iris borer are serious pests of iris. The iris borer
stays in the rhizome through the winter, then
metamorphose, coming out sometime in the spring as
a nocturnal moth. Controlling the moth when its
flying, to prevent it from laying its eggs on the iris,
would control the borer. At this time, it is
recommended to dig the infected plant out entirely,
put it a plastic bag, and put them in the garbage can
to avoid contamination of other plants.
Milkweed (Asclepias species) and dogbane
(Apocynum cannibinum) were traditionally burned by
native people in the fall to maintain vigorous plant
production, to stimulate plant growth, to optimize
long and abundant fiber production from leaves and
stalks, and to stimulate seed production. It is
probable that iris was burned for the same reasons.' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
IRMA is widely available through native plant
nurseries within its range. Seeds and plants of
selected iris cultivars are available from many
nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local
area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the
plants are to be grown. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='American Iris Society. SPCNI. 4333 Oak Hill Road,
Oakland, California.
Archer, W.A. 1957. Abstract of Pharmacological
research. pp. 108-131 IN: ".Medicinal Uses of Plants
by Indian Tribes of Nevada,". by Percy Train, James
R. Henrichs and W. Andrew Archer. Contributions
Toward a Flora of Nevada, No. 45. Beltsville,
Maryland: USDA, Plant Industry Station. [Facsimile
Reprint: Quarterman Publications, Lawrence,
Massachusetts, 1978.]
Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 103 pp.
Cohen, V.A. 1967. Guide to the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and photos. British Iris
Society. This monograph has been reprinted by the
Society for Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI). 4333
Oak Hill Road, Oakland, California 94605.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the Cattail-Eater Northern Paiute
People of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
Number 5. U.S. Department of the Interior. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Region 1. Stillwater National
Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10 (1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual. Higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1399 pp.
Hunn, E. &. J. Selam and family 1990. Nch i-Wana
".The Big River.". Mid-Columbia Indians and Their
Land. University of Washington Press. Seattle and
London. 378 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala. Boston &. London. 382 pp.
Lawyer, A. &. L. Lawyer (January/February) 1996.
Growing and hybridizing your own iris. Growing
Native. The Newsletter of the Growing Native
Research Institute.15 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Lenz, L.W.A. 1958. Revision of the Pacific Coast
irises. A monograph with drawings and site maps for
both species and naturally occurring hybrids.
Originally published in RSABG s publication. Also
in 1958, it has been reprinted by the Society for
Page 4
Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI). 4333 Oak Hill
Road, Oakland, California.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California. 878 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press. 366 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books. USA\Germany.
210 pp.
Warburton, B. date unknown. American Iris Society.
718 West 67th Street, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='irma';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
nets, camping bags and snares for catching deer,
birds, and other game. In spite of the tremendous
labor of preparing this material, the iris fiber was one
of the most generally employed in northwestern
California.
Rope was made from fibers, which occur, on the
outer margins of iris leaves. Huge bunches of leaves
were harvested in the fall and stored until needed. A
single silky fiber was taken from each margin of the
leaf. None of the other fibers were used. The men
always knotted the fishing nets. A deer rope is near
20 feet long with a lasso at one end, and about half an
inch in diameter. This loop was set over a deer trail
to catch the head or antlers. Within the set loop over
the trail was spread a delicate network of the same
material to draw in the loop. One Indian stated that
".it takes nearly six weeks to make a rope twelve feet
long.".
A poultice of the raw rhizome is especially effective
against staph sores. Externally iris rhizomes are
successfully used on infected wounds, ulcers, fistulas
and to take away freckles. Only the dried iris root or
rhizome should be used internally. Iris is active as a
cathartic, has a stimulating effect on the production
of both pancreatic enzymes and bile, is a strong
diuretic, and will stimulate both saliva and sweat.
This is a useful medicinal plant but in general should
be used with care and preferably in combinations
where less energetic plants forming the bulk of a
medicinal formula.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: The beautiful and variable
blossoms lend themselves to landscaping, where they
naturalize and require minimal maintenance. Native
irises are free flowering, most are long lived, require
very little attention, and provide an abundance of
seeds. Iris flowers attract both insects and
hummingbirds.
Invasive Potential:' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Western blue flag is considered a
noxious weed in pastures, because leaves are
unpalatable and bitter.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
WESTERN BLUE
FLAG
Iris missouriensis Nutt.
Plant Symbol = IRMI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Blue flag, flag lily, liver lily, water flag, snake lily,
wild iris, lirio, Rocky Mountain iris
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Warning: ' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Freshirisrootsandrhizomesmaybe TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Freshirisrootsandrhizomesmaybe='
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_toxic TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_toxic='.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Ethnobotanic: Iris makes some of the finest cordage.
the fibers are particularly strong and flexible. Iris
cordage was used for fishing nets, string, rope,
snares, hairnets, and regalia. These fibers are very
fine and silky, but surprisingly strong. The threads
and cords of this fiber were used to make fishing
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). Western blue flag is
a perennial herb, usually evergreen and growing from
a creeping, tuberous rhizome. Rhizomes on blue flag
are between 20-30 mm in diameter, quite large for a
native iris. The leaves are long and linear with
parallel venation, 3-9 mm wide, and sometimes
purplish. Stems are 2-5 dm and sometimes branched.
Blossoms of Iris missouriensis are pale lilac to
whitish with lilac-purple veins.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The native irises are excellent in shade situations,
even dense shade of walls and fences (Schmidt
1980). They will tolerate sun for most of the day in
mild areas, and should have afternoon shade and
ample water in the interior regions. These plants are
intolerant of frequent summer water. they should not
be planted near lawns or other moisture-loving
plants. However, Iris missouriensis does need
irrigation to get established. Fertilization increases
biomass and seed production. Irises start growing
with the first cool weather and fall rains, reaching the
height of their growth in spring and early summer.
This iris is rhizomatous, forms clumps, and
propagates readily from plant division in fall or
winter.
Propagation by Plant Division: In the wild, Iris
missouriensis tends to produce only a small, dry
rhizome with stringy roots. Vigorous garden or
greenhouse plants produce firm, white, growing roots
especially during the winter and spring growing
seasons, allowing easy division of clumps. Remove a
new rhizome fan with fleshy roots and set it in a
prepared site. Keep the newly planted rhizome
watered so that it is moist, and provide shade for a
few days if the plant is placed in full sun. Frequent
division appears to keep the plants vigorous, as well
as being the best method of increasing the supply.
Propagation by Seed: Iris seeds are easily collected
from the large capsules. These capsules turn from
green to brown and open at the top when ripe. Care
must be taken when handling seeds because they split
very rapidly. two days after ripening the seed has
spilled out. Collect capsules carefully to avoid
spilling seeds. each capsule has from 20 to 80 seeds.
Seeds should be stored in paper envelopes at room
temperature until they are planted. The seeds of all
species will keep up to 10 years at room temperature.
Plant seeds in 6-inch pots, using a combination of
leaf mold and peat moss. Cover seeds with 1/2 inch
of same material. Any good potting soil that s acidic
is good for seed germination. Keep soil moist but not
wet. After planting, over-winter the pots outdoors in
November or December. They will come up in 2-3
months, depending on the weather. Germination
increases the second year, because there s always a
percentage of hard seeds that won t germinate the
first year. Delaying germination until the next year,
to increase the probability for good weather
conditions and optimize germination success
enhances seedling survival.
Plant the seedlings outdoors in May, when the young
plants are usually 3 to 6 inches tall or even taller.
Plants are likely to require watering the first year
during roots establishment. Plant from 6 inches to
one-foot spacing. If a natural look is desired, scatter
and clump the plantings. Plants will begin to bloom
by their second year if growth has been continuous.
Direct seeding is possible in places that can be left
undisturbed, as among shrubs, or among low
perennials where the seedlings can be sheltered. If
planting seeds in the ground, autumn is the best time
for seeding. germination begins in two or three
months and often continues beyond that time. A
friable seed mixture of sand, loam, and either peat or
screened leaf mold is best, covering the seed with
sphagnum moss to aid in preventing damping-off of
seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In autumn, old leaves should be removed from the
center of large clumps, the foliage cut back, and a
mulch applied, especially if the irises are being
naturalized in a semi-dry area. Traditional resource
management included harvesting huge bunches of iris
leaves in the fall, and storing these leaves until
needed. The fibers are then harvested from the
leaves. This naturally accomplished the pruning and
mulching that modern horticulturists practice to
maintain iris beds.
The PCI borer (Amphipoea americana var. pacifica )
and iris borer (in the eastern U.S.) are serious pests of
iris. The PCI borer stays in the rhizome through the
winter, then metamorphoses, coming out sometime in
the spring as a nocturnal moth. Controlling the moth,
to prevent it from laying its eggs on the iris, will
control the borer. However, it is recommended to dig
infested plant out entirely, put it a plastic bag, and
then place it in the garbage can to avoid
contamination of other plants.
Page 3
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books, USA\Germany.
210 pp.
Warburton, B. n.d. The world of irises. American
Iris Society, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Milkweed (Asclepias species) and dogbane
(Apocynum cannibinum) were traditionally burned by
native people in the fall to maintain vigorous plant
production, to stimulate plant growth, to optimize
long and abundant fiber production from leaves and
stalks, and to stimulate seed production. It is
probable that iris was burned for the same reasons.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
IRMI is readily available through native plant
nurseries within its rangeSeeds and plants of selected
iris cultivars are available from many nurseries. It is
best to plant species from your local area, adapted to
the specific site conditions where the plants are to be
grown. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='American Iris Society. SPCNI, Oakland, California.
Archer, W.A. 1957. Abstract of pharmacological
research. IN: Medicinal uses of plants by Indian
tribes of Nevada, by P. Train, JR. Henrichs &. W.A
Archer, Pages 108-131. USDA, Plant Industry
Station, Contributions Toward a Flora of Nevada,
No. 45, Beltsville, Maryland [Facsimile Reprint:
Quarterman Publications, Lawrence, Massachusetts,
1978.].
Cohen, V.A. 1967. Guide to the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and photos. British Iris
Society. This monograph has been reprinted by the
Society for Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI), 4333
Oak Hill Road, Oakland, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the cattail-eater Northern Paiute
people of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
Number 5. USDI, FWS, Region 1, Stillwater
National Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irmi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston &. London. 382 pp.
Lawyer, A. &. L. (January/February) 1996. Growing
and hybridizing your own iris. Growing native. The
Newsletter of the Growing Native Research Institute.
15 pp.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
PURDY’S IRIS
Iris purdyi Eastw.
Plant Symbol = IRPU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Warning' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__Freshirisrootsmaybetoxic_='
Ethnobotanic: Iris makes some of the finest cordage.
The fibers are particularly strong, flexible, and fine
like silk. Only two fibers can be taken from each iris
leaf margin. Huge bunches of leaves were harvested
in the fall and stored until needed. Iris cordage was
used for fishing nets, string, rope, snares, hairnets,
and regalia.
The men knotted the fishing nets from iris fibers.
Animals were captured with iris rope. A deer rope is
nearly 20 feet long with a lasso at one end, and about
half an inch in diameter. A loop was set over a deer
trail to catch the head or antlers. Within the loop
positioned over a trail a delicate network of the same
material was spread to draw in the loop. One Indian
stated that ".it takes nearly six weeks to make a rope
twelve feet long.".
Plant Guide
In spite of the tremendous labor of preparing this
material, the iris fiber was one of the most generally
employed in northwestern California. The threads
and cords of this fiber were used to make fishing
nets, camping bags and snares for catching game.
Since iris is fine and can be bent at sharp angles, it
makes an excellent starting knot in coiled baskets.
The Pomo placed acorn meal in a shallow pit and
covered the meal with iris leaves before pouring
water over the meal to leach out tannic acid. The
Monache and the Southern Yokuts in California
make flour from iris seed.
A poultice of the raw rhizome is especially effective
against staph sores. Used externally, iris is
successfully used for infected wounds, ulcers,
fistulas, and to take away freckles. Only the dry root
should be used internally. Iris is active as a cathartic.
has a stimulating effect on the production of both
pancreatic enzymes and bile. is a strong diuretic. and
will stimulate both saliva and sweat. This is a useful
drug plant, but in general, should be used with care
and preferably in combinations where less energetic
plants form the bulk of a medicinal formula.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: The blossoms lend
themselves to landscaping, where they require
minimal maintenance. Native irises are free
flowering, most are long lived, require very little
attention, and provide an abundance of seeds. Iris
flowers attract insects and birds. Irises provide both
nectar and insects to hummingbirds.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='
General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). Purdy’s iris has
leaves that are shiny green on top, gray-green and
glaucous underneath. Stems and leaves are stained a
brilliant mahogany red or cerise pink. There are two
flowers on the tall (12".) stem. It has pale cream-
yellow flowers with prominent, brownish purple
veins or whitish with lavender tinges. Flowers bloom
in May and June. The rhizomes are 4-6 mm in
diameter.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Purdy’s iris is common is open to shady places,
in redwood, north coastal coniferous and mixed
evergreen forest communities, and grows at
elevations below 1200m. It occurs in the north coast
of California in the Klamath Ranges and outer North
Coast Ranges, from Sonoma to Humboldt and Trinity
Counties.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='This iris does not form clumps, must be grown from
seed, and is a sparse grower. The native irises are
excellent in shade situations, even dense shade of
walls and fences (Schmidt 1980). They will tolerate
sun for most of the day in mild areas, and should
have afternoon shade and ample water in the interior
regions. These plants are intolerant of frequent
summer water. they should not be planted near lawns
or other moisture-loving plants. These plants require
excellent drainage. therefore, compacted or other
water-holding soils may need to be modified.
Fertilization increases biomass and seed production.
Irises start growing with the first cool weather and
rains in fall, reaching the height of their growth in
spring and early summer.
Propagation by Plant Division: Purdy’s iris is not
densely rhizomatous, and it is recommended that the
plants be started from seed. However, this iris is still
clonal, radiating in growth outward from the center of
the plant. This iris can be propagated from plant
division, in fall or winter after the first new roots are
established but before the flowers form.
Native irises in the wild tend to produce only a small,
dry rhizome with stringy roots which is difficult to
dig. Vigorous garden or greenhouse plants produce
firm, white, growing roots especially in winter and
spring growing seasons, and clumps are easily
divided at those time. Remove a new fan with fleshy
roots set in a prepared site, water it, and provide
shade for a few days if the plant is placed in full sun.
Frequent division appears to keep the plants
vigorous, as well as being the best method of
increasing the supply of superior forms.
Propagation by Seed: Iris seed is easily collected
from the large capsules. The seedpods from Purdy’s
iris are sometimes right on the ground, almost like a
peanut. The capsules turn from green to brown and
open at the top when they are ripe. You have to
watch them carefully, because they split very rapidly
and two days later the seed is dispersed. Collect
capsules carefully to avoid spilling seeds. each
capsule has from 20 to 80 seeds. Store seeds in paper
envelopes at room temperature until they are planted.
Seeds will keep up to 10 years at room temperature.
Plant seeds in 6-inch pots, using a combination of
leaf mold and peat moss. Cover seeds with 1/2 inch
of same material. Any good potting soil that s acidic
is good for seed germination.
After planting, over-winter the pots outdoors in
November or December. They will come up in 2-3
months, depending on the weather. Germination
increases the second year, because there s always a
percentage of hard seeds that won t germinate the
first year. Part of the seed won’t germinate until the
second year, to increase the probability for good
weather conditions and optimize germination
success.
Plant the seedlings in May, when the young plants
are usually 3 to 6 inches tall or even taller. Plants are
likely to require watering the first year while roots
are being established. Plant from 6 inches to one-
foot spacing. If a natural look is desired, scatter and
clump the plantings. Plants will begin to bloom by
their second year if growth has been continuous.
Direct seeding is possible in places that can be left
undisturbed, as among shrubs, or among low
perennials where the seedlings can be sheltered. If
planting seeds in the ground, autumn is the best time
for seeding. germination begins in two or three
months and often continues beyond that time. A
friable seed mixture of sand, loam, and either peat or
screened leaf mold is best, covering the seed with
sphagnum moss to aid in preventing damping-off of
seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
In autumn, old leaves should be removed from the
center of large clumps, the foliage cut back, and a
mulch applied, especially if the irises are being
naturalized in a semi-dry area. Traditional resource
management included harvesting huge bunches of iris
leaves in the fall, and storing these leaves until
needed. The fibers are then harvested from the
leaves. This naturally accomplished the pruning and
mulching that modern horticulturists practice to
maintain iris beds.
The PCI borer (Amphipoea americana var. pacifica )
and iris borer are serious pests of iris. The iris borer
stays in the rhizome through the winter, then
metamorphose, coming out sometime in the spring as
a nocturnal moth. Controlling the moth when its
flying, to prevent it from laying its eggs on the iris,
Page 3
would control the borer. At this time, it is
recommended to dig the infected plant out entirely,
put it a plastic bag, and put them in the garbage can
to avoid contamination of other plants.
Milkweed (Asclepias species) and dogbane
(Apocynum cannibinum ) were traditionally burned
by native people in the fall to maintain vigorous plant
production, to stimulate plant growth, to optimize
long and abundant fiber production from leaves and
stalks, and to stimulate seed production. It is
probable that iris was burned for the same reasons.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
IRPU is readily available from native plant nurseries
and seed companies within its range. Seeds and
plants of selected iris cultivars are available from
many nurseries. It is best to plant species from your
local area, adapted to the specific site conditions
where the plants are to be grown. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='American Iris Society. SPCNI. 4333 Oak Hill Road.
Oakland, CA 94605.
Archer, W.A. 1957. Abstract of pharmacological
research. pp 108-131 IN: ".Medicinal Uses of Plants".
by Indian Tribes of Nevada, by Percy Train, James R.
Henrichs and W. Andrew Archer. Contributions
Toward a Flora of Nevada, No. 45. Beltsville, MD:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry
Station. [Facsimile Reprint: Quarterman Publications,
Lawrence, MA, 1978.]
Balls, E.K. 1962. Early uses of California plants.
University of California Press. 103 pp.
Cohen, V.A. 1967. Guide to the Pacific Coast irises.
A monograph with drawings and photos. British Iris
Society. This monograph has been reprinted by the
Society for Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI). 4333
Oak Hill Road, Oakland, California.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of Western Washington and
Northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the cattail-eater Northern Paiute
people of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
Number 5. U.S. Department of the Interior. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Region 1. Stillwater National
Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1399 pp.
Hunn, E. &. J. Selam and family 1990. Nch i-Wana
".The Big River.". Mid-Columbia Indians and Their
Land. University of Washington Press, Seattle and
London. 378 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston &. London. 382 pp.
Lawyer, A. &. L. Lawyer. January/February 1996.
Growing and hybridizing your own iris. Growing
Native. The Newsletter of the Growing Native
Research Institute. 15 pp.
Lenz, L.W.A. 1958. Revision of the Pacific Coast
irises. A monograph with drawings and site maps for
both species and naturally occurring hybrids.
Originally published in RSABG s publication. Also
in 1958, it has been reprinted by the Society for
Pacific Coast Native Iris (SPCNI). 4333 Oak Hill
Road. Oakland CA 94605.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California. 878 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Page 4
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press. 366 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Koeltz Scientific Books, USA\Germany.
210 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Warburton, B. date unknown. The world of irises.
American Iris Society. 718 West 67th Street. Tulsa,
Oklahoma.
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='irpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
VIRGINIA IRIS
Iris virginica L.
Plant Symbol = IRVI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
©William S. Justice @ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Blue flag, southern blue flag, blue iris
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Warning_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Warning_='The roots of Virginia iris are toxic when
taken internally, without sufficient preparation.' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Uses
Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee and other tribes in the
southeastern United States are known to have used
Virginia iris for its medicinal properties. The root
was pounded into a paste that was used as a salve for
skin. An infusion made from the root was used to
treat ailments of the liver, and a decoction of root was
used to treat “yellowish urine.” Virginia iris may
Plant Guide
have been one of the iris species used by the
Seminole to treat “shock following alligator-bite.”
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Iris Family (Iridaceae). Virginia iris is a
perennial plant. The slightly fragrant flowers (4 cm
long, 7 cm across) consist of 3 horizontal sepals, or
“falls,” and 3 erect petals. The petals and sepals can
vary in color from dark-violet to pinkish-white. The
sepals have a splash of yellow to yellow-orange at the
crest. Each plant has 2 to 6 flowers that bloom from
April to May upon a single, erect, 3-9 dm tall stalk.
The stalk is sometimes branched and has a slight
zigzag appearance. The plant has 2 to 4 erect or
arching, bright green, lance-shaped leaves that are
flattened into one plane at the base. Leaves are 1 – 3
cm wide and are sometimes longer than the flower
stalk. The fleshy roots (1-2 cm in diameter) are
rhizomes that spread underground. Pale brown,
variably shaped seeds are born in three-part fruit
capsules (3-6 cm long, 1-2 cm wide).
Distribution: Virginia iris is common along the
coastal plain from Florida to Georgia. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This plant grows in wet areas and sometimes in
shallow water in both fresh and brackish tidal
marshes. It can be found in low savannas, thin
woods and open meadows as well as along the edges
of swamps, rivers, and ditches.
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Virginia iris is a sturdy plant that is easy to grow and,
once established, needs very little care. They make
lovely additions to the garden and are ideal for the
borders of a garden pond. This is because the plants
prefer moist to wet soils that are high in organic
matter. The plants will grow best in mild climates
where they can be grown in partial shade to full sun.
The plants can be grown from seed, but are easiest to
propagate through division. Seeds may be planted in
the autumn, without pretreatment. To propagate by
division, divide the plants either after flowering or
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
when the new leaves just begin to appear in the
spring. Cut the roots so that each piece contains a
portion the feeding roots, the rhizome, and a leaf fan.
Place the rhizomes very near to the surface of the soil
when planting. Allow 45 to 60 cm between plants.
The plants grow best if divided every three to five
years to thin out the colonies that form.
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Snails are known to eat the leaves.
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the southern United
States: Flowering plants and ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Clinton, J. 2001. Easy living native perennial
wildflowers.
http://www.easywildflowers.com/quality/iri.virgi.htm
(12 June 2001).
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers in the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York.
322 pp.
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the southeastern United States. University of Georgia
Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of southeastern United States. Vol 1.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 712
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the south: native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Ottensen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp
Steffek, E.F. 1983. The new wild flowers and how to
grow them. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 186 pp.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts.
328 pp.
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='irvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
Edited: 21June2001 jsp. 20may03 ahv
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BALTIC RUSH
Juncus balticus Willd.
Plant Symbol = JUBA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Idaho Plant Materials
Center &. the National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
Juncus species are also dyed yellow in an infusion of
indigo bush (Psorothamnus emoryi) (Barrows 1967.
Merrill 1970).
The early sprouts of Baltic rush were sometimes
eaten raw by the Snuqualmi of Washington (Gunther
1973). Juncus shoots were eaten raw, roasted in
ashes, or boiled by Maidu, Luiseño, and others
(Strike 1994). Owens Valley Paiute ate the seeds.
Other Uses: Wildlife habitat and food, erosion
prevention, sediment retention, basketry, food, tatami
mats, and nutrient transformation. Baltic rush has
nitrogen-fixing capabilities. They are useful for
stabilization and revegetation of disturbed areas.
These plants can be invasive.
Juncus species are used by a wide range of mammal
and avian species for food and habitat (Hoag and
Zierke 1998). Rush seeds are eaten by waterfowl,
songbirds, small mammals, jack rabbits, cottontail,
muskrat, porcupine, quail, and gopher (Martin 1951).
Rushes help improve habitat for amphibians and
spawning areas for fish. Muskrats feed on the roots
and rhizomes of soft rush, and various wetland
wading birds find shelter among the stems.
Cattle generally do not graze rushes, because they
have low palatability. Cattle will graze Baltic rush
late in the season after more palatable plants are
eaten. Rushes provide the following conservation
uses. erosion control, sediment accretion and
stabilization, nutrient uptake and transformation,
wildlife food and cover, restoration and creation of
wetland ecosystems, and wastewater treatment
applications. The rhizomatous nature, nitrogen
fixation capabilities, dense root system, and
phenotypic plasticity to flooding and drought stress
provide high soil and slope stabilization capabilities,
particularly in areas with flooded soils or fluctuating
hydrology. Rushes tend to be resistant to grazing
pressure and fairly unpalatable to cattle, so tend to
increase in species composition in stockwater ponds
and troughs. The rhizomes form a matrix for many
beneficial bacteria, making this plant an excellent
addition for wastewater treatment.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Coiled basketry prevails in southern
California, with the mottled yellowish brown of rush
providing a natural colored and variegated
background (Turnbaugh and Turnbaugh 1986). Rush
stems are used in the coiled baskets of southern
California and Mexican Indian basketweavers, such
as the Cahuilla, Luiseño, Chumash, Diegueño, Agua
Caliente, Gabrieliño, Juaneño, Death Valley
Shoshone, and Fernandeno (Barrows 1967. Murphey
1959). Chumash baskets, from southern California,
are made with Juncus stems for the tan color and
roots for the black color (Timbrook 1997). The
foundation material is made of Juncus balticus and
the sewing material is made of Juncus textilis.
The Cahuilla, Diegeño, Luiseño, and Chumash dye
the mature rushes black by steeping them for several
hours in an infusion of either horned sea-blite
(Suaeda calceoliformis or bush seepweed (Suaeda
moquinii). This dye is very penetrating and the color
is durable, but it has a fetid, disagreeable smell.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rush Family (Juncaceae). Baltic rush is a
perennial, rhizomatous, wetland plant. Rushes are
grasslike, usually tufted herbs with terete leaves. The
leaf sheaths are clustered at the base, 2-15 cm long,
multi-colored from red to light to dark brown, and
bladeless. The lowest bract of the Baltic rush
inflorescence is round and 2-20 cm long. This bract
appear to be a continuation of the stem. The
inflorescence forms a loose to compact panicle of 10-
50 flowers up to 6 cm long. Flowers are greenish or
brownish, sessile to pedicellate, each subtended by a
pair of hyaline-scarious bracts. Tepals are 3.5-5 mm
long. The 6 stamens have anthers 1.5-2.5 mm long.
Fruits are brownish red and about the size of ground
pepper (0.6-0.8 mm long). The fruits are found in a
capsule.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It occurs throughout California to Alaska,
eastern North America, and Eurasia. Baltic rush is
the most widespread and common rush found in the
Great Basin and dry Intermountain regions. It grows
in standing water to seasonally dry places, with an
elevation generally below 2200 m.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Juncus species can tolerate shade and
flooded, anoxic soil conditions, at least periodically.
They can also tolerate mild to moderate soil salinities
and alkaline to calcareous soils. Often these plants
are found on drier or seasonally fluctuating wetland
sites (for example, desert playas) and can tolerate
seasonal drought.
Juncus species may be planted from bare rootstock or
seedlings from container stalk or directly seeded into
the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are preferred
revegetation methods where there is moving water.
Live Plant Collections: The following information on
Baltic rush is provided by J. Chris Hoag and Mike
Zierke, USDA, Natural Resources Conservation
Service, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
".Planting plugs (either from the greenhouse or wild
transplants) is the surest way to establish a new stand
of this species. Plug spacing of 25-30 cm will fill in
within one growing season. Soil should be kept from
saturated conditions up to 8 cm of standing water.
Fluctuating the water level during the establishment
period may speed spread. Water levels can be
managed to enhance spread and control weeds.".
To collect wild plants, no more than 1/4 of the plants
in an area should be collected. If no more than 0.09
m2 (1 ft2) should be removed from a 0.4 m2 (4 ft2)
area, the plants will grow back into the hole in one
good growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during the
growing season.
Clip leaves and stems to 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches).
this allows the plant to allocate more energy into root
production. Transplants should be planted as soon as
possible in moist (not flooded or anoxic) soils. Plants
should be transported and stored in a cool location
prior to planting. Plugs may be split into smaller
units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm (2.4 x 2.4
in), with healthy rhizomes and tops. The important
factor in live plant collections is to be sure to include
a growing bud in either plugs or rhizomes. Weeds in
the plugs should be removed by hand. Soil can either
be left on the roots of harvested material or removed.
For ease in transport, soil may be washed gently from
roots. The roots should always remain moist or in
water until planted.
Soil should be kept saturated after planting. Plants
can tolerate 2.5 - 8 cm of standing water as long as
the level fluctuates over the growing season. Allow
roots to become established before flooding soils if
possible. Ideally, plants should be planted in late fall
just after the first rains (usually late October to
November). This enables plant root systems to
become established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist.
Fertilization is very helpful for plant growth and
reproduction. Many more seeds are produced with
moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections
• For Baltic rush near Aberdeen, Idaho, the
flowering period is late May to August,
occasionally to September. Seed ripens in early
August. Phenology will differ with plant
growing in different areas, and for different
Juncus species.
• Seed may be collected by hand, using a pair of
hand shears, or with a gas-powered handheld
seed harvester.
• The tiny, black seeds are easily lost from the
capsules when collecting by hand. Be careful to
keep capsules upright before putting in collection
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seed germination in greenhouse
• Seeds need light, moisture and heat for
germination. Soaking the seeds in water for 1 - 7
days will decrease the time the seed takes to
sprout.
• To grow seeds, place on soil surface and press in
lightly to assure good soil contact. Do not cover
the seed. Soil should be kept moist. Greenhouse
should be kept hot (32-38°C).
• Seeds begin to germinate in approximately 1
week. Maintain soil moisture until plants are to
be transplanted. Seedlings cannot withstand
long periods without water while growing in the
greenhouse.
bag. Use paper sacks when collecting seeds for
this species.
• To clean the seed, run the collection through a
hammer mill to break up debris and knock the
seeds loose. Use a 1/20 inch screen on the top
and a solid sheet on the bottom of the seed
cleaner. Adjust the airflow to blow off the chaff.
The cleaning process can be speeded up by
shaking the hammermilled collection to settle
seed to the bottom of the pan. The top portion of
the chaff can then be discarded and the seed-rich
mixture that is left in the bottom can be run
through the seed cleaner.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
Juncus species can tolerate periods of drought and
total inundation. It is important to keep transplanted
plugs moist, not flooded, until roots are established.
Water levels can then be managed to enhance or
reduce spread as well as control terrestrial weeds.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation such as Juncus species for hut
construction and for food. Typically, an area of open
water is created around the huts. Muskrat cleared
areas increase wetland diversity by providing
opportunities for aquatic vegetation to become
established in the open water and the huts provide a
substrate for shrubs and other plant species.
Muskrats opening up the dense stands of emergent
vegetation also create habitat for other species.
Traditional Resource Management: According to one
Northern Diegueño basketweaver, most weavers have
favorite collecting areas where the Juncus is
plentiful, long, tough, deeply colored with red, or
simply nearby. Any Juncus stand will have plants
that are immature, mature but still in seed, and those
starting to senesce. Plants can be harvested during
any month or season. The stalks are cut above the
rhizomes and roots, leaving plenty of buds to re-grow
new shoots. As with other rhizomatous species,
harvest stimulates new growth and maintains the
clone in a juvenile or immature growth phase, where
productivity is highest. Attempts at harvesting
during times of heavy rain or flooding are likely to
fail, as deep water and mud make plants inaccessible.
Juncus species tend to be fairly resilient to insect and
disease problems. Aphids may feed on the stems, but
rarely cause significant damage. If an insect or
disease problem is encountered in the greenhouse,
treatment options may be limited by cultural
constraints if these plants are to be used by Indian
basket weavers. Juncus culms are split with the
mouth to process basketry materials. therefore, an
unusually high degree of human exposure and risk
occur with plants designated for ethnobotanic use.
Rushes are perennial, rhizomatous plants. In most
cases, they will out-compete other species within the
wetland area of the site, eliminating the need for
manual or chemical control of invasive species.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
JUBA is available through selected native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.” Listed below are some
sources where these plants are known to be available:
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho.
Accession Number 9067411, for Land Resource
Region (LRR) B East from Sterling Wildlife
Management Area, just north of the town of
Aberdeen Bingham County, Idaho
Page 4
Region (LRR) B West from Roswell Wildlife
Management Area, just west of the town of
Roswell, Canyon County, Idaho.' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Accession Number 9057632, for Land Resource
Accession Number 9057580, for Land Resource
Region (LRR) D North from Stillwater National
Wildlife Refuge, northwest of the town of
Fallon, Churchill County, Nevada.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dahl, T.E. &. C.E. Johnson 1991. Status and trends
of wetlands in the coterminous United States, mid-
1970s to mid-1980s. USDI, FWS, Washington, D.C.
28 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual:
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. no date. Wetland plant fact sheet - Baltic
Rush (Juncus balticus). Interagency
Riparian/Wetland Project. USDA, NRCS. Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. 3 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M. Zierke 1998. A reference guide for
the collection and use of ten common wetland plants
of the Great Basin and Intermountain West.
Riparian/Wetland Project Information Series No. 13
(February 1998). USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. 13 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1995. Use of greenhouse
propagated wetland plants versus live transplants to
vegetate constructed or created wetlands.
Riparian/Wetland Project Information Series No. 7
(April 1995). USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hurd, E.G., N.L. Shaw, &. L.C. Smithman 1992.
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae - selected low-elevation
species. Proceedings of Symposium of Ecology,
Management, and Restoration of Intermountain
Annual Rangelands, Boise, Idaho. May 18-22, 1992.
pp. 380-383.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, Botany and Use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plant: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Manning, M.E., S.R. Swanson, T. Svejcar, &. J. Trent
1989. Rooting characteristics of four Intermountain
meadow community types. Journal of Range
Management 42(4): 309-312.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press, Berkeley
and Los Angeles, California. 878 pp.
Merrill, R.E. 1970. Plants used in basketry by the
California Indians. Acoma Books, Ramona,
California.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal Uses of California s
Indigenous Plants. Koeltz Scientific Books.
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
Timbrook, J. June 1997. California Indian
basketweavers association newsletter.
Tiner, R.W. 1984. Wetlands of the United States:
Current status and recent trends. USDI, FWS,
National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, D.C. 58
pp.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh. 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffler Publishing, Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. 19380. pp. 194-205.
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
Riparian/Wetland Plant Development Project
Page 5
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service,
Plant Material Center, Aberdeen, Idaho
' WHERE symbol='juba';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
SOFT RUSH
Juncus effusus L.
Plant Symbol = JUEF
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
Soft rush, also called candle rush by the Japanese, is
used for tatami mats. Large mats were also made by
California Indians by piercing holes in Juncus and
threading cordage through the holes so the Juncus
stalks were aligned side-by-side (Strike 1994). These
flexible mats could be rolled and stored when not
needed.
Wildlife: A wide range of mammal and avian species
depend on Juncus species for food and habitat (Hoag
and Zierke 1998). Waterfowl, songbirds, and small
mammals such as jack rabbits, cottontail, muskrat,
porcupine, and gophers (Martin 1951) eat rush seeds.
Rushes provide habitat for amphibians and spawning
areas for fish. Muskrats feed on the rootstalks of soft
rush, and various wetland wading birds find shelter
among the stems.
Livestock: Cattle will graze Juncus effusus late in the
season after more palatable plants are eaten. Rushes
tend to be resistant to grazing pressure and fairly
unpalatable to cattle, so tend to increase in species
composition in pastures.
Erosion &. Restoration: Rushes provide the following
conservation uses: erosion control, sediment
accretion and stabilization, nutrient uptake and
transformation, wildlife food and cover, restoration
and creation of wetland ecosystems, and wastewater
treatment applications. The rhizomatous nature,
nitrogen fixation capabilities, dense root system, and
phenotypic plasticity to flooding and drought stress
provide high soil and slope stabilization capabilities,
particularly in areas with flooded soils or fluctuating
hydrology. The rhizomes form a matrix for many
beneficial bacteria, making this plant an excellent
addition for wastewater treatment. This species can
have invasive characteristics in certain situations.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rush Family (Juncaceae). Soft rush is a
rhizomatous, perennial herb with a large, tufted,
cespitose growth form. Juncus effusus stems are
stout but soft, 5-15 dm tall and 1.5-3 mm wide. The
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
There are several taxonomic varieties of this species.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Coiled basketry prevails in Southern
California, with the mottled yellowish brown of soft
rush providing a natural colored and variegated
background (Turnbaugh and Turnbaugh 1986).
Juncus stems are used in the coiled baskets of
Southern California tribes such as the Cahuilla,
Luiseño, Chumash, Diegueño, Agua Caliente,
Gabrieliño, Juaneño, Death Valley Shoshone, and
Fernandeno (Barrows 1967. Murphey 1959). The
foundation material is made of Juncus balticus and
Juncus effusus, and the sewing material is made of
Juncus textilis. The Quinalt of western Washington
used soft rush for plaiting tumplines for baskets
(Gunther 1973). They also mixed soft rush with
cattails to make string. The Snoqualmie used the
stalks for tying things.
The early sprouts of soft rush were sometimes eaten
raw by the Snoqualmie of Washington (Gunther
1973). Juncus shoots were eaten raw, roasted in
ashes, or boiled by Maidu, Luiseño, and others
(Strike 1994). Owens Valley Paiute ate the seeds.
Soft rush stalks was gathered in wetlands and was
eaten on occasion by the Nlaka pamux and Lillooet
people of British Columbia (Kunlein and Turner
1991).
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
basal sheaths are bladeless or the inner ones tipped
with a short awn, the edges usually overlapping
nearly to the subtruncate or emarginate tip, with the
veins converging at the tip. The leaves are dull
chocolate brown or chestnut-colored at the base, the
inner sheaths dark toward the summit. The
inflorescence is a many-flowered, loosely clustered
panicle, 2- 10 cm long. The capsule is oblong-
obovoid, of about the same length as the perianth,
obtuse or retuse. The seeds are retucilate.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. Soft rush occurs in wet places on
hillsides or valley flats below 2500 m. It occurs
through California to British Columbia, the eastern
United States, Mexico, and Eurasia.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Juncus effusus is easily propagated from bare root
stock or seedlings, from container stalk, or directly
seeded into the soil. Bare root stock or seedlings are
preferred revegetation methods where there is
moving water. These plants can be invasive. They
are useful for stabilization and revegetation of
disturbed areas. Juncus effusus requires moderate
summer watering (irrigation), generally 1 - 4 times
per month depending on the absorption rate and
water retention capacity of the soil. Salt rush plants
may need to have their roots in moist or wet soils.
These native plants are especially good for stabilizing
or restoring disturbed or degraded areas for erosion
and slope control.
Live Plant Collections: The following information on
Juncus balticus is provided by J. Chris Hoag and
Mike Zierke (USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho). Due to their taxonomic and
habitat similarity, it is likely that Juncus effusus
establishes in a similar manner.
• Planting plugs is the surest way to establish a
new stand of this species. Plug spacing of 25-30
cm will fill in within one growing season.
Fluctuating the water level during the
establishment period may speed spread of
Juncus. Water levels can be managed to enhance
spread and control weeds.
• Clip leaves and stems to 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches) before planting. this allows the plant to
allocate more energy into root production.
Transplants should be planted as soon as
possible in moist (not flooded or anoxic) soils.
Plants should be transported and stored in a cool
location prior to planting. The roots should
always remain moist or in water until planted.
• Soil should be kept saturated after planting.
Plants can tolerate 2.5 - 8 cm of standing water
as long as the level fluctuates over the growing
season. Allow roots to become established
before flooding soils if possible.
Ideally, plants should be planted in late fall just
after the first rains (usually late October to
November). Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist.
•
• Fertilization is very helpful for plant growth and
reproduction. Many more seeds are produced
with moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections: The flowering period is late May to
August, occasionally to September. Seed ripens in
early August. Phenology will change by area, aspect,
elevation, and specific site conditions.
• Seed may be collected by hand, using a pair of
hand shears, or with a gas-powered handheld
seed harvester.
• The tiny, black seeds are easily lost from the
capsules when collecting by hand. Be careful to
keep capsules upright before putting in collection
bag. Use paper sacks when collecting seeds for
this species.
• To clean the seed, run the collection through a
hammermill to break up debris and knock the
seeds loose. Use a 1/20 inch screen on the top
and a solid sheet on the bottom of the seed
cleaner. Adjust the air flow to blow off the
chaff. The cleaning process can be speeded up
by shaking the hammermilled collection to settle
seed to the bottom of the pan. The top portion of
the chaff can then be discarded and the seed-rich
mixture that is left in the bottom can be run
through the seed cleaner.
Seed germination in greenhouse: ' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='• Seeds need light, moisture and heat for
germination. Soaking the seeds in water for 1 - 7
days will decrease the time the seed takes to
sprout.
• To grow seeds, place on soil surface and press in
lightly to assure good soil contact. Do not cover
the seed. Soil should be kept moist. Greenhouse
should be kept hot (32-38°C).
• Seeds begin to germinate in approximately 1
week. Maintain soil moisture until plants are to
be transplanted. Seedlings cannot withstand
long periods without water while growing in the
greenhouse.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
Page 3
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management
(Hoag et al. 1995). Juncus species can tolerate
periods of drought and total inundation. It is
important to keep transplanted plugs moist, not
flooded, until roots are established. Water levels can
then be managed to enhance or reduce spread as well
as control terrestrial weeds.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation such as Juncus species for hut
construction and for food. Typically, an area of open
water is created around the huts. Muskrat eatouts
increase wetland diversity by providing opportunities
for aquatic vegetation to become established in the
open water and the huts provide a substrate for shrubs
and other plant species.
Juncus species tend to be fairly resilient to insect and
disease problems. Aphids may feed on the stems, but
rarely cause significant damage. If an insect or
disease problem is encountered in the greenhouse,
treatment options may be limited by cultural
constraints if these plants are to be used by Indian
basketweavers. Pesticide exposure is higher for
basketweavers than the rest of the population. Juncus
culms are split with the mouth to process basketry
materials. therefore, an unusually high degree of
human exposure and risk occur with plants
designated for ethnobotanic use. Rushes are
perennial, rhizomatous plants. In most cases, they
will out-compete other species within the wetland
area of the site, eliminating the need for manual or
chemical control of invasive species.
Traditional Resource Management: The management
of Juncus effusus stands includes the following:
ownership of prime basket rush sites, stimulation of
new growth through harvesting stalks, periodic
burning, and not harvesting when soils are very
mucky and likely to be compacted. The stalks are cut
above the rhizomes and roots, leaving plenty of buds
to regrow new shoots. As with other rhizomatous
species, harvesting stimulates new growth and
maintains the clone in a juvenile or immature growth
phase, where productivity is highest.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.” This plant
is available at many nurseries nationwide.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of Western Washington and
Northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dahl, T.E. and C.E. Johnson 1991. Status and trends
of wetlands in the coterminous United States, mid-
1970s to mid-1980s. USDI, FWS, Washington, D.C.
28 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. n.d. Wetland plant fact sheet - Baltic rush
(Juncus balticus). Interagency Riparian/Wetland
Project. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 3 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M. Zierke (February) 1998. A
reference guide for the collection and use of ten
common wetland plants of the Great Basin and
Intermountain West. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series No. 13. USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. 13 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hurd, E.G., N.L. Shaw, &. L.C. Smithman 1992.
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae - selected low-elevation
species. Proceedings of Symposium of Ecology,
Management, and Restoration of Intermountain
Page 4
Edited: 05dec00 jsp: 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Annual Rangelands, Boise, Idaho. May 18-22, 1992.
Pages 380-383.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Manning, M.E., S.R. Swanson, T. Svejcar, &. J. Trent
1989. Rooting characteristics of four Intermountain
meadow community types. Journal of Range
Management 42(4):309-312.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Merrill, R.E. 1970. Plants used in basketry by the
California Indians. Acoma Books, Ramona,
California.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1984. Wetlands of the United States:
Current status and recent trends. USDI, FWS,
National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, D.C. 58
pp.
Timbrook, J. (June) 1997. California Indian
Basketweavers Association newsletter.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffler Publishing, Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. Pages 194-205.
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='juef';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
SALT RUSH
Juncus lesueurii Boland
Plant Symbol = JULE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
variety of colors. a deep red near the base, lightening
in color upwards passing through several shades of
light brown, and ending at the top in a brownish
yellow. Juncus stems can be bleached in the summer
sun for several months to assure a light tan uniform
color.
The Cahuilla, Diegeño, Luiseño, and Chumash dye
the mature rushes black by steeping them for several
hours in an infusion of either horned sea-blite
(Suaeda calceoliformis) or bush seepweed (Sueda
moquinii). This dye is very penetrating, and the color
is durable, but has a fetid, disagreeable smell. Juncus
species are also dyed yellow in an infusion of indigo
bush (Psorothamnus emoryi) (Barrows 1967. Merrill
1970).
Other Uses: A wide range of mammal and avian
species for food and habitat (Hoag and Zierke 1998)
uses Juncus species. Waterfowl, songbirds and small
mammals such as jack rabbits, cottontail, muskrat,
porcupine, and gopher (Martin 1951) eats rush seeds.
Rushes help improve habitat for amphibians and
spawning areas for fish. Muskrats feed on the roots
and rhizomes, and various wetland wading birds find
shelter among the stems.
Rushes provide the following conservation uses:
erosion control, sediment accretion and stabilization,
nutrient uptake and transformation, wildlife food and
cover, restoration and creation of wetland
ecosystems, and wastewater treatment applications.
The rhizomatous nature, nitrogen fixation
capabilities, dense root system, and phenotypic
plasticity to flooding and drought stress provide high
soil and slope stabilization capabilities, particularly in
areas with flooded soils or fluctuating hydrology.
The rhizomes form a matrix for many beneficial
bacteria, making this plant an excellent addition for
wastewater treatment. Rushes tend to be resistant to
grazing pressure and fairly unpalatable to cattle, so
they tend to increase in species composition in
stockwater ponds and troughs.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Coiled basketry prevails in Southern
California, with the mottled yellowish brown of
Juncus rush providing a natural colored and
variegated background (Turnbaugh and Turnbaugh
1986). Juncus stems are used in the coiled baskets of
Southern California basket weavers such as the
Cahuilla, Luiseño, Chumash, Diegueño, Agua
Caliente, Gabrieliño, Juaneño, Death Valley
Shoshone, and Fernandeno (Barrows 1967. Murphy
1959). Chumash baskets, from southern California,
are made with Juncus stems for the tan color and
roots for the black color (Timbrook 1997). The
foundation material is made of Juncus lesueurii or
Juncus balticus, and the sewing material is made of
Juncus textilis.
Rushes are cut off at ground level, or at the length
desired. The rush, in its natural state, furnishes a
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rush Family (Juncaceae). Juncus lesueurii
is a grasslike, perennial, rhizomatous wetland plant.
Salt rush has stems that are 3-9 dm tall, stout,
smooth, erect or aching, with a distinctive twist to the
stems. The stems arise from stout, creeping
rhizomes. The terete leaf sheaths are bladeless, and
shining or light brown in color. The inflorescence
appears lateral with open branches, the lowest bract
cylindric, with many flowers. The capsule is oblong-
ovoid, light brown, and three-angled. This species is
sometimes confused with Juncus balticus, from
which it may be distinguished by its longer and
usually darker-colored segments.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Salt rush grows in salt marshes or sand
dunes along the California coast from Ventura
County north to British Columbia. Juncus lesueurii
can tolerate mild to moderate soil salinity and
flooded soil conditions. Often these plants are found
on drier or seasonally fluctuating wetland sites (for
example, dune swales) and can tolerate periodic
drought.
General: Juncus species may be planted from bare
rootstock or seedlings, from container stalk or
directly seeded into the soil. Bare rootstock or
seedlings are preferred revegetation methods where
there is moving water. Juncus lesueurii requires
moderate summer watering (irrigation), generally 1 -
4 times per month depending on the absorption rate
and water retention capacity of the soil. Salt rush
plants may need to have their roots in moist or wet
soils. These native plants are especially good for
stabilizing or restoring disturbed or degraded areas
for erosion and slope control. Salt rush may become
invasive.
Live Plant Collections: J. Chris Hoag and Mike
Zierke (USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho) provided the following information
on Juncus balticus. Due to their taxonomic and
habitat similarity, it is likely that Juncus lesueurii
establishes in a similar manner. Planting plugs is the
surest way to establish a new stand of this species.
Plug spacing of 25-30 cm will fill in within one
growing season. Fluctuating the water level during
the establishment period may speed spread of the
Plants can tolerate 2.5 - 8 cm of standing water
as long as the level fluctuates over the growing
season. Allow roots to become established
before flooding soils if possible.
Ideally, plants should be planted in late fall just
after the first rains (usually late October to
November). Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist.
•
rush. Water levels can be managed to enhance
spread and control weeds.
• Clip leaves and stems to 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches) before planting. this allows the plant to
allocate more energy into root production.
Transplants should be planted as soon as
possible in moist (not flooded or anoxic) soils.
Plants should be transported and stored in a cool
location prior to planting. The roots should
always remain moist or in water until planted.
• Soil should be kept saturated after planting.
• Fertilization is very helpful for plant growth and
reproduction. Many more seeds are produced
with moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections:
• The flowering period is late May to August,
occasionally to September. Seed ripens in early
August. Phenology will change by area, aspect,
elevation, and specific site conditions.
• Seed may be collected by hand, using a pair of
hand shears, or with a gas-powered handheld
seed harvester.
• The tiny, black seeds are easily lost from the
capsules when collecting by hand. Be careful to
keep capsules upright before putting in collection
bag. Use paper sacks when collecting seeds for
this species.
• To clean the seed, run the collection through a
hammer mill to break up debris and knock the
seeds loose. Use a 1/20 inch screen on the top
and a solid sheet on the bottom of the seed
cleaner. Adjust the air flow to blow off the
chaff. Shaking the hammer milled collection to
settle seed to the bottom of the pan can speed up
the cleaning process. The top portion of the
chaff can then be discarded and the seed-rich
mixture that is left in the bottom can be run
through the seed cleaner.
Seed germination in greenhouse:
• Seeds need light, moisture and heat for
germination. Soaking the seeds in water for 1 - 7
days will decrease the time the seed takes to
sprout.
• To grow seeds, place on soil surface and press in
lightly to assure good soil contact. Do not cover
Page 3
the seed. Soil should be kept moist. Greenhouse
should be kept hot (32-38°C).
• Seeds begin to germinate in approximately 1
week. Maintain soil moisture until plants are to
be transplanted. Seedlings cannot withstand
long periods without water while growing in the
greenhouse.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management
(Hoag et al. 1995). Juncus species can tolerate
periods of drought and total inundation. It is
important to keep transplanted plugs moist, not
flooded, until roots are established. Water levels can
then be managed to either enhance or reduce spread
as well as control terrestrial weeds.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation such as Juncus species for hut
construction and for food. Typically, an area of open
water is created around the huts.
Juncus species tend to be fairly resilient to insect and
disease problems. Aphids may feed on the stems, but
rarely cause significant damage. If an insect or
disease problem is encountered in the greenhouse,
treatment options may be limited by cultural
constraints if these plants are to be used by Indian
basket weavers. Juncus culms are split with the
mouth to process basketry materials. therefore, an
unusually high degree of human exposure and risk
occur with plants designated for ethnobotanic use.
Rushes are perennial, rhizomatous plants. In most
cases, they will out-compete other species within the
wetland area of the site, eliminating the need for
manual or chemical control of invasive species.
Traditional Resource Management: Management of
Juncus lesueurii stands includes the following:
ownership of prime basket rush sites, stimulation of
new growth through harvesting stalks, periodic
burning, and not harvesting when soils are very
mucky and likely to be compacted. According to one
Northern Diegueño basket weaver, most weavers
have favorite collecting areas where the basket rush
is plentiful and having characteristics valued by
basket weavers (long, flexible, tough stems, deep red
color, access is available and relatively easy). Any
Juncus stand will have plants that are immature,
those which are mature but still in seed, and those
which are starting to senesce. The stalks are cut
above the rhizomes and roots, leaving plenty of buds
to re-grow new shoots. As with other rhizomatous
species, harvesting stimulates new growth and
maintains the clone in a juvenile or immature growth
phase, where productivity is highest. The only
harvesting prohibition might be during times of
heavy rain or flooding, when deep water and mud
make many plants inaccessible.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of Western Washington and
Northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dahl, T.E. &. C.E. Johnson 1991. Status and trends
of wetlands in the coterminous United States, mid-
1970s to mid-1980s. USDI, FWS, Washington, D.C.
28 pp.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. n.d. Wetland plant fact sheet - Baltic rush
(Juncus balticus). Interagency Riparian/Wetland
Project. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 83210. 3 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M. Zierke (February) 1998. A
reference guide for the collection and use of ten
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 20may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
common wetland plants of the Great Basin and
Intermountain West. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series No. 13. USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. 13 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hurd, E.G., N.L. Shaw, &. L.C. Smithman 1992.
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae - selected low-elevation
species. Proceedings of Symposium of Ecology,
Management, and Restoration of Intermountain
Annual Rangelands, Boise, Idaho. May 18-22, 1992.
Pages 380-383.
Manning, M.E., S.R. Swanson, T. Svejcar, &. J. Trent
1989. Rooting characteristics of four Intermountain
meadow community types. Journal of Range
Management 42(4):309-312.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Merrill, R.E. 1970. Plants used in basketry by the
California Indians. Acoma Books, Ramona,
California.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
Timbrook, J. (June) 1997. California Indian
Basketweavers Association newsletter.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffler Publishing, Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. Pages 194-205.
' WHERE symbol='jule';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLACK WALNUT
Juglans nigra L.
Plant Symbol = JUNI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The bark of black walnut was used by
many native groups, including the Cherokee, in tea as
a laxative and chewed for toothaches. Caution: Bark
should be used cautiously in medicine, because it is
poisonous. The Cherokee also ate the fruit of the
black walnut. The Chippewa and the Cherokee used
the bark to make brown and black dyes. The
Comanche created a paste from the leaves and husk
of the fruit for treatment of ringworm. Black walnut
was also used by the Appalachian, Cherokee,
Comanche, Iroquois, and Rappahannock to treat
athlete’s foot, hemorrhoids, and as an insecticide.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Walnut Family (Juglandaceae). Black
walnut is usually a medium sized tree ranging from
70-90 feet tall and 2-3 feet in diameter at breast
height. However, black walnut can reach 150 feet
tall and 8 feet in diameter at breast height. The
branches are widely spread and form a massive
crown. The bark is thick and brown to grayish-black
in color. The bark has deep furrows and narrow
forking ridges. The furrows and ridges form a
diamond pattern. The twigs are stout with notched
leaf scars. They are light brown to orangish in color.
The terminal buds are short, blunt, and covered with
a few hairy scales. The leaves are up to 6 dm long
with 9-23 leaflets attached directly to a stout rachis
without a supporting stalk. The rachises are covered
with fine short hairs. Flowers appear in late May to
early June. The flowers bear 17-50 stamens, but lack
pistils. The fruits are 4-6 cm in diameter and
spherical shaped. They can be found in groups of 2-3
or solitary. The fruits have a thick, semi-fleshy, husk
covered with short hairs and are yellowish-green in
color. The nut is corrugated with rounded ridges.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Black walnut is found in fields and rich
woodlands.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Black walnut produces a toxin, known as “juglone”,
which inhibits the growth of other plants around it,
thereby reducing competition. Juglone deprives
sensitive plants of energy needed for photosynthate
production. The symptoms of plants being affected
by juglone include foliar yellowing, wilting, and
eventually death. The largest sources of juglone on
the tree are located in the buds, roots, and nut hulls.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Black walnut is difficult to transplant and therefore,
propagation by seed is recommended. Seeds should
be planted in the fall in moist, well-drained, deep soil
that is rich in organic matter. Black walnut prefers
full sun.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Black walnut is a very intolerant tree. Planted in
fairly dense stands or under forest competition the
tree develops a tall and well formed, clear bole. This
bole form results from the tree putting its resources
into competing for sunlight and is ideal for wood
fiber production. Logs 10 inches in diameter at
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
breast height can be developed in 35 years under
ideal growing conditions.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Black walnut suffers from a variety of deforming and
deadly pests and diseases including parasitic
nematodes, mistletoe, fusarium canker, bacterial
blight, white trunk rot, and cylindrockadium root rot.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='Juglone may be a concern when landscaping or
planting black walnut near a garden.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Dana, M.N. &. B.R. Lerner 1994. Department of
Horticulture, Purdue University Cooperative
Extension Service. West Lafayette, North Carolina.
http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/HO/HO
-193.pdf
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri river region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. 109 pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Harlow, W.M., E.S. Harrar, J.W. Hardin, &. F.M.
White 1996. Textbook of dendrology. 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, New York. 534pp.
Hart, J.H. &. J.E. Cummings Carlson 1997. The
American Phytopathological Society.
http://www.scisoc.org/resource/common/names/blkw
alnt.htm
Johnston, Tim. 2000. Guide to herbs. Holisticopia
http://www.herbweb.com/herbage/A270.htm
Michigan State University, Home Horticulture. 1996.
Michigan State University Extension Service, East
Lansing, Michigan.
http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/mod03.0170052
3.html
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb
Rydberg, P.A. 1932. Flora of the prairies and plains
of central North America. The Science Press Printing
Company, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. 969 pp.
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='juni';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
REDBERRY JUNIPER
Juniperus pinchotii Sudw.
Plant Symbol = JUPI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Cypress Family (Cupressaceae). Pinchot’s
juniper grows to be a shrub or small tree, reaching a
maximum height of 6 meters. Multiple stems coming
from the base of the tree form a dense clump. The
bark is thin and ashy-gray colored with longitudinal
fissures. The branches are rigid, with slender
ascending tips. Pinchot’s juniper has white sapwood
and reddish-brown heartwood. The leaves on mature
fruiting branches are triangular-ovate and pressed
together in groups of two or three (1.5-2.5 mm long).
The leaf margins are serrated with teeth that point
forward. The fruits are variable in size, ranging in
color from reddish to copper-brown. Each fruit has
either one or two seeds. The seeds are 5 mm long,
have a broad oval shape, and are chestnut brown in
color.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Found on open flats, dry hills, in arroyos,
and in canyons.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Low to moderate intensity fires will kill seedlings
and saplings. Mature trees, will resprout after top-
kill by fire if soil is protecting the basal bud zone.
Once top-killed, mature trees require 3-50 years to
attain pre-fire height.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Pinchot’s juniper requires two years of above average
precipitation for seedling establishment. The optimal
soil temperature for germination is 64 degrees
Fahrenheit. Reproduction also occurs from
resprouting of already established plants. Following
injury or top removal, Pinchot’s juniper will resprout
from the base of the stem.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire has been successfully used to prevent the
encroachment of Pinchot’s juniper on rangeland. For
further information regarding the use of fire to
manage the tree consult your local land management
agency.
from Native Trees of Texas
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Pinchot’s juniper
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Comanche used Pinchot’s juniper
as a treatment for headaches, vertigo, and ghost
sickness. For these ailments the Comanche would
sprinkle dried leaves over hot coals and inhale the
smoke. The Comanche also used an extract of the
dried and pulverized roots of Pinchot’s juniper for
menstrual problems.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, Pinchot’s juniper should not be prone to
debilitating pests.
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='jupi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Jones, D.E. 1968. Comanche plant medicine. Papers
in Anthropology 9:1-13.
McPherson, G.R. &. H.A. Wright 1997. Factors
affecting reproductive maturity of redberry juniper
(Juniperus pinchotii). Forest Ecology and
Management 21:191-196.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn, Michigan.
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb.
Texas A&.M University 2002. Native trees of Texas.
Department of Horticulture, College Station, Texas.
<.http://aggie-
horticulture.tamu.edu/ornamentals/natives/indexscien
tific.htm>.. Accessed: 30May2002.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service 2001. Fire effects information system.
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Science
Laboratory, Boise, ID.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junpin/i
ndex.html
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
mixed with Populus leaves this root tea became a
liniment for stiff back or backaches (McClintock
1909, Johnston 1970, Hellson 1974).
The Cheyennes steeped the leaves of the Rocky
Mountain juniper and drank the resulting tea to
relieve persistent coughing or a tickling in the throat.
It was also believed to produce sedative effects that
were especially useful for calming a hyperactive
person. Cheyenne women drank juniper tea to speed
delivery during childbirth (Grinnell 1962). The
Cheyenne, along with the Flathead, Nez Perce,
Kutenai, and Sioux, made a tea from juniper boughs,
branches, and fleshy cones. The tea was used as a
cure for colds, fevers, tonsillitis, and pneumonia
(Hart 1976).
As a cure for asthma, the Gros Ventres ate whole
juniper berries or pulverized them and boiled them to
make a tea. They also made a preparation from the
leaves mixed with the root, which they applied
topically to control bleeding (Kroeber 1908). The
Crow drank this medicinal tea to check diarrhea and
to stop lung or nasal hemorrhage. Crow women
drank it after childbirth for cleansing and healing
(Hart 1976).
The wood of red cedar is very durable, and is used
for lance shafts, bows, and other items. Flutes made
from juniper wood were highly regarded by the
Cheyenne.
Ornamental: All of the native junipers are valuable
ornamental species, and many horticultural varieties
have been developed. Rocky Mountain juniper is
widely used in shelterbelts and wildlife plantings.
The close-grained, aromatic, and durable wood of
junipers is used for furniture, interior paneling,
novelties, and fence posts. The fruits and young
branches contain aromatic oil that is used in
medicines.
Wildlife: Junipers are important to wildlife
throughout the country. Their twigs and foliage are
eaten extensively by hoofed browsers, but the chief
attraction to wildlife is the bluish-black berry-like
fruit. The cedar waxwing is one of the principal
users of juniper berries, but numerous other birds and
mammals, both large and small, make these fruits and
important part of their diet. In addition to their
wildlife food value, junipers provide important
protective and nesting cover. Chipping sparrows,
ROCKY MOUNTAIN
JUNIPER
Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.
Plant Symbol = JUSC2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Horticulture: Landscape Plants
© Oregon State University
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
cedar tree, juniper, juniper bush, savin, evergreen,
cedar apple, Rocky Mountain cedar
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Rocky Mountain juniper was and still
is used by many tribes for incense in purification and
ritual (Kindscher 1992). The Blackfeet made a tea
from the berries of the Rocky Mountain juniper to
stop vomiting (Kindscher 1992). A Blackfeet
remedy for arthritis and rheumatism was to boil
juniper leaves in water, add one-half teaspoon of
turpentine, and when cooled, rub the mixture on
affected parts. The Blackfeet also drank a tea made
from Juniperus scopulorum root as a general tonic.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
robins, song sparrows, and mockingbirds use these
trees as one of their favorite nesting sites. Juncos,
myrtle warblers, sparrows of various kinds, and other
birds use the dense foliage as roosting cover. In
winter their dense protective shelter is especially
valuable.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cypress Family (Cupressaceae). Rocky
Mountain cedar (Juniperus scopulorum ) is a medium
sized dioecious or rarely monoecious tree from 10-20
m (33-66 ) tall (McGregor et al. 1986, Stephens
1973). The evergreen tree is scraggly with rounded
crown to pyramidal. The bark is dark reddish-brown
to grayish in color, thin, fibrous, and usually shreds
with age. Leaves are green or blue-green, usually
barely overlapping and closely appressed, scalelike
and 0.2-0.3 cm (1/16-1/8".) long or needlelike and
0.6-1.2 cm (1/4-1/2".) long. Recessed glands occur on
the dorsal side of the leaves. Juniperus scopulorum
differs from red cedar (J. virginiana) by the blunt
leaves, the leaves not overlapping, and the longer,
elliptic glands. The fruits of J. scopulorum mature in
the second season, while in J. virginiana fruits
mature in the first season. Juniperus scopulorum is
usually a more rounded tree and J. virginiana is more
conical.
Male and female cones are on separate trees. The
staminate (male) cones are yellowish-brown, papery,
solitary at the tips of branchlets, ovoid to ellipsoid,
and 0.2-0.4 cm (1/16-1/8".) long. The ovulate
(female) cones are solitary at the tips of branchlets,
dark blue or bluish-purple, waxy and berry-like, and
0.4-0.7 cm (3/16-1/4".) long. The female cones ripen
from September through October. There are 1-3
seeds per cone, yellow-brown and round, 2-4 mm in
diameter, ridged near the base and sometimes
shallowly pitted.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
Rocky Mountain juniper grows in prairie hillsides,
fields, pastures, and occasionally in woodlands, in
rocky, sandy, or clay soils. The distribution of Rocky
Mountain juniper is from British Columbia and
Alberta south through the Great Basin and the Rocky
Mountains to Arizona and New Mexico and into
western Texas, north across eastern Colorado,
western Nebraska to western North Dakota, and west
in Montana. The range overlaps that of Juniperus
virginiana only in North Dakota.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Rocky Mountain juniper is often used as an
ornamental because of its evergreen foliage. Juniper
can be easily transplanted in the early spring before it
starts its new growth. It is especially well adapted to
dry areas. The junipers are generally propagated by
cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation from Cuttings
Cuttings are made 5 to 15 cm (2 to 65 inches) long
from new lateral growth tips stripped of older
branches. A small piece of old wood, a “heel,” is
thus left attached to the base of the cutting. Some
propagators believe this to be advantageous. In other
cases, good results are obtained when the cuttings are
just clipped without the “heel” from the older wood.
Cuttings from the current season’s terminal growth
also root well.
Cuttings to be rooted in the greenhouse can be taken
at any time during the winter or rooted outdoors on
heated beds. Exposing the stock plants to several
hard freezes seems to give better rooting. Optimum
time for taking cuttings is when stock plants have
ceased growth (i.e. the late fall-winter propagation
period is more successful than summer). For
propagating in an outdoor cold frame, cuttings are
taken in late summer or early fall. There may be
advantages to using bottom heat. Lightly wounding
the base of the cuttings is sometimes helpful, and the
use of root-promoting chemicals, especially IBA, is
beneficial. Recommendations for root-promoting
chemicals include the following: 2500 IBA Quick-
dip (Alabama), 3000 – 8000 ppm IBA liquid, and
0.3-4.5 percent IBA talc. A medium-coarse sand or a
10:1 mixture of perlite and peat moss is a satisfactory
rooting medium. Maintenance of a humid
environment without excessive wetting of the
cuttings is desirable, as is a relatively high light
intensity. A light, intermittent mist can be used.
Bottom heat of 60-65°F (12°C) is critical the first six
weeks of propagation to allow the basal wound of
cuttings to callus.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='Juniperus scopulorum flowers from April to June.
The fruits should be gathered in the fall (September-
October) as soon as the berry-like cones become ripe.
Rocky Mountain juniper trees come to seed-bearing
age in 10-20 years, and they bear cones every 2-5
years. Seed collection can be done by stripping or
picking the berries by hand from the trees, or by
flailing the fruits to ground cloths. Be careful to pick
only ripe berries. Since the number of filled seeds
varies widely from tree to tree, it is important to test
the seeds by cutting to determine percent fill. Seeds
may be stored as berries or cleaned seeds.
The seeds can be recovered by macerating the fruits
and floating the seeds to the top. The addition of
Page 3
detergent to the maceration water helps to separate
seeds from the resinous fruits. Juniper seeds store
quite well. They should be dried to 10-20% moisture
and stored in a sealed container at cold temperatures.
For best germination, seeds should be removed from
the fruits, then the seed coat is softened by treating it
with sulfuric acid for 120 minutes. After soaking the
seeds in sulfuric acid, follow with 6 weeks of warm
stratification at 20 to 30°C (70 to 85°F), or summer
planting, then 10 weeks of pre-chilling at 4°C (40°F).
Use of fresh seed reduced the warm stratification
time. Rather than the acid treatment, two to three
months of warm stratification could be used. As an
alternative for cold stratification, the seed may be
sown in the fall. Germination is delayed at
temperatures above 15°C (60° F). Germination is
often delayed in juniper seeds, as seeds are
consistently highly dormant.
Juniper seeds are usually sown in the nursery in the
late summer or fall, but may be sown in spring or
summer. The seeds of most species should be sown
in fall to take advantage of natural pre-chilling.
Juniper seeds are usually drilled in well-prepared
seedbeds in rows 15 to 20 cm apart and covered with
0.6 cm of soil. In nurseries with severe climates,
such as those in the Great Plains, considerable care
must be taken to protect the beds with mulch and
snow fences.
Viability of the seed varies considerably from year to
year and among lots, but it is never much over 50
percent. Treated seed is usually planted in the spring,
either in outdoor beds or in flats in the greenhouse.
Two or three years are required to produce plants
large enough to graft.
Juniperus scopulorum – 11-28 seeds per 110 kg
fruit, 60 seeds per gram
Extensive information about collecting and
processing Rocky Mountain juniper seed can be
found in Scianna (2000).
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The following information on the Traditional
Resource Management (TRM) for Rocky Mountain
juniper was provided by Lynn Youngbuck, who is
Cherokee, Chiracahua, and Fox. TRM includes the
following:
• Take what you need, leaving the best to
reproduce.
• Speak to the plant, leave an offering of tobacco
or sage before harvesting. The plant will grow
back two stems for every one cut.
• We humans are another strand in life. Plants
sustain us and should be treated as another living
being.
• Plants were taken care of in extended family
groups of women. They were taken care of and
watched each year for generations.
• Materials harvested were shared and traded with
the whole tribe.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
JUSC2 is readily available from nurseries throughout
its range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
Some cultivars are as follows: Blue Arrow, Blue
Creeper, Blue Haven, Blue Heaven, Blue Trail
Cologreen, Erecta Glauca, Gray Gleam, Green Ice,
Greenspice, Jewell Frost, Medora, Moffat Blue,
Montana Green, Moonglow, Pathfinder, Platinum,
Skyrocket, Sparkling Skyrocket, Springbark,
Sutherland, Table Top, Table Top Blue, Tolleson’s
Blue Weeping, Tolleson’s Green Weeping, Welchii,
Witchita Blue, and Winter Blue.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Bentrup, G. &. J. C. Hoag 1998. The practical
streambank bioengineering guide. User s guide for
natural streambank stabilization techniques in the
arid and semi-arid Great Basin and intermountain
west. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, &. Letters 25:517-543.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 Vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Page 4
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Johnston, A. 1970. Blackfoot Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 24:301-24.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 276 pp.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1:145-281.
Marlow, C.B. &. T.M. Pogacnik 1985. Time of
grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284. IN Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R.
Patton, P.F. Ffolliott, &. R.H. Hamre (Tech. Coords.).
Riparian ecosystems and their management:
Reconciling conflicting uses. Proc. First North Am.
Riparian Conf. U.S. Dep. Agric., For. Serv. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-120. 523 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie. 273-279 pp.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) Flora of the Great Plains. Great
Plains Flora Association. University Press of Kansas.
1402 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Oregon State University 1999. Landscape plants.
Vol. 2. Images, identification, and information.
Version: 000328.
<.http://www.orst.edu/dept/ldplants/jusc2.htm>..
Horticulture Department, Corvallis, Oregon.
Scianna, J.D. 2000. Improved Processing of Rocky
Mountain juniper seed. USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Plant Materials Technical Note No.
MT-34, Bridger, Montana. 4pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Tilford, G.L. 1997. Edible and medicinal plants of
the west. Mountain Press Publishing Company,
Missoula, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000328. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Young, A.J. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='jusc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 08jan02 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page 5
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
BASKET RUSH
Juncus textilis Buch.
Plant Symbol = JUTE2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
yellow. Juncus stems can be bleached in the summer
sun for several months to assure a light tan uniform
color. According to some Diegueño basket weavers,
the deep brick-red color found in many mission
baskets was obtained from Juncus species harvested
in the higher elevations, 3,000 feet or above, and in
canyons usually under sycamores or willow trees
(Moser 1993). The red color occurs under the leaf
thatch or blanketing vegetation mat and varies from
several inches to nearly 12 inches in length at the
base of the Juncus stalk, and is often used alone as a
design element.
The Cahuilla, Diegeño, Luiseño, and Chumash dye
the mature rushes black by steeping them for several
hours in an infusion of either horned sea-blite
(Suaeda calceoliformis ) or bush seepweed (Suaeda
moquinii). This dye is very penetrating, and the color
is durable, but has a fetid, disagreeable smell. Juncus
species are also dyed yellow in an infusion of indigo
bush (Psorothamnus emoryi) (Barrows 1967. Merrill
1970).
Juncus stalks can be harvested throughout the year.
Preparation for basket weaving involves splitting
each rush stalk into three equal portions. The base of
the reed is split using either a thumbnail or pocket
knife, then one piece is grasped in the teeth and one
in each hand and equal pressure is applied. One
Digeño basket weaver describes a point about half
way through the reed when the splitting starts to
".stutter". and feels like its going to break. At this
point he throws the remaining parts away. The pith is
removed after soaking the plant in water prior to
weaving. The individual pieces are then trimmed to a
uniform thickness. The stems are soaked in water
before using.
Other Uses: Juncus species are used by a wide range
of mammal and avian species for food and habitat
(Hoag and Zierke 1998). Rush seeds are eaten by
waterfowl, songbirds, and small mammals such as
jackrabbits, cottontails, muskrats, porcupines, and
gophers (Martin 1951). Rushes help improve habitat
for amphibians and spawning areas for fish.
Muskrats feed on the roots and rhizomes, and various
wetland wading birds find shelter among the stems.
Rushes provide the following conservation uses:
erosion control, sediment accretion and stabilization,
nutrient uptake and transformation, wildlife food and
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Coiled basketry prevails in Southern
California, with the mottled yellowish brown of
Juncus textilis providing a natural colored and
variegated background (Turnbaugh and Turnbaugh
1986). Juncus stems are used in the coiled baskets of
Southern California basketweavers such as the
Cahuilla, Luiseño, Chumash, Diegueño, Agua
Caliente, Gabrieliño, Juaneño, Death Valley
Shoshone, and Fernandeno (Barrows 1967. Murphey
1959). Chumash baskets, from southern California,
are made with Juncus stems for the tan color and
roots for the black color (Timbrook 1997). The
sewing material is made of Juncus textilis and the
foundation material is made of Juncus balticus.
Rushes are cut off at ground level, or at the length
desired. The rush, in its natural state, furnishes a
variety of colors. a deep red near the base, lightening
in color upwards passing through several shades of
light brown, and ending at the top in a brownish
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
cover, restoration and creation of wetland
ecosystems, and wastewater treatment applications.
The rhizomatous nature, nitrogen fixation
capabilities, dense root system, and phenotypic
plasticity to flooding and drought stress provide high
soil and slope stabilization capabilities, particularly in
areas with flooded soils or fluctuating hydrology.
The rhizomes form a matrix for many beneficial
bacteria, making this plant an excellent addition for
wastewater treatment. Rushes tend to be resistant to
grazing pressure and fairly unpalatable to cattle, so
tend to increase in species composition in stock water
ponds and troughs. Basket rush is useful for
stabilization and revegetation of disturbed areas.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rush Family (Juncaceae). Basket rush is a
perennial, rhizomatous wetland plant. It is a
grasslike, usually tufted herb 10-20 dm tall, with
stout, rigid, pale green culms. The leaf sheaths are
terete, clustered at the base, 2-15 cm long, multi-
colored from red to tan to dark brown, and bladeless.
The inflorescence forms a lax panicle with many
flowers. The brown, oblong-ovoid capsule is as long
as or slightly shorter than the perianth, and contains
many seeds. Juncus textilis is closely related to
Juncus balticus. basket rush can be distinguished
from baltic rush by its much stouter habit, its paler
green stems, and its somewhat larger, more
numerous-flowered panicle. The stems of Juncus
textilis are more woody in texture, retain their terete
shape when dried, and do not tend to flatten as do
those of Juncus balticus. From this description of
their growth forms, it is obvious why Juncus textilis
is used for the sewing material and Juncus balticus is
compressed inside the coils of baskets.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Juncus textilis grows in marshy areas and along
streams below an elevation of 1800 m. Basket rush
grows in coastal and montane southern California,
north to San Luis Obispo and Kern Counties. Often
these plants are found on drier or seasonally
fluctuating wetland sites (for example, desert playas)
and can tolerate both seasonal drought and flooding.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Juncus species may be planted from bare rootstock or
seedlings from container stalk or directly seeded into
the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are preferred
revegetation methods where there is moving water.
Live Plant Collections: The following information on
Juncus balticus is provided by J. Chris Hoag and
Mike Zierke (USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho). Due to their taxonomic and
habitat similarity, it is likely that Juncus textilis
establishes in a similar manner. Planting plugs is the
surest way to establish a new stand of this species.
Plug spacing of 25-30 cm will fill in within one
growing season. Fluctuating the water level during
the establishment period may speed the spread of
Juncus. Water levels can be managed to enhance
spread and control weeds.
Clip leaves and stems to 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches)
before planting. this allows the plant to allocate more
energy into root production. Transplants should be
planted as soon as possible in moist (not flooded or
anoxic) soils. Plants should be transported and stored
in a cool location prior to planting. The roots should
always remain moist or in water until planted.
Ideally, plants should be planted in late fall just after
the first rains (usually late October to November).
Survival is highest when plants are dormant and soils
are moist. Soil should be kept saturated after
planting. Plants can tolerate 2.5 - 8 cm of standing
water as long as the level fluctuates over the growing
season. Allow roots to become established before
flooding soils if possible. Fertilization is very helpful
for plant growth and reproduction. Many more seeds
are produced with moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections: The flowering period is late May to
August, occasionally to September. Seed ripens in
early August. Phenology will change by area, aspect,
elevation, and specific site conditions.
• Seed may be collected by hand, using a pair of
hand shears, or with a gas-powered handheld
seed harvester.
• The tiny, black seeds are easily lost from the
capsules when collecting by hand. Be careful to
keep capsules upright before putting in collection
bag. Use paper sacks when collecting seeds for
this species.
• To clean the seed, run the collection through a
hammer mill to break up debris and knock the
seeds loose. Use a 1/20 inch screen on the top
and a solid sheet on the bottom of the seed
cleaner. Adjust the air flow to blow off the
chaff. The cleaning process can be speeded up
Page 3
by shaking the hammer milled collection to settle
seed to the bottom of the pan. The top portion of
the chaff can then be discarded and the seed-rich
mixture that is left in the bottom can be run
through the seed cleaner.
Seed germination in greenhouse:
• Seeds need light, moisture and heat for
germination. Soaking the seeds in water for 1 - 7
days will decrease the time the seed takes to
sprout.
• To grow seeds, place on soil surface and press in
lightly to assure good soil contact. Do not cover
the seed. Soil should be kept moist. Greenhouse
should be kept hot (32-38°C).
• Seeds begin to germinate in approximately 1
week. Maintain soil moisture until plants are to
be transplanted. Seedlings cannot withstand
long periods without water while growing in the
greenhouse.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management
(Hoag et al. 1995). Juncus species can tolerate
periods of drought and total inundation. It is
important to keep transplanted plugs moist, not
flooded, until roots are established. Water levels can
then be managed to either enhance or reduce spread
as well as control terrestrial weeds.
Juncus species tend to be fairly resilient to insect and
disease problems. Aphids may feed on the stems, but
rarely cause significant damage. If an insect or
disease problem is encountered in the greenhouse,
treatment options may be limited by cultural
constraints if these plants are to be used by Indian
basket weavers. Juncus culms are split with the
mouth to process basketry materials. therefore, an
unusually high degree of human exposure and risk
occur with plants designated for ethnobotanic use.
Rushes are perennial, rhizomatous plants. In most
cases, they will out-compete other species within the
wetland area of the site, eliminating the need for
manual or chemical control of invasive species.
Traditional Resource Management: Management of
Juncus textilis stands includes the following:
ownership of prime basket rush sites, stimulation of
new growth through harvesting stalks, periodic
burning, and not harvesting when soils are very
mucky and likely to be compacted. According to one
Northern Diegueño basket weaver, most weavers
have favorite collecting areas where the basket rush
is plentiful and having characteristics valued by
basket weavers (long, flexible, tough stems, deep red
color, access is available and relatively easy). Any
Juncus stand will have immature plants, mature but
still in seed, and those starting to senesce. The stalks
are cut above the rhizomes and roots, leaving plenty
of buds to re-grow new shoots. As with other
rhizomatous species, harvesting stimulates new
growth and maintains the clone in a juvenile or
immature growth phase, where productivity is
highest. The only harvesting prohibition might be
during times of heavy rain or flooding, when deep
water and mud make many plants inaccessible.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. n.d. Wetland plant fact sheet - baltic rush
(Juncus balticus). Interagency Riparian/Wetland
Project. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 3 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M. Zierke (February) 1998. A
reference guide for the collection and use of ten
common wetland plants of the Great Basin and
Intermountain West. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series No. 13. USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho. 13 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
Page 4
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hurd, E.G., N.L. Shaw, &. L.C. Smithman 1992.
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae - selected low-elevation
species. Proceedings of Symposium of Ecology,
Management, and Restoration of Intermountain
Annual Rangelands, Boise, Idaho. May 18-22, 1992.
Pages 380-383.
Manning, M.E., S.R. Swanson, T. Svejcar, &. J. Trent
1989. Rooting characteristics of four Intermountain
meadow community types. Journal of Range
Management 42(4):309-312.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Merrill, R.E. 1970. Plants used in basketry by the
California Indians. Acoma Books, Ramona,
California.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
Timbrook, J. (June) 1997. California Indian
Basketweavers Association newsletter.
Turnbaugh, S.P. &. W.A. Turnbaugh 1986. Indian
baskets. Schiffler Publishing, Ltd., West Chester,
Pennsylvania. Pages 194-205.
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='jute2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
EASTERN RED
CEDAR
Juniperus virginiana Sarg.
Plant Symbol = JUVI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Carlinville (IL) Field Office, &. Missouri
State Office
Robert Molenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Cedar tree, juniper, savin, evergreen, cedar apple, and
Virginia red cedar
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The red cedar is used by many tribes
for incense in purification and ritual (Kindscher
1992). For numerous tribes, the red cedar tree
symbolizes the tree of life and is burned in sweat
lodges and in purification rites.
Plant Guide
The Blackfeet made a tea from the berries of the red
cedar to stop vomiting (Kindscher 1992). A
blackfeet remedy for arthritis and rheumatism was to
boil red cedar leaves in water, add one-half teaspoon
of turpentine, and when cooled, rub the mixture on
affected parts. The Blackfeet also drank a tea made
from red cedar root as a general tonic. mixed with
Populus leaves this root tea became a liniment for
stiff backs or backache (McClintock 1909, Johnston
1970, Hellson 1974).
The Cheyenne steeped the leaves of the red cedar and
drank the resulting tea to relieve persistent coughing
or a tickling in the throat. It was also believed to
produce sedative effects that were especially useful
for calming a hyperactive person. Cheyenne women
drank the red cedar tea to speed delivery during
childbirth (Grinnell 1962). The Cheyenne, along
with the Flathead, Nez Perce, Kutenai, and Sioux,
made a tea from red cedar boughs, branches, and
fleshy cones, which they drank for colds, fevers,
tonsillitis, and pneumonia (Hart 1976).
As a cure for asthma, the Gros Ventres ate whole red
cedar berries or pulverized them and boiled them to
make a tea. They also made a preparation from the
leaves mixed with the root, which they applied
topically to control bleeding (Kroeber 1908). The
Crows drank this medicinal tea to check diarrhea and
to stop lung or nasal hemorrhage. Crow women
drank it after childbirth for cleansing and healing
(Hart 1976).
The young leafy twigs of the red cedar were officially
listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1894
as a diuretic (Kindscher 1992). The distilled oil of
the red cedar has been officially listed as a reagent in
the U.S. Pharmacopoeia since 1916 (ibid.).
The wood of red cedar is very durable, and was used
for lance shafts, bows, and other items. Flutes made
from red cedar wood were highly regarded by the
Cheyenne. Cedar boughs were used for bedding. The
Menomini wove mats of cedar bark. The mats were
used for roofing temporary structures, for partitions,
floor mats and wrappings, and for various purposes in
the canoes.
Ornamental: Seedlings of red cedar are ordinarily
used as stock for grafting ornamental juniper clones.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Red cedars are often used as ornamentals for their
evergreen foliage. Most cemetery plantings include
old red cedar trees and many younger dwarf junipers.
All of the native junipers are valuable ornamental
species, and many horticultural varieties have been
developed. Red cedar is widely used in shelterbelts
and wildlife plantings. The close-grained, aromatic,
and durable wood of junipers is used for furniture,
interior paneling, novelties, and fence posts. The
fruits and young branches contain aromatic oil that is
used in medicines.
Wildlife: Red cedar and other junipers are important
to wildlife throughout the country. Their twigs and
foliage are eaten extensively by hoofed browsers, but
the chief attraction to wildlife is the bluish-black
berry-like fruit. The cedar waxwing is one of the
principal users of red cedar berries, but numerous
other birds and mammals, both large and small, make
these fruits an important part of their diet. In addition
to their wildlife food value, cedars provide important
protective and nesting cover. Chipping sparrows,
robins, song sparrows, and mockingbirds use these
trees as one of their favorite nesting sites. Juncos,
myrtle warblers, sparrows of various kinds, and other
birds use the dense foliage as roosting cover. In
winter, their dense protective shelter is especially
valuable.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cypress Family (Cupressaceae). Red cedar
(Juniperus virginiana) is a medium-sized dioecious
or rarely monoecious tree from 10-20 m (33-66 ) tall
(McGregor et al. 1986, Stephens 1973). The
evergreen tree is shaped like a pyramid or column,
with reddish-brown to grayish colored bark that is
fibrous and shedding. Branches are usually reddish-
brown. Leave are opposite, simple, green or blue-
green, closely appressed and overlapping the leaf
above, scale-like, and 0.2-0.3 cm (1/16-1/8”) long or
needlelike and 0.6-1.2 cm (1/4-1/2”) long. Male and
female cones are on separate trees. The staminate
(male) cones are yellowish-brown, papery, solitary at
the tips of branchlets, ovoid to ellipsoid, and 0.2-0.4
cm (1/16-1/8”) long. The ovulate (female) cones are
solitary at the tips of branchlets, dark blue or bluish-
purple, waxy and berrylike, 0.4-0.7 cm (3/16-1/4”)
long. The female cones ripen from September
through October. There are 1-3 seeds per cone. Red
cedar seeds are yellow-brown and round, 2-4 mm in
diameter, ridged near the base, and sometimes
shallowly pitted.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
The distribution of red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
spans the U.S. east of the Rockies. The species also
occurs in Oregon in the west. The southern red cedar
(var. silicicola) occurs only in the southeastern US.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
It is especially well adapted to dry areas. Red cedar
is generally propagated by cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Propagation from Cuttings
Cuttings are made 5 to 15 cm (2 to 65 inches) long
from new lateral growth tips stripped of older
branches. A small piece of old wood, “a heel,” is
thus left attached to the base of the cutting. Some
propagators believe this to be advantageous. In other
cases, good results are obtained when the cuttings are
just clipped without the “heel” from the older wood.
Cuttings from the current season’s terminal growth
also root well.
Cuttings to be rooted in the greenhouse can be taken
at any time during the winter or rooted outdoors on
heated beds. Exposing the stock plants to several
hard freezes seems to give better rooting. Optimum
time for taking cuttings is when stock plants have
ceased growth (i.e. the late fall-winter propagation
period is more successful than summer). For
propagating in an outdoor cold frame, cuttings are
taken in late summer or early fall. There may be
advantages to using bottom heat. Lightly wounding
the base of the cuttings is sometimes helpful, and the
use of root-promoting chemicals, especially IBA, is
beneficial. Recommendations for root-promoting
chemicals include the following: 2500 IBA Quick-
dip (Alabama), 3000 – 8000 ppm IBA liquid, and
0.3-4.5 percent IBA talc. Medium-coarse sand or a
10:1 mixture of perlite and peat moss is a satisfactory
rooting medium. Maintenance of a humid
environment without excessive wetting of the
cuttings is desirable, as is a relatively high light
intensity. A light, intermittent mist can be used.
Bottom heat of 60-65°F (12°C) is critical the first six
weeks of propagation to allow the basal wound of
cuttings to callus.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedPropagation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedPropagation='Juniperus virginiana flowers from March to May.
The fruits should be gathered in the fall (September-
November) as soon as the berry-like cones become
Page 3
ripe. Red cedar trees come to seed-bearing age in 10
years, and they bear cones every 2-3 years. Seed
collection can be done by stripping or picking the
berries by hand from the trees, or by flailing the fruits
to ground cloths. Be careful to pick only ripe berries.
Since the number of filled seeds varies widely from
tree to tree, it is important to test the seeds by cutting
to determine percent fill. Seeds may be stored as
berries or cleaned seeds.
The seeds can be recovered by macerating the fruits
and floating the seeds to the top. The addition of
detergent to the maceration water helps to separate
seeds from the resinous fruits. Red cedar seeds store
quite well. They should be dried to 10-20% moisture
and stored in a sealed container at cold temperatures.
For best germination, seeds should be removed from
the fruits, then the seed coat is softened by treating it
with sulfuric acid for 120 minutes. After soaking the
seeds in sulfuric acid, follow with 6 weeks of warm
stratification at 20 to 30°C (70 to 85°F), or summer
planting, then 10 weeks of pre-chilling at 4°C (40°F).
Use of fresh seed reduced the warm stratification
time. Rather than the acid treatment, two to three
months of warm stratification could be used. As an
alternative for cold stratification, the seed may be
sown in the fall. Germination is delayed at
temperatures above 15°C (60° F). Germination is
often delayed in red cedar seeds, as seeds are
consistently highly dormant.
Red cedar seeds are usually sown in the nursery in
the late summer or fall, but may be sown in spring or
summer. The seeds of most species should be sown
in fall to take advantage of natural pre-chilling. Red
cedar seeds are usually drilled in well-prepared
seedbeds in rows 15 to 20 cm apart and covered with
0.6 cm of soil. In nurseries with severe climates,
such as those in the Great Plains, considerable care
must be taken to protect the beds with mulch and
snow fences.
Viability of the seed varies considerably from year to
year and among lots, but it is never much over 50
percent. Treated seed is usually planted in the spring,
either in outdoor beds or in flats in the greenhouse.
Two or three years are required to produce plants
large enough to graft.
Juniperus virginiana – 14-18 seeds per 110 kg fruit,
96 seeds per gram.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The following information on the Traditional
Resource Management (TRM) red cedar was
• Speak to the plant, leave an offering of tobacco
or sage before harvesting. The plant will grow
back two stems for every one cut.
• Humans are another strand in life. Plants sustain
us and should be treated as another living being.
• Plants were taken care of by extended family
groups of women. They were taken care of and
watched each year for generations.
• Materials harvested were shared and traded with
the whole tribe.
provided by Lynn Youngbuck, who is Cherokee,
Chiracahua, and Fox. TRM includes the following:
• Take only what you need, leaving the best to
reproduce.
• Cedar bark was harvested in early June or early
July as the bark is more easily removed at that
season (Densmore 1974). The gathering of cedar
bark was attended with a simple ceremony,
followed by a feast. The next day the tree was
cut. The bark was removed, and the tree was
permitted to remain as it fell, and when
thoroughly, dry was used for fuel.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
JUVI is available through most nurseries. Cultivars
include: Baker’s Blue, Blue Mountain, Brodie,
Burkii, Canaerti, Cupressifolia, Dundee, Emerald
Sentinel, Glauca, Gray Owl, Hillspire, Idyllwild,
Manhattan Blue, Mission Spire, Nova, Pendula, Patt
River, Princeton Sentry, Royo, Silver Spreader,
Stover, and Taylor. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25:517-543.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 Vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Page 4
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Young, A.J. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Jerry Kaiser
USDA, NRCS, Missouri State Office, Elsberry,
Missouri
Ivan Dozier
USDA, NRCS, Carlinville Field Office, Carlinville,
Illinois
' WHERE symbol='juvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 23may05 rln. 060801 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hellson, J.C. 1974. Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot
Indians. National Museum of Man, Mercury Series,
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 19.
Johnston, A. 1970 . Blackfoot Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 24:301-24.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 276 pp.
Kroeber, A.L. 1908. The ethnology of the Gros
Ventre. American Museum of Natural History,
Anthropological Papers 1:145-281.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1985. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Tilford, G.L. 1997. Edible and medicinal plants of
the west. Mountain Press Publishing Company,
Missoula, Montana.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
important food source for the bobwhite quail.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the PLANTS web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bean Family (Fabaceae). This herbaceous,
native, perennial has erect stems that are 6-15 dm,
and simple and branched above. The petioles are 2-5
mm, shorter than the stalk of the terminal leaflet.
The plant has numerous small trifoliolate leaves. The
leaflets are 4.5 x 1.8 cm, variable in shape and
pubescence. The flowers are ochroleucous and are
arranged in spikes or heads. The calyx lobes are all
separate and the wings exceed the keel. Each flower
is subtended at the base by small bractlets. The fruits
are indehiscent, and 1-seeded.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. This plant is found in dry, open
woods, sand dunes, and prairies. It ranges from
Maine and southern Quebec to Minnesota and South
Dakota, south to Georgia, west Florida, and Texas.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by seeds: Clean the seed and scarify
each seed coat with sandpaper. If you are storing the
seeds before planting, put them in cold storage. Plant
the seeds in a bedding mix with a light layer of
vermiculite on top. Sow the seeds in flats and water
them, keeping them moist. Do not over water them.
The seeds will germinate in approximately two
weeks. After two more weeks, the seedlings will be
ready to transplant into plugs. These plants can be
transplanted once again in several weeks to larger
pots. In the middle of May, after the danger of frost
has past, the plugs can be directly transplanted into a
well-drained soil in full sunlight and watered. Make
sure the plants are moist for several weeks until
established.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
LECA8 is available through selected native plant
nurseries within its range. Please check the Vendor
Database, expected to be on-line through the
ROUNDHEAD
LESPEDEZA
Lespedeza capitata Michx.
Plant Symbol = LECA8
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Kenneth Sytsma
University of Wisconsin
@ Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='roundheaded bush clover, bushclover
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Omaha and Ponca used the stems
for a moxa to treat cases of neuralgia and
rheumatism. The Comanche boiled the leaves for a
beverage tea. The Meskwaki used the root as an
antidote for poison. The Iroquois used the whole
plant of Lespedeza (unidentified to species level) in
combination with Euonymus obovata for stricture
caused by something wrong with the blood.
Wildlife: Roundhead lespedeza seeds are an
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
PLANTS Web site in 2001 by clicking on Plant
Materials.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Carlson, G.G., &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters
25:517-542.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000503. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Wunderlin, R.P., B.F. Hansen, &. E.L. Bridges 2000.
Atlas of Florida vascular plants. Version: 000503.
<.http://cyber.acomp.usf.edu/~isb/projects/atlas/atlas.
html>.. University of South Florida, Institute for
Systematic Botany, Tampa, Florida.
' WHERE symbol='leca8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, c/o Department of Plant Science, University
of California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 24may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
and early settler. The Indians graciously taught them
how to use it and it was called “Indian tea plant” by
some non-Indians. The leaves were even used as a
substitute for tea during the Revolutionary War
(Hedrick 1972). Today there is a demand for the
plant’s essential oil for aromatherapy (Rogers 1997)
and the plant is planted in gardens as an ornamental
shrub.
Large quantities of leaves were picked in spring
before flowering by some native families while
others picked them year round (Anderson 2009). The
Ojibwa gathered the leaves from spring to autumn for
a beverage tea (Smith 1932). The leaves were used
either fresh or dried for future use. There were a
number of ways to prepare tea, including adding a
handful of leaves to boiling water and letting it
simmer for several minutes or adding a handful of
leaves to cold water, bringing it to a boil and
simmering it for much longer (Stewart 2002). The
Ojibwa, for example, tied fresh or dried leaves in a
packet using a thin strip of basswood bark before
placing in water to boil. The quantity was a large
handful to a quart of water. It was drunk while hot
and sweetened with maple sugar (Buttree 1932).
Re-enacting an ancient custom, the Hoh, Quinault,
Quileute, Klallam, and Makah still gather and steep
the leaves and drink the resulting tea as a refreshing
beverage (Anderson 2009. Gill 1984). Today,
different Native American families keep a pot of this
tea on the stove, ready for serving anytime (Stewart
2002). Pat Boachup, Makah, (pers. comm.) says: “I
still gather the leaves of the Indian tea every year. We
pick off the leaves that have molded or spoiled. We
collect the good leaves and put them in a warm place
to dry. If the leaves stay in a plastic bag they will turn
black. They are put in a paper bag next to a wood
stove to dry. Then after they are dry you can put them
in a plastic bag. I take a handful of leaves—enough to
cover the top of the pot—and put them in the pan or
pot with water. Take a fork and push down the
leaves. When it starts boiling turn it down and steam
it for 15 to 20 minutes. When it turns a rich orange
it’s ready. If steamed too long, it turns dark. I drink it
most of the time hot with sugar. I gather four or five
grocery bags of dried leaves from two sites every
year. You can pick it all year round, but I usually go
in the fall in September and October. I make sure I
leave some leaves so as not to kill the plant.”
BOG LABRADOR
TEA
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder
Plant Symbol = LEGR
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Team, Greensboro, NC
Bog Labrador tea in Ahlstrom s Prairie, Olympic National Park.
Photograph by M. Kat Anderson, 2007.
Alternate Names
Rhododendron groenlandicum (Oeder) Kron &. Judd
Labrador tea, Indian tea, Hudson Bay tea, James tea,
marsh tea, swamp tea
Uses
Bog Labrador tea leaves are fragrant and were used
as a beverage and medicine by many tribes such as
the Quinault and Makah in western Washington, the
Potawatomi in the Great Lakes region, and the
Iroquois in the Northeast. This tea was as popular
among tribes as green tea, chai and black teas are to
Western culture today (Gunther 1973. Smith 1933.
Hedrick 1933). First Nations in Canada also picked
the leaves for a warm drink and medicine (Turner
2004).
CAUTION: Bog Labrador tea may be toxic in
concentrated doses. It contains toxic alkaloids
known to be poisonous to livestock, especially
sheep (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994).
The beverage was quickly adopted by Europeans
because of its pleasant flavor, aroma and salutary
effects (Franklin 1823. Umfreville 1954). It warmed
the insides of many a non-Indian explorer, trapper,
Page 2
carcinoma cell lines (Dufour et al. 2007).
Wildlife Use: The flowers of bog Labrador tea
provide nectar for butterflies (Pettinger and Costanzo
2002). The palm warbler (Dendroica palmarum) and
Connecticut warbler (Oporornis agilis) nest in
Sphagnum in bogs with bog Labrador tea and open
conifer cover (Walkinshaw and Wolf 1957. Huff
1929). Bog Labrador tea leaves and twigs are
browsed by caribou and moose.
Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g., threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Description
General: Heath family (Ericaceae). An erect,
aromatic shrub that grows to one meter with twigs
densely covered with long, soft hairs (villous). The
narrow, leathery leaves are 2-5 cm long, alternate,
and evergreen. The leaves are dark green above with
edges that curl under along the margins, and there is a
dense mat of orange-brown hairs on the underside.
Numerous white flowers in tight clusters bloom from
May to July. Each flower has a small five-toothed
sepal tube with five separate petals, and 5-7 stamens.
The fruit is a small, fuzzy capsule tipped with a
persistent style (Marles et al. 2000. Pettinger and
Costanzo 2002. Pojar and MacKinnon 1994).
Bog Labrador tea distribution from USDA-NRCS PLANTS
Database.
Found in low to middle elevations across Alaska,
Canada, and Greenland, south through the New
England States, northern New Jersey, mountains of
Pennsylvania, the northern Great Lake States, North
and South Dakota, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon
(Gleason and Cronquist 1991. Pettinger and Costanzo
2002. Strong 2002. Fernald et al. 1958). For current
Pat Boachup, Makah, collecting bog Labrador tea on Ts oo-yuhs
Prairie, late September 2009. Photograph by M. Kat Anderson,
2009.
Medicinal Use: The sophistication and complexity of
bog Labrador tea’s medicinal use is demonstrated by
the wide variety of ailments that were treated with
this plant. Hudson Bay Company writer Edward
Umfrewille (1954) wrote in 1790 about the Indians
and Europeans of Canada and how they used the tea
medicinally: “Its virtues are many. it is an aromatic,
very serviceable in rheumatic cases, strengthens the
stomach, relieves the head, and also promotes
perspiration. Outwardly, it is applied to gangrenes,
contusions, and excoriations. in the latter case the
powder is made use of.”
Tribes used the leaves to treat inflammatory
pathologies such as asthma, rheumatism, and burns.
diseases of the liver and kidney and many other
sicknesses (U’mista Cultural Society et al. 1998.
Gunther 1973). The Makah, for example used a
strong infusion for a blood purifier (Gunther 1973).
The leaves were used by the Ojibwa as a medicine
for treating ulcers (Densmore 1974). Cree and the
Metis of Canada continue to use it, drunk as a tea or
leaves chewed and the juice swallowed, to treat
stomach flu, diarrhea, chills and bad breath,
pneumonia and difficulty urinating (Marles et al.
2000). The Innu (formerly the Montagnais-Naskapi)
of Labrador still treat sore throats and headaches by
chewing the leaves, but not swallowing (Olsson n.d.).
The Denyaavee of Alaska still use a tea of the leaves
for settling upset stomachs, easing heartburn, and
helping to ease arthritis pain. A tea made from the
flowers is good for combating a cold. The cooled tea
is a wash for skin problems and works well for sore
throats when gargled (Tanana Chiefs Conference,
Inc. 1999).
Recent studies support its ethnopharmacological use,
showing significant anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant activities from methanol extracts of
leaves and twigs. Bog Labrador tea twig extracts
were found to be active against lung and colon
Page 3
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Bog Labrador tea grows in bogs, fens,
muskegs, open tundra, and dwarf shrub communities.
It covers significant areas in bogs with black and
white spruce (Picea mariana and Picea glauca), and
tamarack (Larix laricina) in the boreal forests of
Canada and high-elevation northeastern United
States. eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), pitch
pine (Pinus rigida), eastern white pine (Pinus
strobus), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), white ash
(Fraxinus americana), and paper birch (Betula
papyrifera) in the Northeast and Great Lakes region.
as an understory shrub in open or closed moist forests
in association with lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta
var. contorta), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) in the Pacific
coastal forests of Oregon, Washington, Canada, and
Alaska. and shrub birch (Betula glandulosa) in the
Yukon (Gleason and Cronquist 1991. Pettinger and
Costanzo 2002. Strong 2002. Tiner 1991).
Establishment
Plants can be started from seed or root-crown
division. Collect the seeds from dry capsules and
plant them in fall or spring in a moist peaty soil, in a
sunny spot. Water them thoroughly after planting and
keep moist. Suckers with roots can be split off from
the base of the plant in mid-December and
transplanted during spring (Pettinger and Costanzo
2002. MacKenzie 1997. Young and Young 1992.
Dirr and Heuser 1987).
Management
Many of the fens and bogs that provide important
habitat for bog Labrador tea in North America were
created by glaciation. These wetlands have been
disappearing over thousands of years, due to a
decrease in native ungulates that graze the bogs, and
encroachment by conifers and hardwoods. Indians in
different regions burned these wetlands periodically
(Anderson 2009. Day 1953. Patterson and Sassaman
1988). The primary role of fire was to maintain open
habitats such as prairies, bogs, and forest clearings.
Forest encroachment would have reduced sunlight
that the bog Labrador tea plants needed, increased
competition for nutrients, and made the plants more
difficult to get to and harvest. Burning also had a
directly beneficial effect on individual plants,
maintaining vigor and stimulating new growth. Bog
Labrador tea is fire tolerant (Mallik and Mallik
1997), responding to low-intensity fires by
resprouting from stems. If completely top-killed, the
plant regenerates from root crowns and rhizomes
(Calmes and Zasada 1982. Parminter 1984).
Regeneration is typically rapid (Scotter 1972). Indian
tea can even survive severe fires because the
rhizomes lie as deep as 50 cm in the soil (Flinn and
Wein 1977). The young leaves can become infected
with a fungal disease, spruce needle rust, leaving
powdery orange spores (Hiratsuka et al. 1995).
Kate McCarty, a non-Indian woman married to a
Makah, described bog Labrador tea on the Ts’oo-
yuhs prairie as producing better crops after the
Makah burned it: “The Labrador tea can just keep
growing and growing and growing until it gets real
leggy. And all that you have is just a few little leaves
on top. But after it’s been burned then it starts all
over again. It’s just like pinching flowers off of the
chrysanthemum to make them bush out” (Kate
McCarty pers. comm.).
Environmental Concerns
“People burned in the cranberry marsh to promote a
better crop of cranberries and Indian tea. Our people
have been drinking the Indian tea for thousands of
years. But you can never drink enough. A lot of
people like the Indian tea. Another reason to burn
was to keep the brush and trees from growing.
Otherwise it would be a loss. The marsh behind the
school [on the Makah Reservation], unless someone
burns it, it will be history. It is being encroached by
trees and shrubs. Unless they’re cut down and
burned, they’ll eventually take over the cranberry
marsh just like at Ozette” (Pat Boachup, Makah, pers.
comm.).
Control
Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This plant is available from native plant nurseries
(Damrosch 2008).
References
Anderson, M.K. 2009. The Ozette Prairies of
Olympic National Park: their former indigenous
uses and management. Final report to Olympic
National Park. Winter 2009.
Buttree, J.M. 1932. Foods of the Omaha and
Chippewa. The Totem Board 11(11):443-454. The
Woodcraft League of America, Inc. Santa Fe.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Calmes, M.A. and J.C. Zasada. 1982. Some
reproductive traits of four shrub species in the
black spruce forest type of Alaska. Canadian Field-
Naturalist 96(1):35-40.
Damrosch, B. 2008. The Garden Primer: The
Page 4
Completely Revised Gardener’s Bible. Workman
Publishing Co., Inc. New York, N.Y.
Day, G. 1953. The Indian as an ecological factor in
the northeastern forests. Ecology 34:329-346.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians Use Wild Plants for
Food, Medicine, &. Crafts. 1974. Dover
Publications, Inc. New York, N.Y. Originally
published in 1928 in the Forty-fourth Annual
Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
1926-1927, pages 275-397.
Dirr, M.A. and C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The Reference
Manual of Woody Plant Propagation. Varsity
Press, Athens, GA.
Dufour, D., A. Pichette, V. Mshvildadze, M.
Bradette-Hébert, S. Lavoie, A. Longtin, C. Laprise,
and J. Legault. 2007. Antioxidant, anti-
inflammatory and anticancer activities of
methanolic extracts from Ledum groenlandicum
Retzius. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 111:22-28.
Fernald, M.L., A.C. Kinsey, and R.C. Rollins. 1958.
Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America.
Harper and Row, Publishers. New York, N.Y.
Flinn, M.A. and R.W. Wein. 1977. Depth of
underground plant organs and theoretical survival
during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany 55:2550-
2554.
Franklin, Capt. J. 1823. Narrative of a Journey to the
Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819-22.
London, England.
Gill, S. 1984. Ethnobotany of the Makah People,
Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Makah Language
Program, Neah Bay, Washington and Marion
Ownbey Herbarium Wasington State University,
Pullman, WA.
Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of
Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada. The New York Botanical
Garden. Bronx, N.Y.
Gunther, E.. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington: The Knowledge and Use of
Indigenous Plants by Native Americans. Seattle:
University of Washington Press.
Hedrick, U.P. 1933. A History of Agriculture in the
State of New York. New York State Agricultural
Society, Albany, N.Y.
___________. 1972. Sturtevant’s Edible Plants of the
World. Dover Publications, Inc. N.Y., N.Y.
Originally published by J.B. Lyon Company,
Albany, in 1919 for the State of New York as the
Department of Agriculture’s Twenty-seventh
Annual Report, Volume 2, Part II [Report of the
New York Agricultural Experiment Station for the
Year 1919.]
Hiratsuka, Y., D.W. Langor, and P.E. Crane 1995. A
Field Guide to Forest Insects and Diseases of the
Prairie Provinces. Nat. Resour. Can., Canadian
Forest Service Special Report 3. Edmonton,
Alberta.
Huff, N.L. 1929. The nest and habits of the
Connecticut warbler in Minneosota. The Auk
46(4):455-465.
MacKenzie, D.S. 1997. Perennial Ground Covers.
Timber Press, Portland, OR.
Mallik, I. and A.U. Mallik. 1997. Effects of Ledum
groenlandicum amendments on soil characteristics
and black spruce seedling growth. Plant Ecology
133(1)29-36.
Marles, R.J., C. Clavelle, L. Monteleone, N. Tays,
and D. Burns. 2000. Aboriginal Plant Use in
Canada’s Northwest Boreal Forest. UBC Press,
Vancouver, B.C.
Olsson, K. n.d. Caribou bones and Labrador tea:
traditional health care practices and their
implications for nursing. Unpublished paper.
Parminter, J. 1984. Fire-ecological Relationships for
the Biogeoclimatic Zones of the Northern Portion
of the Mackenzie Timber Supply Area Summary
Report. Ministry of Forests, Province of British
Columbia, Victoria, BC.
Patterson, W.A. and K. E. Sassaman. 1988. Indian
fires in the prehistory of New England. Pages 107-
135 in: Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern
North America. G.P. Nicholas (ed.). Plenum Press,
New York, N.Y.
Pettinger, A. and B. Costanzo. 2002. Native Plants in
the Coastal Garden: A Guide for Gardeners in the
Pacific Northwest. Timber Press. Portland, OR.
Pojar, J. and A. MacKinnon (eds.) 1994. Plants of
the Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia &. Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Vancouver, British Columbia.
Rogers, R. 1997. Aromatics and their use as
medicine. Pages 53-54 In Proceedings of the
Prairie Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Conference
1997, Brandon, MB.
Scotter, G.W. 1972. Fire as an ecological factor in
boreal forest ecosystems of Canada. Pages 15-25
In: Fire in the Environment. Symposium
Proceedings May 1-5, 1972. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. Denver, CO. FS-276.
Smith, H.H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(3):327-525.
___________. 1933. Ethnobotany of the Forest
Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin of the Public
Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1(1-230).
Stewart, H. 2002. Drink in the Wild: Teas, Cordials,
Jams and More. Douglas &. McIntyre. Vancouver,
B.C.
Strong, W.L. 2002. Lodgepole pine/Labrador tea type
communities of western Canada. Can. J. Bot.
80:151-165.
Tanana Chiefs Conference, Inc. 1999. Denyaavee
Medicine Plants of the Tanana Chiefs Conference
Region. Fairbanks, Alaska.
Tiner, R.W. 1991. The concept of a hydrophyte for
wetland identification. BioScience 41(4):236-247.
Turner, N. J. 2004. Plants of Haida Gwaii. Sononis
Press, Winlaw, B.C.
Umfreville, E. 1954. The Present State of Hudson’s
Page 5
Bay Containing a Full Description of that
Settlement, and the Adjacent Country. and
Likewise of the Fur Trade. The Ryerson Press,
Toronto, Canada.U’mista Cultural Society, J.
Walkinshaw, L.H. and M.A. Wolf. 1957. Distribution
of the palm warbler and its status in Michigan. The
Wilson Bulletin 69(4):338-351.
Young, J.A. and C.G. Young. 1992. Seeds of Woody
Plants in North America. Dioscorides Press.
Portland, OR.
Prepared By: M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
Citation
Anderson, M., 2011. Plant Guide for bog Labrador
tea (Ledum groenlandicum). USDA-Natural
Resources Conservation Service, National Plant Data
Team. Greensboro, NC.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Doug Goldman and
Roger Latham for editing this Plant Guide and
providing citations.
Published February 2012
Edited: 15Feb2011jw
For more information about this and other plants,
please contact your local NRCS field office or
Conservation District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
and visit the PLANTS Web site at
http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant Materials Program
Web site http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or
availability of other Web sites.
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
BITTER ROOT
Lewisia rediviva Pursh
Plant Symbol = LERE7
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
Alfred Brousseau
© St. Mary’sCollege
@ CalPhoto
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The roots were harvested with a
digging stick and eaten traditionally by the Washoe,
Owens Valley Paiute, Northern Paiute, Western
Shoshone, Gosiute, Northern Shoshone, Eastern
Shoshone, Utah Southern Paiute, Northern Ute, and
Flathead. The roots were also an important food for
the interior peoples of British Columbia, including
the Upper Nlaka pamux, southern Shuswap,
Okanagan-Colville, and southern Kootenay. Lower
Nlaka pamux, Lillooet, northern Shuswap and
northern Kootenay peoples obtained them through
trade. Families in some cultural groups still gather
the roots today. The roots are prepared for eating by
removing the bark and boiling, steaming, or pit-
roasting them and they are eaten fresh or dried.
Because digging the roots destroys the entire plant,
care should be taken to propagate and harvest the
plants in ways to maintain populations.
Wildlife: The gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte
tephrocotis) feeds on the seeds of Lewisia spp.
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Purslane Family (Portulacaceae). The
handsome, flowers range from white to pink with 10-
19 petals and multiple stamens (40-47) and 6-8
sepals. The petals are 2-2.5 cm. long. Each plant has
many stems, 1-3 cm. long, each with a solitary
flower. The flowers are up to 4 cm across and they
close at night and reopen with the morning sun. The
inflorescence disjoints readily at the middle of the
stem on drying. The caudex is short. The seed vessel
is an ellipsoid capsule, 5-6 mm. long that encloses
dark, shiny seeds. The roots are fleshy and radiating.
The many succulent, linear leaves form a rosette and
usually wither by flowering time.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This perennial herbaceous plant is found at a
wide elevational range from 60 to 3000 m. It grows
in open woodlands and sagebrush shrublands with
pine, oak or juniper in many soil types such as shale,
sand, clay, granite, serpentine, or talus. It is found in
the San Jacinto Mountains and the Transverse Ranges
in southern California, the Coast Ranges of
California from Mt. Pinos to Mt. Diablo and Lake
County, the Klamath Mountains, in the eastern
Cascade Ranges of Oregon and Washington, north to
British Columbia and east to Montana, Colorado and
Arizona.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='This is a difficult plant to grow. This plant should
not be started from the roots, as digging them in the
wilds kills the plant. Start the plant from seed in
early October. After collecting or buying the seeds,
place them in a paper bag until planting time. Place
the seed on top of the soil in 4 to 6-inch pots.
Sprinkle a light layer of soil over the seeds and place
one-quarter inch gravel on top of the soil to hold the
seeds in place. Give the pots no water. Let the rains
water the pots. Place the containers outside in full
sun and protect them from wildlife. The seeds will
germinate in late winter or early spring.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
In May when the leaves turn yellow, stop watering
and put the pots in the hottest spot you have until fall
when the rains come. Bitter root requires hot, dry
summer baking. Repeat this cycle over two years.
During the summer or fall of the third year, when the
plants are dormant, out-plant the plants in full sun
and in well-drained soil. Crown the plants at the soil
surface. Plant each plant 4-6 inches apart. Mark the
spot where you plant bitter root and give the plants
no water. Let the rains come. Protect the plants from
deer and other wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Weed periodically around the plants, as they need full
sun.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
LERE7 is available at selected native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dempster, L.T. 1993. Lewisia. pp. 900-903, IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Elliott, R. 1978. Lewisias. Alpine Garden Society.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. pp. 64-97 IN
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D azevedo [Ed.]. Smithsonian
Institution. Washington, D.C.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist 1973. Flora of the
Pacific Northwest: An illustrated manual. University
of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples:
Nutrition, botany and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
' WHERE symbol='lere7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators_='M. Kat Anderson
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
TANOAK
&. Arn.) Rehd.
Plant Symbol = LIDE3
Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook.
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
storage bins, either above or below ground, to protect
the dried acorns from robbing squirrels and
chipmunks. The Salinan built outdoor acorn
granaries on the ground next to their homes (Mason
1912). The granaries were constructed in a basket-
like fashion from white willow twigs that were then
covered with grass. The Pomo used tanoak leaves to
line aboveground bins that they constructed from
redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) boughs (Hoover
1977). The Costanoan and Chumash stored acorns in
baskets made from interlaced white willow twigs
(Brusa 1975). The baskets were about 1 m in
diameter at the bottom and sloped up gradually
inward into a cone about 0.5 m with a 0.5 m opening.
Hollow tree trunks also served as storage bins
(Hoover 1971).
The acorns were pounded into flour as needed.
Stone, bedrock, and wooden mortars were used to
crush the acorns into a meal. Sometimes the acorns
were soaked overnight to help crack open the shells.
After soaking, the acorns were removed from the
shells and spread out onto open-work baskets to dry.
The Salinan cracked open the acorns individually
using a small, hard stone hammer and then set them
out in the sun to dry (Mason 1912). The dried acorns
were then placed into a stone, bedrock, or wooden
mortar and pulverized into flour using a long pestle.
Some tribes used a hopper mortar basket (a
bottomless basket either glued with tar to the stone
mortar or held down with the legs) to keep the
pounded flour from bouncing up out of the mortar.
Mason (1912) notes observations of remnant pitch or
asphaltum circles surrounding mortar depressions
within the Salinan area. After pounding, acorn flour
must be leached to remove the tannic acid. There are
various methods for completing this step, but they all
include pouring water through the meal repeatedly
until all traces of the bitter tannins are washed away.
The Salinan placed the finely pounded flour into a
specially made leaching basket. The basket was
woven closely enough to hold the meal but to allow
the leaching water to percolate through (Mason
1912).
The majority of the California tribes, including the
Costanoan, Yokuts and Luiseño peoples, leached
acorn flour by using carefully constructed basins of
clean sand near a stream or river. The flour was
leached many times by pouring the water over a
bundle of leaves to keep the water from splashing
sand into the meal. Other tribes made leaching
© Charles Webber
California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Tan oak, tan bark oak
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Historically, acorns were the most
important staple plant food for Native American
groups in the coastal ranges of California. Native
Californians harvested, and still harvest today,
several species of acorns including tanoak, coast live
oak (Quercus agrifolia), canyon oak (Q.
chrysolepsis), black oak (Q. kellogii), and valley oak
(Q. lobata). California tribes are estimated to have
harvested from 500 to 2000 pounds of acorns per
family per year (Hoover 1977). A single tanoak tree
can produce over 200 pounds of acorns in a good
year and produces at least a partial crop every year
(Baumhoff 1963).
Tanoak acorns were the preferred acorns for the
Salinan, Costanoan, Pomo, Yurok, Hoopa, and other
groups residing within the trees range (Baumhoff
1963. Merriam 1967. Heizer &. Elsasser 1980). The
ripe acorns are harvested in the fall. They were
spread out in the sun to dry and then stored in baskets
or storage bins. Many tribes constructed outdoor
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
frames from branches of incense cedar. The cedar
leaves kept the meal from washing away while
imparting a spicy flavor to the meal (Murphey 1959).
Another leaching method was to bury the whole
acorns in the bed of a running stream and leaving
them for as long as a year (Merriam 1967).
The finely pulverized acorn meal was mixed with
water and cooked in a special watertight cooking
basket by placing hot, round stones that had been
heated in the fire into the basket. The acorn mixture
was stirred constantly to keep the rocks rolling
around and prevent them from burning the basket.
The meal was cooked in this manner to make
porridge and also a thick soup called atole. The
cooked mixture could be used to make pancakes and
breads by pouring it onto a hot, flat rock that served
as a griddle. The Salinan baked acorn bread in an
earth-oven and made acorn cakes about 8cm in
diameter by wrapping them between two layers of
grass and cooking them overnight (Mason 1912). The
Pomo used to wrap loaves of acorn bread dough in
leaves and place it in the coals of a fire to cook
(Goodrich et al. 1990). The Yurok made a dry form
of acorn bread, baked on hot stones, which kept for a
month or more (Merriam 1967).
Tanbark acorns were also used for medicinal
purposes such as treating coughs. A single acorn was
popped into the mouth and sucked on like a cough
drop. The tannins are said to help sooth the throat.
Some California tribes made a type of penicillin from
acorn meal (Murphey 1959). Moist meal was
wrapped and allowed to sit until it developed a moldy
film. Then the film was peeled off into a roll, which
was stored in a damp place until needed. Pieces of
the mold were placed upon boils and other sores to
draw out inflammation. The Coastanoan made an
infusion from the bark that they used as a medicinal
wash for sores on the face and as a mouthwash to
treat loosened teeth and toothaches (Bocek 1984).
Whole tanbark acorns with their caps can be strung
together to make a musical instrument that is played
by twirling it in a special way.
The Wintu made candy from the gum-like sap that
they gathered in the fall (Dubois 1935). The Wintu
and other tribes used the soot from burnt oak galls to
make tattoos (Knudtson 1988).
Wildlife: Tanoaks are important for cover and are
used for resting, hiding, and nesting by many wildlife
species (McMurray 1989). The trees provide cover
for northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus),
dusky-footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes), arboreal
salamanders (Aneides lugubris), and black
salamanders (Aneides flavipunctatus). House wrens
(Troglodytes aedon), northern flickers (Colaptes
auratus), downy woodpeckers (Picoides pubescens),
red-breasted nuthatches (Sitta Canadensis), white-
breasted nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis), and brown
creepers (Certhia Americana) nest in cavities in
tanoak trees.
Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) graze on tanoak
leaves and acorns. Tanoak acorns are a source of
food for black bears (Ursus americanus), chipmunks
(Eutamias spp.), California ground squirrels
(Spermophilus beechyi), Douglas squirrels
(Tamiasciurus douglasi), pocket gophers (Thomomys
bottae) and black-tailed deer (Odocileus hemionus).
The acorns were once relished by grizzly bears
(Ursus arctos), the state emblem of California, which
have been extinct in this state since 1924 (Storer &.
Usinger 1963). Birds that rely on tanoak acorns as a
source of food include the Steller’s jays (Cyannocita
stelleri), band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata),
varied thrushes (Ixoreus naevius) and acorn
woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus).
Livestock: Ground acorns are sometimes added to
chicken feed. Tanoak is considered of low forage
value for livestock because of its low palatability due
to tannin content. When cattle and other livestock
consume tanoak, it is an indication of overgrazing, as
the animals will generally only resort to this food
source after higher quality forage has been consumed
(McMurray 1989).
Erosion control: Tanoaks may be used for erosion
control on sites that experience frequent disturbance.
The trees help to stabilize soils as they have an
extensive root system with a deep taproot and they
quickly reestablish after disturbance through
sprouting from a lignotuber, which is an underground
regenerative organ (McMurray 1989).
Other: Tanoak wood is of high quality, being of
good strength and hardness with a fine grain,
however the wood is not widely used because of
limited supply. Tanoak wood has been used for a
variety of purposes including flooring, paneling,
decking, plywood, garden tools, baseball bats, and
firewood. The bark has high tannin content and was
once used extensively by industry in California for
curing leather.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
Page 3
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Oak family (Fagaceae). Tanoak is an
evergreen hardwood tree or shrub native to the west
coast ranges from Southern Oregon to Southern
California. The plants can reach 20 to 45 meters in
height with the stems of large trees reaching up to 1
meter in diameter. The form and size of tanoak is
variable depending on the environment. Taller forms
generally occur in shady forests and shorter forms in
open areas where sunlight is more abundant.
However, the trees can have a shrub-like form with
multiple stems when access to light is prevented,
such as when growing in a dense forest understory.
Mature trees growing in a more open forest have a
single, short trunk with horizontal branches.
The thick, leathery evergreen leaves are oblong in
shape with pointed tips (4 to 10 cm long). The
leaves have noticeable parallel side veins on the
undersides that are evenly spaced and run from the
central vein of the leaf ending in a pointy tooth at the
leaf margin. New leaves are covered with reddish-
brown hairs, which turns whitish as they mature.
Older leaves are a smooth green on top with lightly
pubescent gray-green below. The evergreen leaves
remain on the tree about 3 to 4 years before they are
shed. The light reddish-brown bark develops deep
fissures as the trees age. Large clusters of tiny
white flowers bloom in the summer months in the
leaf axils of the current seasons growth. The flowers
are erect catkins and have an odor that is not pleasant.
The acorns are from 2.5 to 5 cm long with a diameter
of about 1.5 to 1.8 cm and grow singly or in cluster.
Tanoak acorns have hairy, rather than scaly caps of
the true oak. Acorns ripen in the fall of the second
season.
Distribution: Tanoak occurs on fertile mountain
slopes and ridges below 1200 meters in the Coast
Ranges from the Santa Inez Mountains in Southern
California, to the Cascade Ranges in Southwestern
Oregon. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
Habitat: The tree form is a major part of the coastal
redwood forest, Douglas fir forest, and mixed
evergreen forest while the shrub form is a component
of chaparral communities.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Tanoak is adapted to cool coastal areas with mild
temperatures and little summer rainfall. The plants
do not do well in interior valleys and areas of
extreme temperatures. Tanoaks grow best in deep,
fertile soils but are also known to grow well on stony
or shallow soils. The trees prefer well-drained loam
to gravelly soils.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The Kashaya Pomo name for tanoak means
“beautiful tree” (Goodrich et al. 1990). Tanoak is an
attractive tree that is shade tolerant.
Tanoak can be easily propagated by seed. Use only
fresh seeds, as the seeds do not retain viablity. The
seeds of tanoak require no pretreatment and
germinate quickly. Tanoak acorns germinate faster if
they are planted with their point facing upward in the
soil (McMurray 1989). The seeds may be directly
sown into the ground or planted into flats or pots
using a light soil mixture or peat moss. If flats are
used it is necessary to transfer the seeds into pots or
the ground once they have germinated. Pots should
be of the kind that are long and deep to allow for the
taproot to develop. Set the seeds or seedlings into a
carefully chosen spot keeping in mind that they can
be long lived, with an average age of about 180 years
and a maximum to 400 years. Seedlings do best in a
moist area with partial shade. Do not plant in areas
with frequent irrigation. Give seedlings an
occasional deep watering until established.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Tanoak trees need to be carefully pruned while young
in order to develop into a nicely shaped, dense, well-
branched tree. The trees should be placed in a spot
where they will be protected from extreme
temperatures and hot winds, which may burn the
leaves during hot, dry weather. Established trees
should not be watered unless there are severe drought
conditions.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Tanoak is among the several species in northern and
central California that have been affected by the
Phytophthora fungus, in what is called “sudden oak
death syndrome.” The disease is easily spread by
beetles attracted to the sap of the infected trees.
Contact with infected roots and wood, and infected
soil may be transported on tools, tires or shoes
(Brenzel 2001). To keep trees healthy, apply a thick
layer of mulch to the root zone area beneath the
crown and do not garden or disturb this area in any
way. Also avoid frequent irrigation, prune only from
June to September (when the fungus and insects are
less active), and fertilize if the tree shows signs of
deficiency (Švihra et al. 2001). Prunings and
firewood from infected trees should be enclosed in
Page 4
heavy, clear plastic for 6 months in order to trap and
kill beetles that may emerge and infect nearby living
trees (Brenzel 2001). Other pests include aphids,
greedy scale, mealybug, oak scale and white fly.
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
There are two varieties of Lithocarpus densiflorus:
var. echinoides is a shrub that is a component of
chaparral communities, and var. densiflora is a tree
form which grows in mixed coastal evergreen forest
communities. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Baumhoff, M.A. 1963. Ecological determinants of
Aboriginal California populations. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California. 235 pp.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, CA. 768 pp.
Brusa, B.W. 1975. The Salinan Indians and their
neighbors. Naturegraph Publishers, Inc., Happy
Camp, California. 95 pp.
Dubois, C. 1935. Wintu ethnography. University of
California Publications in American Archeology and
Ethnology. Vol. 36, No. 1.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Heizer, R.F. &. A.B. Elsasser 1980. The natural
world of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California. 271 pp.
Hoover, R.L. 1971. Food plants of the California
Indians. Pacific Discovery Vol. 24, No. 3. Pp.11-17.
Hoover, R.L. 1977. California Indian uses of native
plants. In: D. R. Walters, M. McLeod, A.G. Meyer,
D.Rible, R O. Baker, &. L. Farwell. Native plants: A
viable option. Special Publication No. 3, California
Native Plant Society, Berkeley, California. Pp.128-
162.
Knudtsen, P.M. 1988. The Wintu Indians of
California. Naturegraph Publishers, Inc. Happy
Camp, California. 92 pp.
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
California. 248 pp.
Lenz, L.W. 1956. Native plants for California
gardens. Abbey Garden Press, Pasadena, California.
166 pp.
Merriam, C.H. 1967. Ethnological notes on
California Indian Tribes. Compiled &. Edited by
R.F. Heizer. Reports of the University of California
Archaeological Survey, No. 68, Parts II &. III. Pp
167-448.
McMurrray, N.E. 1989. Lithocarpus densiflora. In:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory 2001, May. Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [20 October
2001].
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society, Fort Bragg,
California.
81 pp.
Storer, T.I. &. R.L. Usinger 1968. Sierra Nevada
Natural History. University of California Press,
Berkeley &. Los Angeles, California. 374 pp.
Švihram P., J.K. Palkovsky, &. A. J. Storer 2001.
Recommendations for the management of oaks in
areas affected by sudden oak death. University of
California Cooperative Extension. 2001. Marin
County Sudden Oak Death Publications, [Online].
Available:
http://cemarin.ucdavis.edu/publications.html.
[15December 2001].
Webber, C. 1998. Lithocarpus densiflora. California
Academy of Sciences. Digital Library Project,
University of California, Berkeley, [Online].
Available: http://www.calflora.org. [18November
2001].
Page 5
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='lide3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Species Coordinator:
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 29jan02 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
LEOPARD LILY
Lilium pardalinum Kellogg
Plant Symbol = LIPA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
meadows below 2,000 m elevation. It has five
subspecies (pardalinum, pitkinense (rare), shastense,
vollmeri, and wigginsii). The stems are from 3 to 7
feet tall and the leaves appear in 1 to 8 whorls up the
stem or are scattered. The leaves are linear to
lanceolate, 1-2 dm. long. The branched rhizome is
thick and fleshy and densely covered with two-
jointed, sometimes three-or four-jointed bulb scales
which are clonal. The bell-shaped flowers are one to
many on long spreading pedicels. The flowers are
pale to bright orange-red with a lighter orange center
and purple spots on the lower half. The flowers are
arranged in a terminal raceme. The capsule is
narrowly oblong, acutely angled and one and one-
half inches long and contain flat seeds.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The plant is found along the coast of California
in the coastal coniferous forests and in the mixed
evergreen forests of the Coast Ranges and mixed
conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Populations in the wild are declining because of
habitat destruction and over-collection. Thus, do not
collect these plants in the wild. If starting the plants
from seed, plan on growing them for four years prior
to out-planting. The seeds do not need stratification
and can be planted in five or six-inch pots, one-
quarter inch apart. Place the seeds on top of the soil,
sprinkle soil on top and put one-quarter inch gravel
on top of the soil. The seeds should be planted in
well-drained soil and kept moist year round. Let the
rain water the pots in winter. They should never be
allowed to dry out. If there is not sufficient rain,
supplement with hand watering. Put the pots outside
in partial shade. The seeds will sprout by about
March. After two years, separate the plants and
space them four inches apart. Fertilize the plants in a
weak solution once a month during the active
growing period. Out-plant the plants after the third
or fourth year in partial shade and keep them moist
year round. They should be planted two to four
inches deep.
If establishing the plants from bulbs, the secret to
good survival is to get good live roots on the bulbs.
Plant them at whatever time of year you can obtain
the bulbs, directly in the ground, two to four inches
apart. Water them as noted above.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Tiger lily, panther lily
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: There are five subspecies of leopard
lily and probably all were utilized by various Native
American cultural groups. The bulbs were pried
loose from the earth with a digging stick, and baked
or steamed by the Atsugewi, Yurok, Hupa, Karuk,
Wailaki, Yana, and Sierra Miwok of California. A
number of native people still dig the bulbs today.
Tribes in northwestern California, for example,
harvest the bulb in August or the fall, being careful to
only take the large ones and replant the smaller bulb
scales for later harvest. Traditionally, the Karuk
baked the bulbs in an earth oven. The Sierra Miwok
wore the flowers as wreaths. The bulbs are also eaten
by small and large mammals.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This perennial
herbaceous plant grows along stream banks and moist
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
Weed around the plants regularly and protect them
from herbivory by small and large mammals. Deer
for example, eat the flowers and bulbs. If the bulbs
get too thick, separate them every several years,
otherwise they may get choked.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.” The
leopard lily is available from many nurseries.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Coy, G.B. 1959. Edible wild plants. Yosemite
Nature Notes 38(10):154-156.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. pp. 64-97 IN
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D Azevedo [Ed.]. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Garth, T.R. 1953. Atsugewi ethnography. University
of California Publications in American Archaeology
and Ethnology 14(2):129-212.
Heffner, K. 1984. Following the smoke:
Contemporary plant procurement by the Indians of
Northwest California. Unpublished report, Six
Rivers National Forest, Eureka, California.
Sapir, E. &. L. Spier. 1943. Notes on the culture of
the Yana. Anthropological Records 3(3):239-298.
Schenck, S.M. &. E.W. Gifford 1952. Karok
ethnobotany. Anthropological Records 13(6):377-
391.
Skinner, M.A. 1993. Lilium. pp. 1198-1201 IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Skinner, M.W. 2001. Lilium. IN: Flora of North
America. Vol. 26. Liliaceae and Discoreaceae.
Oxford University Press, New York.
' WHERE symbol='lipa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SWEETGUM
Liquidambar styraciflua L.
Plant Symbol = LIST2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Plant Guide
Wildlife: Goldfinches, purplefinches, mallard ducks,
bobwhite quails, Carolina chickadees, yellow-bellied
sapsuckers, white-throated sparrows, towhees,
Carolina wrens, squirrels, and chipmunks eat the
seeds of sweetgum trees. Beavers use the wood for
constructing dams.
Other: Liquidambars are valued for their timber and
for the aromatic sap, called styrax. The timber
provides pulp, veneer and lumber. The wood is used
in cabinetry, home interiors, boxes and utensils. The
balsamic sap is used as an ingredient in both
medicine and perfume.
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sweetgum is a deciduous tree that is a
member of the Hamamelidaceae, or witch-hazel
family. It is named after the sweet balsamic sap
which, when exposed, hardens into a fragrant gum.
The trees can reach 30 to 40 meters in height and
spread from 15 to 20 meters. The mature bark is
rough, deeply furrowed and grayish brown. Young
twigs are rusty red and frequently develop wings of
corky bark. The star-shaped leaves, somewhat
resemble maple leaves, except that they are arranged
alternately instead of opposite. The leaves are 18 cm
wide with long, thin petioles (6-15mm). Actively
growing leaves are fragrant when crushed. They are
palmate in shape with five to seven lobes and saw-
toothed margins. Glossy-green in summer, the leaves
turn bright yellow to deep red in the fall. The
undersides of the leaves are pale green with a coating
of fine white hairs. The small, greenish
inconspicuous flowers have no true petals. The
woody, ball-shaped, pendulous, burr-like fruits (3-4
cm) contain numerous, small seeds (1 cm) that are
winged at one end. The seeds are contained in beak-
like capsules to protrude from the surface (1 to 2 per
capsule).
Distribution: Sweetgum is common in the Coastal
Plain and Piedmont sections of the Southeastern
United States. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Materials Center
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate names
Sweet gum, American sweet gum, red gum, bilsted,
star-leaved gum, alligator-tree
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sweetgum tree was used by the
Cherokee, Choctaw, Koasati, Rappahannock and
other Native American tribes for various purposes.
The hardened gum, or rosin from the tree was used as
chewing gum. A piece of the bark was knocked from
the tree. After one week, the sap from the wound
was hardened and could be collected and used for
chewing gum. Tea was made from both the fruits
and the bark. The hardened sap was rolled up and
then placed in a dog’s nose to treat distemper. A
salve was made by mixing the plant with animal
tallow for application to wounds, cuts, sores, bruises,
and ulcers. The plant was boiled until a scum rose to
the top. This scum was then mixed with the roots of
Obolaria virginica and used as a dressing for cuts
and bruises. The roots were boiled into a strong tea
to treat skin sores that were possibly caused by small
worms under the skin. A “drawing plaster” was
made from the gum. Ten to a dozen drops of the sap
were taken before meals to reduce fevers. The sap
and inner bark were used to treat diarrhea and
dysentery. The bark was used to make an infusion
that was used as a sedative for nervous patients and
for patients who were well in the day but sick during
the night. The plant was used to treat colic, internal
diseases and to “comfort the heart.”
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Habitat: Sweetgum trees occur in moist or wet
woods, tidal swamps, along streambanks, in clearings
and old fields, and in low swampy bottomlands
where they often form pure stands.
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sweetgum is a hardy, ornamental tree that is valued
for its shade as well as its lumber. They make
attractive specimen trees all year and especially in the
fall when the leaves turn brilliant colors before
dropping in the fall. Young trees transplant best in
the spring into well-watered soils. The roots are slow
to develop. The trees may be planted in sun or part
shade in soils that are medium to well drained and of
medium to high fertility. The trees need medium to
high moisture availability and are not suitable for dry
areas. New trees volunteer readily from the seeds,
however they generally do not germinate until the
second year. The seeds are ripe when the fruit begins
to lose its green color. Spread the fruits out to dry.
When dry, they will open and release the seeds.
Germination can be considerably increased if the
seeds are prechilled for 15 to 90 days.
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The trees are relatively trouble-free and generally do
not require pruning. The fruits can look somewhat
messy in fall and winter when they drop, especially
onto a manicured lawn where they can also make
mowing difficult. Avoid planting near a patio or
sidewalk where the fruits can be painful when
stepped on with bare feet.
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Barbour, M.G., &. W.D. Billings, Editors 2000.
North American terrestrial vegetation, Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom. 708 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon. 493 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois.
1187 pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory, &. G.A. Stokes 1994.
The historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Louisiana
State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 324
pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001).
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1937. Catawba medicines and curative
practices. Publications of the Philadelphia
Anthropological Society 1: 179-197.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Page 3
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. 328 pp.
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Plant Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='list2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 04oct01 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CARDINAL FLOWER
Lobelia cardinalis L.
Plant Symbol = LOCA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='roots and flowers of cardinal flower in the
composition of a love charm.
Wildlife: Hummingbirds are attracted to the nectar.
Deer browsing often damages young plants.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae). This
herbaceous perennial is 5 to 15 cm. tall with
unbranched stems. The alternate leaves are toothed
and oblong to lance-shaped and pointed at both ends.
The irregular, two-lipped flowers are tubular with the
upper portion two-lobed and the lower spreading and
divided into three parts. The fire engine red flowers
appear in long terminal racemes and they are from
30-45 mm. The anthers are at the end of a slender
red filament tube extending out over the lower lip of
the corolla. The corolla has a slit on each side near
the base. The seeds come in a two-celled, many-
seeded capsules opening at the top. They are small,
less than 1 mm. and numerous.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found in wet soil from New Brunswick
to Minnesota, south to the Gulf of Mexico. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Cardinal flower is comparatively easy to
grow. The capsules can be collected in autumn,
usually October. The stalks are cut below the
capsules, and placed upside down in a per sack.
Once, home, the bag is opened so that the capsules
are exposed to the air for a few days. Shake the bag
to release the seeds. Crushing the capsules with a
rolling pin and picking out the seeds from the litter
can retrieve the capsules that have remaining seeds.
The seeds can then be planted right away.
Propagation by seeds: The seeds will germinate
without cold stratification, but they need light, so sow
the seeds in a flat with a damp fine grade peat light
mix. Keep the flats moist and under lights or in a
greenhouse. They should green up in a few weeks.
Transplant them in 4-6 weeks into individual pots
© William S. Justice
Smithsonian Institution,
Department of Botany
@PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeName TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeName='Indian pink
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Iroquois had many medicinal uses
for cardinal flower. The root was boiled together
with the root of Cichorium intybus and the liquid was
used to treat fever sores. The mashed roots, stems,
leaves, and blossoms were made into a decoction and
drank for cramps. The plant was also used as an
emetic for an upset stomach from eating something
bad. The plant was added to other medicines to give
them more strength. The Delaware used an infusion
of the roots to treat typhoid. The Meskwaki used this
plant as a ceremonial tobacco, throwing it to the
winds to ward off a storm. The Pawnee used the
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
such as 70 cell plug trays, use the same potting mix
and keep fertilizing. The seedlings are tiny at first, so
fertilize them every other week with a liquid
fertilizer. After another 4 weeks they can be put out
in the garden or transplanted into larger pots of 4 to 6
inch diameter. Plant the plants in an outdoor spot
that is in full sun or very light shade and never dries
completely. Space the plants 8 to 12 inches apart.
Add plenty of peat moss when planting and mulch
well to keep the soil cool and moist. Protect the
plants from deer. Cardinal flower will take two years
to bloom, forming a large rosette the first year.
Allow the plants to self-sow. They are heavy feeders,
so compost or a shot of granular fertilizer when they
begin growth is recommended.
Propagation by cuttings: Take two node stem
cuttings (4-6 inches) before the flowers open and
remove the lower leaf and half the upper leaf. Treat
the cutting with hormodin 2 or roottone and place the
cuttings in a sand and perlite medium, cover lightly,
water, and remember to keep the medium moist.
Roots will form in 2-3 weeks, but the cuttings need to
force a good new crown from the lower node to
successfully over-winter.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='When well established, clumps of this plant can be
divided in the fall or spring by separating the rosettes
or basal offshoots from the mother plant and
replanting these divisions and watering them
immediately. In the winter, keep the leafy offshoots
at the base of the drying stems of old plants free of
leaf litter to allow them full exposure to the air and
sunshine.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.” Seeds and
plants of selected Lobelia cardinalis cultivars are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of Northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972. Folk medicine of the
Delaware and related Algonkian Indians.
Pennsylvania Historical Commission
Anthropological papers, Number 3. Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
' WHERE symbol='loca2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesAuthor_amp_Coordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesAuthor_amp_Coordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae). This
annual plant is up to 1 m. high with branched, hairy
stems. The leaves are sessile or subsessile and
toothed. They are ovate-oblong to oblong-obovate.
The irregular, two-lipped flowers are blue or white,
6-8 mm. The lower lip is bearded at the base within.
The flowers appear in racemes terminating the
branches. The fruiting hypanthium is inflated.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found in open woods or sometimes in
gardens as weeds from the West Coast to Minnesota,
south to Georgia and Mississippi. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by seeds: The seeds will germinate
without cold stratification, but they need light, so sow
the seeds in a flat with a damp fine grade peat lite
mix. Keep the flats moist and under lights or in a
greenhouse. They should green up in a few weeks.
Transplant seedlings in 4-6 weeks into individual
pots such as 70 cell plug trays, use the same potting
mix and keep fertilizing. The seedlings are tiny at
first, so fertilize them every other week with a liquid
fertilizer. After another 4 weeks they can be put out
in the garden or transplanted into 4 to 6 inch diameter
pots Plant the seedlings in an outdoor spot that is in
full sun or very light shade and never allow soil to
dry out completely. Space the plants 8 to 12 inches
apart. Add plenty of peat moss when planting and
mulch well to keep the soil cool and moist. Protect
the plants from deer. Indian tobacco will usually
bloom in the first year and seeds should be allowed to
self-sow. Young seedlings are heavy feeders and will
require compost or fertilizer applications during the
growing season.
Propagation by cuttings: During early spring take
two node stem cuttings (4-6 inches) before the
flowers open and remove the lower leaf and half of
the upper leaf. Treat the cutting with a chemical,
place the cuttings in a sand and perlite medium, cover
lightly, and water. Planting trays should be watered
INDIAN TOBACCO
Lobelia inflata L.
Plant Symbol = LOIN
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Hugh Wilson
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: The root of this plant was used by the
Iroquois to treat venereal diseases, ulcers, and legs
sores. The leaves were smashed and applied as a
poultice to treat an abscess at the side of the neck.
The plant was used to counteract sickness produced
by witchcraft. The Cherokee mashed the roots of
Indian tobacco and used them as a poultice for body
aches. The leaves were rubbed on sores, aches, stiff
necks, and chapped places. The Crow used the plant
in religious ceremonies.
Wildlife: Birds are attracted to the nectar, such as
hummingbirds. Young seedlings provide browsing
for deer and other grazing animals.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
and kept moist to aid in root development. Roots will
form in 2-3 weeks, but the cuttings need to force a
good new crown from the lower node to successfully
over-winter.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Indian tobacco are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Masters Thesis, University of Tennessee.
Blankinship, J.W. 1905. Native economic plants of
Montana. Montana Agricultural College
Experimental Station, Bulletin 56, Bozeman,
Montana.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of Northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='loin';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedbyandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedbyandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
GREAT BLUE
LOBELIA
Lobelia siphilitica L.
Plant Symbol = LOSI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Hugh Wilson
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
@ Texas A &. M University
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Iroquois used the plant as a cough
medicine. The Meskwaki ground up the roots of this
plant and used it as an anti-divorce remedy. The
mashed roots were secretly put into some common
dish, which was eaten by both husband and wife.
The Cherokee used a cold infusion of the roots of
great blue lobelia and cardinal flower to treat
nosebleed. A poultice of the crushed leaves of the
plant was used for headache and a warm leaf infusion
was good for colds.
Wildlife: Hummingbirds are attracted to the nectar.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae). This
herbaceous perennial is 5 to 15 dm high with
frequently branched, erect stems. The alternate
leaves are toothed and narrowly oblong to elliptic to
lanceolate or oblanceolate. The leaves are 8-12 cm
and narrow to a sessile base. The irregular, two-
lipped flowers are blue. They appear in long terminal
racemes and are from 15-33 mm long. The corolla
has a slit on each side near the base. The seeds come
in a two-celled, many-seeded capsules opening at the
top. The capsules have an ear-lobed or auriculate
base.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found in swamps and wet ground from
Maine to Manitoba and Colorado, south to North
Carolina and Texas. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='General: Great blue lobelia is comparatively easy to
grow. The capsules can be collected in autumn,
usually October. The stalks are cut below the
capsules, and placed upside down in a per sack.
Once, home, the bag is opened so that the capsules
are exposed to the air for a few days. Shake the bag
to release the seeds. The capsules that have
remaining seeds can be retrieved and crushed with a
rolling pin and seeds picked from the litter. The
seeds can then be planted right away.
Propagation by seeds: The seeds will germinate
without cold stratification, but they need light, so sow
the seeds in a flat with a damp fine grade peat lite
mix. Keep the flats moist and under lights or in a
greenhouse. They should green up in a few weeks.
Transplant them in 4-6 weeks into individual pots
such as 70 cell plug trays, use the same potting mix
and keep fertilizing. The seedlings are tiny at first, so
fertilize them every other week with a liquid
fertilizer. After another 4 weeks they can be put out
in the garden or transplanted into larger pots of 4 to 6
inch diameter. Plant the plants in an outdoor spot
that is in full sun or very light shade and never dries
completely. Space the plants 8 to 12 inches apart.
Add plenty of peat moss when planting and mulch
well to keep the soil cool and moist. Protect the
plants from deer. Great blue lobelia will usually
bloom in the first year. Allow the plants to self-sow.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesAuthor_amp_Coordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesAuthor_amp_Coordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
They are heavy feeders, so compost or apply granular
fertilizer when they begin growth.
Propagation by cuttings: Take two node stem
cuttings (4-6 inches) before the flowers open and
remove the lower leaf and half the upper leaf. Treat
the cutting with hormodin 2 or root-tone and place
the cuttings in a sand and perlite medium, cover
lightly, water, and keeping the medium moist. Roots
will form in 2-3 weeks, but the cuttings need to force
a good new crown from the lower node to
successfully over-winter.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
When well established, clumps of this plant can be
divided in the fall or spring by separating the basal
offshoots from the mother plant and replanting these
divisions and watering them immediately.
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Lobelia siphilitica are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='losi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Masters Thesis, University of Tennessee.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of Northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NOOTKA LUPINE
Lupinus nootkatensis Donn ex
Sims
Plant Symbol = LUNO
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
white), pea-like, to two centimeters long. in dense
clusters as much as thirty centimeters long (Ibid).
They are hermaphrodite (have both female and male
organs) and are pollinated by bees.
Distribution: Known from Alaska in the U.S., but
circumboreal. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Nootka lupine is commonly found in gravel bars,
meadows, tidal marshes and open slopes. This plant
requires well-drained soil and prefers sandy, loamy
and clay soils. It grows best in a sunny position and
cannot tolerate shade.
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Nootka lupine seeds should be
pre-soaked for twenty-four hours, to break down the
tough seed coats, and then sow in the early spring in
a greenhouse. The seedlings should be thinned out as
soon as the first true leaf appears (Heuser 1997).
Division should be done in the spring, just before
new growth commences (Ibid).
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Lupines are most valuable because of the masses of
nitrogen fixing bacteria, which live in nodules on
their roots and convert the free nitrogen of the
atmosphere into compounds that are essential to plant
and animal growth (Moldenke 1949).
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Not readily available. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant’s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Huxley, A.1992. The new RHS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillian Press, New York, New York.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
© Dick Vuijk
Flora of Iceland
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Name
blue lupine
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The roots of Nootka lupine were
roasted or pit cooked by the Nuxalk and
Kwakwaka’wakw (Pojar &. Mackinnon 1994). The
seeds were used as protein rich vegetable or savory
dish in any of the ways that cooked beans are used,
they were also roasted or ground into a powder.
Wildlife: Grizzly bears relish the roots of Nootka
lupine and make large feeding excavations on north
coastal estuarine marshes where both lupines and
bears thrive (Pojar &. Mackinnon 1994).
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bean family (Fabaceae). Nootka lupine is a
native perennial that dies back annually to a thick
rhizome (Pojar &. Mackinnon 1994). The leaves are
palmately compound and up to six centimeters long.
The flowers are blue (sometimes tinged pink or
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Moldenke, H.N. 1949. American wildflowers. D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, New York.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Turner, N.J. Food plants of coastal first peoples.
UBC Press, Vancouver, Canada.
Vuijk, D. 2002. Lupinus nootkatensis. IN: Flora of
Iceland. Accessed: 10jan02.
<.http://www1.bos.nl/~dvuijk/plants/data/Lupinus-
nootkatensis/y992211.html>.
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='luno';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SUNDIAL
Lupinus perennis L.
Plant Symbol = LUPE3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Kenneth Sytsma
University of Wisconsin
@ Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
wild lupine, lupine
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Menomini fed this plant to horses
to make them spirited and full of fire. They also
rubbed the plant on their own hands or other parts of
the body in order to control horses. The Cherokee
made a cold infusion from the plant and used it as a
wash to check hemorrhage and vomiting.
Wildlife: Sundial is the only food for the larvae of the
Karner Blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis).
Both fire suppression and habitat loss have
contributed to the decline of the lupine and the
butterfly. The Karner Blue is nearly extinct over
much of its range.
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bean Family (Fabaceae). This herbaceous
perennial has erect stems that are 2-6 dm, that are
thinly pubescent. The petioles are 2-6 cm. The
leaves are palmately compound. The leaflets are 7-
11, oblanceolate, and are from 2-6 cm. The flowers
occur in terminal racemes, arising above the leaves.
They are numerous, ranging from blue to pink or
white. The fruits are pubescent pods that are oblong,
flattened, and with 2-several seeds. They are 3-5 cm.
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found in dry, open woods and
clearings from southern Maine to Florida, west to
Minnesota and Indiana. The plant grows in Pine
Barrens and sandy prairies in the east.
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by seeds: This lupine grows in areas that
have been burned. Scarify the seed coat of each seed
with sandpaper to make a gentle scratch. The seeds
can then be soaked overnight in tepid water. Treat
the seeds with a rhizobium inoculant before sowing
them. Plant the seeds into cells or flats in a
greenhouse and cover them with a quarter inch of soil
over the top. Lupines succumb to root rot very easily
in pots, so it is best to transplant them to the garden
when they have two to three leaves. Seeds can also
be cleaned and stored dry at 40° F for several months
and then planted directly in the garden in the
following spring (after scarification). Seed can be
sown with a yard roller or by walking the site. Plant
in full sun with good air circulation, in loose, well-
drained soil. The plants can tolerate poor, sandy, or
gravely soil, preferably acid. If no lupines have been
present for many years on the site, wet the seeds and
roll them in an inoculant for nitrogen-fixing bacteria
before planting. They should germinate in about one
week. The roots are strong and deep, making the
moving of older established plants difficult.
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
LUPE3 is available through native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Masters Thesis. University of Tennessee.
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers of the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, New York.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses--a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Version: 000503. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Milwaukee 4:1(8-175).
USDA, NRCS 2006. The PLANTS database.
<.plants.usda.gov>.. National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='lupe3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 17jan01 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMON MADIA
Madia elegans D.Don ex Lindl.
Plant Symbol = MAEL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
basket plaque. The sifting was done by jiggling the
plaque so that the big fragments separated from the
fine meal. The large fragments were pulverized into
meal and eaten dry. The seeds were kept in storage
in every household, and eaten all year. Common
madia roots were also eaten.
When the seeds had matured but the plants were still
green, the Hupa burned the areas where common
madia grew. Seeds gathered from the scorched plants
needed no further parching before being crushed into
flour. The Yokuts added common madia seeds to
manzanita cider for flavoring.
Wildlife: The dark seeds (achenes) of tarweeds are
used as food by many birds and small mammals,
including mourning doves, quail, blackbirds, finches,
Oregon juncos, California horned larks, western
meadowlarks, American pipits, sparrows, towhees,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, and mice. Cottontail
rabbits, ground squirrels, and chipmunks eat the
plants.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Madia
elegans is an annual herb, 1-2.5 dm tall, and strongly
scented. The stems are simple to branched, often
very leafy, softly hairy below, and with sparsely to
densely stalked glandular sticky hairs above. Leaves
are 2-10 cm long, linear, entire to serrate, soft-hairy
to bristly, sometimes with glands. The floral heads
are in open, flat-topped cymes with 5-21 yellow ray
flowers and 25-30 yellow or maroon disk flowers
with yellow or black anthers. The 2.5-5 mm fruits
are black or dark brown achenes, sometimes mottled,
and compressed or 3-angled.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Madia elegans occurs in grasslands and open
forest below 3350 m in elevation. It flowers in
summer and early autumn, and grows from northern
Oregon through the California Floristic Province and
Great Basin Province south to Baja California.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: There are several Madia species and
several subspecies of Madia elegans. They are each
called “tarweed,” because of the intense stickiness of
the plant. The tarweeds produce abundant seed, are
agreeably aromatic and oily, and form an important
part of the small seeds used in pinole. Tarweed and
other seeds in pinole formed a staple food in the diet
of the Indians of the Pacific Coast. In particular, the
seeds of gumweed (Madia elegans ssp. densifolia (E.
Greene) Keck) were among the most valued by the
Miwok people for pinole. The Hupa, Cahuilla,
Digueño, Chumash, Costanoan, Kawaiisu, and Maidu
tribes in California made pinole from Madia species.
Common madia seeds were harvested by women in
late summer during a period of a fortnight. A seed
beater and a basket were used to gather the seeds.
Then, the seeds were winnowed and ground very fine
in a bedrock mortar with a stone pestle. Both
winnowing and sifting were done in a flat circular
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Madia elegans ssp. densifolia grows on
grassy slopes and valleys at elevations below 1000 m.
This subspecies occurs in the California Floristic
Province and Great Basin Province and in Oregon.
This plant flowers in summer and early autumn.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: Madia species seeds ripen in late summer,
usually in August in California. After gathering,
seeds can be stored in a cool, dry place for at least a
year and still maintain viability. Madia species
require well-drained, fairly dry soils with full sun.
These annual species produce prolific seeds, and can
be planted directly in the soil or in seed flats. Plant
seeds at the soil surface or plant 1/8". to ¼". in a well-
drained soil. Water seedlings as the soil dry to
stimulate growth. It is best to plant seeds in the fall.
Fertilization stimulates growth and seed production.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional Resource Management: Resource
management of common madia includes the
following:
• Seeds were distributed during the process of
gathering seeds through seed beating.
• Burning occurred during September-October
after seeds ripened and were harvested.
Grassland species were burned for plant
improvement by the tribes throughout California.
• Seeds were planted from wild plants. A
Diegueño woman reported her people always
cleared a small spot near their dwelling to plant
seeds of plants with greens, seeds, and roots.
• Ownership of seed-gathering grounds promoted
long term care and sustainable harvest practices.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is available from selected native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Anderson, K. 1993. Native Californians as ancient
and contemporary cultivators. IN T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson (eds.) Before the wilderness.
Environmental management by Native Californians.
pp. 151-174. Ballena Press.
Barrett, S.A. &.E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Park, California.
388 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1977. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Morongo Indian
Reservation, Banning, California. 82 pp.
Bean, L.J. &.H.W. Lawton 1993. Some explanations
for the rise of cultural Complexity in native
California with comments on proto-agriculture and
agriculture. IN: T.C. Blackburn &.K. Anderson
(eds.) Before the wilderness. Environmental
management by Native Californians. pp. 27-54.
Ballena Press.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, &. T. Davies, Jr. 1990.
Plant propagation principles and practices. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647 pp.
Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &.A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
500 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &.W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 220 pp.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson, &.D.D. Earle 1993.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. IN: T.C.
Blackburn and K. Anderson (eds.) Before the
Wilderness. Environmental Management by Native
Californians. pp. 117-150. Ballena Press.
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page 3
Bart O’Brien
Director of Horticulture, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden, Claremont, California
' WHERE symbol='mael';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
CASSAVA
Plant Guide
Manihot esculenta Crantz
Plant Symbol = MAES
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana and Pacific Islands
West Area Office, Mongmong, Guam
Cassava is one of the leading food and feed plants of
the world. It ranks fourth among staple crops, with a
global production of about 160 million tons per year.
Most of this is grown in three regions: West Africa
and the adjoining Congo basin, tropical South
America and south and Southeast Asia. The young
tender leaves are used as a potherb, containing high
levels of protein and vitamins C and A. The leaves
are prepared in a similar manner as spinach, while
eliminating toxic compounds during the cooking
process.
It is mainly used for human consumption, less for
animal consumption and for industrial purposes,
though this may vary by country. The roots are
rarely eaten fresh but are usually cooked, steamed,
fried or roasted when fresh or after drying or
fermenting. It is advisable to peel, boil, grind or cut,
and dry the roots in order to diminish the contents of
cyanogenic glucosides. All plant parts contain
cyanogenic glucosides with the leaves having the
highest concentrations. In the roots, the peel has a
higher concentration than the interior. In the past,
cassava was categorized as either sweet or bitter,
signifying the absence or presence of toxic levels of
cyanogenic glucosides. Sweet cultivars can produce
as little as 20 mg of HCN per kg of fresh roots, while
bitter ones may produce more than 50 times as much.
The bitterness is identified through taste and smell.
This is not a totally valid system, since sweetness is
not absolutely correlated with HCN producing
ability. In cases of human malnutrition, where the
diet lacks protein and iodine, under processed roots
of high HCN cultivars may result in serious health
problems.
Cassava provides a major source of calories for poor
families, because of its high starch content. With
minimum maintenance, the farmers can dig up the
starchy root of the cassava and eat it 6 months to 3
years after planting. In Africa, people also eat the
leaves of the cassava as a green vegetable, which
provide a cheap and rich source of protein and
vitamins A and B. In Southeast Asia and Latin
America, cassava has also taken on an economic role.
Various industries use it as a binding agent, because
it is an inexpensive source of starch.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cassava flour is used to make cookies, quick breads,
loaf breads, pancakes, doughnuts, dumplings,
muffins, bagels. Cassava extracted juice is fermented
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Cassada, manioc, yuca, tapioca, mandioca, shushu,
muk shue, cassave, maniok, tapioka, imanoka,
tapioca, maniba, kasaba, katela boodin, manioc,
manihot, yucca, mandioca, sweet potato tree,
Brazilian arrowroot, and tapioca plant.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Caution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Caution=': The root of the bitter variety is very
poisonous when raw. Cooking destroys the
hydrocyanic acid. the cooking water must be
discarded.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Food products: There are hydrocyanic glucosides
(HCN) in all parts of the plant that are poisonous.
These glucosides are removed by peeling the roots
and boiling in water.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
into a strong liquor called kasiri. The peeled roots of
the sweet variety are usually eaten cooked or baked.
The juice can be concentrated and sweetened until it
becomes a dark viscous syrup called kasripo
(casareep). This syrup has antiseptic properties and
is used for flavoring.
Livestock: Cassava leaves and stem meal are used for
feeding dairy cattle. Both fresh and dried cassava
roots are consumed by ruminants in different forms
(chopped, sliced, or ground). Cassava bushes three to
four months old are harvested as forage for cattle and
other ruminants.
Ornamental: One clone with variegated leaves is
known to be planted as an ornamental.
Commercial: Cassava starch is used in the production
of paper, textiles, and as monosodium glutamate
(MSG), an important flavoring agent in Asian
cooking. In Africa, cassava is used as partial
substitution for wheat flour.
Ethnobotanic: In Samoa, cassava was used to induce
abortion. The Amerindians use the brown juice,
obtained during processing, for burns.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Milkweed Family (Euphorbiaceae). Cassava is a tall
semi-woody perennial shrub or tree, up to 7 m high,
dbh up to 20 cm, single to few stems, sparingly
branching. branchlets light green to tinged reddish,
nodes reddish. The outer bark is smooth, light brown
to yellowish grey. inner bark cream-green. exudate
thin, watery. wood soft, creamy straw. The leaves:
petiole light greenish to red. blade basally attached or
slightly (up to 2 mm) peltate, dark green above, pale
light greenish grayish underneath, sometimes
variegated. lobes narrow, 2.9-12.5 times as long as
wide. central unlobed part usually short, lobes 15-21
times as long. Inflorescences lax, with 3-5 together
in fascicles. pedicels light green to red. Staminate
flowers: calyx divided to halfway or more, green to
white to lobes white to reddish with white median
band inside to red purple, glabrous except for apex of
calyx tube and inner side of segments finely hairy.
filaments white, anthers yellow. disc yellow to light
orange. Pistillate flowers: calyx green with red
margin and midrib, hairy along the margin and on the
midrib inside. disc pink. ovary with 6 longitudinal
ridges, green (with pinkish stripes) to orange. pistil
and stigmas white. Fruit subglobose, green (to light
yellow, white, dark brown), rather smooth, with 6
longitudinal wings. Seeds up to 12 mm long.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='The tuberous edible root, grows in clusters of 4-8 at
the stem base. Roots are from 1-4 inches in diameter
and 8-15 inches long, although roots up to 3 feet long
have been found. The pure white interior is firmer
than potatoes and contains high starch content. The
roots are covered with a thin reddish brown fibrous
bark that is removed by scraping and peeling. The
bark is reported to contain toxic hydrocyanic
(prussic) acid, which must be removed by washing,
scraping and heating
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='In general, the crop requires a warm humid climate.
Temperature is important, as all growth stops at about
10ºC. Typically, the crop is grown in areas that are
frost free the year round. The highest root production
can be expected in the tropical lowlands, below 150
m altitude, where temperatures average 25-27°C, but
some varieties grow at altitudes of up to 1 500 m.
The plant produces best when rainfall is fairly
abundant, but it can be grown where annual rainfall is
as low as 500 mm or where it is as high as 5,000 mm.
The plant can stand prolonged periods of drought in
which most other food crops would perish. This
makes it valuable in regions where annual rainfall is
low or where seasonal distribution is irregular. In
tropical climates the dry season has about the same
effect on Cassava as low temperature has on
deciduous perennials in other parts of the world. The
period of dormancy lasts two to three months and
growth resumes when the rains begin again.
Cassava is drought resistant and grows well in poor
soil. It is one of the most efficient producers of
carbohydrates and energy among all the food crops.
Distribution: Cassava can be found from the United
States to Africa, Asia, Europe, and the South Pacific.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Cassava is a tropical root crop, requiring at least 8
months of warm weather to produce a crop.
However, under adverse conditions such as cool or
dry weather it can take 18 or more months to produce
a crop. Cassava is traditionally grown in a savanna
climate, but can be grown in extremes of rainfall.
however, it does not tolerate flooding. In droughty
areas it looses its leaves to conserve moisture,
Page 3
producing new leaves when rains resume. Cassava
does not tolerate freezing conditions, but does
tolerate a wide range of soil pH 4.0 to 8.0 and is most
productive in full sun.
Propagation by seed: For agricultural purposes,
cassava is propagated exclusively from cuttings
because seed germination is usually less than 50
percent. Seedlings are raised from seed only for the
purpose of selecting seedlings with fewer and smaller
roots than those of the parents. Botanically seeds are
used only for breeding purposes.
Propagation by cuttings: Propagate cassava by
planting segments of the stem. Cut stems into 9-30
cm lengths. be sure to include at least one node.
Segments can be buried vertically with 8-15 cm in
the ground. The selection of healthy, pest-free
cuttings is essential. Stem cuttings are sometimes
referred to as stakes . In areas where freezing
temperatures are possible, plant cuttings as soon as
the danger of frost has past. Cuttings can be planted
by hand or by planting machines. Hand planting is
done in one of three ways: vertical, flat below the soil
surface or tilted. Under low rainfall conditions,
vertical planting may result in the desiccation of the
cuttings, while in areas of higher rainfall. flat-planted
cuttings may rot. In general, flat planting 5-10 cm
below the soil surface is recommended in dry
climates and when mechanical planting is used.
Germination seems to be higher. tubers tend to
originate from a great number of points and grow
closer to the surface of the soil, making better use of
fertilizers applied on the surface and also making
harvesting easier.
Vertical planting is used in rainy areas and tilted
planting in semi-rainy areas. Observing the polarity
of the cutting is essential in successful establishment
of the planting. The top of the cutting must be placed
upright. Typical plant spacing is 1m by 1m.
Cuttings produce roots within a few days and new
shoots soon appear at old leaf petiole axes on the
stem. Early growth is relatively slow, thus weeds
must be controlled during the first few months.
Although cassava can produce a crop with minimal
inputs, optimal yields are recorded from fields with
average soil fertility levels for food crop production
and regular moisture availability.
Responses to macro-nutrients vary, with cassava
responding most to P and K fertilization. Vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhizae benefit cassava by
scavenging for phosphorus and supplying it to the
roots. High N fertilization, more than 100 kg of
actual N/ha, may result in excessive foliage
production at the expense of storage root
development. Fertilizer should only be applied
during the first few months of growth.
In moist soil, sprouting takes place within the first
week after planting. Within a month of the beginning
of planting, the substitution of new cuttings to replace
those that did not sprout is still possible. Cassava is
grown mainly as a cash crop and farmers may for ten
years or more grow cassava on the same land.
However, if the price of cassava roots drops, the
farmers may shift to another crop (e.g., sugarcane,
maize or sorghum) until cassava again becomes the
more profitable crop.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
General: Cassava is either planted as a single crop or
intercropped with maize, legumes, vegetables,
rubber, oil palm or other economic important plants.
Mixed planting reduces the danger of loss caused by
unfavorable weather and pests by spreading the risk
over plants with different susceptibilities.
Cassava grows best on light sandy loams or on loamy
sands which are moist, fertile and deep. It grows
well on soils ranging in texture from the sands to the
clays and on soils of relatively low fertility. Cassava
can produce an economic crop on soils so depleted by
repeated cultivation that they have become unsuitable
for other crops. On very rich soils the plant may
produce stems and leaves at the expense of roots.
Cassava will grow on a wide range of soils, provided
the soil texture is friable enough to allow the
development of the tubers.
When cassava is grown as the first crop in forest land
no further preparation is required than the clearing of
the forest growth. When cassava is grown after other
crops it often can be planted without further
preparation of the soil, once the preceding crop has
been harvested or the soil has been plowed two or
three times until free from grass and other plants.
No fertilization is required when the land is freshly
cleared or when there is enough land to enable
growers to substitute new land for old when yields
fall. Like all rapidly growing plants yielding
carbohydrates, cassava has high nutrient
requirements and exhausts the soil very rapidly.
When cassava is grown on the land for a number of
years in succession or in rotation the soil nutrients are
reduced and must therefore be returned to the soil by
fertilization. Large commercial farmers replace the
nutrients lost by applying artificial fertilizers that are
usually too costly for the small farmer. Small
farmers replace the nutrient loss by using different
Page 4
kinds of organic manures, such as cattle or duck
manure or garbage to replace the nutrients taken from
the soil.
Cassava is frequently cultivated as a temporary shade
plant in young plantations of cocoa, coffee, rubber or
oil palm. When cultivated as a temporary shade
plant, no special attention is given to the cassava
plant. When grown alone, the plants require little
maintenance after planting. Irrigation may be
required if there is no rain, and hoeing of the earth
helps preserve the subsoil humidity, especially in dry
sandy soils. The chief problem is weed control
which may be desirable to weed the crop two or three
times until the plants are well developed and their
shade prevents the growth of weeds.
Maturity differs from one variety to another, but for
food the tubers can be harvested at almost any age
below 12 months. From the standpoint of maximum
starch production, the optimum age for harvest is 18-
20 months. During this growth period both root and
starch production increase rapidly to their maximum
value, after which root production decreases slowly
and starch production much more rapidly on account
of the declining starch content of the tubers.
If the roots are left in the ground, starch content
increases with age until, at a certain point.
lignifications takes place, causing the roots to
become tough and woody, so that they are harder to
prepare for consumption and other uses.
Harvesting of cassava can be done throughout the
year when the roots reach maturity. In regions with
seasonal rains, harvesting is usually done in the dry
season, during the dormant period of the plant. where
rain prevails all year round, cassava is harvested
throughout the year.
There is no mature stage for cassava. because plants
are ready for harvest as soon as there are storage
roots large enough to meet the requirements of the
consumer. Under the most favorable conditions,
yields of fresh roots can reach 90 t/ha while average
world yields from mostly subsistence agricultural
systems average 10 t/ha. Typically harvesting can
begin as soon as eight months after planting. In the
tropics, plants can remain un-harvested for more than
one growing season, allowing the storage roots to
enlarge further. However, as the roots age and
enlarge, the central portion becomes woody and
inedible.
Harvesting is still generally a manual operation,
although equipment to facilitate this operation is
being considered. The day before harvest, the plants
are ".topped". the stalks are cut off 40-60 cm above
ground by hand, machete or machine and piled at the
side of the field. This length of stalk is left as a
handle for pulling. Material required for the next
planting is selected and the rest is burned. In light
soils the roots are slowly drawn from the soil simply
by pulling the stems or with the help of a kind of
crowbar and the tubers are cut off the stock. In
heavier soils a hoe may be required to dig up the
roots before the plant is pulled out. It must be noted
that once the plants have been topped, lifting of the
roots must not be delayed, as sprouting and a drastic
fall in the starch content of the tubers will result.
Once the roots are harvested, they begin to
deteriorate within about 48 hours, initially owing to
enzymatic changes in the roots and then to rot and
decay. The roots may be kept refrigerated for up to a
week or stored in the ground for longer periods if
they are not detached from the plant.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Mechanization TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Mechanization='In most of the tropical world cassava is grown on
small plots. however, in some countries (e.g.,
Mexico, Brazil, and Nigeria) large plantations have
been established. The degree of mechanization
depends on the amount of land, available labor in the
area and general policy regarding the use of manual
labor.
The use of machinery for land preparation is
preferable to manual labor to ensure the best possible
seed bed for tuber development. Subsequent
operations of planting, weeding, topping and
harvesting can be done by hand as well as by
machinery.
The following is an outline of the present use of
machinery in cassava cultivation:
- The hoe remains the principal implement for
-
cultivating, weeding and harvesting.
Plowing and harrowing, are usually done by
tractor.
- A mechanical two row planter using a tractor
driver and two men on the machine to feed
cuttings from the reserve bins into the rotating
planting turntable. In operation, the cuttings fall
in succession through a hole into a furrow
opened by a simple furrower. A pair of disks
throws dirt into the furrow and floats pulled by
chains pack the soil over the cuttings. The
planter is able to cover about 5 hectares per day.
- A gasoline-powered table saw is used to prepare
the cuttings for planting. The machine has the
Page 5
advantage of speed and regularity of produced
cuttings.
- A topping machine consisting of a heavy screen
mounted on the front of a tractor has been
developed to push down the tops: then a rotary
mower on the back of the same tractor can cut
the downed top to make harvesting by hand
possible. The height at which the tops are cut
back can be easily regulated with any rotary
mower.
- Cassava is not a crop that lends itself readily to
mechanical harvesting because of the way the
tubers grow. They may spread over 1 m and
penetrate 50 60 cm. Careless use of machinery
for harvesting can damage tubers, resulting in a
darkening due to oxidation that will lower the
value of the flour. The mould-board plow has
been used to make hand harvesting less tedious.
Stalks can be cut successfully by a mid-mounted
mower or a topping machine, and the roots are
lifted mechanically with a mid-mounted disk
terrace.
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Insects, diseases and other pest: In many regions, the
cassava plant is not normally affected by diseases or
pests. However, in others it may be attacked by the
following:
- Virus diseases. Mosaic, the brown streak and leaf
curl of tobacco may attack leaves, stems and
branches. Many parts of Africa harbor these
diseases and attempts are being made to select
resistant varieties.
- Bacterial disease. Bacteria such as Phytomonas
manihotis (in Brazil), Bacterium cassava (in
Africa) and Bacterium solanacearum (in
Indonesia) may attack roots, stems or leaves of
cassava plants.
- Mycoses. There are kinds which attack roots,
-
stems, or leaves of cassava plants and cause
various diseases.
Insects. Some insects affect the plant directly
(locusts, beetles and ants). others affect the plant
indirectly by the transfer of virus (aphids).
- Animals. Rats, goats and wild pigs are probably
the most troublesome. they feed on the roots,
especially in areas adjacent to forests
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Affran, D.K. 1968. Cassava and its economic
importance. Ghana Farmer, 12 (4): 172-178.
Bellotti, A.C., L. Smith, and S.L. Lapointe. 1999.
Recent advances in cassava pest management. Ann.
Review v. 44. p343-370.
Cock, J.H. 1985. Cassava: new potential for a
neglected crop. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
Kay, D.E. 1973. TPI Crop and Product Digest, 2.
Root Crops. Trop. Prod. Inst., London.
Ngo Tien Dung, L. Inger and Nguyen Thi Mui 2005.' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Intercropping cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)
with Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla). effect on
biomass yield and soil fertility. Livestock Research
for Rural Development. Vol. 17, Art. #6. Accessed:
January 25, 2005, from
http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd17/1/dzun17006.htm
Onwueme, I.C. 1978. The tropical tuber crops:
yams, cassava, sweet potato, and coco yams. Wiley,
New York.
Soerianegaras, I. and R. H. M. J. Lemmens, 1993.
Plant resources of Southeast Asia. Timber trees:
major commercial timbers. Pudoc Scientific
Publishers, Wageningen. Proesea, 5 (1).
University of Florida. (May) 1994. Fact Sheet HS-
575. Horticultural Sciences Department, Florida
Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, Florida.
Welzen, P.C. van, Q.D. Nguyen &. R.C.K. Chung.
1997. A revision of the introduced species of
Manihot (Euphorbiaceae) in Malesia. Rheedea 7: 77-
-85
Zarate, J.J. 1956. The digestibility by swine of sweet
potato vines and tubers. cassava roots and green
papaya fruit. Philippine Agriculturist, 40(2): 78
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore, Formerly USDA, NRCS, National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
And
John H. Lawrence, Pacific Islands West Area Office,
Pacific Islands Area, Mongmong, Guam
' WHERE symbol='maes';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='John H. Lawrence, Pacific Islands West Area Office,
Pacific Islands Area, Mongmong, Guam
Page 6
Edited: 09sept03 lmm. 070213jsp. 070322 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
Plant Guide
MANGO
Mangifera indica L.
Plant Symbol = MAIN3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Forest &. Kim Starr (USGS)
@ www.hear.org
the most important and widest use of the fruit. The
fruit is a good source of vitamins A and C.
Green mangoes are often cooked and eaten like
vegetables or made into a delicious chutney or dried
and ground into a powder called ".amchoor". and used
to impart a sour flavor to food.
The kernels can be boiled and eaten with greens or
ground and eaten roasted, dried, or pickled. but are
generally eaten in times of famine or by the poorest.
Livestock Food: Mango leaves are occasionally fed to
cattle, but large quantities can cause death.
The fruits are relished by both cattle and pigs.
however, the kernels are fairly rich in tannins, which
progressively lead to reduced growth rates and less
efficient feed utilization when included as a major
component in diets for pigs and poultry.
Mangoes that are not fully mature are sliced and
ensiled in pits 1.5 m3 dug in the ground and lined
with large leaves. One percent salt should be added.
The pits are tightly covered with leaves and soil.
This silage can be used for off-season pig feeding.
Ethnobotanic: Dried mango flowers, containing 15%
tannin, serve as astringents in cases of diarrhea,
chronic dysentery, catarrh of the bladder and chronic
urethritis. The bark was used against rheumatism and
diphtheria. The resinous gum from the trunk was
applied to cracks in the skin of the feet and on
scabies. Mango kernel decoction and powder were
used as vermifuges and as astringents in treatment for
diarrhea, hemorrhages and bleeding hemorrhoids.
Leaf decoction was taken as a remedy for fever, chest
pains, diarrhea, diabetes, and hypertension. Extracts
of bark, leaves, stems, and unripe fruits were used as
antibiotics for many ills.
When mango trees are in bloom, it is not uncommon
for people to suffer itching around the eyes, facial
swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there
is no airborne pollen. The few pollen grains are large
and they tend to adhere to each other even in dry
weather. The stigma is small and not designed to
catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the
vaporized essential oil of the flowers which contains
the sesquiterpene alcohol, mangiferol, and the ketone,
mangiferone.
The twigs and leaves, used to clean the teeth, are said
to be beneficial to the gums, while the bark is said to
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Kangit, idele, mago, mangot, manako, mango,
manggah saipan, manko, meneke, mangko, mangou,
manga, mangga, manja, mangoro, manguier, mangue,
manguiera, paho, mempelam, te mangko, asai,
damangko, mago, edel, kanit, kehngid, tumi vi.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Caution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Caution=': The mango skin and sap can be allergic to
some people and should be eaten with caution as they
can produce the same type of allergic reactions as
poison ivy/oak/sumac, including skin lesions or the
more serious swollen lips and tongue.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Human Food: The fruit is used in jams, preserves,
pies, chutney, ice cream, jellies, canned fruits, and in
frozen or dried fruits. However, fresh consumption is
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
be useful for toothaches. The astringent stomachic
bark is also used for internal hemorrhages, bronchitis,
and catarrh. The resin is used for cracked feet,
ringworm, and other fungi, syphilis, and to induce
sweating. Smoke from the burning leaves is believed
to cure various throat disorders, from asthma to
hiccups. Dried mango flowers, containing 15%
tannin, serve as astringents in cases of diarrhea,
chronic dysentery, catarrh of the bladder and chronic
urethritis resulting from gonorrhea.
Green fruits are considered anticholeric (baked and
mixed with sugar and taken internally and also
rubbed over the body), antidysmenorrheic,
antiscorbutic, astringent, and diaphoretic. Roasted
green fruits are dissolved in sugar water and taken
internally to prevent sunstroke. Ripe fruits are
considered diuretic, laxative, and unguent. A gruel
made of the seeds is taken internally for bleeding
piles. The wood is favored for making shovels.
The bark contains mangiferine and is astringent and
employed against rheumatism and diphtheria in India.
The resinous gum from the trunk is applied on cracks
in the skin of the feet and on scabies, and is believed
helpful in cases of syphilis.
Mango kernel decoction and powder (not tannin-free)
are used as vermifuges and as astringents in diarrhea,
hemorrhages and bleeding hemorrhoids. The fat is
administered in cases of stomatitis. Extracts of
unripe fruits and of bark, stems and leaves have
shown antibiotic activity. In some of the islands of
the Caribbean, the leaf decoction is taken as a remedy
for diarrhea, fever, chest complaints, diabetes,
hypertension and other ills. A combined decoction of
mango and other leaves is taken after childbirth.
Seed fat: Having high stearic acid content, the fat is
desirable for soap-making. The seed residue after fat
extraction is usable for cattle feed and soil
enrichment.
Bark: The bark possesses 16% to 20% tannin and has
been employed for tanning hides. It yields a yellow
dye, or, with turmeric and lime, a bright rose-pink.
Wood: Kiln-dried and preservative treatment wood is
used to make window frames, rafters, joists,
plywood, shoe heels, boxes, boats, and canoes.
Wildlife: Mango fruit and leaves are eaten by deer.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: The cashew family (Anacardiaceae), of
which mango is a member, includes a number of
species which can cause severe skin irritation in
humans. Poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron), found in
North America, is one particularly notable example.
For most people, mango has no such effect, but in
sensitive individuals ingestion of the fruit, or skin
contact with its juice, may cause a poison ivy-like
rash.
Mango is a large evergreen tree that can reach 15 to
30 m tall. They are fast growing erect trees with
slender to broad and rounded upright canopy that can
be used for landscape and shade. The trees are long -
lived with some still producing fruit at 300 years old.
The tree is anchored by a long unbranched taproot
can descend to a depth of 6-8 m plus a mass of feeder
roots. The feeder roots send down anchor roots
which penetrate the soil to a depth of 1.2 m and
spread lateral as far as 7.5 m.
The leaves are alternate, simple, leathery, oblong-
lanceolate, 29-30 cm long X 3-5 cm wide on
flowering branches, up to 50 cm on sterile branches.
The young leaves are red, aging to shiny dark green
above, lighter below, with yellow or white venation.
The inflorescence is a much-branched panicle
bearing many very small (4 mm) greenish white or
pinkish flowers. Both male and bisexual flowers are
borne on the same tree. The flowers are radially
symmetrical, and usually have 5 petals, streaked with
red. There is usually only 1 fertile stamen per flower.
the 4 other stamens are sterile. The flower has a
conspicuous 5-lobed disk between the petals and
stamens.
The fruit is an irregularly egg-shaped and slightly
compressed fleshy drupe, 8-12 (-30) cm long,
attached at the broadest end on a pendulous stalk.
The skin is smooth greenish-yellow, sometimes
tinged with red. The underlying yellow-orange flesh
varies in quality from soft, sweet, juicy and fiber-free
in high-quality selected (clonal) varieties to
turpentine-flavored and fibrous in unselected (wild)
seedlings. The single, compressed-ovoid seed is
encased in the white fibrous inner layer of the fruit.
Mangoes can be round, oval, heart-shaped, or kidney-
shaped. and can weigh as little as a few ounces or as
much as five pounds. Their highly aromatic flesh
surrounds a very large inedible flat seed. At its best,
Page 3
it has a pleasant resinous quality, but at its worst can
smell like kerosene. The soft pulp is juicy and sweet,
although it can sometimes has an acid overtone.
Some mangoes have fibrous flesh, while others are
buttery all the way through.
The round or oval fruit is somewhat flattened and can
weigh up to 0.5 kg. The flesh of good fruit has a
pleasant aromatic flavor, but inferior varieties have a
turpentine flavor and can be rather fibrous. In the
centre is the large fibrous flat seed containing a
kernel.
Distribution and Habitat: The mango is native to
southern Asia, especially Burma and eastern India. It
spread early on to Malaya, eastern Asia and eastern
Africa.
Mangoes are grown throughout the tropics, from the
Caribbean to Africa, South-East Asia, Australia, as
well as India, where the history of the fruit goes back
over 6,000 years and closely connected to the Hindu
religion. As long ago as the 16th century, mangoes
had been distributed via cultivation throughout the
Indian subcontinent, and eventually to all tropical
regions of the world.
It performs best at elevations from 0-1200 m. with a
pronounced rainy season for vegetative growth, a dry
season for flowering and fruiting, and on well-
drained soils ranging in pH between 5.5 to 7.5. It
was not until the 19th century that traders introduced
the fruit to the West Indies, Africa, South America,
Mexico, Florida, and Hawaii. Mangoes were
introduced to California (Santa Barbara) in 1880.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Extensive information on propagation and
establishment, particularly through grafting for the
Pacific Basin Islands can be found in Bally (2006).
This document is available on the Web at
<.www.traditionaltree.org>..
In deep sandy type soil the tap root will decend to 20
feet with the feeder roots growing in descending
order. The mango requires full sun and perfect air
drainage in winter.
Mangos will grow in almost any well-drained sandy,
loam or clay soil but does not grow well in heavy wet
soils. Soil ph must be between 5.5 and 7.5. They are
somewhat tolerant of alkalinity. Plantings
established during the dry season will require rainfall
or irrigation everyday. The amount of irrigation
required will depend on soil type, amount of rainfall,
and temperature. Light sandy soils will require
almost continues watering until the fruit is harvested.
Irrigation should be discontinued when rainfall is
sufficient enough to keep the soil moist. Young
seedlings require applications of nitrogen fertilizer to
promote healthy growth and flower production.
However, care must be taken not to create fertilizer
burn.
Propagation by seed: Remove the husk and plant the
seed with the hump at soil level. Seed will normally
germinate in two to four weeks. Seedlings developed
from seed will bloom and bear in three to six years.
Propagation by grafting: Small plants with a
diameter about the size of a pencil graft well with the
common whip graft. Crown groove graft allows
several scions to be put on at once. Fully grown trees
may be top-worked by crown groove bark graft or
prune hard and whip graft sprouts later. Plastic
bagging with a few drops of moisture will improve
the graft’s chances of being successful. Grafts are
most successful if the leaves are allowed to remain
below the graft, but removed suckers. When top
working, do not dehorn the entire tree, leave several
braches fully leafed.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Extensive information on the management of mango
in Hawaii and the Pacific Basin Islands can be found
in Bally (2006). This document is available on the
Web at <.www.traditionaltree.org>..
Mango trees managed for commercial fruit
production should be irrigated once weekly in coastal
areas and almost continuously in dry areas until the
fruit is harvested. After harvest, irrigation should be
reduced to a level that prevents wilt. This process
should continue for about two months before
increasing irrigation to initiate new bloom and
growth cycle. While irrigation is important for tree
establishment and survival, it must be part of an
overall management plan that includes fertilization.
These trees require a feeding program similar to the
one used for citrus. This feeding program must
include nitrogen and the micronutrient especially
iron.
Once plantings are established pruning can be used to
stimulate new growth, provide for uniform annual
fruit bearing, and control size. Pruning should be
preformed in late winter and early spring to avoid
loss of fruit. When pruning or removing litter avoid
Page 4
getting the sap on unprotected skin, because the sap
can cause severe dermatitis. Pruned material and
other mango litter should not be burned to avoid
breathing affected air.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='In the Pacific Basin, the mango fly (Bactrocera
frauenfeldi Schiner) is quite widespread (Pest
Management in the Pacific Project 2007). Also, the
mango shoot caterpillar (Penicillaria jocosatrix
Guenee) affects mango throughout the area (Nafus
2005).
Major insect pests are: mites [avocado red mite
(Oligonychus yothersii McG.), tumid mite
(Tetranychus tumidus Banks), and broad mite
(Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks)]. scales [lesser
snow scale (Pinnaspis strachani Cooley). soft scales:
pyriform scale (Protopulvinaria)p pyriformis Ckll.),
mango shield scale (P. mangiferae Green), acuminate
scale (Kilifia acuminata Sign.), Florida wax scale
(Ceroplastes floridensis Comst.). armored scales:
Florida red scale (Chrysomphalus ficus L.), and
dictyospermum scale (C. dictyospermi Morg.)]. and
thrips [red-banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus
Giard.), and Florida flower thrips (Frankliniella
cephalica D.L. Crawford)]. Mango trees are also
affected by mango decline, a problem associated with
micronutrient deficiency. Diseases include:
anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.),
which affects fruits, inflorescences and foliage.
powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) on inflorescences. and
mango scab (Elsinoe, mangiferae, Bitanc &. Jenk.).
Internal breakdown of the fruit is an important
problem, the cause of which has not yet been
determined. Alga spot (Cephaleuros sp) attacks
flowers, young fruit, twigs and leaves.
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Popular varieties in Hawai‘i include ‘Haden’, ‘Ah
Ping’, ‘Gouviea’, ‘Momi K’, ‘Fairchild’, ‘Pope’,
‘Rapoza’, and ‘Harders’. In the Solomon Islands and
Fiji, the Australian variety ‘Kensington Pride’ has
been introduced and grown successfully. In Samoa,
the mango varieties ‘Momi K’, ‘Fiji’, ‘Mapulehu’,
‘White Pirie’, ‘Rapoza’, ‘Jara’, and ‘Kensington
Pride’ are common. In Tahiti, ‘Kopu Reva’ is a
popular variety (Bally 2006). Bally provides an
extensive discussion of recommended varieties for
Hawaii and the Pacific Basin Islands on the Web at
<.www.traditionaltree.org>..
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bally, I.S.E. 2006. Mangifera indica (mango). In:
Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific
Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture
Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i.
<.http://www.traditionaltree.org>.
Bompard, J.M. 1993. The Genus Mangifera
rediscovered: the potential contribution of wild
species to mango cultivation. Acta Horticulturae
341, 69-77.
Campbell, R.J., C.W. Campbell, and N. Ledesma.
2002. Tropical mangos: Growing the world’s most
delicious fruit. Fairchild Tropical Garden, Coral
Gables, Florida.
Clarke, W.C. &. R.R. Thaman. 1993. Chapter 6:
Agroforestry in Micronesia. In: Agroforestry in the
Pacific Islands: Systems for Sustainability. Accessed:
070213. United Nations University Press, Tokyo.
<.http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80824e/80
824E0f.htm>..
Collins. 1903. The mango in Puerto Rico. USDA BPI
Bulletin 28.
Crane, J.H. and C.W. Campbell. 1994. The mango.
Fact Sheet HS-2. Horticultural Sciences Dept. Florida
Cooperative Extension Serv., Inst. of Food and Agri
Science. University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
Gangolly, S.R. et al. 1957. The mang. Indian Council
of Agriculture Research, New Dehli.
Higgins. 1906. The mango in Hawaii. AES Bulletin
No.12., Honolulu, Hawaii.
Knight, R.J., Jr. and R.J. Schnell. 1993. Mango
(Mangifera indica L.) introduction and evaluation in
Florida and its impact on the world industry. Acta
Horticulturae 341, 125- 135.
Kostermans, A.J.G.H. 1997. The mango: Botany,
production and uses. University Press, Cambridge.
Litz, R.E. (ed.). 1997. The mango: Botany,
production and uses. 1st Edition. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK.
Morton, J.F. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Creative
Resources Systems, Inc. pp. 221-237.
Page 5
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service.
Nafus, D. 2005. Tree pests of the Marianas series.
University of Guam, Cooperative Extension Service.
http://www.crees.org/plantprotection/AubWeb/bugw
eb/i248.htm
Naik, K.C. and S.R. Gangolly 1950..Monograph on
classification and nomenclature of South Indian
mangos. Supt. of Government Press, Madras.
Pest Management in the Pacific Project. 2007. Pacific
fruit fly web. Accessed: 070213.
http://www.spc.int/pacifly/
Popenoe, W.1917. Pollination of the mango. USDA
Bulletin No. 542, Washington, DC.
Ruehle, G.D and R.B. Ledlin. 1955. Mango growing
in Florida. Univ. of Florida AES Bulletin No. 542,
Gainesville.
Samson, J. A.1986. Tropical fruits. 2nd ed.
Longman Scientific and Technical. pp. 216-234.
USDA Forest Service. 2006. Mangifera indica L.,
Anacardiaceae. Pacific Island Ecosystems At Risk.
Accessed: 070213.
http://www.hear.org/pier/species/mangifera_indica.ht
m
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore, Formerly USDA, NRCS, National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='main3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='Lincoln M. Moore, Formerly USDA, NRCS, National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 12aug20004 lmm . 070212 jsp. 070213 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
COAST TARWEED
Madia sativa Molina
Plant Symbol = MASA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden
eaten dry. The seeds were kept in storage in every
household, and eaten all year. Coast tarweed roots
were also eaten.
When the seeds had matured but the plants were still
green, the Hupa burned the areas where Madia grew.
Seeds gathered from the scorched plants needed no
further parching before being crushed into flour. The
Yokuts added Madia sativa seeds to manzanita cider
for flavoring.
Wildlife: The dark seeds (achenes) of tarweeds are
used as food by many birds and small mammals,
including mourning doves, quail, blackbirds, finches,
Oregon juncos, California horned larks, western
meadowlarks, American pipits, sparrows, towhees,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, and mice. Cottontail
rabbits, ground squirrels, and chipmunks eat the
plants.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Madia
sativa is an annual herb, 2-24 dm tall, and strongly
scented. The stems are stiff and very leafy, with
glandular hairs throughout the plant producing a very
sticky substance that covers the stems and leaves.
The small (7-15 mm involucre), greenish-yellow,
sunflower-like heads are sessile in dense cymes or
panicle-like clusters. The fruits are small (2.5-5 mm)
black or dark brown achenes.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Madia sativa grows in coastal grasslands at
elevations below 950 m. The distribution is quite
widespread along the pacific coast, from Alaska to
northern Baja California and southwestern South
America.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Madia sativa seeds ripen in late summer, usually in
August in California. After gathering, seeds can be
stored in a cool, dry place for at least a year and still
maintain viability. Coast tarweed requires well-
drained, fairly dry soils with full sun. These annual
Jeanne Russell Janish
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Coast tarweed seeds were one
component in pinole, which was a staple food of the
Indians of the Pacific coast. There are several Madia
species, called “tarweed” because of the intense
stickiness of the plant. The tarweeds produce
abundant seed and are agreeably aromatic and oily.
The Miwok, Hupa, Cahuilla, Digueño, Chumash,
Costanoan, Kawaiisu, and Maidu tribes in California
made pinole from Madia species.
Women harvested coast tarweed seeds in late summer
during a period of a fortnight. A seed beater and a
basket were used to gather the seeds. Then, the seeds
were winnowed and ground very fine in a bedrock
mortar with a stone pestle. Both winnowing and
sifting were done in a flat circular basket plaque. The
sifting was done by jiggling the plaque so that large
fragments separated from the fine meal. The large
fragments were pulverized into meal, which was
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
• Burning occurred during September-October
after seeds were harvested. Grassland species
were burned for plant improvement by the tribes
throughout California.
• Seeds were planted from wild plants. A
Diegueño woman reported her people always
cleared a small spot near their dwelling to plant
seeds of plants with greens, seeds, and roots.
species produce prolific seeds, and can be planted
directly in the soil or in seed flats. Plant seeds at the
soil surface or plant 1/8". to ¼". in a well-drained soil.
As the soil dries, water seedlings stimulate growth. It
is best to plant seeds in the fall. Fertilization
stimulates growth and seed production. Seeds
germinate rapidly. Plant the seedlings into 2” or 4”
pots after they grow 2-4 leaves beyond thee
cotyledons. Water as needed, but do not overwater.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional Resource Management: Resource
management of coast tarweed includes the following:
• Seeds were distributed during the process of
gathering seeds through seed beating.
• Ownership of seed-gathering grounds promoted
long term care and sustainable harvest practices.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is somewhat available from native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Anderson, K. 1993. Native Californians as ancient
and contemporary cultivators. IN: T.C. Blackburn
and K. Anderson (eds.) Before the wilderness.
Environmental management by native Californians.
151-174 pp. Ballena Press.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture Indian Life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Park, California.
388 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1977. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Morongo Indian
Reservation, Banning, California. 82 pp.
Bean, L.J. &. H.W. Lawton 1993. Some explanations
for the rise of cultural complexity in native California
with comments on proto-agriculture and agriculture.
IN: T.C. Blackburn and K. Anderson (eds.) Before
the wilderness. Environmental management by native
Californians. 27-54 pp. Ballena Press.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and Practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
500 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 220 pp.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson, &. D.D. Earle 1993.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. IN: T.C.
Blackburn and K. Anderson (eds.) Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by native
Californians. 117-150 pp. Ballena Press.
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Bart O’Brien
Director of Horticulture, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden, Claremont, California
' WHERE symbol='masa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
NEVADA STICKLEAF
Mentzelia dispersa S. Wats.
Plant Symbol = MEDI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
rolled into balls and eaten. Among the Washoe, the
flour is mixed with a little wheat flour and water is
added, then the mixture is cooked and made into a
rich soup similar in consistency to gravy. It is then
eaten with cooked meat. In former times, dahal soup
was often shared among the Washoe during
storytelling events. The seed of some Mentzelia
species are eaten by the Gambel quail (Lophortyx
gambelii) in the Southwest U.S.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Loasa Family (Loasaceae). This annual
plant reaches 4 dm. in height and it grows up to
2,500-m. elevation. The small yellow flowers have a
basal orange spot and the petals are 2-4 mm. long.
The capsules produce grain-like, greyish-black seeds.
The leaves are sticky and vary from having entire
edges to small teeth. When looking across a
landscape, the white stems are easy to spot in the
sunlight.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It ranges from California, north to Washington,
and east to the Rocky Mountains and south into New
Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Acre upon acre of this plant germinates
in sagebrush scrub after fire. It is an early
successional species, one of the first to colonize burn
sites, and then it disappears after several years. The
plant grows in many plant community types.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: Nevada stickleaf may be grown from seed
planted into an area with full sunlight in November,
in a well-drained gravely to sandy soil and prior to
the rainy season. A screen should be placed over the
planted area, to keep the birds out. If the
precipitation is late, water the area. In between rains,
keep the area watered during the growing period.
Management
With urban development the plant disappears.
Prescribed burns could be conducted on various open
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Nevada sandseed, Nevada blazingstar
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The seeds of Nevada stickleaf are
relished by the Washoe, Utah Southern Paiute,
Western Shoshone, and the Kawaiisu--tribes of
California and the Great Basin. Its rich flavor is
reputed to taste like peanut butter. It is gathered
when the seed is ripe and the plants have begun to die
back in June, July, or early August depending upon
elevation. If the plants are still green, it is too early
to harvest. Traditionally, the plant was beaten with a
seedbeater and the seeds dropped into a seed-
gathering basket. Today the plant is tapped with a
flat stick and the seeds drop into a pan or on a cloth
that is laid under the plant. The plant can also be
uprooted and shaken and beaten onto a canvas tarp.
The seeds are winnowed to remove the chaff. A
gentle breeze makes a good seed cleaning wind.
Today the seeds are placed into a frying pan and
lightly roasted on the stove, emitting an aroma not
unlike peanut butter. In former times, the seeds were
parched with live coals skillfully shaken in a flat
basket tray. Next the seeds are ground on a portable
metate into a very fine powder. The flour can then be
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
sites to heighten production of this plant and facilitate
the continuance of this remarkable tradition.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Field gathering is the usual source, since commercial
sources are unknown. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Darlington, J. 1934. A monograph of the genus
Mentzelia. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 21:103-225.
Ebeling, W. 1986. Handbook of Indian foods and
fibers of arid America. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Fowler, Catherine S. 1986. Subsistence. IN:
Handbook of North American Indians Volume 11
Great Basin. Edited by W.L. D Azevedo, pp. 64-97.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Prigge, B. 1993. Mentzelia. Pages 741-744, IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 990405.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='medi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
PACIFIC
WAXMYRTLE
Morella californica (Cham. &.
Schlecht.) Wilbur
Plant Symbol = MOCA6
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pacific waxmyrtle (Myrica californica) is a
large evergreen shrub or small tree, ten to thirty-five
feet high. The leaves are alternate, simple, five to ten
centimeters long with resin dots, and are slightly
sticky and fragrant when crushed. The fruit are
purplish, single seeded berries, coated with a white
wax, ripening in the early autumn and usually falling
during the winter. The bark is smooth, compact, dark
gray or light brown on the surface and dark red-
brown internally (Sargent 1961).
Distribution: Pacific waxmyrtle occurs in canyons
and hill slopes of the coastal region from the Santa
Monica Mountains of Los Angeles County northward
to Del Norte County, and north to Washington
(McMinn 1939). For current distribution, please
consult the Plant profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Myrica californica thrives in wet soil conditions and
is drought tolerant. It grows best in full sun in an
open position and can tolerate light shaded areas.
This species prefers a peaty soil or lime free loamy
soil.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seeds are best sown as soon
as ripe in the autumn in a cold frame. Stored seeds
will germinate faster if they go through a three-month
period of cold stratification and then are sown in a
cold frame. As soon as the seeds are ripe, place them
in seed trays or containers. When seedlings are large
enough to handle, place them in individual pots and
grow them in a cold frame for the first winter. Plants
should be planted into their permanent positions in
the late spring or early summer.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In exposed situations, the wax myrtle forms a little
more than a bushy arborescent shrub but in protected
areas it becomes a medium sized tree, much branched
and densely leafy, with a gray warty unfissured bark
(Howell 1949). Plants injured by fire sprout from the
heavy root crown (Ibid.).
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© St. Mary’s College
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='California bayberry, California wax myrtle, bayberry,
pacific bayberry, western bayberry, Myrica
californica (MYCA13)
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Wax from the pulp of the fruit was
used to make aromatic candles. The wax was also
used in making soups. A gray-brown and a maroon-
purple dye was obtained from the fresh or dried
berries (Grae 1974). This species was easily grown
and valued especially on the Pacific Coast for its
berries and evergreen leaves (Wyman 1965).
Agroforestry: Myrica californica is used in tree strips
for windbreaks. They are planted and managed to
protect livestock, enhance production, and control
soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with
harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of
winter storms and reduce home heating costs during
the winter months. They also provide shade and
wind protection during the summer, which aids in the
reduction of cooling bills.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American gardens. The
MacMillan Company, New York, New York.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through native plant nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='moca6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Grae, I. 1974. Nature’s colors-dyes from plants.
MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, New
York.
Howell, J.T. 1949. Marin Flora: manual of the
flowering plants and ferns of Marin County,
California. University of California Press, Berkeley
&. Los Angeles, California.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
London, England.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of Pacific Coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the Pacific
Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
Thomas, J.H. 1961. Flora of the Santa Cruz
Mountains of California. Stanford University Press,
Stanford, California.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
WILD BERGAMOT
Monarda fistulosa L.
Plant Symbol = MOFI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
used this plant in combination with other plants to
relieve colds. The Hocak (Winnebago) used wild
bergamot in their sweat bath and inhaled the fumes to
cure colds. A decoction of boiled leaves was used as
a cure for eruptions on the face. The Cherokee made
a warm poultice of the plant to relieve a headache.
The Teton Dakota boiled together the leaves and
flowers as a cure for abdominal pains. The Blackfoot
made a tea from the blossoms and leaves to cure
stomach pains. They also applied boiled leaves to the
pustules of acne. The Tewa dried the plant and
ground it into a powder that was rubbed over the
head to cure headaches, over the body to cure fever,
and as a remedy for sore eyes and colds. Early white
settlers used it as a diaphoretic and carminative, and
occasionally employed it for the relief of flatulent
colic, nausea and vomiting.
Economic: Wild bergamot is used in flower
arrangements. Bees, butterflies and hummingbirds
use the plant for nectar.
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mint Family (Lamiaceae). This aromatic
herbaceous perennial is 5 to 12 dm. high and has
branched, hairy stems and spreads by seeds and
rhizomes. The opposite leaves are distinctly petioled
and deltoid-lanceolate to lanceolate and slightly
toothed. Wild bergamot has square stems with gray-
green foliage. The flowers bloom from June to
September. They are solitary and terminal on the
flowering branches and the two stamens surpass the
upper lip. The flowers are tubular, 13-15 nerved,
with lobes much shorter than the tube. The corolla is
lavender and strongly bilabiate. The upper lip is
narrow, entire, and softly pubescent while the lower
lip is broader.
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found in upland woods, thickets, and
prairies from Quebec to Manitoba and British
Columbia south to Georgia, Louisiana, and Arizona.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
© W.L.Wagner
Smithsonian Institution, Department of Botany
@PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Bee-balm
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: The Tewa Indians because of the
flavor it imparted cooked Wild bergamot with meat.
The Iroquois used the plant in the making of a
beverage. The plant has a wide variety of medicinal
uses. The Ojibwe put a wad of chewed leaves of this
plant into their nostrils to relieve headache. The tops
of the plant were dried and used as a sternutatory for
the relief of colds. The leaves were placed in warm
water baths for babies. The Flambeau Ojibwe
gathered and dried the whole plant, boiling it in a
vessel to obtain the volatile oil to inhale to cure
catarrh and bronchial affections. The Menomini also
used this plant as a remedy for catarrh, steeping the
leaves and inflorescences in a tea. The Meskwaki
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='General: When the seeds are ripe, cut off the seed
heads and spread them over a clean, dry surface
indoors to air-dry for several days. Then place some
of the seed heads in a paper bag and shake. Many of
the seeds will fall into the bag. Repeat the process
with the remaining heads. Next run the seeds and
associated chaff through a sieve. Store the seeds in a
dry sealed and labeled container or ziploc bag with
wet sand or peat moss in the refrigerator that is kept
under 40 degrees F for three months.
Propagation by seeds: Sow seeds in flats during
January and stored in a greenhouse are expected to
germinate in one to two weeks. The soil mix can be
one-third sand and two-thirds commercial plug mix.
Apply a starter fertilizer solution for the seedlings.
Water flats when the soil surface is dry to the touch.
Keep the seedlings in the flats for 6-7 weeks, and
then transplant them to 3-inch pots. Continue to
water seedlings when the surface is dry to the touch.
Pinch off the tops of the plants several times during
the growing season to encourage branching and
bushier grow habit. Apply a weekly application of an
all-purpose fertilizer for the transplants. When the
roots fill the container (about 2 months) they are
ready for outplanting in the garden.
Plant seedlings in a sunny, weed-free well-drained
soil, one and one-half to two feet apart. Water, until
rains come.
Seeds can also be broadcast on a weed-free surface
from January to mid-May in sunny locations. Once
the seeds germinate seedlings should be watered
during extended dry period. During the first summer
of full growth mow the area 3 to 5 times to keep the
plants between 8 and 4 inches tall. Mowing also
reduces weeds.
Propagation by cuttings: Take stem tip cuttings, 3-4
inches long, any time from May to August. Remove
the lower leaves and all flower or seed heads and
insert the stems into a sand and perlite-rooting
medium. Bury each cutting up to the first node.
Place the cuttings in an enclosed area and mist them
several times a day. In 4 to 5 weeks the cuttings
should be well rooted and can be transplanted to pots.
Then outplant the plants in the garden in the early
autumn.
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Once established, wild bergamot still benefits from
extra watering during dry summers. Continue
mowing the area, once a year, after the hardest killing
frosts or the following spring. This keeps woody
plants from encroaching and removes plants that have
died back. Since the plant spreads by rhizomes, it
can get aggressive. The plant can be kept from
spreading by divisions. Division of large plants
every 2 to 3 years also keeps them healthy. Mature
clumps can be divided in March before they send up
stems. Dig up a portion of the clump and divide it
into sections. Replant and water the divisions
promptly. Continue to add leaf mold and compost to
your soil, as the plant s shallow root systems spread
easily through light soil.
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected wild bergamot are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Masters Thesis, University of Tennessee.
Gilmore, M.R. 1932. Some Chippewa uses of plants.
Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
and Letters 17:119-143.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Johnston, A. 1970. Blackfoot Indian utilization of the
flora of the northwestern Great Plains. Economic
Botany 4:301-324.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Phillips, H.R.. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 4(1):8-175.
Page 3
Waugh, F.W. 1916. Iroquois foods and food
preparation. Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 4(2):175-326.
Smith, H.H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 4:(3)327-525.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians as it relates to the
history of the Tribe. Botanical Museum, Cambridge,
Massachusetts
' WHERE symbol='mofi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
DOTTED
HORSEMINT
Monarda punctata L.
Plant Symbol = MOPU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mint Family (Lamiaceae). This herbaceous
perennial is 3 to 10 dm. high and thinly canescent.
The leaves are lanceolate or narrowly oblong, 2-8
cm. and more or less hairy. The plant has square
stems. The flowers are both terminal and axillary
and the stamens do not exsert beyond the strongly
arched upper corolla lip. The flowers appear in
small, compact, head-like cymes of 2-5 or solitary on
depauperate plants. The flowers are tubular, and 13-
15 nerved. The corolla is pale yellow, spotted with
purple and strongly bilabiate. The upper lip is
narrow and entire, and is about as long as the throat
and slender tube together. The lower lip is broader.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This plant is found in dry sandy soil from Vermont to
southeastern Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas,
but missing from most of the Ohio drainage. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
When the seeds are ripe, cut off the seed heads and
spread them over a clean, dry surface indoors to air-
dry for several days. Then place some of the seed
heads in a paper bag and shake. Many of the seeds
will fall into the bag. Repeat the process with the
remaining heads. Next run the seeds and associated
chaff through a sieve. Store the seeds in a dry sealed
and labeled container or Ziploc™ bag with wet sand
or peat moss in the refrigerator that is kept under 40º
F for three months.
Propagation by seeds: Sow the seeds in a greenhouse
in cells (1 and one quarter inches across and 2 and
one quarter inches deep) in January no deeper than
one-eighth of an inch. Expect them to germinate in
one to two weeks. The soil mix can be one-third
sand and two-thirds commercial plug mix. Place 5
seeds per cell. Apply a starter fertilizer solution for
the seedlings. Water them when the surface is dry to
the touch. Note that dotted horsemint is sensitive to
over-watering. Keep the seedlings in the cells for 3
to 4 months. Water them when the surface is dry to
the touch. Pinch off the tops of the plants several
© Hugh Wilson
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
@Texas A &. M
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Spotted bee-balm
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Dotted horsemint was used by the
Meskwaki to treat colds and catarrh in a mixture with
the leaves of Ranunculus delphinifolius and the disk
florets of Helenium autumnale. This plant, along
with other plants were ground into a powder and
snuffed up the nostrils to relieve a sick headache.
Taken with the roots of Asarum canadense,
Euphorbia corollata, and Brauneria angustifolia
these plants relieved stomach cramps. The Delaware
washed patients faces with an infusion of dotted
horsemint to treat skin problems. They also used an
infusion of dotted horsemint to reduce fevers. The
Mohegan made an infusion of the plant to reduce
fevers as well. The Nanticoke used an infusion of the
entire plant to treat colds. The Navajo hung the plant
in the hogan for its pleasing odor.
Other Uses: Birds are attracted to the nectar, such as
hummingbirds.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972. Folk medicine of the
Delaware and related Algonkian Indians.
Pennsylvania Historical Commission
Anthropological papers, Number 3, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedbyandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedbyandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 18sep00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
times to encourage a branching and bushier grow
habit. Apply a weekly application of an all-purpose
fertilizer to the seedlings. When the roots fill the
container they are ready for out-planting in the
garden. Plant the plants in a sunny, weed-free spot to
light shade and in a light, well-drained soil, two feet
apart. Water, until rains come.
Seeds can also be broadcast on a weed-free surface
from January to mid-May in a sunny location.
During the first summer of full growth mow the area
3 to 5 times to keep the plants between 8 and 4 inches
tall. Mowing also reduces weeds.
Propagation by cuttings: Take stem tip cuttings, 3-4
inches long, any time from May to August. Remove
the lower leaves and all flower or seed heads and
insert the stems into a sand and perlite-rooting
medium. Bury each cutting up to the first node.
Place the cuttings in an enclosed area and mist them
several times a day. In 4 to 5 weeks the cuttings
should be well rooted and can be transplanted to pots.
Then out-plant the seedlings in the garden in early
autumn.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Once established, dotted horsemint still benefits from
extra watering during dry summers. Continue
mowing the area, once a year, after the hardest killing
frosts or the following spring. This keeps woody
plants from encroaching and removes plants that have
died back. Continue to add leaf mold and compost to
your soil, as the plant s shallow root systems spread
easily through light soil.
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected dotted horsemint are
available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='mopu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
School of American Research, Santa Fe, New
Mexico.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of Northeastern United States and
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
RED MULBERRY
Morus rubra L.
Plant Symbol = MORU2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Red mulberry was used by several
Native American tribes to treat a variety of ailments.
The sap was used to treat ringworm (Foster and Duke
2000). The Cherokee made a tea from the leaves of
the plant for treatment of dysentery, weakness, and
difficulty urinating (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975).
The Comanche used the fruit of the red mulberry as a
food source (Carlson and Jones 1940, Moerman
1998).
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mulberry Family (Moraceae). Red
mulberry is a tree that can reach 20 m in height and
45 cm in diameter. Red mulberry has a short trunk
and stout, spreading branches that form a round-
topped crown. The bark can be smooth or scaly and
is dark brown in color. The branchlets are covered
with short hairs. The leaves are simple, alternate, and
up to 2 dm long. The leaves are broad, egg-shaped,
and lobed. The base of the leaf is square, as if it has
been cut off abruptly. The tip of the leaf is pointed.
The leaves have sharply serrated margins. The upper
leaf surface is rough to the touch. The lower surface
is soft and covered with short hairs. The petioles are
2 to 3 cm long and produce a milky fluid when
broken. The catkins that bear stamens are 2 to 5 cm
long. The catkins that bear pistils are 2 to 2.5 cm
long. Red mulberry has aggregate fruits that are 2 to
3 cm long. The fruits are juicy and have a dark
purple color.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Red mulberry is found in floodplains, river
valleys, and moist hillsides.
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Red mulberry is fire intolerant. However, it
colonizes post-fire sites when sufficient moisture is
available.
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Red mulberry seeds can be sown in the fall without
stratification or in the spring after 30 to 90 days of
storage at temperatures between 33 to 41 °F in moist
sand. Red mulberry can also be artificially
propagated from stem cuttings. Red mulberry prefers
deep well-drained soil that is high in organic matter.
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, red mulberry should not be prone to
debilitating pests.
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Burns, R.M. &. B.H. Honkala (Tech. Coordinators)
1990. Silvics of North America. Vol. 2. Hardwoods.
Agriculture Handbook 654. USDA, Forest Service,
Washington D.C. 877 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Foster, S. &. J.A. Duke 2000. A field guide to
medicinal plants of eastern and central North
America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
Massachusetts. 411 pp.
University of Arkansas. 2001. Horticulture 3103
summary sheet. Department of Horticulture, Little
Rock, Arkansas.
http://www.uark.edu/campus-
resources/cotinus/plants4_html/morurubr.html
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='moru2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp. 060802 jsp
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants their uses-a 400 year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Harlow, W.M., E.S. Harrar, J.W. Hardin, and F.M.
White 1996. Textbook of dendrology. 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, New York. 534pp.
Lamson, N.I. 1990. Morus rubra L. red mulberry.
IN: Burns, R.M. and B.H. Honkala (Tech.
Coordinators) Silvics of North America, Vol. 2.
Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654. USDA
Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Pages 470-473.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn, Michigan.
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service 2001. Fire effects information system.
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory, Boise, Idaho.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/tree/morrub/index.
html
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
DEERGRASS
Muhlenbergia rigens (Benth.)
A.S. Hitchc.
Plant Symbol = MURI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
other birds as well. In sunny openings where
deergrass occurs, it forms a larval food plant for one
of the Satyrid butterflies, the California ringlet
(Coenonympha california) and for the umber skipper
(Poanes melane). Massive numbers of ladybugs
overwinter in deergrass clumps.
Conservation: Deergrass is a valuable streambank
stabilizer, as it has an extensive root system, and if
grown in dense enough colonies, it can be an
effective weed suppresser. In California, Pacific Gas
and Electric is experimenting with growing dense
colonies under powerline corridors. It s long, slender
culms, and tall tufts making it an attractive plant for
the garden.
Other Uses: Uses of deergrass include streambank
stabilization, landscaping, forage, insectary, weed
suppressant, and wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Grass Family (Poaceae). Deergrass is a
perennial bunchgrass obtaining heights of 5 feet
when in bloom. It is part of the largest genus of
warm season grasses in North America. The
bunchgrass is found in dense, large clumps, but can
occur as a continuous cover, in areas that are
subjected to light, frequent ground fires. The culms
are slender, narrow spike-like panicles, 9 to 12 dm. in
length and less than 1.2 cm. wide. The numerous,
small spikelets each have one awnless floret, with a
3-nerved lemma. The ligules are firm and truncate, 2-
3 mm long. The leaves are 1.5 to 6 mm wide. The
seeds are small, requiring about 2.5 million to make
one pound. The dense, basal foliage is tufted and
these large tufts, up to six feet across, are a
distinguishing feature of the grass, along with the
whip-like flower stalks.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It is found in sandy or gravely well-drained soils
in scattered colonies in dry or damp places below
2150 m elevation from Shasta County in northern
© M. Kat Anderson
NPDC @ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Deergrass is a significant basketry
material to central and southern California Native
Americans who utilize the flower stalks in the
foundations of coiled baskets. Frequently thousands
of flower stalks are needed for completion of each
basket. Culms are gathered in late spring while still
green, or summer or early fall when golden brown
depending upon the tribe, individual family
preference and elevation of the deergrass site.
Wildlife: In California, dense patches of deergrass
provide cover during the fawning period of mule deer
(Odocoileus hemionus) in mountain meadows and
grassland openings. The younger palatable tufts are
grazed by deer, horses, and cattle and can remain
palatable if continually grazed. It is particularly
sought for forage by animals when first resprouting
after a burn. Older tufts are poor feed for livestock.
The seeds provide food for songbirds and probably
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
California south, extending into New Mexico, Texas,
and Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Deergrass can withstand periodic
flooding, but it cannot tolerate poorly-drained soils.
The major plant communities it inhabits include
valley grassland, streamsides, and meadow habitat.
Additionally, deergrass is shade-intolerant and also
occurs in grassland openings within chaparral, mixed
conifer forests, and oak woodland plant communities,
maintained with human-set or lightning fires. On
most soil types, these grassland areas quickly revert
to the surrounding dominant vegetation type without
human or natural disturbance.
Broadcast Seeding: In California and the Southwest,
deergrass can be broadcast seeded in the late spring
or summer during the months of May, June, July, and
August, with irrigation. The seeds are tiny and should
be broadcast on top of the ground, and then run over
with a ring roller or a culti-packer to compress the
seeds slightly below the soil surface. For best results,
sow at least four pounds of PLS (pure live seed) per
acre, which amounts to 50 seeds per square foot.
Deergrass is slow growing and germination rates can
vary from two weeks up to two months. Fertilization
of deergrass is not recommended, as it usually gives
the alien weeds a competitive edge. Site preparation
is extremely important for good establishment of
deergrass. Both repetitive tillage and burning are
recommended to drastically curtail weed competition.
Repetitive tillage involves loosening the soil,
irrigating, and cultivating the area with a disc harrow,
following with a ring roller to kill the flush of annual
weeds. This is done several times prior to seeding to
exhaust the weed seed bank. Burning involves firing
all residual dry matter prior to seeding.
Container Planting: Container planting is a more
effective and less time consuming way of
establishing deergrass, but it is more costly than
seeding on a large scale. Deergrass seed can be sown
into flats or, D-pots, stubby cells, or reforestation
tubes in May. Plants can be planted out from
containers in the fall of the same year in soil that has
been moistened with the first rains, using standard
planting procedures. Plants can also be sown in the
fall in flats or containers and planted out the next
summer or fall in the designated area. Plants should
be spaced at a minimum width of 24 inches.
Irrigating is not necessary if it is a normal rainfall
year. Site preparation is the same as for a broadcast
seeding. Larger bunchgrasses can also be divided in
winter or early spring and transplanted. A good stand
of deergrass can be established by container planting
in one and one half years. It is thought that container
planting with grown plugs is more effective than a
seeding.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Once established, deergrass is quite drought-tolerant.
To maintain its vigor and reduce accumulated dead
material, deergrass can be mowed or burned every
several years. Burning or mowing should be in the
fall, after it has gone to seed. Many tribes
historically and probably prehistorically enhanced
deergrass populations through firing deergrass stands
in the fall in California every two to five years.
Indian-set fires increased flower stalk yields, recycled
nutrients, cleared away detritus, and promoted
seedling production in the midst of reduced
competition from other plants. According to Native
American elders, these fires maintained the
bunchgrass in greater numbers than would have
occurred under natural conditions. Knowledge of
past indigenous fire management of deergrass has
important implications for mountain meadow habitat
management for wildlife and maintenance of
grassland openings within shrublands, woodlands,
and forests for preservation of indigenous cultural
traditions. Some areas could be managed with the
dual objectives of indigenous harvesting of flower
stalks and grazing after culm harvest. There are
several fungi that infect the leaves of deergrass,
causing debilitation, but usually not death. A fire
would eliminate these pathogens.
(cid:139) M. Kat Anderson
NPDC @ PLANTS
Basket foundation material consists of deergrass
with red pattern material from the western
redbud tree.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
If possible, gather the seed from local sources, to
maintain genetic diversity of deergrass. The flower
stalks can be cut, bundled, and then beat over a tarp
or bucket to release the seeds. The seeds are usually
highly viable, and do not need special treatment.
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
This grass is available from nurseries handling native
plants.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Agricultural Experiment Station, University of
Arizona 1953. Arizona range grasses: Description--
forage value---management. Bulletin 298, Tucson,
Arizona.
Amme, D. 1994. The development of native grasses
in California. Growing Native 5(2). The newsletter
of the Growing Native Research Institute.
Anderson, M.K. 1996. The ethnobotany of
deergrass, Muhlenbergia rigens (Poaceae): its uses
and fire management by California Indian tribes.
Economic Botany 50(4):409-422.
Edwards, S.W. 1989. Ten splendid grasses. The
Four Seasons 8(3):17-24. Journal of the Regional
Parks Botanic Garden.
Kephart, P. &. D. Amme 1992. Native perennial
grass establishment and management. Grasslands
(February): The newsletter of the California Native
Grass Association.
Lathrop, E. &. B. Martin 1982. Fire ecology of
deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens) in Cuyamaca
Rancho State Park, California. Crossosoma 8(5):1-4,
9-10.
Sampson, A.W., A. Chase, &. D.W. Hedrick 1951.
California grasslands and range forage grasses.
California Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
724.
Stromberg, M.R. &. P. Kephart 1996. Restoring
native grasses in California old fields. Restoration
and Management Notes 14(2):102-111.
' WHERE symbol='muri2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 21may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BEARGRASS
Nolina microcarpa S. Wats
Plant Symbol = NOMI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, UC Davis Arboretum, &. Tucson NRCS Plant
Materials Center
strands before using them. These materials are still
being gathered today and woven into baskets. The
Isleta Pueblo in New Mexico ground beargrass seeds
into flour for food. They also drank a tea of boiled
beargrass roots as a cure for pneumonia and
rheumatism.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This native,
acaulescent perennial has long, narrow leaves with
small teeth along their margins. The leaves are
narrow--6-12 mm. wide and 6-12 dm. long.
Beargrass has a dense cluster of white flowers on a
long stalk, up to 2 m tall. The flowers are minute and
cream-tan, and the round fruits are deeply notched at
the apex. The seeds are light yellow-brown to nearly
black and finely wrinkled.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: The plant is found on exposed
mountainsides throughout much of Arizona, and
similar elevations eastward through New Mexico into
western Texas and adjacent Chihuahua and
northeastern Sonora.
General: Establish the plant by seed. Plant the seeds
in a flat in a nursery at a depth that is the width of the
seeds. The seeds should be planted in the spring in
well-drained soil with a coarse layer of sand on top
and gently watered. Protect the flat from animals.
Let the surface of the soil dry out between watering.
If the flats are watered too often, this can cause the
plants to rot. A good indicator of over-watering is
that the plants wilt. Once the seedlings have leaves
and are at least two inches tall with sturdiness to
them, transplant them into individual pots with good
drainage holes. After transplanting, put the
containers in a shady area that is protected from wind
and animals such as a lath house or a shady grove of
trees.
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Sacahuista
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Beargrass formed the stuffing or warp
of Papago coiled baskets. The blades were cut off
near the ground and the saw-like edges are scraped
away with a knife, split in two or more sections, and
bundled and stored until used. Beargrass leaves were
sometimes used in Jemez Pueblo ring baskets and
they were the preferred materials for other southerly
Rio Grande Pueblos earlier in this century. The Pima
used beargrass in their baskets. They sun-dried the
leaves and then split them into four, five or six
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
their history and their makers. School of American
Research Press, Sante Fe, New Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By &. Species Coordinators
Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dept. of Plant Sciences, University of California,
Davis, California
Warren Roberts
UC Davis Arboretum
Bruce Munda
USDA, NRCS, Tucson Plant Materials Center,
Tucson, Arizona
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 21may03 ahv
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
After one and one-half years, plant the plants
outdoors in lower elevations in mid-to-late fall or
early winter. In higher elevations where the ground
freezes, it is best to plant the plants when the ground
thaws. After planting, water the plants and let them
dry out on the surface between watering. During the
rainy season, supplement with hand watering if the
rains are insufficient. Plant the plants in a well-
drained, well-aerated soil. Plant in partial shade,
using a shade cloth or other means until well-
established and then remove the shade cloth to
expose the plant to full sun. Water the plant through
the summer. It will be necessary to water the plant
for several years until well established. In areas
without summer rainfall, continue to water the plant
in summer throughout the life of the plant.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='If the plant begins to have an unkempt, matted
appearance, prune it back in late winter or early
spring after the danger of frost is past.
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='nomi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo Province: Exploring ancient and
enduring uses. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa
Fe, New Mexico.
Rea, A.M. 1997. At the desert s green edge: An
ethnobotany of the Gila River Pima. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Robinson, B. 1954. The basket weavers of Arizona.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New
Mexico.
Shreve, F. &. I.L. Wiggins 1964. Vegetation and
flora of the Sonoran Desert. Vol. I. Stanford
University Press, Standford, California.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. 001206. National Plant
Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Whiteford, A.H. 1988. Southwestern Indian baskets
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMON EVENING-
PRIMROSE
Oenothera biennis L.
Plant Symbol = OEBI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
“overfatness.” A hot poultice made from the
pounded roots was applied externally to treat piles
and boils. A poultice made from the entire plant was
used to treat bruises. The roots were chewed and
rubbed onto the muscles to improve strength. The
plant was used to treat pain associated with
menstruation as well as bowel pain. Handfuls of
people still use the plant today, medicinally and for
food.
Other: Common evening-primrose is commercially
cultivated in over 15 countries for its oil which
contains the essential fatty acids, linoleic acid and
gamma linolenic acid (Kemper 1999). When the
seedpods ripen, the tall stalks can be cut and used as
interesting additions to dried arrangements.
Wildlife: Hummingbirds visit the flowers to obtain
nectar and insects to eat. The seed capsules provide
food for many other birds during the winter months.
It is thought that the plants are pollinated by night-
visiting hawk moths, which feed on their nectar.
Japanese Beetles prefer the leaves of common
evening-primrose to those of other garden plants.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agricultural department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae).
Oenothera biennis is a biennial, herbaceous forb.
The family is so-named because the flowers are
partially to fully closed during the day and open in
the evening. The bright yellow to gold corolla is 2-5
cm wide, with four petals. The fragrant flowers
usually last only one to two days. The erect stem,
which sometimes branches near the top, can be
covered with hairs. The plant grows from 3-25 dm
tall. Basal leaves, which form a rosette, are from 10-
©William S. Justice @ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Weedy evening-primrose, German rampion, hog
weed, King’s cure-all, fever-plant
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee, Iroquois, Ojibwas, and
Potawatomi were among several Native American
tribes that used common evening-primrose for both
food and for medicinal purposes. The roots were
boiled and eaten like potatoes. The young leaves
were cooked and served as greens. The shoots were
eaten raw. A tea was made from the plant and used
as a dietary aid or stimulant to treat laziness and
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
30 cm long. The stem has alternate, lanceolate-
shaped leaves, 2.5-15 cm long, that are shallowly
toothed and wavey at the edges. The leaves are
usually hairy. The plant flowers can from June
through October.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Common evening-primrose grows in dry open fields,
along roadsides, railroad embankments, waste areas
and in open woods.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='These plants do best in well-drained soils in full sun.
They can be easily grown from seed. The seeds are
ripe when the seed capsule begins to split open,
usually in October. To insure even planting, mix the
seeds with a small amount of sand prior to sowing.
The seeds usually germinate within four weeks.
Thereafter, the plants will generally self-sow. Please
use care when cultivating this plant as it has become
invasive in many parts of the world.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plants are readily available from commercial
sources.' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Borchers, A.T., C.L. Keen, J.S. Stern &. M.E.
Gershwin 2000. Inflammation and Native American
Medicine: the role of botanicals. American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition 72: 339-347.
Coffey, T. 1993. The history &. folklore of North
American wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
Massachusetts. 356 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers in the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York.
322 pp.
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of Georgia
Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Kemper, K.J., MD, MPH 1999. The Longwood
Herbal Taskforce and the Center for Holistic
Pediatric Education and Research. Evening
primrose (Oenethera biennis).
http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/epo/epo.pdf
(13 June 2001).
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina. 331 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Steffek, E.F. 1983. The new wild flowers and how to
grow them. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 186 pp.
Page 3
Taylor, K.S. and S.F. Hamblin 1963. Handbook of
wild flower cultivation. The Macmillan Company,
New York, New York. 307 pp.
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='oebi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Species Coordinator
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 21June2001 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BUCKHORN CHOLLA
Opuntia acanthocarpa Engelm.
&. Bigelow
Plant Symbol = OPAC
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
numerous songbirds such as the wren-tit and the
cactus wren.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
Description' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='General: Cactus Family (Cactaceae). The buckhorn
cholla is an open and spreading woody cactus, up to 1
m tall. The gray-green stems, also called ".joints"., are
cylindrical, 5-30 cm long and 17-20 mm in diameter
with tubercles or nodules. Each tubercle has a cluster
of stiff spines, which are covered with loose papery
sheaths. The flowers are up to 5 cm long and range
from yellow to purple-red with shades in between.
The fruits are obovoid, dry, shriveled and spiny and
drop off later in the season. The seeds are light
yellowish to gray-brown, 3.5 to 4 mm. long.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This cactus is found on desert mesas and slopes
in such plant communities as the creosote bush scrub
and Joshua tree woodland. It is in Pima and Pinal
Counties of Arizona.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seeds: To establish Opuntia spp. by seed is a slow
process. It takes up to five years, compared to six
months by a stem, and is therefore not recommended.
Cuttings: Break off or cut the stem of the cactus in
the spring. Choose a smaller cylindrical stem with
one joint and take the newest growth, when possible,
a complete branch should be taken as the cutting.
Ideally, the cut should be made at the neck where the
branch joins the stem. Place the cutting in an area
with good air circulation, in partial shade for several
days or until the cut surface has formed a callus. The
cutting is then planted with its cut surface 3 mm
below the surface in compost that contains little
nutrients and placed in partial shade. Keep the plant
slightly moist until roots are established. Once roots
are formed the plant can be potted in a well-drained,
sandy soil. Plant the cactus in a permanent place
with full sun outdoors in the fall. Make sure the soil
has excellent drainage. This cactus is intolerant of
frequent summer water and should not be planted
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: In the Southwest the Hualapai and
Pima harvested the unopened flower buds of
buckhorn cholla with two long sticks. The sticks
were used to grab the mature buds and twist them off
into a large flat basket or bucket. The spines are then
removed prior to cooking. Traditionally the buds
were baked in an earthen pit, lined with stones, and
heated with mesquite (Prosopis velutina) firewood.
Then the buds were eaten right away or dried and
stored for future use. Pima individuals who had
stomach troubles were put on a special diet of these
buds made into gruel. Some individuals still gather
buckhorn cholla today.
Wildlife: Many kinds of Opuntia species have fruits,
seeds, and stems that are eaten by wildlife. Small
mammals that feed on seeds and fruits include
Western chipmunks, pocket gophers, brown gophers,
Harris ground squirrels, prairie dogs, kangaroo rats,
skunks, and cottontail and jackrabbits. Hoofed
browsers feed on the vegetable parts and fruits such
as antelope, white tailed deer, and mountain sheep.
Upland game birds such as gambel quail and white-
winged doves feed on the seeds and fruits as well as
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
near lawns or other plants that require summer
watering.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
To keep the plants in bounds, cut off outermost
joints. Prune in late spring or summer. Use tongs or
rolled newspapers to grasp the stems while cutting
with pruning shears.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This plant is available through some native plant
nurseries within its range Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
References' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Curtin, L.S.M. 1984. By the prophet of the earth:
Ethnobotany of the Pima. University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Dobyns, H.F. 1956. Pre-conquest Hualapai plant
food gathering. An unpublished report to Marks and
Marks, Phoenix, Arizona and Strasser, Spielberg,
Fried and Frank, Washington, D.C.
Keen, B. 1990. Cacti and succulents. Crowood
Press, Ramsbury, Marlborought, Wilshire, England.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Mielke, J. 1993. Native plants for southwestern
landscapes. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
Shreve, F. &. I.L. Wiggins 1964. Opuntia. Pages
960-985 IN: Vegetation and Flora of the Sonoran
Desert Vol. II. Stanford University Press, Standford,
California.
' WHERE symbol='opac';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 05jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
burned leaves were used to rub the skin of horses
suffering from sore backs.
Other: The flowers make long-lasting additions to cut
bouquets.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agricultural department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Sunflower Family (Asteraceae). Wild
quinine is a perennial, herbaceous forb. Stiff,
upright, sometimes hairy stems are single, or
branched near the top. Stems (4-12 dm in height)
grow from a swollen tuberous root. The leaves are
ovate to lanceolate with wavy, toothed margins.
Basal leaves are 38 cm long. Stem leaves are
alternate, smaller, and sparsely distributed along the
stems. The long-lasting, somewhat-yarrow-like
flower heads are composed of grayish-white,
globular, compound flowers that are 4-6 mm wide.
Five, unusually short, ray flowers (1-2mm long)
surround the central disk flower corollas, which are
2.5-3 mm long. Only the ray flowers are fertile. The
heads are grouped together into an inflorescent spray
up to 20 cm in diameter. Flowers have a pleasant but
mild medicinal fragrance. The plant flowers from
summer through the autumn months.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Wild quinine occurs in dry, somewhat
heavy soils in prairies, fields, open wooded areas,
rocky woods, and hillsides.
WILD QUININE
Parthenium integrifolium L.
Plant Symbol = PAIN3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
©William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='American feverfew, eastern feverfew, eastern
parthenium
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The Catawba and other tribes in the
southeastern United States used wild quinine for
medicinal and veterinary purposes. The leaves
contain tannin, which is thought to be beneficial for
treating burns. The leaves were mashed into a moist,
thick paste, which was then applied as a poultice to
burns. Burns were also treated by placing the whole,
fresh leaves over the wounded area. Tea from the
boiled roots was used to treat dysentery. Ashes from
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Wild quinine is a very hardy addition to the garden as
it is tolerant of both hot and cold weather. The plants
make a nice addition to native plant gardens because
of their wild growth form. Wild quinine plants are
easily propagated by seed. Plant seeds in the fall or
early winter or pre-treat them with 4 to 6 weeks of
cold moist stratification to improve germination.
Wild quinine will grow best in fertile, well-drained
soils in full-sun to light shade.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='This plant has no known serious disease or insect
problems.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering plants and ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Clinton, J. 2001. Easy living native perennial
wildflowers. Native wildflower seed. Parthenium
integrifolium. Wild quinine.
http://www.easywildflowers.com/quality/par.inte.htm
(13 June 2001).
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the southeastern United States. University of Georgia
Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the south: native and exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Missouri Botanical Garden 2000. Parthenium
integrifolium. Kemper Center for Home Gardening.
http://www.mobot.org/hort/plantfinder/Code/A/G58.
htm. (13 June 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
(13 June 2001)
Ottensen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Shemluck, M. 1982. Medicinal and other uses of the
Compositae by Indians in the United States and
Canada. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 5: 303-358.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1937. Catawba medicines and curative
practices. Publications of the Philadelphia
Anthropological Society 1:179-197.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='pain3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Department, University
of California, Davis, California
Edited: 21May2001 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page 3
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
PURPLE
PASSIONFLOWER
Passiflora incarnata L.
Plant Symbol = PAIN6
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
tonic.” The plant was also used as a sedative to treat
nervous conditions and hysteria.
Wildlife: Purple passionflowers attract butterflies.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Considered rare in some states.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become invasive in some regions or
habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not
properly managed. Please consult with your local
NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service
office, or state natural resource or agriculture
department regarding its status and use. Weed and
invasive information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Passionflower Family (Passifloraceae).
Purple passionflower is a native, perennial vine. The
slightly pubescent vines climb with tendrils that arise
from the axils of the leaves. The vines can range
from 2 to 6 m long. The alternate leaves (6 to 15 cm
long and wide) are palmate with 3 lobes and finely
serrated margins. The spectacular flowers are pale-
lavender or, rarely, white, with five petals (3 to 4 cm
long, 4 to 7 mm wide) and five sepals (2.5 to 3.5 cm
long). The complex flower has a “crown” or corona
of numerous fringelike segments that arise from
above the petals. The corona is white or lavender
with purple bands. The reproductive parts are
interestingly arranged and add to the exotic beauty of
the flower. The unique appearance of the flowers
was purported, by early Spanish explorers, to
represent the sufferings of Christ (for a detailed
description see Coffey 1993). The plants bloom from
June to September. Sweet-smelling, yellowish fruits
develop in two to three months after flowering and
may be harvested from July to October. The pulpy
fruit, or “maypop”, is large and oval, about the size of
a hen’s egg (4 to 10 cm long). The fruit contains
many flattened, dark-colored seeds (4 to 6 mm long)
that are covered with an arillate pulp, which is the
edible portion of the fruit.
© Charles S. Lewallen
Oklahoma Biological Survey
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Wild passionflower, maypop, apricot vine, old field
apricot, Holy-Trinity flower, mayapple, molly-pop,
passion vine, pop-apple, granadilla, maycock,
maracoc, maracock, white sarsaparilla.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Houma, Cherokee and other
Native American tribes used purple passionflower for
food, drink, and medicinal purposes. Captain Smith,
in 1612, reported that Native Americans in Virginia
planted the vines for the fruits. The fruits were eaten
either raw or boiled to make syrup. A beverage was
made from the fruits by crushing and straining the
juice. Sometimes the juice was thickened by mixing
it with flour or cornmeal. The young shoots and
leaves were eaten, cooked with other greens. The
roots were used in an infusion to treat boils, and to
“draw out inflammation” of wounds from briers or
locusts. Babies were given a tea made from the roots
to aid in weaning. The roots were beaten with warm
water and used as eardrops to treat earaches. Root
infusions were used to treat liver problems. Soaking
the crushed roots in drinking water made a “blood
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Purple passionflower is common in open or
cultivated fields, rocky slopes, thin woods, roadsides,
fencerows and thickets.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Purple passionflowers require direct sunlight for at
least half of the day. The plants prefer fertile, well-
drained soils but will grow in heavier clay soils. Pick
a spot in the garden where the plants may either
climb or spread freely. The plants may be
propagated from seed or by cuttings. Seeds should
be collected in the fall after the fruit has begun to
shrivel. Mature seeds are brown in color with no
traces of white. Wash the gelatinous covering from
the seeds if they are to be stored for any length of
time. It is best to plant the seeds directly into an
outdoor seedbed. The seedlings may be transplanted
after they have three or four leaves or, once
established, they can be used to provide cuttings or
divisions. Cuttings should be taken in the early
spring. Remove the lower leaves from a 15 to 20 cm
cutting before placing it in the rooting medium.
Removing the suckers that develop around the
established plants provides materials for propagating
by division. With a shovel, separate and remove the
suckers and roots. Transplant the divisions and water
them immediately.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='To control the spread of purple passionflower,
remove the suckers regularly. The vines may be
trained onto a trellis, fence or tree trunk.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='This plant is listed as a invasive by several
authoritative sources listed in the Plants Profile for
this species at the PLANTS website. Please contact
your local agricultural extension specialist or county
weed specialist to learn what works best in your area
and how to use it safely.
Always read the label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Coffey, T. 1993. The history &. folklore of North
American wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
MA. 356 pp.
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Floridata 2001. Passiflora incarnata. [Online].
Available:
http://www.floridata.com/ref/p/passiflo.cfm. (19 June
2001).
Garrett, J.T. &. M.T. Garrett 1996. Medicine of the
Cherokee: the way of right relationship. Bear &.
Company Publishing, Santa Fe, New Mexico. 223
pp.
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and Exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Lewallen, C.S. 2001. Oklahoma Wildflowers.
Oklahoma Biological Survey, Norman, Oklahoma.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/okwild/toc.html>.. (04
October 2001)
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Page 3
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001)
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina. 331 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference 14(4): 49-75.
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='pain6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 04oct01 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
AMERICAN GINSENG
Panax quinquefolius L.
Plant Symbol = PAQU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='(1932) recorded a potentially sustainable way to
harvest the roots among the Ojibwe. “They only
gathered the root when the red berries were mature,
but before they were ready to drop. Into the hole
from whence the root came, they would thrust the
whole fruiting top, and carefully firm the soil upon it.
Knowing the location well, they would revisit the
place in three to five years and find more roots than
they harvested in the first instance.” The roots were
used in eyewash by the Iroquois to treat the sore eyes
of two-year-old children. The root could also be
steeped in warm water and drunk for alleviating sores
on the body. The pulverized root was smoked to treat
asthma. Women of the Penobscot tribe took an
infusion of the root to increase fertility. The
Delaware used the roots and other plant parts as a
general tonic. American ginseng is in high demand
in the United States and China as an herbal remedy.
It is used for stress and to increase energy and mental
acuity in the United States. In China, it is a panacea
for sexual impotency, nervousness, vomiting, and
dyspepsia.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='In general, this species has been depleted by over-
collecting for commercial purposes. Many states,
such as Maryland, have a permit process instituted
for collectors in the wild. Certain U.S. ports have
been designated by the USDA, APHIS as ports
through which ginseng can be exported. The
Canadian Museum of Nature (2000) considers it a
species at risk. Please consult the PLANTS web site
and your State Department of Natural Resources for
this plant’s current status.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Ginseng Family (Araliaceae). This
aromatic herbaceous perennial has once palmately
compound leaves arranged in a single whorl. The
leaves are oblong-obovate to obovate, 6-15 cm, and
conspicuously serrate. The stems are solitary, 2-6
dm, and with one flower umbel per stem. The
flowers are greenish-white, all or mostly perfect.
There are two styles and five stamens. The fruits are
berry-like, bright red drupes, 1 cm thick.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is now considered rare and collection
in the wild is either prohibited or strictly regulated in
the states in which it is found. Most regulations
from Voss (1985)
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='wild ginseng, sang
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: American ginseng was used by
Menominee hunters, who chewed the root to impart a
lure to the breath and to attract deer. The plant was
used by Meskwaki women to obtain a husband. A
mixture consisted of ground ginseng, mica, gelatin,
and snake meat. The Pawnee also used ginseng roots
in combination with certain other substances as a
love charm. The Ojibwe considered the root a good-
luck charm if carried in the pocket. Huron Smith
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
allow digging only in autumn, after ginseng seeds
have dropped. It is found in rich woods from Quebec
to Minnesota and South Dakota to Georgia and
occurs in Louisiana and Oklahoma. It grows in full
shade underneath deciduous hardwood species.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Ginseng is widely cultivated in the U.S., Canada, and
China. In natural conditions, the seed may take two
or three years to germinate and the plant three to four
years to produce seed. The root takes at least three to
four years before it is ready to harvest (Sadler 1999).
Detailed growing instructions are available from
Michigan State University Extension (1996).
Propagation by seeds: Fruits should be collected
when they are red, usually August or September.
Seeds can be separated from the pulp and sown fresh
in the fall in flats. If stored, they should be stored
moist. If buying seed, soak it in a 10 percent bleach
solution for 20 minutes and rinse before sowing to
kill any fungus spores that may have come along with
them. After a 3-fingered leaf emerges in the spring,
transplant each of these in bunches of 3 to deep pots.
They will be ready to plant outside the following fall.
Plant the plants in full shade under deciduous trees in
a well-drained soil and keep them moist. Wild
American ginseng is typically found in calcium rich
forest soils well supplied with organic matter.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='If American ginseng has been planted in an acid soil,
apply dolomite every fall to heighten the plant’s
vigor and color. Hand weed around the plants.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is generally available from those
nurseries that specialize in herbs. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Beyfuss, R.L. 1999. American ginseng production in
woodlots. Agroforestry Notes 14. USDA, Forest
Service and USDA, Natural Resources Conservation
Service. USDA, National Agroforestry Center, East
Campus-UNL, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Bourne, J. 2000. On the trail of the ‘sang poachers.
Audubon 102:2(84-91).
Canadian Museum of Nature 2000. Species at risk in
Canada: American ginseng. Version: 000504.
<.http://www.nature.ca/english/ginseng.htm>..
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Crosby, M.R. 2000. Ginseng. IN: Microsoft®
Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000.
<.http://encarta.msn.com>.. Microsoft Corporation,
Redmond, Washington.
Cullina, W. 2000. Growing and propagating
wildflowers of the United States and Canada. The
New England Wild Flower Society Guide. Houghton
Mifflin Company, New York.
Gilmore, M.R. 1932. Some Chippewa uses of plants.
Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
and Letters 17:119-143.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Gupton, O.W. &. F.C. Swope 1982. Wildflowers of
Tidewater Virginia. University Press of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia. 208 pp.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York.
Michigan State University Extension 1996.
Growning ginseng. Home Horticulture.
<.http://www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/mod03/03900
053.html>.. East Lansing, Michigan.
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Phillips, H.R. 1985 Growing and propagating wild
flowers. The University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Sadler, T. 1999. Ginseng in Australia. The
Australian New Crops Newsletter, No. 11.
<.http://www.newcrops.uq.edu.au/newslett/ncn11167.
htm >..
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:1(8-175).
Page 3
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
Smith, H.H. 1932. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:3(327-525).
Speck, F.G. 1917. Medicine practices of the
Northeastern Algonquians. Proceedings of the 19th
International Congress of Americanists, pp. 303-321.
Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972. Folk medicine of the
Delaware and related Algonkian Indians.
Pennsylvania Historical Commission
Anthropological Papers, Number 3. Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000504. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes. 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians as it relates to the
history of the tribe. Botanical Museum, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Voss, E. 1985. Michigan flora. Part II. Dicots
(Saururaceae-Cornaceae). Bulletin 59. Cranbrook
Institute of Science and University of Michigan
Herbarium, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 724 pp.
Williams, L. &. J.A. Duke 1978. Growing ginseng.
Farmers Bulletin No. 2201. USDA, Science and
Education Administration, Washington, D.C.
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson &. J. Scott Peterson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='paqu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Environmental Horticulture,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Navajo applied a wet dressing of pounded leaves of
large beardtongue to rattlesnake bites. they
considered this an absolute antidote (Ibid.). A
decoction of the leaves has been used in the treatment
of chills and fevers (Moerman 1998).
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Snapdragon family (Scrophulariaceae).
Large beardtongue is a native perennial that grows up
to four feet tall. The leaves are opposite, simple,
ovate to oblong, thick and fleshy. bluish-green with a
waxy blue sheen and clasping at the base. The large
two inch, pale purple flowers are five lobed and short
lived (Runkel &. Roosa 1989). The fruits are woody,
egg shaped capsules that contain numerous small,
angular, brown seeds (Freeman &. Schofield 1991).
Distribution: Large beardtongue ranges from
Wyoming to Texas, east to Wisconsin, Illinois,
Missouri and Oklahoma (Steyermark 1963). For
current distribution, please consult the Plant profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Penstemon grandiflorus is commonly found in
prairies, often in sandy or loamy soils. This plant
prefers acid, neutral and alkaline soils and requires
well-drained soils. It grows well when planted in
open dry situations (Steyermark 1963), and can grow
in semi-shade or no shade.
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Penstemon grandiflorus seeds
are best sown in the fall or spring in a greenhouse
(Heuser 1997). The seeds should germinate within
one to four months (Ibid.). When the seedlings are
large enough to handle, place them into individual
pots and plant them out in their permanent positions
in the late spring.
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Stem tip cuttings should be taken from the tips of
healthy, non-flowering, semi-mature or mature
shoots, between early summer and fall (Heuser
1997). Shoots can be cut into a number of usable
LARGE
BEARDTONGUE
Penstemon grandiflorus Nutt.
Plant Symbol = PEGR7
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Kurt Adolfson
Native Wildflowers of the North Dakota Grasslands
USDI, GS, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='large-flowered beardtongue, showy beardtongue,
pink beardtongue, shell-leaf penstemon, shell-leaf
beardtongue, wild foxglove, Canterbury bells
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans treated toothache by
chewing the root pulp of plants in this genus and
placing it in the cavity (Runkel &. Roosa 1989). The
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
sections at almost any time during the growing period
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Somewhat available through native plant seed
vendors in the Great Plains region. Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Freeman, C.C &. E.K. Schofield. 1991. Roadside
wildflowers of the southern Great Plains. University
Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Huxley, A. 1992. The new RHS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillan Press, New York, New York.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass prairie wildflowers: a
falcon field guide. Falcon Press Publishing
Company, Helena, Montana.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Owensby, C.E. 1980. Kansas prairie wildflowers.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Runkel, S.T. &. D.M. Roosa 1989. Wildflowers of the
tallgrass prairie: the upper Midwest. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Stamen, T.R. &. W.S. Myers 1937. Oklahoma flora.
Harlow Publishing Co., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
' WHERE symbol='pegr7';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
TWO-NEEDLE
PINYON
Pinus edulis Engelm.
Plant Symbol = PIED
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
© James Manhart
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M Univ., Bioinformatics Working Group
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Pinyon, common pinyon, New Mexico pinyon,
Colorado pinyon, mesa pinyon, two-leaf pinyon, nut
pine, twoneedle pinyon. Spanish spellings are piñon
and piñón.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='The edible nuts of pinyon and are in demand because
of their delicate flavor and are probably the most
commercially valuable product of the species.
Pinyon ranks first among the native nut trees that are
not also cultivated. The nuts are commonly sold and
eaten after roasting in the shell, but small quantities
are sold raw. They were once a staple food of
Southwestern Indians. Local residents now harvest
Plant Guide
quantities for the local and gourmet market, but they
are in competition with many wild animals that also
seek the nuts as food.
Pinyon nuts are a preferred food for turkeys, pinyon
jays, woodrats, bears, and other wildlife, and they are
a common food for deer, particularly during harsh
winters with deep snows. Pinyon-juniper woodlands
provide habitat for a varied wildlife population,
including mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, desert
cottontail, mountain cottontail, and wild turkey.
Poor growth form and small size of two-needle
pinyon has limited its use for sawn products.
Specialized woodworking shops use the wood for
novelties, and small sawmills produce mine timbers
and railroad ties. Two-needle pinyon has been used
for pulping in the Southwest, but only to alleviate
shortages of normally used mill-residue chips and
pulpwood of other species. It has been widely used
for fuel since the pitchy wood has a higher heat value
than any of its associates except the oaks and burns
with a pleasing aroma. It is also occasionally
processed for charcoal.
Pinyons have been cut for private and commercial
use for Christmas trees. These beautiful little trees
are slow growing but should be more widely used for
ornamental purposes. Two-needle pinyon is the state
tree of New Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). Native shrubs or
trees growing 5-12(-21) meters tall, with a strongly
tapering trunk, single-stemmed and tallest at higher
elevations, multi-stemmed, bushy and sprawling on
lower sites, the crown usually compact, rounded and
spreading. Bark is reddish-brown, shallowly and
irregularly furrowed. Needles are evergreen, 2 per
bundle, less commonly 1 or 3, 2-4 cm long,
upcurved, yellow-green to blue-green, mostly 2-3-
sided, all surfaces with pale stomatal bands, the
margins smooth or finely toothed. Seed cones about
(3.5) 4(5) cm long at maturity, ovoid before opening,
depressed-ovoid to nearly globose when open, short-
stalked to nearly sessile. Seeds mostly ellipsoid to
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
obovoid 10-15 mm long, light brown, wingless. The
seeds rest in a deep depression on each cone scale
and a flap of tissue holds them in place, so the seeds
are readily available to birds. The common name
represents a species of pinyon pine producing two
needles per bundle. The Spanish “piñon” refers to
the large seed (pine in Spanish is “pino”).
Variation within the species: the California outlier of
two-needle pinyon has been considered a distinct
species, California Pine (Pinus californiarum)
(Bailey 1987), or a population of 2-needled trees of
single-leaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla var.
californiarum). Pinus edulis var. fallax is seen by
some to combine features of P. edulis and P.
monophylla – but it has most recently been treated as
part of other species (P. californiarum subsp. fallax.
P. monophylla var. fallax). The differences in
opinion regarding these species of pinyon pine are
further reflected in the observation that even the
typical form of P. edulis has been treated as a variety
of both P. monophylla and P. cembroides. Naturally
occurring hybrids have been reported between two-
needle pinyon and single-leaf pinyon in several areas.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Southwestern United States, in southern California
(rare), the intermountain region (Wyoming, Utah,
Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico), to western
Oklahoma (rare) and western Texas, and south into
Chihuahua, Mexico. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Dry mountain slopes, mesas, plateaus,
growing scattered in open woodlands at 1200-2450 (-
2700) meters elevation, in pure stands, or commonly
mixed with one or more of several species of juniper.
Two-needle pinyon is one of the most slow-growing
and drought-resistant species of pines, requiring only
12-18 inches of rainfall a year, but it grows best on
the higher, wetter sites, just below the zone of
ponderosa pine.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Planting: Trees may begin producing cones when 25
years of age but produce significant quantities of seed
only after reaching 75-100 years old. Good seed
crops occur every 4 to 7 years (on average) or more
frequently on better sites, and cone bearing tends to
be synchronous over large geographical areas.
Germination is generally above 80%.
A relationship of mutual benefit exists between two-
needle pinyon and four species of corvid birds:
Clark’s nutcracker, Steller’s jay, scrub jay, and
pinyon jay. These birds are the primary agents of
dispersal of this pine, which provides a large portion
of their diet and subsistence, but only the scrub jay
and pinyon jay cache seeds in the pinyon-juniper
zone and are responsible for its regeneration.
Seed germination and establishment of the two-
needle pinyon are best in the shade of trees or shrubs
and probably depend on an adequate moisture supply
during the first summer. Growth through all stages is
extremely slow. Dominant trees in a stand are often
400 years old, and individuals 800-1000 years old
have been found.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Grazing pressure by sheep and goats greatly reduces
the regenerative capacity of the two-needle pinyon,
and huge areas of pinyon-juniper woodlands have
been extensively cattle-grazed. Range improvement
practices to increase forage for wildlife and livestock
have removed the trees over large areas. Woodland
watersheds also have been mechanically cleared or
chemically treated in the past, but future treatments
may be limited to specific areas, because the
possibility of generally increasing water yield does
not appear promising.
Compared to pinyon pines, junipers have deeper root
penetration and drought resistance and will dominate
regeneration for up to 70 years after severe
disturbance at a site. If small junipers and pines
survive a less severe disturbance, the site may be
naturally reforested after 2-3 decades.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, D.K. 1987. A study of Pinus subsection
Cembroides 1: The single-needle pinyons of the
Californias and the Great Basin. Notes Roy. Bot.
Gard. Edinburgh 44(2):275-310.
Kral, R. 1993. Pinus. Pp. 373-398, IN: Flora of
North America, north of Mexico. Vol. 2,
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford Univ.
Press, New York. <.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Page 3
Ronco, F.P., Jr. 1990. Pinus edulis. Pp. 327-337,
IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA Forest Service
Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='pied';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SINGLELEAF
PINYON
Pinus monophylla Torr. &.
Frem.
Plant Symbol = PIMO
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Davis Arboretum
which grove is the most productive. Since trees can
reach ages of more than 600 years, some of the tribal
pinyon gathering sites have been visited for many
generations. Tools and harvesting methods are
purposefully designed to enhance or maintain future
pinyon cone production. There are two major
harvesting methods utilized today by different tribes.
The first method is to use a hooked stick that brings
down the flexible limbs of the tree and the green,
immature cones are hand-twisted from the branches
before they open and disperse their seeds. The
hooked stick can also be used to snap cones off the
limbs. Sometimes children climb the trunks of the
trees and hand pick the cones, while others use
ladders as a replacement for the hooked sticks.
Harvested cones are placed in plastic buckets, a
modern adaptation of the gathering basket. A second
gathering method is to wait until the cones open, and
then whip the trees with a pole, knocking the seeds
out of the mature cones and collecting them from the
ground. During this process, dead or dying branches
are pruned back, a practice various tribes say is good
for the trees.
Other: Early Euro-American settlers of the Great
Basin logged pinyon trees, for wood, fuel for heating,
cooking, and to supply steam engines. Pinyon
charcoals were used to smelt the silver ores that
became Nevada s number one industry in the 1860 s
and 70 s. In the last three decades, public land
agencies chained large tracts of pinyon trees and
reseeded areas with non-native grasses, such as
crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) to increase
grasses for livestock. Other main uses of singleleaf
pinyon include fence posts, Christmas trees, and
edible seeds.
Wildlife: Many kinds of birds and small mammals
feed on the seeds including white-footed pinyon mice
(Peromyscus truei), chipmunks (Tamias spp.),
golden-mantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus
lateralis), wood rats (Neotoma spp.), white-breasted
nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis), Clark s nutcrackers
(Nucifraga columbiana) and chickadees (Parus spp.).
Black bears, deer, and porcupines feed on the seeds,
bark, and foliage of the pinyon pine, while mountain
sheep browse the foliage and twigs. The inner bark is
a staple food of the mountain pine beetle, as well as
the fungus causing pinyon blister rust. Even the
pitch, dripping from pinecones is feasted upon by
pitch midges, and is harvested for the nests of
Dianthidium bees. Saw flies feed on either needles
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Traditionally different tribes in
California, the Great Basin, and the Southwest U.S.
have utilized this tree for fuel wood and the pine nuts
for food. The Washoe have made pinyon supple
branches into stirring sticks for mixing pine nut soup.
Pinyon pitch is melted and applied by different tribes
as an outer covering for baskets to make them
watertight or used to waterproof and repair pottery
vessels. The tree s large, orange-red to chocolate-
brown seeds have been an important food to Native
Americans for millennia and are extremely important
today. The cones are still gathered in the fall by
tribes in California, the Great Basin and the
Southwest roasted, parched, shelled, winnowed,
ground into a meal, and made into nutritious pine nut
soup, mush, and cakes. Another modern way to
prepare the pine nuts, is to roast them in the oven in
their shells, and then shelled and eaten as a snack.
Since the trees produce good crops every several
years, each family relies on a series of groves,
rotating harvests at different groves--depending upon
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
or pollen, while gall midges live in galls that occurs
in the needle fascicle.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine Family (Pinacaeae). Singleleaf pinyon
is an evergreen tree reaching heights of up to 12
meters. When young, it forms a pyramidal or
rounded silhouette against the sky, while mature
pinyons display a more ungroomed, irregular
branching appearance. The cylindrical, bluish-gray
leaves are generally one per bundle and 1 to 2 in. in
length. The female cones are wind-pollinated. The
subglobose cones ripen in August of the second
growing season, full of 1/2-inch long, wingless seeds.
Pinyon trees produce cones every three to seven
years. Trees usually do not start bearing cones before
they are 35 years old and do not start producing good
seed crops before 100 years.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It is found in pinyon-juniper woodland,
montane juniper woodlands, Jeffrey pine forests,
sagebrush steppe, montane white fir forest, and
subalpine woodland. In pure stands below 2800
meters in the high Sierra Nevada, the Inyo and White
Mountains, the Tehachapi Mountains, and the
Peninsular and Transverse Ranges of southern and
eastern California. Its range extends into Arizona,
New Mexico and northern Baja California in the
southwest and occurs in the dry mountain ranges of
Nevada, Utah, and southeastern Idaho on the east.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Singleleaf pinyon often grows in
association with California juniper (Juniperus
californica), Sierra juniper (J. occidentalis), or Utah
juniper (J. osteosperma) with an understory of shrubs
and grasses such as basin sagebrush (Artemisia
californica), saltbush (Atriplex spp.), rabbitbrush
(Chrysothamnus spp.), antelope brush (Purshia spp.),
hopsage (Grayia spinosa), Indian ricegrass
(Achnatherum hymenoides), blue-bunch wheatgrass
(Pseudoroegneria spicatum subsp. spicatum), and
Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis).
Planting: This slow-growing tree is rarely seen in
cultivation. The seeds of pinyon need 1-3 months
stratification to break winter dormancy before
planting unless the maximum germinating
temperature is below 73 degrees F.
Low elevation/warm winters: Stratification is best
done between the months of January and March.
One method is to take two cups of sponge rock or
perlite (expanded obsidian) and put it in a sieve and
submerge it in water and let it drain. The moistened
perlite is then put in a plastic Ziploc™ bag and 24
pinyon seeds (with shells removed) are placed in the
perlite. Remove much of the air and zip up the bag.
Place the bag on a tray and put it in the back of the
refrigerator for three months. Check seeds weekly
for mold and discard any moldy material. If the
medium is dry, remoisten it, and make sure that the
bag is completely sealed.
Those that germinate should be planted with the root
pointing straight down in deep tree tubes in well-
drained soils until ready for out-planting. Plant 2-3
germinated seeds in soil 1/8 inch deep in each tube.
Place the tubes in filtered shade or on the north or
east side of a building or under a tree. Any leaf litter
that falls on the tubes should be removed. The tubes
need to be protected from small mammals with the
construction and placement of a cage over the tubes.
Water the tubes once a week or more whenever the
top of the soil is dry to the touch.
Pinyon pine is slow growing and should be watered
and kept in tubes for one year. After that time, plant
in well-drained soil to avoid the possibility of fungus
and in full exposure to sun in October, ideally just
before a good soaking rain. If the climate is really
hot, put a shade or shingle on one side of the tree to
protect it from southwest sunlight. Create a basin
that is one foot wide and four or five inches deep.
Make sure the downhill side of the berm is higher
than the uphill side so the water will not run-off.
Water deeply, but infrequently for the first two to
three years after planting. If there is a problem with
voles, mice, deer, rabbits, antelope, and other animals
undermining the roots and girdling the seedlings
precautions need to be taken to create above and
below-ground wire mesh or tubes that protect the
seedlings until they get fully established. Singleleaf
pinyon pines are frost-resistant and extremely
drought-tolerant, once established.
High elevation/cold winters: The seeds from
singleleaf pinyon pine can be directly planted just
after harvest in tree tubes, placing 3 or 4 seeds per
tube one-eighth inch deep. Set tubes outside and
subjected to freezing temperatures until spring. They
are then watered as soon as the ground thaws out and
the soil surface becomes dry to the touch. The
Page 3
seedlings are watered regularly (unless rains suffice)
until out-planted the following spring (one year later)
as soon as the ground thaws out. Once out-planted,
continue to water for the first two to three years and
continue to protect the seedlings from large grazing
animals and small mammals.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire harms pinyon trees. When the tree reaches
adulthood Native Americans traditionally prune back
any dead wood that may accumulate. As a strategy to
protect the pinyon trees from fire, some tribes in
California and the Great Basin rake litter and duff
from under pinenut trees and hand remove shrubs
that might act as a fuel ladder during a fire. They
prune back low-lying limbs under the trees that could
catch fire. Historically many areas in the pinyon
juniper forests that were places where people
habitually camped or collected pine nuts were
carefully cleaned of underbrush as part of routine and
necessary maintenance.
The pinyon pine engraver (Ips confusus) is a bark
beetle that inhabits pinyon pine. The brown beetles
bore egg galleries along the grain of the wood.
Dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium campylopodum) taps
pinyon limbs for water and nutrients, causing a
hormonal imbalance, swelling in the plant, and acting
as a food sump. Pinyon pine is subject to attacks by a
host of other pathogens, most of which weaken but
do not kill the tree. This include needlecast fungi
(Bifusella pini) which inhabits the needles, pinyon
bluster rust (Cronartium occidentale) which infects
the living branches, and elytroderma disease
(Elytroderma deformans) which upsets the hormonal
balance causing bud stimulation. This leads to the
production of extra branches which gives the tree a
brooming effect. Brown crumbly rot (Fomitopsis
pinicola), a heart rot fungus, will decimate senescent
trees. It moves from the heartwood into the roots,
rotting them, and the tree falls over.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is readily available from nurseries
throughout its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Curtis, E.S. 1924. The Washo. Pages 89-98 IN: F.W.
Hodge (ed.), The North American Indian Vol. 14.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden.
Santa Barbara, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97 IN:
W.L. D Azevedo, editor. Handbook of North
American Indians. Vol. 11: Great Basin.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Fowler, C.S. 1996. Historical perspectives on
Timbisha Shosone land management practices, Death
Valley, California. Case Studies in Environmental
Archaeology. E.J. Reitz, L.A. Newsom, and S. J.
Scudder (eds.). Plenum Press, New York, New York.
Johnston, V.R. 1994. California forests and
woodlands: A natural history. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Lanner, R.M. 1983. Trees of the Great Basin: A
natural history. University of Nevada Press, Reno,
Nevada.
Lanner, R.M. 1981. The pinon pine: A natural and
cultural history. University of Nevada Press, Reno,
Nevada.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York.
Meeuwig, R.O., J.D. Budy, &. R.L. Everett 1990.
Pinus monophylla singleleaf pinyon. Pages 380-394
IN: Silvics of North America, Volume 1. Conifers.
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (Tech. Coords).
USDA, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 654,
Washington, DC.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Version: 05APR1999.
Vasek, F.C. &. R.F. Thorne 1988. Transmontane
coniferous vegetation. Pages 797-812 IN: Terrestrial
vegetation of California, M.G Barbour and J. Major
(eds.), California Native Plant Society.
' WHERE symbol='pimo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page 4
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Davis Arboretum, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited: 18jan01 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Longleaf Pine
Pinus palustris P. Mill.
Plant Symbol = PIPA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plants Data
Team, Davis, California and the Mississippi Choctaw
Field Office, Choctaw Mississippi
Figure 2. Choctaw Village near the Tchefuncte River, an oil painting by
François Bernard, Bonfouca, St. Tammany Parish. La., 1846. Notice the
log cabin and summer arbor. Both are probably made of longleaf pine
wood and observe the longleaf pine forest in the background. Courtesy
of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard
University: 41-72-10/27.
out with fire and scraped and chipped with oyster shells
and stone hatchets (Swanton 1946. Catesby 1731-43).
Longleaf pine was used for torches for fishing and
hunting at night, as fuelwood and tinder for heating and
cooking, and village streets were paved with pine bark
(Earley 2004). Pines are considered by the Cherokee to
have eternal lives, and therefore a home where a death
occurred was purified with the smoke from pine branches,
burned in a cooking vessel. pine branches were also
thrown on the rekindled hearth fire (Mooney 1932). A
Cherokee medicine man made a decoction of the tops of
pines that was drunk by the patient for removing the pain
in the body caused by the intrusion of a foreign object
(Mooney 1932).
Figure 3: Longleaf log cabin constructed and used by a member of the
Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb. Photo used by permission by Chief John
Procell. Photo comes from their tribal collection.
Figure 1. Old-growth longleaf pine forest, St. Tammany Parish,
Louisiana. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, circa 1909.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Hard, Longstraw, Pitch, Fat, Southern Yellow, Swamp,
Yellow or Georgia Pine
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Uses
Cultural: Grooveless stone axes and adzes found in
archaeological contexts in the southeastern United States
reflect considerable Indian use of wood resources in
southeastern forests (Delcourt et al. 1993). One of the
most important of these wood resources was the pines.
Pines had many uses among southeastern tribes, but often
the kind of pine used is not identified. Given that in the
past, longleaf pine dominated many landscapes in the
Southeast, it is likely that it was utilized for many of the
purposes described here. The Choctaw made darts that
were used in blowguns from splinters of pine, sharpened
at one end (Bushnell 1909). Tribes of the Southeast used
pine wood for house frames, canoes, frames for skin boats
or rafts, and bows (Swanton 1946). The Creek and
Choctaw used pine bark to cover the roofs of their houses
(Swanton 1931, 1946. Walker 2004). The Cherokee made
canoes out of logs of large pines and they were hollowed
Page 2
The Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb located in Sabine
Parish, Louisiana, utilized the longleaf pine wood for
many purposes: as kindling for fires and for constructing
log homes, cribs for livestock use, and slat houses
(Rogers 2012). The slat homes were constructed of boards
hewn from a longleaf pine log (see figures 2 - 4) (Rogers
2012). The Adai Caddo also made log or slat homes
(Rogers 2012).
The Alabama Coushatta, Chitimacha, Adai Caddo,
Louisiana Coushatta (Koasati), Tunica-Biloxi Tribe of
Louisiana, Clifton Choctaw, Four Winds Tribe Louisiana
Cherokee Confederacy, Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb,
Seminole, and Houma used and continue to use the
distinct long needles of longleaf pine in the making of
baskets (figures 5-8) (Gettys 1979. Kniffen et al. 1987.
Rogers 2012. S. Turnbaugh and W. Turnbaugh 1986).
The needles are gathered in the spring while still on the
tree or fall from the ground and dried in a cool place out
of direct sunlight (Rogers 2012).
Figure 4: Slat House construction from longleaf pine. House was the
home to the great grandfather of the current Chief of the Choctaw-
Apache Tribe of Ebarb - John Procell. The woman in the photo is Chief
Procell’s mother. Picture used by permission of John Procell.
Once dry the sheaths of the needles are clipped or scraped
off and discarded and the needles are stored in paper
sacks or other breathable containers until needed (Rogers
2012). Before using dried needles, they are soaked in
water to regain their flexibility and then used (Rogers
2012). The long pine needles are coiled, and sewn in
place with the inner bark of dogwood or slippery elm
(Kniffen et al. 1987). The Louisiana Coushatta tribe was
among the first practitioners of the coiled pine needle
basket technique and they are still known for their skill at
making longleaf pine needle baskets and trays.
Figure 5: Becky Thomas, Clifton Choctaw shown weaving a basket.
Seated around her on the floor are other baskets that she has created.
She is one of the premier basket weavers of the tribe. Photograph by E.
John Rogers.
Both the Louisiana and Texas Coushatta are known for
their round and oval baskets, which may be decorated
with flowers or pine cones (figure 6). Pine needle trays
have also been made since the 1930s.The Coushatta are
also known for making pine needle effigy baskets in
numerous animal shapes.
Figure 6: Longleaf pine trees have been used for generations to craft
intricate handmade baskets made by Tribal members and elders of the
Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. Photograph by Beverly Moseley.
Page 3
It takes large quantities of pine needles to make a basket
and today locating enough sources of needles is difficult
in Louisiana (Rogers 2012) and many parts of the
Southeast.
Non-Indian women in the early to mid-part of the
twentieth century made longleaf pine needle baskets for
gathering fruits and berries, vegetables and flowers, and
also eggs from the barnyard (Tappan 1930). They also
made them for decoration and pine needle basketry was
taught in local schools (Hammel 1917). The favored time
for gathering the needles was autumn (Lang 1926).
Many early non-Indian settlers in the Southeastern United
States considered longleaf pine the most valuable of all
the kinds of pines (Porcher 1991). They found medicinal
value in longleaf pine using turpentine as a stimulant and
diuretic, and if taken in large doses, it served as a laxative
(Porcher 1991). The turpentine was also used in the
making of soap. The buds of the pine or the inner bark
was steeped in water and drunk as a cure for colds and
coughs (Porcher 1991). As non-Indian settlers moved into
the area, they grazed their sheep, hogs, and cattle in the
open understories of these pine forests and hogs also
consumed the pine nuts (Porcher 1991). By the late
1700’s Europeans and Americans had created an
increased demand for naval stores where the wood was
employed in the siding of ships, masts, yardarms and for
floorboards in buildings (Porcher 1991). The tree took on
great economic importance in Western society for saw
timber. The second-growth
longleaf pine became
important for lumber, pulpwood, crossties, boxes, crates,
fuelwood, and in producing turpentine and rosin (Mattoon
1922). Two distinct pine products, tar derived by slow-
burning pine wood in a kiln, and pitch made from tar
boiled in a kettle or cauldron were used to seal naval
ships, making them watertight (Earley 2004). At one time,
the bulk of the turpentine produced in the United States
came from southeastern longleaf pine forests (Mattoon
1922). Forest examiner Wilbur Mattoon commented in
1922 on the extensive destruction of young stands that
were worked heavily for these products.
Today young stands of longleaf pine can produce pine
straw mulch, a very important regional product obtained
from longleaf pine stands beginning at about age 8,
peaking at age 18 and sometimes continuing for many
more years (Wallace and Ward, 2011. Ward, 2011). Care
must be taken if pine straw is to be harvested sustainably
and native understory plants conserved (Ward, 2011).
Mature longleaf forests produce high quality timber
products including utility poles, lumber and pulpwood.
Wildlife: Many kinds of animals are associated with the
groundcover in longleaf pine forests. In fact, the majority
of the biological diversity in longleaf forests is in the
understory, not the tree canopies (Simberloff 1993). Wild
turkeys (Meleagris gallapavo), fox squirrels (Sciurus
niger), and gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) all
Figure 7: Doris Battise, is a master basket weaver and a member of the
Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. Photograph is by Beverly Moseley.
During the 1960’s Coushatta women produced a wide
array of animals: bear, crabs, crayfish, frogs, etc. The
Louisiana Coushatta have also planted long leaf pine on
their land near Elton in the southwestern part of the state,
so they can continue to make baskets in the future (Rogers
2012).
Figure 8: Materials needed to begin a longleaf needle basket.
photograph taken at a longleaf pine needle basket workshop at the Four
Winds Cherokee Tribal office. Permission granted by Four Winds Tribe
to use and take photograph. Photograph was taken by E. John Rogers.
Page 4
floridanus),
indigo snakes
use the longleaf pine understory. The gopher tortoise is
crucial to longleaf pine communities because at least 332
other animal species use its burrows such as Florida mice
(Podomys
(Drymarchon
couperi), and gopher frogs (Rana capito) (Jackson and
Milstrey 1989. Franz 1984). The gopher tortoise is a
species of special concern—declining through loss of
habitat and lack of fire in existing habitats (Barlow 2004).
In one study higher densities were found in open areas
with herbaceous ground cover and bare soil and much
lower in areas of higher shade and shrub cover (Barlow
2004). The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis)
and the Bachman’s sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis) are
two of many federally listed species that inhabit the
endangered longleaf pine-wiregrass ecosystem of the
southeastern coastal plain (Noss et al. 1995). With
changed fire regimes, other birds that frequent longleaf
pine are declining such as the brown-headed nuthatch
(Sitta pusilla), loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus),
and eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) (Cox 1987 cited in
Barlow 2004). Longleaf stands are also highly valued for
wildlife habitat necessary for bobwhite quail (Colinus
virginianus).
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current
status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state
noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Description
General: The tree grows up to 120 feet tall (37 meters)
tall, with a rounded crown. The orange-brown trunk is
straight, up to 30 inches (76 cm) in diameter and it has
coarse, rectangular, scaly plates (Harlow and Harrar,
1969). The leaves are 25-40 cm. long and are in threes
that are persistent for 2 years (Gleason and Cronquist
1991. Radford et al. 1968). Longleaf pine has a deep
taproot and a definite grass stage (Kral 1993). The seed
cones are solitary or paired 15 cm. long. A heavy crop of
pine cones bearing seed occurs at intervals of about every
seven years and the seeds require two years to mature
(Mattoon 1922).
Distribution: The forest grows from 0-700 m and once
occupied a belt extending through the Coastal Plain from
extreme southern Virginia to the Everglades in Florida
and west into Texas, originally covering about 92 million
acres prior to European settlement (Shantz and Zon 1924.
Frost 1993). Though confined mostly to the Coastal Plain,
longleaf can also be encountered in parts of the Piedmont,
as well as the southern foothills of the Appalachian
Mountains (Earley 2004). When the Spanish arrived in
the early 1500s, longleaf pine was the dominant tree over
60 million acres of the Southeast, and it grew in mixtures
with other pines and hardwoods on an additional 30
million acres (Earley 2004). Presently longleaf occupies
only 3.4 million acres (America’s Longleaf 2009).
Longleaf pine communities have been reduced to about
three percent of their original area, due to logging,
turpentining, open range grazing by hogs and other
livestock, fire suppression, clearing for agriculture, and
urban development (Frost 1993). The longleaf pine forests
of Texas and Louisiana have declined by eighty-five
percent since 1935 (Bridges and Orzell 1989 cited in Noss
et. al 1995). Ninety-eight percent of the presettlement
longleaf pine forests in the Southeastern Coastal Plain are
gone (Noss et al. 1995). Longleaf pine forests of Florida
have dwindled by eighty-eight percent (Kautz 1993 cited
in Noss et al. 1995). Lawrence S. Earley (2004) estimates
that the majority of old-growth longleaf pine forest is
gone—with a mere 12,000 acres remaining in scattered
stands.
Habitat: Longleaf pine grows in pure stands over large
areas and has the ability to grow on poor, dry, and poorly
drained soils (Mattoon 1922). It is found in dry sandy
uplands, sandhills, savannas, wet flatwoods of the coastal
plain from Virginia to Texas, as well as montane sites
including dry, rocky ridgetop areas in Alabama and
Georgia (Estes 2006). The region experiences from 40 to
60 inches of rain a year.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Adaptation
Longleaf pine forests are adapted to the disturbances of
fire and hurricanes and frequent low intensity burns are
important in maintaining variable horizontal structure in
this plant community (Landers et al 1995. Estes 2006).
Longleaf pine is remarkably resistant to fire. It puts out an
extensive root system following seed germination,
enabling the seedling to sprout from its root collar if
defoliated by fire (Carey 1992. Ware et al. 1993). The
terminal bud of the seedling is protected from the heat of
grass fires by a rosette of long, green needles and older
growth has a thick, fire-resistant bark (Watson 1940.
Carey 1992). The large seeds germinate best on bare
mineral soil—an effective way to create these conditions
is through prescribed burning (Garren 1943 cited in
Wagner 2003. Watson 1940).
When the earliest explorers came into the southeastern
United States, they commented on the wide spacing of
longleaf pine trees. Early ecologists such as B.W. Wells
marveled at the size of the old-growth trees, measuring a
yard or more in basal diameter (Wells 1932 cited in
Earley
describe
Southeastern Indian burning practices in the longleaf pine
forests for many reasons such as to facilitate hunting by
opening the woods, encourage forage for wildlife, and
control insects (Earley 2004. Lawson 1967).
2004). Euro-American
accounts
Page 5
season burn (April-June) is necessary to reduce the
number and vigor of hardwood sprouts (Jose et. al.2006).
If competing vegetation is not controlled, longleaf will
remain in the “grass stage” for up to 15 years, rather than
the minimum of 2 years (Jose et. al. 2006). Seedlings in
the grass stage are capable of re-sprouting if damaged or
top-killed (Jose et. al. 2006). Height growth can be rapid
once seedlings emerge from the grass stage. Young
stands of longleaf tend to quickly develop a range of size
classes reducing the risk of stagnation and the need for
pre-commercial thinning (Burns 1983).
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Pests and Diseases
The longleaf pine has two serious enemies—the hog and
the brown spot needle disease (Septoria acicola) which
causes defoliation. Hogs root the seedlings up and can
live on the stored food material in the roots. The needle
disease is caused by a fungus which is often a very
serious enemy of the young seedlings underneath a
“rough” of dead grass. Burning the dead grass in winter at
intervals of more than one year can control this disease
(Chapman 1941. Greene 1931). Longleaf pine is less
to southern pine beetle, Dendroctonus
susceptible
frontalis, and pitch canker, Fusarium moniliforme var.
subglutinans than other southern pines.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist
or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your
area and how to use it safely. Always read label and
safety instructions for each control method. Trade names
and control measures appear in this document only to
provide specific information. USDA NRCS does not
guarantee or warranty the products and control methods
named, and other products may be equally effective.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area
of origin)
This plant is available from native plant nurseries. Select
plants from seed collected from healthy vigorous local
stands to maintain genetic diversity and integrity of
ecotypes.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Figure 9: Silvicultural burning of longleaf in the grass stage.
Photograph was taken by E. John Rogers.
These fires were frequent, every two to four years (Rogers
2012). The time of year for most Indian-set fires was fall
to winter (Ware et al. 1993). Together, lightning and
Indian-set fires created the open forests that Europeans,
such as William Bartram, observed in the Southeast.
Many of the ecosystems where longleaf pine grows, such
as the pine flatwood ecosystem, are fire dependent. Pine
flatwoods have a fire frequency of every one to eight
years (Behm 2003). Numerous studies demonstrate that
prescribed burning can help put cutover longleaf lands
back into timber production without planting (Bruce and
Bickford 1950). Longleaf pine grows best with low-
intensity fires spaced one to three years apart (Kalisz et al.
1986. Myers 1985 cited in Wagner 2003). Some research
suggests that many longleaf pine sites have been replaced
by hardwoods and other species of pines (Boyer 1990.
Frost 1993. Myers and Peroni 1983). Many of these
vegetation changes are in part a result of shifts in the fire
regimes, likely due to a decrease in Indian burning and
lightning fire suppression.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment and Management
Seeds of longleaf pine are the largest of the southern
pines. They do not store well and are best planted in the
fall after collection between October and November and
test for seed viability prior to planting. Longleaf is
mostly regenerated with bare root or container seedlings.
Best results are obtained with container seedlings, planted
slightly above ground level when soil is moist between
November and March. Planting rates vary from 300 to
900 per acre but the most commonly recommended rate is
600-700 per acre (Longleaf Pine Partnership Council
2013).
Longleaf is very susceptible to competing
vegetation. Competing vegetation must be controlled
either chemically or mechanically with seedlings planted
in the center of a weed free area with a radius of at least
15 inches (Longleaf Alliance 2009). If there is a history
of cultivation sub-soiling will be necessary to break up
soil compaction (Longleaf Alliance 2009). Prescribed fire
applied at an interval of 1-3 years is necessary to exclude
hardwood trees and shrubs and maintain a natural
understory of grasses and forbs. An occasional growing
America’s Longleaf 2009. Rangewide Conservation Plan for
Longleaf Pine. Regional Working Group for America’s
Longleaf. 42 pp. http://www.americaslongleaf.org/
Barlow, S.E. 2004. Vegetative characteristics of gopher
tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) habitat on the Lower
Suwannee National Wildlife Refuge: Implications for
restoration and management of pine communities.
Master s Thesis. University of Florida.
Bartram, W. 1996. William Bartram Travels and Other
Writings. Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., New
York, N.Y.
Page 6
Boyer, W.D. 1990. Pinus palustris Mill. Longleaf pine. Pages
405-412 In: Silvics of North America Volume 1.
Conifers. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook
654.
Bridges, E.L., and S.L. Orzell. 1989. Longleaf pine
communities of the west Gulf coastal plain. Natural Areas
Journal 9:246-263.
Burns, R. M., ed., 1983. Silvicultural Systems for the Mahor
Forest Types of the United States, pp. 153-156. W.D.
Boyer and D.W. Peterson. Ag. Handbook 445, USDA-
Forest
Washington,
DC. http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/32974
Service,
Burns, R.M. and B.H. Honkala, 1990. Silvics of North
America: Vol. 1. Agriculture Handbook No. 654. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington,
DC. http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/tab
le_of_contents.htm
Bushnell, D.L., Jr. 1909. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St.
Tammany Parish, Louisiana. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin, Number 48. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.
Carey, J.H. 1992. Pinus palustris In: Fire Effects Information
System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
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Florida, and Bahama Islands. 2 Vols. London.
Chapman, H.H. 1941. Controlled burning correspondence.
Journal of Forestry 39:888-890.
Cox, J. 1987. The breeding bird survey in Florida: 1969-
1983. Fla. Field Nat. 15:29-56.
Delcourt, P.A., H.R. Delcourt. D.F. Morse, and P.A. Morse.
1993. History, evolution, and organization of vegetation
and human culture. Pages 47-79 In: Biodiversity of the
Southeastern United States Lowland Terrestrial
Communities. W.H. Martin, S.G. Boyce, and A.C.
Echternacht (eds.). John Wiley &. Sons, Inc. New York,
N.Y.
Earley, L.S. 2004. Looking for Longleaf: The Fall and Rise
of an American Forest. The University of North Carolina
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Estes, B.L. 2006. Impact of Interacting Disturbances on
Longleaf Pine Communities. Ph.D. Dissertation. School
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Franz, R. 1984. The Florida gopher frog and the Florida pine
snake as burrow associates of the gopher tortoise in
northern Florida. Pages 16-20 in: The Gopher Tortoise
and its Community. D.R. Jackson and R.J. Bryant (eds.).
Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Frost, C.C. 1993. Four centuries of changing landscape
patterns in the longleaf pine ecosystem. Pages 17-44 in:
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Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, Fla.
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Garren, K.H. 1943. Effects of fire on vegetation of the
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Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent
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Department of Interior Bureau of Education Bulletin
1917, No. 3. Greensboro, N.C.
Harlow, W.M. and E.S. Harrar 1969. Textbook of
Dendrology. McGraw-Hill, Fifth Ed. pp.81-84.
Jackson, D.R., and E.R. Milstrey. 1989. The fauna of gopher
tortoise burrows. In Proceedings of the Gopher Tortoise
Relocation Symposium. J.E. Diemer D.R. Jackson, J.L.
Landers, J.N. Layne, and D.A. Wood (eds.). Florida
Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, Tallahassee.
Jose, S., E.J. Jokela and D.L. Miller, ed., 2006. The Longleaf
Pine Ecosystem: Ecology, Silviculture, and Restoration.
Springer. 438 pp.
Kalisz, P.J., A.W. Dorian, and E.L. Stone. 1986. Prehistoric
land-use and the distribution of longleaf pine on the Ocala
National Forest, Florida: an interdisciplinary synthesis.
Florida Anthropologist 39(3):183-193.
Kautz, R.S. 1993. Trends in Florida wildlife habitat 1936-87.
Florida Scientist 1:7-24.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory, and G.A. Stokes. 1987. The
Historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana From 1542 to the
Present. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.
Kral, R. 1993. Pinus Linnaeus, Sp. Pages 373-398 in: Flora of
North America Vol. 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms.
Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.).
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Landers, J.L., D.H. Van Lear, and W.D. Boyer. 1995. The
longleaf pine forests of the Southeast: requiem or
renaissance? Journal of Forestry 93: 39-44.
Lang, E. Mrs. 1926. Basketry Weaving and Design. Charles
Scribner’s Sons. New York, N.Y. Longleaf Alliance
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Longleaf
101. http://www.longleafalliance.org/academy/overview .
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North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Reprint. Original
published in 1709.
Academy:
Longleaf
Longleaf Pine Partnership Council 2013, in press. Longleaf
White
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Paper. http://www.americaslongleaf.org/whosinvolved/pa
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Forest, Florida. American Butterflies 3(4):4-11.
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formulas and medicinal prescriptions. F.M. Olbrechts
(ed.) Smithsonian
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Florida sand hill and sand pine scrub vegetation. Bulletin
of the Torrey Botanical Club 112(3):241-252.
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Ecosystems of
the United States: A Preliminary
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28. National Biological Service, U.S. Department of the
Interior, Washington, D.C.
Porcher, M.D., F.P. 1991. Resources of the Southern Fields
and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural.
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(Originally published in 1863 by Evans &. Cogswell,
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the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. The University of
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Indian Tribes of Louisiana: Pine Cones, Needles and
Logs. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
Report.
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American Agriculture, Pt. 1, Sec. E. U.S. Department of
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on old-growth forests: prospects for
longleaf pine
communities. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire
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the Longleaf Pine
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Tallahassee, FL.
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America. P.E. Minnis
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Pages 373-392 in: Handbook of North American Indians
Vol. 14. Southeast. R.D. Fogelson (Vol. ed.). Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Wallace, D. and T. Ward 2011. Pine Straw – A Profitable
Agroforestry Enterprise. Agroforestry Notes, AF Note-37,
USDA National Agroforestry Center, Lincoln,
NE. http://nac.unl.edu/documents/agroforestrynotes/an37f
f06.pdf
Ward, T., 2011. Minimum Impact Pine Straw Raking.
USDA-Natural Resources
Forestry Technical Note.
Conservation Service, E. National Technology Support
Center, Greensboro, NC.
Ware, S., C. Frost, and P.D. Doerr. 1993. Southern mixed
hardwood forest: the former longleaf pine forest. Pages
447-493 In: Biodiversity of the Southeastern United
States Lowland Terrestrial Communities. W.H. Martin,
S.G. Boyce, and A.C. Echternacht (eds.). John Wiley &.
Sons, Inc. New York, N.Y.
Watson, Jr., L. 1940. Controlled burning and the management
of longleaf pine. Journal of Forestry 38:44-47.
Wells, B.W. 1932. The Natural Gardens of North Carolina.
Reprint 2002. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill.
Prepared By: M. Kat Anderson, Ethnoecologist, USDA
NRCS National Plants Team. Tim Oakes USDA NRCS
Liaison-Conservation Program Analyst to the Mississippi
Band of Choctaw Indians and E. John Rogers, District
Conservationist Sabine SWCD, Many, LA.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Citation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Citation='Anderson, M.K., T. Oakes, and E.J. Rogers 2012. Plant
Guide for Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris P. Mill.).
USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, National
Plants Team. Davis, CA 95616.
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Acknowledgements TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Acknowledgements='The authors would like to thank Mark Garland, Ramona
Garner, Garry Stephens and Thomas Ward for editing of
this Plant Guide and to Beverly Moseley for her photo
contributions. Appreciation is expressed to the Shields
Library at UC Davis for use of its vast library collections
and interlibrary loan services to find limited and obscure
library materials in book, report, and microfilm form from
many institutions across the country.
Published: May 30, 2013
Edited: June 7, 2013
For more information about this and other plants, please
contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation
District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit
the
PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant
Materials
http://plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability
of other Web sites.
Program Web
site
' WHERE symbol='pipa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDER TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_USDAISANEQUALOPPORTUNITYPROVIDER='AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Page 1
Plant Guide
MONTEREY PINE
Pinus radiata D. Don
Plant Symbol = PIRA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Charles Webber
California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
could be easily opened by placing them on or near a
fire. Pine nuts were eaten whole or pounded into
flour that was made into porridge or mixed with other
foods. The young, male catkins are edible and said to
have a nice flavor either raw or cooked (Couplan
1998). During heavy winters or times of scarcity the
inner bark of pine trees would serve as an emergency
food.
The needles of pines, which contain vitamin C, were
brewed into a tea that was drunk to treat headaches
(Heinsen 1972). The Costanoan and others chewed
pine resin to treat rheumatism. This resin or pitch
was used as a salve that was applied to burns and
sores. Pine resins were useful as glue or sealant.
Pine resin was also chewed as gum. Pine nuts were
burned into charcoal, crushed, and then applied to
both sores and burns. Various Native American
tribes used the split roots of many pine species as the
foundation to make fish traps, seed beaters, burden
and many other types of baskets (Murphey 1959).
The inner portions of slender new pine twigs could be
processed into sewing materials (Barrett &. Gifford
1933).
Livestock: Goats browse on Monterey pines.
Wildlife: Black-tailed deer browse the leaves and
branches of Monterey pine. Porcupines are known to
browse on leaves and branches as well as eat the
bark. Small mammals including deer mice,
chipmunks, and ground squirrels eat the seeds.
Among the birds that eat the seeds are scrub jays,
Stellar jays, and crows. Nesting chestnut-backed
chickadees have been observed to obtain almost 80%
of their insect diet from foraging in Monterey pine
trees (Kleintjes &. Dahlsten 1994).
Other: Monterey pine is used for erosion control and
stabilization of steep slopes because it is fast growing
and has a wide spreading root system. The trees are
sometimes used as Christmas trees.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='The California Native Plant Society considers
Monterey pine rare in its native range. Please consult
the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of
Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g.
threatened or endangered species, state noxious
status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Insignias pine, radiata pine, Cambria pine
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The seeds of all pine species are edible
and pine nuts have historically been an important
food utilized by many Native American tribes (Strike
1994). Pines were also valued for their wood, sap,
and pine needles. Because of its restricted range, few
tribes used Monterey pine. The Costanoan and
probably the Salinan relied on the seeds as a source
of food in coastal areas of their territory. Pedro
Fages (1937) describes the California Indians in the
Monterey area as using many kinds of pine nuts and
among them those of Monterey pine. He writes, “the
cones of the pine tree are small, and the nuts are
extremely so, but very good and pleasing to the taste.
The method of gathering them is to build a fire at the
foot of the tree, which in a few hours falls, making
the fruit available without difficulty” (Fages 1937.
68-69). Many bedrock mortars are found adjacent to
Monterey pine forests, which may be additional
evidence of their use by both tribes (Leonard 1963).
The closed cones of Monterey pines were probably a
particularly valuable resource because they remain on
the tree and can therefore be harvested all through the
year. The closed cones open in response to heat and
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Weediness TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Weediness='This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine family (Pinaceae). Monterey pines are
native to California and Baja California where they
occur in only a few small populations. Mature
Monterey pines can reach 38 m in height with trunks
up to 2 m in diameter. The young trees begin as
compact pyramids but age into varied shapes. The
adult canopy is usually rounded to flat-topped.
Along the Pacific coast, the winds sculpt Monterey
pine canopies into picturesque shapes. The bark is
red-brown to blackish brown and has deep furrows.
The leaves are glossy, dark green needles, 6-15 cm
long that grow in bundles of three. Needles on older
trees are sometimes a bluish green. Flowers appear
in late winter or early spring. The trees are
monoecious. having both male and female flowers
(McDonald &. Laacke 1990). The yellow male
catkins are 12mm long and are generally found on the
lateral branches. Female flowers grow throughout
the entire canopy. The grayish brown cones are
asymmetrically oval, 6 to 15 cm long, and are born
on short stalks in clusters of 3 to 7 cones. The scales
are smooth and rounded. Each cone contains from
120 to 200 dark brown to black, bumpy winged seeds
that are 6-7mm long. The cones remain closed on the
tree until the second year or sometimes longer.
Cones generally ripen and open from late winter to
early spring of the second year. Thereafter, they may
remain on the tree where they can open and close
several times depending on temperature and
moisture. The close-grained wood is light and soft.
Although it is not considered an important lumber
tree in California, it has been widely planted in areas
with Mediterranean climates throughout the world for
use as lumber and pulp.
Distribution: Monterey pines are native to California
and Baja California. Native Monterey pine forests
occupy a small portion of their historical range and
are currently restricted to five coastal locations: Año
Nuevo in the north, the Monterey Peninsula,
Cambria, and on Guadalupe and Cedros islands off
the coast of Baja, California in the south.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Monterey pines grow below 1200 meters in
closed cone pine forests and oak woodlands. The
species is one of the 18 California species of pines
and cypresses that bear closed cones (Dallman
1998:27). The remaining stands of Monterey pine
are threatened by numerous factors including
urbanization, recreational development, and fire
suppression, pests and diseases. Fire suppression has
resulted in very old stands of forest, which are more
susceptible to attacks from pests and diseases. In the
Monterey area, the trees are seriously threatened by
an epidemic of “pine pitch canker”, a fungal disease
caused by Fusarium subglutans pini. This fungus
was recently introduced to California from the
southeastern United States and is carried from tree to
tree by several native insects including the Monterey
pine cone beetle (Conophthorus radiatae), twig
beetles (Pitophthorus spp.) and engraver beetles (Ips
spp.). Indigenous stands of Monterey pine are also
threatened by genetic contamination, which results
from crossbreeding with planted trees that were
brought in from other areas.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Monterey pines are adapted to soils of medium to
heavy texture. Monterey pines have serotinous cones
that do not release the seeds unless subjected to high
temperatures. Superheating may occur on very hot
days or during fire events. Because hot days do not
often occur in the Central Coast of California,
replenishment of the seed bank is highly dependant
on fire (Hillyard 1997).
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Monterey pines are ornamental as well as useful.
This species is the most widely cultivated pine in the
world (Templeton et al. 1997). Monterey pines are
also the most widely planted trees for choose-and-cut
Christmas tree farms in California. They are
excellent shade trees, act as effective wind and sound
barriers, and have been used for erosion control.
Be careful to select a proper place to plant these fast
growing trees. Monterey pines are the most rapid
growing pine of over 90 species that occur in the
world (Labadie 1978). Young trees can grow up to 2
meters per year, generally reaching from 12 to 18
meters within 25 years. The trees have an average
life span of 80 to 90 years.
These trees require deep, well drained, medium to
course textured soils of medium fertility. Trees that
Page 3
are planted on shallow or waterlogged soils may be
unstable because of shallow vertical roots. Monterey
pines can be damaged or killed in areas where
temperatures reach below freezing.
Monterey pines are usually transplanted from
containers or bare rootstock grown by commercial
nurseries. However, these plants usually come from
New Zealand stock. Even though the New Zealand
stock originated from California populations,
crossbreeding with native populations is considered a
threat to the native population’s conservation because
of genetic contamination (Cope 1993).
Seed may propagate Monterey pine trees. Handpick
mature cones from the trees or from the ground. Air-
dry opened cones by spreading them in a sunny, dry
place. To open closed cones, drop them into boiling
water for 1 to 2 minutes or more, if needed. Remove
the seeds from the cones by shaking them out.
Although the cones require heat in order to release
the seeds, the seeds do not generally require
pretreatment in order to germinate. One to three
weeks of cold-moist stratification may improve
germination, especially for seeds that have been
stored (Emery 1988). Monterey pines are not
generally propagated by cuttings as, even with
bottom heat, the cuttings may take four or more
months to form roots.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Established trees require occasional deep watering
accompanied by a light fertilization to remain
healthy. To control the size of the tree, and to
increase bushiness, the new growth, called candles,
may be pruned in the spring as they appear. Remove
dead or dying branches.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Western dwarf mistletoe, western gall rust, various
needle blights, pitch moth, red turpentine beetle,
pitch canker, Monterey pine scale, irregular pine
scale, pine leaf scale, aphids, mites, pine tip borer,
pine tip moth.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='Although Monterey pines are threatened in their
present native habitat, they have been considered a
weedy pest in some areas of California where they
have escaped cultivation. Millar (1998) uses fossil
evidence to support an alternate view: that Monterey
pine populations have historically shifted in size and
location along the California and Baja coasts in
response to changing climate. She suggests, that in
order to allow for the continued survival of Monterey
pines, establishment of new stands of native stock
within the pine’s historical range should be
considered as opportunities for their conservation and
not as a threat to other native species.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plants are readily available from commercial
sources. Request plants established from native
California rather than New Zealand stock.
If you are planting trees in areas near native stands,
be sure the seeds or seedlings are from the same
genetic stock as those stands.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park, CA.
388 pp.
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, CA. 768 pp.
Burns, R.M. &. B.H. Honkala 1990. Silvics of North
American, Volume 1, Conifers. Agricultural
Handbook 654, Forest Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington D.C. Pp. 443-441.
Cope, Amy B. 1993. Pinus radiata. IN: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
2001, May. Fire Effects Information System,
[Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [Accessed: 20
October 2001].
Couplan, F. 1998. The encyclopedia of edible plants
of North America. Keats Publishing, New Canaan,
Connecticut. 584 pp.
Dallman, P.R. 1998. Plant life in the world’s
Mediterranean climates: California. Fremontia, Vol.
26, No. 2. Pp18-27.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California. 115 pp.
Page 4
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books USA,
Champaign, Illinois. 210 pp.
Webber, C. 1998. Pinus radiata. California
Academy of Sciences. Digital Library Project,
University of California, Berkeley. [Online]
Available: http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?
seq_num=17181&.one=T. [15 October 2001].
Young, J. A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. Pp. 248-266.
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='pira2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Plant Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 05apr02 ahv. 29may03 ahv. 060803 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Fages, P. 1937. A historical, political, and natural
description of California. Translation by H.I.
Priestley, University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 83 pp.
Heinsen, V. 1972. The medicinal herbs of Mission
San Antonio de Padua. Lockwood, California. 46 pp.
Heizer, R.F. &. A.B. Elsasser 1980. The natural
world of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California. 271 pp.
Hickman, J.D., Editor 1993. The Jepson manual:
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California. 1400 pp.
Hillyard, D. 1997. Challenges in conserving
Monterey pine forest. Fremontia, Vol. 15, No. 2. Pp.
16-20.
Kleintjes, P.K. &. D.L. Dahlsten 1994. Foraging
behavior and nestling diet of chestnut-backed
chickadees in Monterey pine. The Condor, Vol. 96.
Pp. 647-653.
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
California. 248 pp.
Leonard, N. N. 1968. Part 1: Salvage investigations
at the Pico Creek. Archaeological salvage of the
Pico Creek and Little Pico Creek sites, in Luis
Obispo County, California. Archives of California
Archaeology Paper No. 4. Coyote Press, Salinas,
California.
Millar, C.I. 1998. Reconsidering the conservation of
Monterey pine. Fremontia Vol. 26, No. 3. Pp 12-16.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Munz P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, California. 1681 pp.
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society, Fort Bragg,
California. 81 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 366 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians Vol. 2: Aboriginal uses of California’s
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
RED PINE
Pinus resinosa Soland.
Plant Symbol = PIRE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
wound, sore, or ulcer when white pine bark was not
available (Fielder 1975).
Landscaping &. Wildlife: Red pine is an attractive tree
that is used in recreational areas because of its
colorful bark. This species provides cover for many
species of mammals and birds. Deer, cottontails, and
snowshoe hares browse songbirds, mice and
chipmunks feed on the seed while seedlings.
Agroforestry: Pinus resinosa is used in tree strips for
windbreaks. They are planted and managed to
protect livestock, enhance crop production, and
control soil erosion. Windbreaks can help
communities with harsh winter conditions better
handle the impact of winter storms and reduce home
heating costs during the winter months and cooling
cost in the summer.
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Red pine (Pinus resinosa) is a medium
sized tree, up to twenty-five meters high and seventy-
five centimeters in diameter (Farar 1995). The leaves
are soft and flexible evergreen needles, in clusters of
two, slender, 4”-6” long, dark green borne in dense
tufts at the ends of branchlets. The fruit is ovoid-
conic, with thin scales, becoming light chestnut-
brown at maturity. The bark is thick and slightly
divided by shallow fissures into broad flat ridges
covered by thin loose red-brown scales (Sargent
1961). The root system is moderately deep, wide
spreading, and very wind firm.
Distribution: Red pine is native to northeastern
United States. This species ranges from
Newfoundland and Manitoba, south to the mountains
of Pennsylvania, west to Minnesota (Dirr 1990). For
current distribution, please consult the Plant profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Red pine occurs most often on well drained, dry,
highly acid, sandy soils of outwash plains, and
gravelly ridges (Barnes &. Wagner 1981). It is
frequently found where the soil fertility is low, in
pure stands or mixed with species such as jack pine,
© Joseph O’Brien
USDA, Forest Service, St. Paul Field Office
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Norway pine, eastern red pine, pin rouge
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Economic: Red pine wood is moderately hard and
straight grained. It is grown primarily for the
production of wood used for poles, lumber, cabin
logs, railway ties, post, pulpwood, and fuel. The bark
is occasionally used for tanning leather (Sargent
1961). This species is also planted and used as
Christmas trees.
Ethnobotanic: The inner bark of Pinus resinosa was
pounded as a poultice for any kind of inflamed
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
white pine, aspens, oaks, and white birch. This
species prefers full sun and is shade intolerant and
extremely cold tolerant. Pinus resinosa is easily
cultivated in nurseries and easily raised in plantations
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Cones ripen from August to
October with natural seed dispersal occurring
between October and November. However, seeds
can be artificially harvested by kiln drying ripe cones
for nine hours at 130ºF (Dirr &. Heuser 1987). Fresh
seed has no dormancy and will germinate
immediately upon sowing. Stored seed requires two
months cold stratification. Optimum temperature for
germination is 77ºF (Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Most red pine natural stands originate after a forest
fire. Fire is necessary for regeneration because it
prepares a seedbed by reducing much of the humus,
and competition from other trees and shrubs,
decreases the number of cone-destroying insects, and
thins out the overstory (Farrar 1995). Once
established, red pine requires little care. Tip and
shoot moths sometime attack it.
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are available through nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barnes, B.V. &. W.H. Wagner, Jr. 1981. Michigan
trees. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Dirr, M.A. 1990. Manual of woody landscape
plants: their identification, ornamental
characteristics, culture, propagation, and uses. 4th
ed. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaigne, Illinois.
Dirr, M.A. 1997 Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Graves, A.H. 1956. Illustrated guide to trees and
shrubs. Harper &. Brothers, Publishers, New York,
New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1967. Familiar trees of America.
Harper &. Row, Publishers, New York, New York.
O’Brien, J. 2002. Images of Northern Forests-red
pine. USDA, Forest Service, St. Paul Field Office,
St. Paul, Minnesota. Accessed: 10jan02.
<.http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/for_images/miscimage.
htm>.
Peattie, D.C. 1950. A natural history of trees of
eastern and central North America. Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='pire';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060803 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page 3
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
GRAY PINE
Pinus sabiniana Dougl. ex
Dougl.
Plant Symbol = PISA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
J. S. Peteson
USDA NRCS NPDC
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='foothill pine, bull pine, digger pine, California
foothill pine
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The seeds of gray pine were eaten by
many California Indian tribes and are still served in
Native American homes today. They can be eaten
fresh and whole in the raw state, roasted, or pounded
into flour and mixed with other types of seeds. The
seeds were eaten by the Pomo, Sierra Miwok,
Western Mono, Wappo, Salinan, Southern Maidu,
Lassik, Costanoan, and Kato, among others. Sierra
Miwok men climbed the trees and twisted the green
cones off by hand before the seeds were fully
developed. These immature cones were roasted for
20 minutes in hot ashes, yielding a brown, sweet
Plant Guide
syrup. The pitch of the gray pine was used as a
medicine by the Western Mono and the branches
were made into household utensils for stirring acorn
mush. The Costanoan used the pitch as a treatment
for rheumatism. The needles were used for thatch,
bedding, and floor covering and the bark for house
covering by the Sierra Miwok. The branches and
roots were used in California Indian basketry and still
gathered to a limited extent by contemporary
weavers.
Wildlife: Numerous birds feed on the seeds of gray
pine including the red-shafted flicker, California jay,
and band-tailed pigeon. The foliage, bark, and seeds
provide food for black bears, Douglas chickarees, and
gray squirrels. Mule and white-tailed deer browse
the foliage and twigs.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). This native tree
reaches 38 m in height with a trunk less than 2 m
wide. The gray-green foliage is sparse and it has
three needles per bundle. Each needle reaches 9-38
cm in length. The trunk often grows in a crooked
fashion and is deeply grooved when mature. The
seed cone of gray pine is pendent, 10-28 cm, and
opens slowly during the second season, dispersing
winged seeds.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='It ranges in parts of the California Floristic Province,
the western Great Basin and western deserts. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Establishment
Adaptation: This tree is found in the foothill
woodland, northern oak woodland, chaparral, mixed
conifer forests and hardwood forests from 150-
1500m.
Extract seeds from the cones and gently rub the
wings off, and soak them in water for 48 hours, drain
them, and thoroughly surface-dry. Put seeds in a
plastic bag, without any medium, seal the bag and
place them in refrigerated conditions until their
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
chilling treatment begins. Allow three times the air
space as seed space in the bag. It is best to sow the
seeds in May and therefore, expose the seeds to a
chilling treatment of at least sixteen weeks prior to
sowing. After cold stratification, plant the seeds in a
well-drained coarse potting mix in leach tubes that
are narrow but deep with two seeds per tube. These
containers should allow roots to reach the air and stop
growing and be at least 6 inches deep. Fertilize the
containers with a starter formulation of fertilizer with
low or zero nitrogen. These containers can be kept in
a greenhouse for the first 4 to 6 weeks, receiving 70-
degree temperatures during the day. Keep the surface
of the soil moist during the germination phase. Next
after the first set of cotyledons, water the plants with
a deep, thorough soaking and let the plants dry in
between watering. Thin the plants down to one per
container and move the pots into a shade-house with
30 percent shade after 4 to 6 weeks. Protect the
plants from wind and wildlife. During the main
summer growing season use a balanced fertilizer
applied to each container. At the end of the growing
season use a finisher formulation of fertilizer. Plant
the plants in the ground outside in the late winter or
early spring in moist soil. Conduct supplemental
hand watering or irrigation if the rains are
insufficient. Clear weeds in a 3 feet by 3 feet area
around the plants to encourage better survival and
growth rate. Make sure a protective barrier is placed
around the conifers such as vexar tubing to shield
them from jack rabbits, deer and other wildlife that
may feed on the leaves, stems, and roots.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The Pomo pruned the trees periodically.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is available from most nurseries within
its range that handle native plants. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Beard, Y.S. 1979. The Wappo A Report. Malki
Museum Press. Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany 38(2):240-255.
CalPhotos 2000. Pinus sabiniana.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=16975&.one=T>.. Version: 000229. CalFlora, Inc.,
Berkeley, California.
Essene, F. 1942. Culture element distributions: XXI
Round Valley. Anthropological Records 8(1):1-97.
Goode, R.W. 1992. Cultural traditions endangered.
Unpublished report.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P. Lawson Kashaya
Pomo plants. American Indian Studies Center.
University of California, Los Angeles, California.
Griffin, J.R. 1993. Pinus. Pages 117-120 IN: The
Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Littlejohn, H.W. 1928. Nisenan geography.
Unpublished manuscript in the Bancroft Library,
University of California, Berkeley, California.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Peri, D.W., S.M. Patterson, &. J.L. Goodrich 1982.
Ethnobotanical mitigation Warm Springs Dam-Lake
Sonoma California. Unpublished report prepared for
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, San Francisco
District, San Francisco, California.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000229. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='pisa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Environmental Horticulture,
University of California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
Page 3
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SITKA SPRUCE
Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.
Plant Symbol = PISI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Science
@ CalPhotos
(Moerman 1998). It has been chewed in the
treatment of throat problems, coughs, and colds
(Ibid.). Sitka spruce pitch was also used as a
medicine for gonorrhea, syphilis, internal swelling,
and toothaches (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). A
decoction of the roots has been used in the treatment
of diarrhea.
Economic: Sitka spruce produces high-grade lumber
that is the most important wood for airplane and
glider construction. In World War II, this wood was
utilized in the British Mosquito bombers (Viereck &.
Little 1972). Other important uses are oars, ladders,
scaffolding, and boats, particularly racing sculls
(Ibid.). This wood is valued in making piano
sounding boards and guitars. It is harvested as saw
timber and pulpwood and processed into lumber,
plywood and various paper products.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: Sitka spruce is often planted
as an ornamental tree in the eastern and northern
states and in western and northern Europe (Sargent
1961). This forest species provides habitat for a large
variety of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.
It is browsed only in the spring by a variety of birds.
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Spruce Family (Pinaceae). Sitka spruce is a
large, native, evergreen tree that can grow up to two
hundred feet in height. The needles are yellowish-
green to bluish-green, stiff, very sharp, 1 to 1½
inches long, with white lines of stomata on the upper
surface (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The cones are
one to four inches long, hanging down, with very thin
scales, rounded, and irregularly toothed. The bark is
gray and smooth on small trunks, becoming dark
purplish-brown on older trunks.
Distribution: Sitka spruce is native to the Pacific
Coast region from Alaska, to western British
Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northwestern
California. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
sitka spur, coast west spruce, coast spruce, tideland
spruce, yellow spruce, western spruce, silver spruce,
menzies’ spruce
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sharp needles of spruce were
believed to have special powers for protection against
evil thoughts (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The
Ditidaht and other Nuu-chah-nulth peoples used the
boughs in winter dance ceremonies to protect the
dancers and scare spectators (Ibid.). The inner bark
was eaten fresh, or dried into cakes and eaten with
berries. It was also dried and grounded into a powder
and used as a thickener in soups or added to cereals
when making bread.
The roots were burnt over an open fire to remove the
bark, then dried and split to make hats and ropes
(Moerman 1998). The roots were also used by
several native North American tribes to make tightly
woven baskets that would hold water (Lauriault
1989). A pitch obtained from the tree was used as
glue or as a protective varnish-like coat on wood
(Moerman 1998).
Sitka spruce was widely employed medicinally by
several native North American Indian tribes who
used it especially for its antiseptic qualities in the
treatment of lung complaints, sores and wounds
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Picea sitchensis is often found on moist well-drained
sites such as alluvial floodplains, marine terraces, and
headlands (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). This species
prefers full sun and is intolerant of shade and
atmospheric pollution. Sitka spruce grows in pure
stands, more often mixed with western hemlock,
Douglas fir, western redcedar, yellow cedar, grand
fir, red alder, and black cottonwood (Farrar 1995).
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Picea sitchensis seed requires
no pretreatment if the seed is sown fresh, however a
period of cold unifies and hastens germination (Dirr
&. Heuser 1987). Sow stored seeds as early in the
year as possible. Preferably sow the seeds in a
position in light shade. Seeds should be stored in a
cool place and should not be allowed to dry out. Put
seedlings into individual pots when they are large
enough to handle and grow them in the greenhouse
for the first winter. They can be planted into their
permanent positions in early summer of the following
year.
Propagation by Cuttings: The cuttings, five to ten
centimeters long, are cut in June with a heel of older
wood, treated with 3000 ppm IBA-talc, and placed in
sand without removal of the needles (Dirr &. Heuser
1987). After rooting, the cuttings have one to two
roots that should be pruned to stimulate lateral root
development before transplanting to flats. Staking is
also required to develop a symmetrical plant form
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='General: Sitka spruce prefers cool temperatures and
moisture soil. Several times in the spring, pinch the
new growth of young seedlings when shoots are
about one inch long to check if watering is necessary.
Major pruning should be done in the early fall and all
the needles should never be removed.
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Readily available through nurseries within its range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Grimm, W.C. 1967. Familiar trees of America.
Harper &. Row, Publishers, New York, New York.
Lauriault, J. 1989. Identification guide to the trees of
Canada. Fitzhenry &. Whiteside, Ontario, Canada.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of pacific coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the pacific
northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Pratt, M.B. 1922. Shade and ornamental trees of
California. California State Board of Forestry,
California.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Agriculture
Handbook No. 410.
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='pisi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060802 jsp
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
used on fishhooks to “make the fish bite better.” In
Florida, it was known as “rattle snake’s master” and
was used both internally and externally to treat
snakebite.
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='This plant may be listed as threatened in your state.
This rare plant is threatened by loss of habitat,
harvesting, and changes in land management
practices, such as fire suppression, in much of its
native range. It is listed as threatened by many states
and is probably locally extinct in Canada. It is also
listed in Appendix II of the CITES database of
threatened plants. Please consult the PLANTS Web
site and your State Department of Natural Resources
for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or
endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland
indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Orchid Family (Orchidaceae). This plant is
a native, perennial herb. The upright stems will grow
30 cm to 1m tall. The roots are tuberous or fleshy.
The plant has numerous lance-shaped leaves. The
lower leaves are about 30 cm long, 3 to 6 cm wide,
with smaller leaves toward the top. The plants have
showy spikes (5 to 20 cm long) of loosely clustered
flowers. The flowers grow in racemes, opening from
bottom to top. The flowers can be bright yellow
through apricot to deep orange. The lower petal or
lip of the flower is linear-oblong (8 to 12 mm long, 2-
3 m wide) with long ciliated fringe (12 to 16 mm
long). The spurs are 20 to 33 mm long. Blooming
time is variable, but usually from late June in the
North to late September in the South.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: The plants are native to sphagnum and sedge
bogs, swamps, marshes, wet sandy barrens, thickets
on borders of streams and ponds, moist woods, wet
meadows, prairies, and in deep humus of upland
forests in the Eastern United States and Canada.
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Yellow-fringed orchids are attractive and easier to
grow than most fringed orchids. They do well in
either partial shade or full sun. The plants grow in
slightly acid soils with a pH from 5 to 6.
YELLOW FRINGED
ORCHID
Platanthera ciliaris (L.) Lindl.
Plant Symbol = PLCI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
USDA, NRCS
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate names
Orange-plume, orange-fringe, bobwhite’s moccasin,
owl’s head. This plant is referred to as Blephariglotis
ciliaris (L.) Rydb. or Habenaria ciliaris (L.) R. Br.
ex Ait., in much of the older literature.
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee and Seminoles as well
as other Native American tribes in the Eastern United
States used the yellow-fringed orchid for medicinal
and other purposes. The roots were used to make
infusions to treat diarrhea. The roots were also used
to treat snakebites. A cold infusion of the root was
taken to relieve headaches. A piece of the root was
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='The plants need to be protected from slugs, snails,
and cutworms.
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
These plant materials are not readily available from
commercial sources. However, there are specialty
growers who are propagating this plant. Do not
harvest these plants from the wild as they are
threatened throughout most of their range.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Connecticut Botanical Society 2001. Yellow-fringed
orchid. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ct-botanical-society.org/galleries/
platantheracili.html. (23 June 2001).
Convention on international trade in endangered
species of wild fauna and flora 2001. CITES-listed
species database: flora. [Online]. Available:
http://www.cites.org/index.html. (23 June 2001).
Duncan, W. H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol. 2.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 933
pp.' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Indiana Department of Natural Resources. 1999.
List of endangered, threatened and rare species by
county. [Online]. Available:
http://www.in.gov/dnr/naturepr/index.htm. (23 June
2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(23 June 2001).
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of
Natural Areas &. Preserves 2001. Ohio natural data
base, Washington County rare plant species (2000-
2001 status list). [Online]. Available:
http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/dnap/heritage/counti
es/washington.html. (23 June 2001).
Royal Botanical Gardens 2000. Canadian native
orchids. [Online]. Available:
http://www.rbg.ca/orchids/files/pla_cil.htm. (23 June
2001).
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Steffek, E.F. 1983. The new wild flowers and how to
grow them. Timber Press, Portland Oregon. 186 pp.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
The Nature Conservancy 2000. Orange fringed-
orchid. Oak openings region web site. [Online].
Available:
http://www.oakopeningsregion.com/qOrangeFringed.
htm. (23 June 2001).
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='plci2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
AMERICAN
SYCAMORE
Platanus occidentalis L.
Plant Symbol = PLOC
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
hybrid between American sycamore and oriental
plane (P. orientalis) and perhaps includes a number
of backcrosses.
American sycamore is recommended for planting on
all types of strip-mined land, and it is useful in
rehabilitation of various sites with saturated soils. It
is often a natural early colonizer of disturbed sites
such as old fields, spoil banks, streambanks degraded
by channelization, and waterway disposal sites.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used sycamore for a
variety of medicinal purposes, including cold and
cough remedies, as well as dietary, dermatological,
gynecological, respiratory, and gastrointestinal aids.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Planetree family (Platanaceae).
Monoecious, native, deciduous trees with an open
crown, among the largest of Eastern deciduous
forests, reaching heights of 18-37 meters, and the
greatest diameter of any temperate hardwood tree --
the largest known range 3-4 meters d.b.h.. twigs zig-
zag, with only lateral buds, these completely covered
by a single scale within the petiole base and not
visible until after the petiole detachment. bark of
upper trunk exfoliating in patches, leaving areas of
inner bark exposed, a patchwork of browns, yellows,
and greens against a background of white, the darker
bark with age falling away in thin brittle sheets,
exposing younger and lighter-colored bark. Leaves
are deciduous, alternate, 10-35 cm long, palmate-
veined and roughly star-shaped, with 3-5 sharp lobes,
the blades often as broad or broader than they are
long, truncate to cordate at the base, on petioles to 12
cm long. a leaf-like stipule at the petiole base is
persistent during early growth. Staminate and
pistillate flowers in separate, tightly compacted, ball-
shaped clusters. Fruit is single-seeded and
indehiscent (an achene), 8-9 mm long, with a ring of
bristles at the base, numerous achenes in a pendulous,
ball-shaped fruiting head 2-5 cm in diameter, the
individual achenes drifting in the wind if the head
breaks up on the tree. Common name apparently
borrowed from the European sycamore maple (Acer
pseudoplatanus L.), which has similar leaves. That
Oklahoma Biological Survey
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate common names
Planetree, American planetree, buttonball tree
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: American sycamore is grown in short-
rotation plantations primarily for pulp and it also is
used for rough lumber. The heavy, close-grained
wood is difficult to split and work because of
interlocking fibers. It has been used for butcher s
blocks, furniture, veneer and interior trim, boxes and
crates, flooring, and particle and fiberboard.
Conservation: American sycamore is a good planting
where a large, fast-growing tree is desired. Negative
features are the relatively weak limbs (susceptible to
wind and ice damage) and the large leaves that decay
slowly after falling. The huge size quickly attained
by these trees is often underestimated. The London
planetree, Platanus hybrida Brot. (= Platanus
acerifolia (Ait.) Willd.), is widely planted as a street
tree, probably due to its disease resistance and
tolerance of air pollution (American sycamore is
susceptible to ozone damage). The London plane is a
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
name in turn comes from the Middle Eastern
sycomore fig, Ficus sycomorus L., its specific epithet
from the Greek “sykomoros,” mulberry.
Variation within the species: geographic variation in
sycamore is extensive, but variants are not currently
formally recognized. Platanus occidentalis var.
glabrata and P. occidentalis var. attenuata are treated
as synonyms of the typical expression.
The similar London planetree (below) distinguished
by the lobes of its larger leaves being somewhat
longer and narrower (often longer than wide), the
fruiting heads 1-2 on each stalk, and the bark often
somewhat greener.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='American sycamore is widespread in the eastern
United States, from Texas to Nebraska, Iowa, and
Wisconsin and into southern Ontario, Canada.
apparently extirpated in Maine. It also occurs in the
mountains of northeastern Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='It often is a pioneer on upland sites in the central part
of its range, but it is primarily a species of
bottomland and alluvial soils, also occurring on creek
banks, mesic coves and lower slopes, on a wide range
of soil types. It is a major pioneer species in the
floodplains of large rivers and occurs on a variety of
wet sites, including shallow swamps, sloughs, and
wet river bottoms where soil is saturated 2-4 months
during the growing season. Water dispersal often
results in seed deposition on muddy flats highly
conducive to germination because seed dispersal
occurs when water is receding after spring floods.
American sycamore is most commonly found in
mixture with sweetgum, boxelder, silver and red
maple, cottonwood, and willows. It is found at 0-300
(-750) meter elevation.
American sycamore can tolerate weeks of flooding,
even complete submersion of seedlings, provided that
the water is aerated. A significant portion of young
sycamores can survive almost 2 months of
continuously waterlogged soils during dormancy, but
sycamore of various stages will die if the entire tree
is inundated for more than two weeks during the
growing season. Saplings top-killed by flooding may
resprout from the root crown.
Flowers appear with the leaves in April-May or as
early as late March in the South. Fruits ripen
September-October (-November), usually breaking
up and falling from the tree through the winter and
into spring.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Open-grown American sycamores usually begin
flowering in 6-7 years. Natural stands of sycamore
usually produce appreciable numbers of seed at
approximately 25 years. optimum seed production
occurs from 50-200 years of age. Good seed crops
are produced every 1-2 years. Sycamore seeds do not
require any pretreatment for good germination. They
do not germinate well in heavy litter or in deep shade
or in temperatures outside of 59-86 o Fahrenheit (15-
30 o C.).
Sycamore seedlings require direct sunlight for good
growth and establishment, except perhaps on clay
soil. One-year-old seedlings may reach 10 feet, and
sprouts may reach 25 feet. The potentially great size
of mature trees is correlated with exceptionally rapid
growth, and maximum age probably does not exceed
250 years, although Smith (1952) notes that 500-600
may be the upper range.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='American sycamore can be regenerated from natural
seed sources, by planting, or by stump and root
sprouting. On ".silvicultural biomass farms". aimed at
maximum fiber production, fertilization is usually
necessary, especially with rotations shorter than 5
years. Sycamores in managed plantations
interplanted with legumes or other nitrogen-fixing
species were larger than control plants 6 years after
establishment of the nitrogen fixers. Sycamore has
good coppice regeneration potential, although it has
been reported that trees died after two successive
harvests. A high percentage of stumps sprout,
regardless of stump size or time of harvest, although
larger and heavier sprouts are produced from dormant
season cuts (vs. growing season).
Significant diseases and insect problems occur in
managed plantations and landscaping trees of
American sycamore but are largely absent from
natural stands. Important problems include
anthracnose and eastern mistletoe (Phoradendron
spp.).
Prescribed fire is not recommended for bottomland
forests in which sycamore occurs. Bottomland fires
usually move rapidly along the surface, consuming
shrubs and herbs and usually killing saplings and
seedlings of all species. Larger trees suffer bark
wounds that create points of entry for rots, stains, and
insects. Under extreme conditions, large trees may
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
be killed outright. Fire also reduces soil organic
layers, leading to site degradation.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Elias, T.S. 1980. The complete trees of North
America: Field guide and natural history. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, New York.
Kaul, R.B. 1997. Platanaceae. Pp. 358-361, IN:
Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 3.
Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York.
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Oklahoma Biological Survey 2000. Platanus
occidentalis. IN: Catalogue of woody plants of
Oklahoma. Norman, Oklahoma. 22sep2000.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/>.
Santamour, F.S. Jr. 1972. Interspecific hybridization
in Platanus. Forest Sci. 18: 236-239.
Smith, N.F. 1952. Trees of Michigan and the Upper
Great Lakes. Thunder Bay Press, Lansing, Michigan.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Platanus occidentalis. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The Fire Effects Information
System [Database]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wells, O.O. &. R.C. Schmidtling 1990. Platanus
occidentalis. Pp. 511-517, IN R.M. Burns and B.H.
Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 2.
Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook
654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='ploc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Wildlife: Narrow-leaf cottonwood provides habitat,
cover, and food for a diversity of wildlife. Common
residents include squirrels, aquatic fur bearers, bears,
white-tailed deer, and many bird species. Twigs and
leaves are browsed by rabbits, deer, and moose and
buds and catkins are eaten by quail and grouse.
Beaver cut all sizes of cottonwoods to build and
maintain lodges and dams and use the bark for
immediate food or storage in winter caches.
Conservation: Narrow-leaf cottonwood is planted as
a fast-growing ornamental tree in western US cities.
These trees can be used at high elevations and are
useful in landscaping on deer winter ranges since
deer will not damage them through overbrowsing.
The species was early encountered (in1805) by the
Lewis and Clark expedition, who observed that
horses would not eat it.
The aggressively spreading root system of narrow-
leaf cottonwood makes it useful for soil stabilization
in erosion control and streambank reclamation
projects. This same feature, however, may be a
liability in urban areas where the roots may clog
drains and sewers.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used young
cottonwood shoots to make baskets.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Willow Family (Salicaceae). Native trees
up to 15-20 m tall, single-stemmed with slender,
upright branches forming a narrowly spreading
crown. The bark is yellowish green to grayish
brown, smooth on upper portions and furrowed into
broad, flat ridges on older lower portions. Leaves are
deciduous, simple, alternate, lanceolate to ovate-
lanceolate, rounded at base, 5-9(-13) cm long, 1-2.5
cm wide, hairless or nearly so, the margins glandular-
toothed, dark green above and slightly paler beneath,
turning dull yellow in autumn, the petioles less than
15 mm long, about 1/3 as long as the blade, flattened
only near the base. Flowers male (staminate) and
female (pistillate), are on separate trees (the species
dioecious). Each type is borne in pendent catkins, the
female elongating to 6-8 cm long. Fruits are ovoid,
NARROWLEAF
COTTONWOOD
Populus angustifolia James
Plant Symbol = POAN3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Bitter cottonwood, willow cottonwood, willow-leaf
cottonwood, mountain cottonwood, Rydberg
cottonwood, smooth-bark cottonwood
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Wood of narrow-leaf cottonwood is
susceptible to decay and warps when cut into lumber.
Because of this and its relative scarcity, it is
commercially unimportant – used mostly for
fenceposts and fuel, less commonly for crating,
boxes, pallets, plywood veneer, and pulpwood. wood
shavings are used for bedding, insulation, and animal
food supplements.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
pointed capsules 6-8 mm long, splitting to release the
seeds. seeds 2-3 mm long, each with a tuft of long,
white, silky hairs (“cotton”), easily blown by the
wind. The common name is in reference to the
slender leaves.
Variation within the species: No variants have been
recognized within the species, but natural hybrids are
frequent between narrow-leaf cottonwood and other
species:
balsam poplar (P. balsamifera) = P. x brayshawii
Boivin (Brayshaw’s poplar).
eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides) = P. x acuminata
Rydb. (lanceleaf poplar).
Fremont cottonwood (P. fremontii) = P. x
hinckleyana Correll.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Narrow-leaf cottonwood occurs primarily in
mountainous areas from southern Alberta and
Saskatchewan south to Oregon and California (east of
the Sierra Nevada), Arizona, New Mexico, and
Trans-Pecos Texas and in northern Mexico
(northeastern Sonora). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Narrow-leaf cottonwood grows along streambanks in
dry mountains, desert shrublands, and prairie
grasslands and in coniferous forests with willows and
alders, at elevations of 900-2450 meters. It is
commonly found on narrow, periodically flooded
benches adjacent to streams and smaller rivers.
Common associates are Douglas-fir, blue spruce,
ponderosa pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, maples,
birches, alders, other cottonwoods and aspen. in
relatively undisturbed sites, the understory often
includes red-osier dogwood, chokecherry,
serviceberry, willows, and currants.
Narrow-leaf cottonwood is a pioneer that colonizes
sandbars and other fresh alluvium in areas of full sun.
Such sites tend to become dominated by a dense,
closed canopy of cottonwood. Continual
disturbances such as flood and fire allow such
communities to persist.
This species flowers in May, before or during leaf
emergence and fruits May-July, with seed dispersal
in June-July.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Flowering begins at about 15 years in narrow-leaf
cottonwood. Male and female trees must be grown in
proximity if seed is desired. Large seed crops are
produced each year but seeds are viable for probably
no more than 3 weeks. They establish only if they
land on unoccupied, wet, sandy soil in full sun.
Flood disturbance along waterways enhances
seedling recruitment, and periodic fires may serve the
same purpose – removing competing conifers,
allowing more light penetration, and exposing
mineral soil. Narrow-leaf cottonwood is a fast-
growig but short-lived species in natural conditions.
Narrow-leaf cottonwood reproduces vegetatively by
sprouting from roots and stumps.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Because of its short period of viability, seed needs to
be sown within a few days of ripening in the spring.
Otherwise they may be kept viable by drying and
storing cold in an airtight container. In a cold frame,
sow on the surface or lightly cover the seeds. Plant
into permanent positions either in late summer or the
following spring, depending on growth of the young
plants.
Cuttings of twigs 20–45 cm long and 1-3 cm
diameter of the current season s growth, taken during
the dormant season, can be placed in a sheltered
outdoor bed or directly into permanent positions.
Initial growth of un-rooted cuttings may not be as
rapid as that of rooted cuttings. Cuttings grown in a
mist-propagator also root easily and survive potting.
Nursery- or container-grown seedlings and rooted
cuttings establish easily and grow rapidly on moist
well-drained soils in full sun. Growth may be
minimal on wet soils and upland sites.
Beaver activities may inhibit cottonwood
regeneration. seedlings and saplings are stripped of
bark for food and larger trees are cut for building
material. Poorly oxygenated water in stagnant ponds
causes a decline in health. Severe grazing by
livestock, and associated trampling of seedlings,
reduces cottonwood regeneration potential.
The aggressive root systems can invade and damage
drainage systems and also may heavily draw
available moisture from gardens and building
foundations, especially in clay soil. Root suckers
also may be considered a maintenance problem, and
the profuse production of cottony seed from female
plants can be a minor nuisance.
Page 3
Narrow-leaf cottonwood will produce stump sprouts
and root suckers after light to moderate intensity
fires. Seedlings, saplings, and young trees are
damaged or killed by fire, but they develop more fire-
resistant bark after 15-20 years of age. Older trees
may be killed by even relatively cool fires, which
wound trees and open the way to heartwood decay.
Where spruce is climax, periodic fire may contribute
to the maintenance of cottonwood stands, but mature
bottomland hardwood stands will not persist in the
face of fire.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Eckenwalder, J.E. 1977. North American
cottonwoods Populus (Salicaceae) of sections Abasco
and Aigeros. J. Arnold Arb. 58:193-207.
Eckenwalder, J.E. 1989. Natural intersectional
hybridization between North American species of
Populus (Salicaceae) in sections Aigeros and
Tacamahaca. II. Taxonomy. Canad. J. Bot. 62:325-
335.
Harris, H.T. 1989. Populus angustifolia. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. SEP00.
Lanner, R.M. 1983. Trees of the Great Basin: A
natural history. Univ. of Nevada Press, Reno,
Nevada.
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='poan3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='James Henson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 13nov00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLACK
into their genetics and physiology. These are
extremely fast-growing and biomass-productive
when grown as short-rotation coppice or single
stems. On good sites, hybrid poplars grow faster than
any other northern temperate region tree and hybrids
are usually more widely adaptable than the parents.
They are easily propagated from stem cuttings, but
because of quick re-sprouting, replanting after
harvesting may be unnecessary, especially for short
harvest cycles. These trees have great potential for
conservation and ornamental plantings, paper, and
lumber and plywood. The wood is similar to that of
native black cottonwood, and branches and tops left
from pulp harvests can be converted to pelletized fuel
for use in power stations and home heaters.
Wildlife: Black cottonwood provides food and cover
for a variety of wildlife species, including deer, elk,
and beaver. Large birds use the crowns for nesting
sites and various animals rely on the trunk cavities,
which commonly result from heart rot in most stands
nearing maturity. The rotten trunks of black
cottonwood provide an important wildlife habitat
otherwise scarce, especially of the Cascades.
Ethnobotanic: Disinfectant properties of resin from
buds were discovered by Native Americans, who
used the resin to treat sore throats, coughs, lung pain,
and rheumatism. It is still used in some modern
natural health ointments. Soap was produced from
the inner bark. The wood was used to make friction
fire sets.
Conservation: Black cottonwood is a very fast-
growing and potentially large tree, easy to establish,
and useful for shade and ornament. Black
cottonwood also has been planted as windbreaks and
shelterbelts and it is commonly used for screening
along motorways in Europe. The aggressive root
systems of black cottonwood are effective soil
stabilizers and make the species useful in restoration
of riparian areas, where it also provides protection for
the aquatic environment, especially in helping to
maintain low water temperatures through shading.
The high nitrate uptake and extensive rooting of these
trees make them useful for buffer or ".filter". planting
along streams in agricultural areas.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
COTTONWOOD
Populus balsamifera L. ssp.
trichocarpa (Torr. &. Gray ex
Hook.) Brayshaw
Plant Symbol = POBAT
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
J.S. Peterson
USDA NRCS NPDC
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatenames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatenames='Common black cottonwood, balsam cottonwood,
western balsam poplar, California poplar. Populus
trichocarpa Torr. &. Gray
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Black cottonwood is a commercially
valuable tree. Primary products include particle
board, plywood, veneer, and lumber. The wood is
light colored and light in weight. it is diffuse-porous
(indistinct growth rings), with a fine, even texture.
The light weight, good nailing characteristics, and
light color of the lumber are ideal for manufacture of
pallets, boxes, and crates. It also is used in concealed
parts of furniture. The fibers are short and fine,
making the wood useful in production of pulp for
tissues and high-grade book and magazine paper.
Poplar hybrids, particularly Populus trichocarpa x P.
deltoides, are currently the subject of much research
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
current status, such as state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Willow Family (Salicaceae). These are
native trees up to 30-60 m tall, usually with a
straight, branch-free trunk for more than half its
length, forming a broad, open crown in open sites.
bark gray to gray-brown on mature trees, deeply
furrowed into flat ridges on older portions. The
leaves are deciduous, simple, alternate, ovate-
lanceolate to deltate but variable in size and shape on
same tree, rounded or cordate at base, 7-12 cm long,
3.5-7.5 cm wide, hairless or nearly so, the margins
finely toothed, dark green above and slightly paler
beneath, commonly with whitish or brownish resin
blotches, turning yellow in autumn, the petioles
round, 3-4 mm long. Flowers male (staminate) and
female (pistillate), on separate trees (the species
dioecious), each type borne in pendent catkins, the
female elongating to 6-8 cm long. Fruits nearly
globular capsules 3-4 mm long, splitting to release
the seeds. seeds ca.2' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='mm long, each with a tuft of
long, white, silky hairs (“cotton”), easily blown by
the wind. The common name is in reference to the
dark colored bark.
Black cottonwood is the largest American poplar and
the largest hardwood tree in western North America.
Variation within the species: black cottonwood is
most commonly and widely known as the distinct
species Populus trichocarpa but is sometimes treated
as Populus balsamifera var. trichocarpa, the western
North American segment of the broader species P.
balsamifera (Brayshaw 1965, 1976). Black
cottonwood and balsam cottonwood have similar
appearances, biological features, and ecology, and
they hybridize and introgress where their ranges
overlap. Still, they have essentially separate
geographic ranges, and, like various other species of
Populus that are separated by relatively small
differences, black cottonwood and balsam poplar
differ in a number of technical features, as partly
summarized here.
1. Petioles 7-10 cm long, often with glands at base.
terminal bud with 5 scales. staminate catkins 7-10 cm
long. mature pistillate catkins 10-13 cm long. fruits
ovoid, 6-7 mm long, splitting into 2 parts. .......... P.
balsamifera
1. Petioles 3-4 cm long, without basal glands.
terminal bud with 6-7 scales. staminate catkins 4-5
cm long. mature pistillate catkins 12-15 cm long.
fruits nearly globular, 3-4 mm long, splitting into 3
parts. ........ P. trichocarpa
Brayshaw has recognized two varieties within
“subsp. trichocarpa:” Var. trichocarpa (in central
and coastal British Columbia and southward) and
Var. hastata (Dode) Brayshaw (mainly in the Rocky
Mountain region and central British Columbia)
Natural hybrids occur between black cottonwood and
other species: narrowleaf cottonwood (P.
angustifolia), eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides),
Fremont’s cottonwood (P. fremontii), and rarely even
aspen (P. tremuloides).
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='The range of black cottonwood extends from Alaska,
including various islands, through coastal regions of
western Canada (Yukon, British Columbia, and
Alberta) into the northwestern US (Washington,
Oregon, Montana, Idaho, and Nevada. rare in North
Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, and California) and as far
south as Baja California Norte. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Black cottonwood grows on alluvial sites, riparian
habitats, and moist woods on mountain slopes, at
elevations of 0–2100(–2750) meters. It often forms
extensive stands on bottomlands of major streams
and rivers at low elevations along the Pacific Coast,
west of the Cascade Range. In eastern Washington
and other dry areas, it is restricted to protected
valleys and canyon bottoms, along streambanks, and
edges of ponds and meadows. It grows on a variety
of soils from moist silts, gravels, and sands to rich
humus, loams, and occasionally clays.
Black cottonwood is a pioneer species that grows
best in full sunlight and commonly establishes on
recently disturbed alluvium. Seeds are numerous and
widely dispersed because of their cottony tufts,
enabling the species to colonize even burn sites, if
conditions for establishment are met. Seral
communities dominated or codominated by
cottonwood are maintained by periodic flooding or
other types of soil disturbance. Black cottonwood
has low drought tolerance. it is flood-tolerant but
cannot tolerate brackish water or stagnant pools.
Flowering occurs in late March to May (-June), just
before or during leaf emergence and fruiting occurs
in late May to early or mid-July.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Black cottonwood begins producing seed at about 8-
10 years – abundant seed is usually produced every
year. Seeds under natural conditions are short-lived,
usually for less than a month. Seed will readily
germinate on a variety of favorable sites, particularly
where mineral soil has been exposed or new soil
deposited. High germination rates and seedling
survival depend on continuously moist conditions,
such as in fresh alluvium, during the first month.
Maximum height and size are usually reached in 60-
75 years although some may continue to grow well
past that. Maximum age is at least 200 years.
Black cottonwood sprouts readily from the stump and
roots as well as from branches and logs that are left
after logging. Small shoots with green leaves abscise
naturally and either root where they fall or are water-
transported some distance before they root.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In urban sites, the aggressive root systems of black
cottonwood can invade and damage drainage systems
and also may heavily draw available moisture from
gardens and building foundations, especially in clay
soil. Root suckers also may be considered a
maintenance problem, and the profuse production of
cottony seed from female plants can be a minor
nuisance. The shallow root system of black
cottonwood, especially on wet soils, make the species
susceptible to damage from ice storms, heavy snow,
and wind. Unseasonably early or late frosts may
damage saplings, but in dormancy, it is one of the
most frost-resistant trees in the northwestern USA.
Black cottonwood is susceptible to fire damage
because of its thin bark and shallow root system.
Seedlings and saplings are usually killed by fire of
any intensity, and all trees may killed by high-
intensity fire. Even relatively cool fires may wound
older trees and open the way to heartwood decay.
Repeated fire at short intervals may permanently
exclude black cottonwood. Even so, post-fire
regeneration may be effective and rapid in black
cottonwood. Thickened bark on lower portions of the
trunk after 10-20 years affords better fire protection,
and moist soil contributes to the survival of
underground parts. Trees can quickly sprout from the
stump and roots following top-kill or damage by fire.
Abundant production of seeds and their wide
dispersal enable black cottonwood to rapidly colonize
large areas of moist soil after burns, which provide
ideal conditions of maximum light and bare mineral
soil.
Collect seeds for propagation as capsules begin to
open (late May to mid July). Place in paper bags and
allow them to finish opening in warm area. They
need to be sown within a few days of ripening.
otherwise they may be kept viable for up to a year by
drying and storing cold in an air-tight container. In a
cold frame, sow on the surface or lightly cover the
seeds. Plant into permanent positions either in late
summer or the following spring, depending on
growth of the young plants.
Cuttings of twigs of the current season s growth, 20-
45 cm long and 1-3 cm diameter, taken during the
dormant season and with healthy axillary buds, can
be placed in a sheltered outdoor bed or directly into
permanent positions. Plant with one bud above the
surface. Cuttings grown in a mist-propagator also
root easily. Nursery- or container-grown seedlings
and rooted cuttings establish easily and grow rapidly
on moist well-drained soils in full sun. Live stakes
should be 3.5 cm diameter and 1.2 m long, stuck
directly into ground on-site.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Authors 2000. Hybrid poplar research program.
Dept. of Energy, Biofuels Program, Washington State
University, Puyallap, Washington. SEP00.
<.http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/poplar/hybridpoplar/p
oplar.htm>.
Brayshaw, T.C. 1965. The status of the black
cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa Torrey and Gray).
Canad. Field-Naturalist 79:91-95.
Brayshaw, T.C. 1976. Catkin bearing plants of
British Columbia. Occas. Pap. No. 18. The British
Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada.
DeBell, D.S. 1990. Populus trichocarpa Torr. &.
Gray, black cottonwood. Pp. 60-69, IN: R.M. Burns
and B.H. Honkala (tech. coords.). Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
SEP00.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/volume
_2/populus/trichocarpa.htm>.
Page 4
DeBell, D.S., C.A. Harrington, G.W. Clendenen,
M.A. Radwan, &. J.C. Zasada 1997. Increasing the
productivity of short-rotation Populus plantations.
Final Report, USDA, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station, Olympia, Washington.
<.http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/reports/debell/contents.ht
ml>. Accessed September 2000.
Dickmann, D.I. &. K.W. Stuart 1983. The culture of
poplars in eastern North America. Michigan State
University, Department of Forestry, East Lansing,
Michigan.
Eckenwalder, J.E. 1977. North American
cottonwoods Populus (Salicaceae) of sections Abasco
and Aigeros. J. Arnold Arb. 58:193-207.
Galloway, G., &. J. Worrall 1979. Cladoptosis: A
reproductive strategy in black cottonwood? Canad.
J.
Forest Res. 9:122-125.
Holifield, J.L. 1990. Populus trichocarpa. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.
<.http://fire.org/feis/plants/tree/poptri/Final Report>.
Accessed September 2000.
Johnson, J.D., T.M. Hinckley, &. H.D. Bradshaw
2000. Disease resistance, its physiology and genetics
of short-rotation black cottonwood. Dept. of Energy,
Biofuels Program, Washington State University,
Puyallap, Washington. SEP00.
<.http://www.puyallup.wsu.edu/poplar/rschprojects/rs
ch1.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='pobat';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='James Henson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
FREMONT’S
COTTONWOOD
Populus fremontii S. Wats.
Plant Symbol = POFR2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. New Mexico Plant Materials Center
wherever a fever needs reducing or an anti-
inflammatory is appropriate (Moore 1979). The bark
is the most effective part for tea but is rather bitter.
for this reason the leaves are often preferred. Leaf
buds make an excellent ointment for burns and skin
irritations. A wash of the bark is applied externally
for cuts, bruises, abrasions, burns and fetid
perspiration, as well as healing chafing sores on
horses. A poultice can be used for sprains, muscle
pain, and swollen joints. A salve can be made that
cleanses and conditions the skin when used regularly.
Taken internally, it is an anti-inflammatory agent,
reduces fever, indigestion, aids coughs from colds,
expels worms and intestinal parasites, is effective
against scurvy, heart troubles, back pain, excessive
menses, urinary tract infections, is a diuretic, and is
used to prevent premature birth.
The Hopi Indians of Arizona consider the
cottonwood tree sacred and carve Kachina dolls from
the roots of the tree. They believe the rustle of the
wind through the quaking leaves to be the gods
speaking to people (Strike 1994).
Several California tribes used Populus roots to make
loosely twined baskets. The Hupa, from Northern
California, use cottonwood roots to begin making
twined baskets. The Maidu and Yokuts Indians use
cottonwood twigs in their basketry (Strike 1994).
Chumash skirts were made of fibers of Populus inner
bark. Cordage, made from the inner bark of
cottonwood or milkweed, held the rest of the fibers
hanging freely. Sometimes small teardrop-shaped
pieces of asphaltum, shell beads or Pinus seeds were
used as weights to make the fibers hang properly.
Wintun also used Populus fibers for skirts and for
padding baby cradles.' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Other Uses: Ecological diversity, bank and sediment
stabilization, maintenance of channel morphology,
water quality improvement, ground-water recharge,
flood abatement, fish and wildlife habitat.
Riparian Ecosystem Services and Functions: The
riparian zone essentially encompasses those alluvial
sediment deposits where river and alluvial ground
water supplement that available from local
precipitation. High-to-low elevations, north-south
and east-west gradients, and steep-to-shallow terrain
all influence the relationship between geomorphic
and fluvial processes and vegetation community
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Poplar, Alamo cottonwood
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The sweet and starchy sap can be
consumed raw or cooked. The bark is bitter, but
edible. It can be scraped off and eaten, cooked in
strips like soup noodles, or dried and powdered as a
flour substitute. The inner bark of cottonwoods and
aspens were used for man and horse in hard times.
Some Indians preferred it because of its sweetness.
The active biochemical constituents are salicin and
populin, the precursors of aspirin that are useful
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
structure. Riparian ecosystem functions include the
following:
• Ecological diversity.
• Riparian vegetation stabilizes sediment, thus
preventing excessive soil erosion.
• Water quality is improved through filtration and
trapping of sediment, nutrients and pollutants.
• Riparian vegetation tends to prevent the river
from down-cutting or cutting a straight path
(channeling), thus promoting a sinuous course,
ground-water recharge, and maintenance of an
elevated water table.
Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species.
Different groups of animals occupy or use the
different layers of vegetation, and this multi-
story arrangement is often present nowhere else
in the arid landscapes.
• Canopies of plants growing on streambanks
•
provide shade, cooling stream water, while roots
stabilize and create overhanging banks,
providing habitat for fish and other aquatic
organisms
Riparian habitat provides living conditions for a
greater variety of wildlife than any other habitat type
found in California. Use of riparian areas by wildlife
species is affected by diversity and volume of foliage,
presence of water, availability of ".edge". habitat, and
high levels of insect populations. Valley-foothill
riparian habitats provide food, water migration and
dispersal corridors, and escape, nesting and thermal
cover for an abundance of wildlife. About 25 percent
of the 502 California native land mammal species
and subspecies are largely dependent on riparian
ecosystems. Additionally, 55 species of mammals
are known to use California s Central Valley riparian
communities (Trapp et al. 1985). At least 21
mammal species or subspecies have been identified
as being particularly vulnerable to loss of riparian
habitat (Williams and Kilburn 1984). At least 50
amphibians and reptiles occur in lowland riparian
systems (Brode and Bury 1985).
Wildlife: California s riparian forests support a high
diversity of breeding birds (Miller 1951). In one
study conducted on the Sacramento River, 147 bird
species were recorded as nesters or winter visitants
(Laymon 1985). The percentage of breeding
individuals, which are migratory, is very high in the
cottonwood-willow habitat. Humid conditions in the
cottonwood-willow forest may promote more lush
plant growth, higher invertebrate populations and.
therefore, more available food for flycatchers,
warblers and other migratory, insectivorous birds.
Riparian areas support up to 10.6 times the density of
migrant birds per hectare as adjacent non-riparian
areas (Stevens et al. 1977). Most of these migratory
birds belong to the foliage insect (47%) or air insect
(34%) foraging guilds.
Grouse, quail, and other birds eat cottonwood buds
and catkins (Martin et al. 1951). Bark, twigs, and
leaves are eaten by ungulates and rabbits, while
beavers and porcupines relish the bark and wood.
Since European settlement, the nesting riparian forest
avifauna has changed significantly. Double-crested
cormorants, great blue heron, great egret, Cooper s
hawk, bald eagle, yellow-billed cuckoo, willow
flycatcher, bell s vireo, warbling vireo, yellow
warbler, and common yellow throat have been
severely negatively impacted. Parasitism by brown-
headed cowbirds has significantly negatively
impacted willow flycatcher, Bell s vireo, warbling
vireo, yellow warbler and common yellow throat.
They burden other species with the task of incubating
their eggs and raising their young.
Fremont s cottonwood is one of several species which
constitutes the majority of the diet of beavers (Castor
canadensis) (Stromberg 1993). Beavers, once a
dominant aquatic mammal in riparian systems, have
been significantly reduced in many riparian areas
through trapping, shooting, in-stream flow
reductions, and other factors.
Recreation: Recreational use of the riparian zone is
many times that of other habitats. People are drawn
to the cool, shady environment along flowing streams
for camping, picnicking, hiking, birding,
photography, hunting, and fishing. These areas
contain water, interesting plants and animals, shade,
and numerous other enjoyable features in the
otherwise arid and semiarid environments.
The impact of recreational use on wildlife varies with
the season and with the type, intensity and duration
of use. Construction of trails, picnic tables, and
docks encourages recreational use and increases
conflict with wildlife. Recreational use may also
reduce water quality because of proliferation of
human wastes.
Livestock: Riparian ecosystems offer water, shade,
and food for domestic livestock. Cattle and sheep
congregate in riparian areas, particularly during hot
or dry periods. Overgrazing of domestic livestock in
riparian areas destroys riparian ground cover, disrupts
the reproductive cycle of cottonwood trees,
destabilizes streambanks, and thus increases sediment
Page 3
loads to streams. At periods in the year when the soil
is not too wet, the leafage, twigs and shoots of
Fremont cottonwood are browsed by all domestic
grazing animals and deer. The twigs are cropped
especially close by sheep, goats, and deer. The
browse rating for cottonwood is good to fair for
goats. fair to poor for sheep and deer. poor for cattle.
and useless for horses (Sampson et al. 1981).
Restoration Concerns: Many land uses in arid
watersheds significantly decrease or destroy
cottonwood riparian forests. Timber harvest often
adversely affects flood flows, which often become
larger and flashier and carry increased sediment.
Buffer strips can help reduce sedimentation rates and
flood velocities.
Stream diversion for irrigation may reduce surface
flows to a level insufficient to maintain cottonwood
vegetation. Ground water pumping lowers local and
regional water tables and reduces stream flow, which
can eliminate or weaken riparian vegetation.
Runoff from hardened urban watersheds is immediate
and intense, and sometimes actually lowers nearby
riparian water tables as it causes rapid erosion and
down-cutting in stream channels.
Two introduced weedy riparian species that continue
to be recommended and distributed by commercial
plant nurseries are Russian olive (Eleagnus
angustifolia) and tamarisk or salt cedar (Tamarix
chinensis). Intensive or poorly timed livestock
grazing and dam-induced changes in flood timing and
magnitude often favor the survival of these
introduced species and allow them to displace native
species. These species are very difficult to remove
from human-impacted landscapes and are more
competitive than cottonwood.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Willow Family (Salicaceae). Fremont’s cottonwood
is a native tree growing in riparian areas near
streams, rivers and wetlands in the American
Southwest. Fremont s cottonwood trees range from
12 to 35 meters in height, and trunk diameter ranges
from 0.30 to 1.5 meters. The bark is smooth in
younger trees, becoming deeply furrowed with
whitish cracked bark with age. The leaves are
cordate (heart-shaped) with white veins and coarse
crenate-serrate teeth on the margins. The leaves have
petioles 1/2 to equal the blade length, laterally
compressed near the blade which causes the leaves to
flutter in the wind. These trees are dioecious, with
flowers in drooping catkins, which are 4 to 14 cm
long. Cottonwoods bloom from March-April. The
fruit is an achene, which is attached to a silky hair, en
masse looking like patches of cotton hanging from
the limbs, thus the name cottonwood. The seeds are
wind dispersed.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Populus fremontii is distributed throughout the
Southwest, extending from California eastward to
Nevada, Colorado, Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and
southward into Mexico. This species occurs
throughout California and is most abundant in the
San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys. According to
Hickman (1993), cottonwood occurs in alluvial
bottomlands and streamsides at elevations less than
2000 m.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Cottonwoods dominate the riparian
forests of lower terrace deposits and stabilized gravel
bars. Cottonwoods are found near water. They
require a bare gravel or sand substrate with adequate
moisture for germination and development.
Cottonwoods grow very rapidly when their roots are
in contact with the permanent water table. they can
grow as much as 12 to 18 feet in 3 years.
In California, common associates are valley oak
(Quercus lobata), interior live oak (Quercus
wislizenii), California walnut (Juglans hindsii), and
California sycamore (Platanus racemosa). Box elder
(Acer negundo), Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia),
alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and willow (Salix
gooddingii, S. exigua, S. lasiandra, and S. laevigata)
are particularly prevalent in the subcanopy.
Understory species are mostly shrubs, including
elderberry (Sambucus mexicana), buttonbush
(Cephalanthus occidentalis), blackberry (Rubus spp),
and California rose (Rosa californica). Lianas such
as poison oak (Rhus diversiloba ) and California
grape (Vitis californica are) are a dominant feature.
Herbaceous vegetation is 1% cover except in
openings where tall forbs may occur.
Typically, in California, cottonwoods and willows
predominate on the immediate stream banks, whereas
valley oaks are spread irregularly over the natural
levees farther away from the river. In other parts of
the American west, temporal gradients occur within a
Page 4
location in the riparian zone. Early pioneer
communities such as cottonwood/willow give way to
late successional communities such as mesquite or
sagebrush, often a consequence of sediment
accumulation (Patten 1998). Many similarities
among western riparian ecosystems exist because
several dominant genera (e.g. Populus and Salix spp.)
are common throughout the West, and many
geomorphic and hydrologic processes that influence
riparian establishment are similar.
Western riparian ecosystems have been greatly
altered by human activity. Riparian forests have been
reduced to fragmented, discontinuous patches
because of human intervention. For example,
estimates are that 70 - 90 percent of the natural
riparian ecosystems in the U.S. have been lost to
human activities (Warner 1979). Regional losses in
these ecosystems have been estimated to exceed 98%
in the Sacramento Valley in California (Smith 1977)
and 95% in Arizona (Warner 1979). Many factors
have contributed to these resource losses, including
the following: natural resource use. urbanization.
alteration of stream flows through dam construction
and ground-water withdrawal. modification of biotic
conditions through grazing, agriculture, and
introduction of non-native species. and alteration
within watersheds (Patten 1998).
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Restoration: Use of an ecosystem model of riparian
restoration has been used to create a functioning and
self-sustaining habitat. The long term objective is to
create a framework within which natural selective
forces can operate to create a self-sustaining,
functioning riparian habitat that not only provides
habitat for a complete assemblage of riparian species,
but which is also capable of long-term regeneration
and recovery following natural disturbances (Baird
1989). Careful design, monitoring, and adaptive
management are key components to successful
restoration. The structure and dynamics of the plant
community as well as species composition are
designed and monitored, as well as landscape
position.
Live Plant Collections: Fremont s cottonwood is a
pioneer or colonizing species and a prolific seed
producer (Stromberg 1993). Fremont s cottonwood
propagates primarily from seed rather than asexually.
Cottonwood can also sprout shoots from lateral buds
when the apical meristem is prostrated by
floodwaters, snapped off in high winds, or pruned by
beaver, deer, or other wildlife.
Flooding is the primary disturbance in Fremont s
cottonwood forests. Seed germination and tree
establishment coincides with flood events. Fremont s
cottonwood seed germinates only during spring and
early summer. This seasonal restriction is due to: 1)
early spring seed dispersal. 2) short periods (1 to 5
weeks) of seed viability. and 3) rapid seed
germination (Shafroth et al. 1998). These traits help
synchronize germination with high stream flows in
spring. Moist soil is necessary for both germination
and establishment of Fremont s cottonwood.
During this century most of the major rivers in the
West were dammed. The presence of these dams
changed riparian habits in ways unfavorable to
cottonwood regeneration. In particular, the dams
altered the timing and volume of water flowing
through riparian areas. The dams reduce floodplain
inundation during spring, and spring flooding is
necessary for cottonwood regeneration.
Spring over-bank flows or capillary wetting of the
soil surface in areas with shallow water tables,
moistens the soil which is necessary for Fremont s
cottonwood establishment. A number of studies have
related components of the reproductive cycle of
Populus species to floodplain site conditions
produced by stream flow and associated fluvial
processes. In particular, components of the annual
pattern of stream flow, or annual hydrograph, are
associated with specific stages of Populus seedling
emergence and growth. These include the following:
1) flood flows that precede Populus seed dispersal
produce suitable germination sites. 2) flow recessions
following a peak expose germination sites and
promote seedling root elongation. and 3) base flows
supply soil moisture to meet summer and winter
seedling water demand (Shafroth et al. 1998.
Mahoney et al. 1998). The combination of root
growth and capillary fringe defines the successful
recruitment band for seedling establishment, which is
usually from about 0.6 to 2 m in elevation above the
late summer stream stage (Mahoney et al. 1998). The
rate of stream stage decline is also critical for
seedling survival and should not exceed 2.5 cm per
day .
Cottonwoods grow rapidly and can reach
medium/large tree height in about 20 to 25 years.
Cottonwood forests could occur as rapidly as 25 - 30
year (Grenfell 1988). Shrubby riparian willow
thickets may last 15 to 20 years before being
overtopped and shaded out by cottonwoods.
Cottonwood or willow tree habitats close to river
channels that receive a good silt infusion, without
major disruptive flows, tend to be self- perpetuating.
Page 5
Cottonwood is susceptible to mistletoe. In certain
instances cottonwood can be invasive. Its shallow
root system can disrupt sidewalks or pavement.
Artificial Establishment: Fremont s cottonwood
establishment from seed is difficult and seldom used.
Fremont s cottonwood propagation is possible from
hardwood, root cuttings and through tissue culture
(Pope et al. 1990). Fremont s cottonwood
establishment from transplanted containerized
saplings is costly and risky unless the saplings are
irrigated. The NRCS Los Lunas Plant Materials
Center, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, developed a pole planting technique
for establishing Fremont s cottonwood (USDA,
NRCSa). We reprint this procedure below.
“Trial planting on well adapted sites indicate more
that 80% survival of cottonwood and willow poles
when dormant poles are cut and planted between
November and February.
It is essential to monitor the water tables at proposed
planting sites for at least one year before planting.
Poles planted where the water table fluctuates widely
will have lower survival rates than those planted
where water table is relatively stable. If groundwater
monitoring shows the water level will drop more than
3 feet during the growing season (May-October),
another site should be selected. Monitoring of
observation wells for at least one calendar year
before planting will allow better planting depth to
ensure establishment.
Salt cedar (Tamarix chinensis) and Arundo donax
will need to be controlled before poles are planted.
However, young cottonwoods and willows can grow
successfully in quite small openings in stands of salt
cedar. Study of natural stands suggest they will
eventually shade out the salt cedar.".
In six riparian restoration projects carried out in
California, competition from exotic weed species was
a key factor in mortality and site failure (Baird 1989).
With the addition of water, weeds grew so vigorously
that plants smaller than a 5-gallon pot was out-
competed. One way to avoid this was to remove the
surface soil, although this has the disadvantage of
removing nutrients, mycorrhizal fungi, bacteria, and
insect and invertebrate populations critical to a
healthy habitat. They also used a cover crop of
native wildflowers, hand-broadcast over the site to
aid in weed control. On wetter, heavier soils this
does not seem to provide effective weed control.
There is considerable evidence that fertilizing a
restoration site in southern California favors exotic
weeds over native plants (Grime and Hunt 1975.
Grime 1978. t. John 1987 and 1988). Inoculation
with mycorrhizal fungi enabled seedlings of some
species to better utilize limited supplies of both water
and nutrients. Baird (1989) achieved inoculation
through large (1.2 m deep by 2.8 m wide) root balls
of mature trees brought in from riparian sites.
Smaller, more economical soil plugs scattered
throughout the site serve the same purpose. The
number of soil plugs needed to ensure the
establishment of soil flora is directly related to the
distance of the restoration site from a similar, mature
community.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Howe and Knopf (1991) conclude that to ensure the
survival of cottonwood riparian communities along
the Rio Grande, resource managers need to
implement strategies to enhance cottonwood
regeneration and survival, and control the spread of
exotic species.
Decadent age structures in cottonwood forest consist
of stands composed of large old trees but few
saplings or small trees. Several studies have
implicated unregulated livestock grazing as an
important cause of decadent age structures in
cottonwood forests (Brotherson et al. 1983. Fenner et
al. 1984. Rucks 1984. Shanfield 1984). Glinski
(1977) showed a negative correlation between
grazing levels and Fremont s cottonwood recruitment.
Several studies showed fewer cottonwood seedlings
in grazed than in non-grazed areas (Crouch 1979.
Reichenbacher 1984).
Livestock grazing has widely been identified as a
leading factor causing or contributing to degradation
of riparian habitats in the western United States (U.S.
General Accounting Office 1988. Chaney et al. 1990,
Fleischner 1994, Ohmart 1996). Livestock grazing
can alter vegetative structure and composition of
riparian habitat. Overgrazing, especially by livestock
and big game, frequently changes plant species
composition and growth form, density of stands,
vigor, seed production of plants, and insect
production. Bull and Slovlin (1982) attributed to
livestock grazing the paucity of deciduous woody
vegetation that was required by some bird species
along Oregon streams.
Schulz and Leininger (1991) found that bird species
are differentially affected by cattle grazing in riparian
areas. Livestock grazing causes the replacement of
bird and mammal species requiring the vertical
Page 6
vegetation structure of riparian habitat to species,
which are ubiquitous in their habitat preferences.
Previous heavy cattle grazing changed the bird and
small mammal community composition through
reduction of shrub and herbaceous cover.
Riparian zones can be managed for non-game species
richness by maintaining high structural diversity of
vegetation. Species that are sensitive to grazing
pressure should be monitored as indicators of habitat
change. Johnson (1985) pointed out the need to
coordinate range and wildlife habitat management to
ensure the existence of sensitive wildlife species that
are negatively impacted by livestock grazing. Woody
plant species increase rapidly when riparian areas are
protected from livestock grazing. The woody
structural component of the vegetation is essential for
wildlife species that are obligate inhabitants of
riparian habitat, and in providing hiding cover and
stabilizing streambanks for fish habitat.
Slovlin (1984) recommended a 5-year rest from cattle
grazing to re-establish healthy stands of riparian
vegetation such as cottonwood and willows. Siekert
et al. (1985) reported that spring grazing showed no
significant changes in channel morphology, whereas
summer and fall grazing did. However, even with
limited seasonal grazing, all tree seedling would be
eliminated. Marlow and Pogacnik (1985)
recommended fencing riparian habitat, rest-rotation,
light grazing (<.20% forage removal), and grazing
after streambanks have dried to 10% moisture.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Containerized Fremont s cottonwood samplings are
available from most nurseries in the areas where
adapted. We recommend using plants from the same
region, elevation, climate, soil type, moisture or
hydrologic regime as you are replanting.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Auble, G.T. &. M.L. Scott 1998. Fluvial disturbance
patches and cottonwood recruitment along the upper
Missouri River, Montana. Wetland 18(4):546-556.
Baird, Kathryn 1989. High quality restoration of
riparian ecosystems. Restoration and Management
Notes 7(2):60-64.
Beier, P., &. R.H. Barret 1987. Beaver habitat use
and impact in the Truckee River Basin, California
USA. J. Wildlife Management 51:794-799.
Brode, J. &. R.B. Bury 1984. The importance of
riparian systems to amphibians and reptiles. Pages
30 – 35, IN R.E. Warner and K. Hendrix, eds.
California riparian systems. ecology, conservation,
and productive management. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Brotherson, J.D., S.R. Rushford, W.E. Evenson, &. C.
Morden 1983. Population dynamics and age
relationships of eight trees in Navajo National
Monument, Arizona. J. Range Management 36: 250-
256.
Bull, E.L. &. J.N. Slovlen 1982. Relationships
between avifauna and streamside vegetation. Trans.
North. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 47: 496-506.
Cemments, C. 1991. Beavers and riparian systems.
Rangelands 13:277-279.
Chaney, E., W. Elmore, &. W.S. Platts 1990.
Livestock grazing on western riparian areas. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Region 8, Denver,
Colorado.
Conard, S.G., R.L. MacDonald &. R.F. Holland.
1977. Riparian begetation and flora of the
Sacramento Valley. pp. 47-56 IN: Anne Sand (ed.).
Riparian Forests in California. Their Ecology and
Conservation.
Crouch, G.L. 1979. Long-term changes in
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in Northeastern Colorado. USDA,
Forest Service Research Note RM 370: 1-4.
Ellis, L.M. 1994. Bird use of salt cedar and
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in northeastern Colorado. USDA,
Forest Service Research Note RM-370:1-4.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8:1098-1108.
Fenner, P.W., W.W. Brady, &. D.R. Patton 1984.
Observations on seed and seedlings of Fremont s
cottonwood. Desert Plants 6:55-58.
Page 7
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8:629-644.
Gaines, D. 1977. The valley riparian forests of
California: Their importance to bird populations.
pp. 57-86 IN: Anne Sand (ed.). Riparian Forests in
California. Their Ecology and Conservation.
Glinski, R.L. 1977. Regeneration and distribution of
sycamore and cottonwood trees along Sonoita Creek,
Santa Cruz County, Arizona. USDA, Forest Service
General Technical Report RM-43:116-123.
Grenfell, W.E., Jr. 1988. Valley foothill riparian.
IN: Kenneth A. Mayer and William F. Laudenslayer,
Jr., A guide To wildlife habitats of California. USDA,
Pacific SW Forest and Range Experiment Station,
California Dept. of Fish and Game, PG and E, and
USDA Forest Service Region 5. Page 86 - 87.
Grime, J.P. 1978. Interpretation of small-scale
patterns in the distribution of plant species in space
and time. IN: A.J.H. Freysen and J.W. Woldendorp
(eds.) Structure and Functioning of Plant Populations.
Elsevier, North-Holland, Amsterdam, New York. pp.
101-104.
Grime, J.P. and R. Hunt 1975. Relative growth rate:
its range and adaptive significance in a local flora.
J. Ecology 63: 393-422.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Howe, W.H. &. R.L. Knopf 1991. On the imminent
decline of Rio Grande
cottonwoods in central New Mexico. The
Southwestern Naturalist 36:28-224.
Johnson, R.R. &. C.W. Lowe 1985. On the
development of riparian ecology. Pp 112-116 IN:
R.R. Johnson, C.D. Ziebell, D.R. Patten, P.F. Folliot,
and R.H. Hamre, technical coordinators. Riparian
ecosystems and their management: Reconciling
conflicting uses. General Technical Report RM-120.
U.S. Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Knopf, F.I. and F.B. Samson 1994. Scale
perspectives on avian diversity in western riparian
ecosystems. Conservation Biology 8(3):669-676.
Laymon, S.A. 1984. Riparian bird community
structure and dynamics: Dog Island, Red Bluff,
California. Pages 587-597 IN: R.E. Warner and K.
Hendrix, eds. California riparian systems. ecology,
conservation, and productive management. Univ. of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Mahoney, J.M. &. S.B. Rood 1998. Streamflow
requirements for cottonwood seedling recruitment -
an integrative model. Wetlands 18(4): 634-645.
Marlow, C.B. &. T.M. Pogacnik 1985. Time of
grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284. IN: Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell,
D.R. Patton, P.F. Ffolliott, and R.H. Hamre (Tech.
Coords.) Riparian ecosystems and their
management: Reconciling conflicting uses. Proc.
First North Am. Riparian Conf. U.S. Dep. Agric.,
For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-120. 523 pp..
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York. 500 pp.
McGinley, M.A. &. T.G. Whitham 1985. Central
place foraging by beavers (Castor canadensis): A test
of foraging predictions and the impact of selective
feeding on the growth form of cottonwoods (Populus
fremontii). Oecologia 66: 558-562.
Michny, F.J., D. Boos &. F. Wernette 1974. Riparian
habitats and avian densities along the Sacramento
River, California. State of California Dept. of Fish
and Game. 23 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the Mountain
West. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Ohmart, R.D. 1996. Historical and present impacts
of livestock grazing on fish and wildlife resources in
western riparian habitats. pp. 245-279. IN: P.R.
Karausman (ed.) Rangeland Wildlife. Society for
Range Management, Denver, Colorado.
Ohmart, R.D. &. B.W. Anderson 1986. Riparian
habitat. In inventory and monitoring of wildlife
habitat. Bureau of Land Management. pp 169-199.
Patten, D.T. 1998. Riparian ecosystems of semi-arid
North America: diversity and human impacts.
Wetland 18(4): 498-512.
Pope, D.P., J.H. Brock, and R.A. Backhaus 1990.
Vegetative propagation of key Southwestern woody
riparian species. Desert Plants 10: 91-95.
Reichenbacher, F.W. 1984. Ecology and evolution of
Southwestern riparian plant communities. Desert
Plants 6:15-22.
Page 8
Roberts, W.G, J.G. Howe &. J. Major 1977. A survey
of riparian forest flora and fauna in California.
Pages 3-20. IN: Anne Sand (ed.). Riparian forests in
California. Their Ecology and Conservation.
Robichaux, Robert 1977. Geologic history of the
riparian forests of California. Pages 21-34. IN:
Anne Sand (ed.). Riparian Forests in California.
Their Ecology and Conservation..
Rucks, M.G. 1984. Composition and trend of
riparian vegetation on five perennial streams in
southeastern Arizona. pp 97-107. IN: R.E. Warner
and K.M. Hendrix (eds.). California riparian
systems: Ecology, conservation, andpProductive
management. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California
St. John, T.V. 1987. Mineral acquisition in native
plants. Pages 529-536. IN: Elias, Thomas S. (ed.)
Conservation and management of rare and
endangered plants. California Native Plant Society,
Sacramento, California.
St. John, T.V. 1988. Soil disturbance and the
mineral nutrient of native plants. Pages 34-39. IN:
Rieger J.P. and B.K. Williams (eds.) Proceedings of
the second native plant revegetation symposium. San
Diego, California.
Sampson, A.W. &. B.S. Jespersen 1981. California
range brushlands and browse plants. Division of
Agricultural Sciences, University of California.
Schulz, T.T. &. W.C. Leininger 1991. Nongame
wildlife communities in grazed and ungrazed
montane riparian sites. Great Basin Naturalist
51(3):286-292.
Schulz, T.T. &. W.C. Leininger 1990. Differences in
riparian vegetation structure between grazed areas
and exclosures. Journal of Range Management
43(4): 295-299.
Shafroth, P.B., G.T. Auble, J.C. Stromberg, &. D.T.
Patten 1998. Establishment of woody riparian
vegetation in relation to annual patterns of
streamflow, Bill Williams River, Arizona. Wetlands
(18)4: 577-590.
Shanefield, A.N. 1984. Alder, cottonwood, and
sycamore distribution and regeneration along the
Nacimiento River, California. pp 196-201. IN: R.E.
Warner and K.M. Hendrix (eds.). California riparian
systems: Ecology, conservation, and productive
management. University of California Press,
Berkeley.
Siekert, R.E., Q.D. Skinner, M.A. Skinner, M.A.
Smith, J.L. Dodd, &. J.D. Rodgers 1985. Channel
response of an ephemeral stream in Wyoming to
selected grazing treatments. Pages 276-278. IN:
Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R. Patton, P.F.
Folliott, and R.H. Hamre (Tech. coords.). Riparian
ecosystems and their management: Reconciling
conflicting uses. Proc. First North Am. Riparian
Conf. USDA, For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-120.
523 pp.
Slovlin, J.M. 1984. Impact of grazing on wetlands
and riparian habitat: a review of our knowledge. pp.
1001-1104. IN: Developing strategies for rangeland
management. Nat. Res. Counc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
Stromberg, J.C. 1998. Functional equivalency of
saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) and Fremont
cottonwood (Populus fremontii) along a free-flowing
river. Wetlands 18(4): 675-686.
Smith, F. 1977. A short review of the status of
riparian forests in California. Pp. 1-2. IN: Anne
Sand (ed.). Riparian Forests in California. Their
Ecology and Conservation.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds. pp. 156-164. IN: Johnson, R.R. and
D.A. Jones (tech. coords.). Importance, preservation
and management of riparian habitat: a symposium.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report RM-43.
Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal Uses of California s
Indigenous Plants. Koelz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
Stromberg, J.C. 1993. Fremont cottonwood-
goodding willow riparian forest: a review of their
ecology, threats, and recovery potential. J. Arizona-
Nevada Acad. Sci. 27:97-110.
Thompson, K. 1977. Riparian forests of the
Sacramento Valley, California. Pp. 35-38. IN: Anne
Sand (ed.). Riparian forests in California. Their
Ecology and Conservation.
Trapp, G.R., G.L. Linck &. E.D. Whisler 1984. The
status of ecological research on the mammal fauna of
Page 9
California s central valley riparian communities.
Pages 942-949. IN: R.E. Warner and K. Hendrix,
eds. California riparian systems. ecology,
conservation, and productive management.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 05APR1999.
U. S. General Accounting Office 1988. Public
rangelands: some riparian areas restored but
widespread improvement will be slow. GAO/RCED-
88-01, Washington, D.C.
Warner, R.E. &. K.M. Hendrix 1979. California
riparian systems: Ecology, conservation, and
productive management. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California.
Williams, D.F. &. K.S. Kilburn 1984. Sensitive,
threatened, and endangered mammals of riparian
and other wetland communities in California. pp.
950-956. IN: Warner, R.E., and K.E. Hendrix (eds.),
California riparian systems: ecology, conservation,
and productive management. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California. 1035 pp.
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='James Henson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Greg Fenchel
USDA, NRCS Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas,
New Mexico
' WHERE symbol='pofr2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='James Henson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Page 1
Plant Guide
FROSTED MINT
Poliomintha incana (Torr.)
Gray
Plant Symbol = POIN3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
covered with white, soft, wooly hairs. The flowers
grow in groups of 1 to 3 and are located below their
axils. The flowers are 6 to 7 mm long. The calyx has
15 simple veins, is oblong shaped, and covered with
white, soft, shaggy hairs. The calyx has conspicuous
awl-shaped teeth. The corollas are 1 to 1.4 cm long
and have a lavender color with purple dots on the
lower lip. The tube of the corolla has long, soft,
straight hairs in the form of a ring.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Frosted mint is found on eroded slopes and
in sandy soils.
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, frosted mint should not be prone to debilitating
pests.
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Colton, H.S. 1974. Hopi history and ethnobotany.
IN D.A. Horr (ed). Hopi Indians. Garland Press,
New York, New York. 424 pp.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Jones, D.E. 1968. Comanche plant medicine. Papers
in Anthropology 9:1-13.
Martin, R.E. et al. 2002. Intermountain wildflowers.
Southern Utah University, Cedar City, Utah.
© Ronald Martin
Intermountain Wildflowers
Southern Utah University
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Rosemary mint, purple sage
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Comanche medicine women chewed
the leaves of frosted mint to sweeten the taste of
other drugs. The Hopi and Tewa used frosted mint to
treat rheumatism and ear trouble. They also used the
flowers for flavoring in food preparation.
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Mint Family (Labiatae). Frosted mint is a
shrub that reaches 5 dm in height and is very
branched. The branches are straight, slender, and
erect. The branches have a silvery color and a dense
covering of small hairs. The leaves are attached
directly to the branches without a supporting stalk.
The leaves are long and narrow with almost parallel
sides (1-3 cm long). The leaves are veinless and
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
<.http://www.suu.edu/faculty/martin/utahwildflowers.
htm>.. Accessed: 30May2002.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
Whiting, A.F. 1939. Ethnobotany of the Hopi.
Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin #15. 120 pp.
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='poin3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp . 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
QUAKING ASPEN
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Plant Symbol = POTR5
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© St Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
Conservation: Quaking aspen is valued for its white
bark and brilliant fall color, especially when
clustered. The species been widely used in
landscaping but is best in sites away from structures
that might be damaged by the aggressive roots. The
trees provide good visual screening and noise
abatement.
Aspen stands are good firebreaks, often dropping
crown fires in conifer stands to the ground when they
reach aspens and even sometimes extinguishing the
fire because of the small amount of flammable
accumulation. They allow more ground water
recharge than do conifer forests and they also play a
significant role in protecting against soil erosion.
They have been used in restoration of riparian
habitats.
Wildlife: Young quaking aspen provides food and
habitat for a variety of wildlife: black bear, deer,
beaver, porcupine, elk, moose, ruffed grouse and
many smaller birds and animals, including small
mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, chipmunks,
and rabbits. Bark, buds, new sprouts, twigs from the
tops of fallen or logged trees, and fallen leaves all are
wildlife foods.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used Populus bark
(including aspen) as a food source. They cut the
inner bark into strips, dried and ground it into meal to
be mixed with other starches for bread or mush.
Catkins were eaten raw, and the cambium was eaten
raw or in a soup.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Willow Family (Salicaceae): This is a
native tree 5-30 m high, typically less than 15 m,
with a rounded crown. lateral roots may extend over
30 meters and vertical sinker roots from the laterals
may extend downward for nearly 3 m. bark typically
smooth, greenish-white to gray-white, often thin and
peeling, becoming thicker and furrowed with age,
especially toward the base. Leaves simple,
deciduous, broadly ovate to nearly round, 4–6 cm
long, with small, rounded teeth on the margins, on a
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Trembling aspen, golden aspen, mountain aspen,
trembling poplar, white poplar, popple. aspen
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Quaking aspen is an important fiber source,
especially for pulp, flake-board, and other composite
products. The wood is light and soft with little
shrinkage (see Wheeler 2000) and is used for pallets,
boxes, veneer, and plywood. Higher grades are used
for other solid wood products, such as paneling,
furniture components, and flooring. The wood
characteristics make it useful in miscellaneous
products, including excelsior, animal bedding,
matchsticks, toys, beehives, tongue depressors,
spoons, and ice cream sticks. It makes good
playground structures because the surface does not
splinter, although the wood warps and susceptible to
decay.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
slender, flattened petiole, dark green and shiny
above, pale green below, turning bright yellow,
yellow-orange, gold, or reddish after the first frosts.
The male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers
are on separate trees (the species dioecious – or
‘polygamodioecious,’ because bisexual flowers may
be produced at low frequencies on staminate and
pistillate trees), each type of flower borne in pendent
catkins. The fruits are narrowly ovoid to flask-
shaped capsules 5-7 mm long, splitting to release the
seeds. seeds ca.2' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='mm long, each with a tuft of long,
white, silky hairs, easily blown by the wind. The
common name is in reference to the shaking of the
leaves in light wind.
Variation within the species: Considerable genetic
and morphological variation exists over the range of
quaking aspen. A number of species and varieties
have been described but none are currently
recognized. Entire stands are often produced as a
single clone from root sprouts – this sometimes easily
observable on a single mountainside in different
timing in leaf appearance or in different hues and
timing of fall coloration. Distinctively large triploid
trees are sometimes found.
Quaking aspen hybridizes naturally with bigtooth
aspen (Populus grandidentata), narrowleaf
cottonwood (P. angustifolia), curly poplar (P.
canescens), balsam poplar (P. balsamifera), eastern
cottonwood (P. deltoides), and white poplar (Populus
alba, a naturalized European species), and hybrids
with black cottonwood (P. trichocarpa) occur rarely
in Alaska. Quaking aspen, bigtooth aspen, European
aspen (P. tremula), and three Asian species are
closely related and sometimes classed together as a
single, circumglobal superspecies (see Peterson and
Peterson 1992).
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Quaking aspen is the most widely distributed tree
species in North America. It grows from Alaska
across the Northwest Territories to Quebec and
Newfoundland, south to West Virginia and Virginia,
and in all of the western North America US states
(except Oklahoma and Kansas) -- in all Canadian
provinces and all but 13 US states (absent from the
Southeast). It occurs in both the eastern and western
sierras of Mexico, into the south-central part of the
country. Outside of the main range, it is represented
by a huge number of disjunct populations. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Quaking aspen occurs in a wide variety of habitats
(including soil type and moisture conditions) and at a
great range of elevation, matching its extensive
geographic range. It characteristically forms pure
stands or mixed stands with bigtooth aspen, but it
occurs with scrub oaks and sagebrush at lower
elevations and as a prostrate form above timberline
and exists as a dominant species in many
communities at mid elevations. It is a shade-
intolerant, disturbed site species and is quickly
replaced in succession by more tolerant species.
Some trees are self-pruning, dropping numerous
small twigs with excess fall foliage and returning
nutrients to the soil. Leaves decay relatively rapidly,
and a characteristic ".aspen soil,". with a higher pH
than on conifer-dominated soils, develops on sites
that have supported aspen for a number of
generations.
Flowering occurs March–April (East) or May–June
(West), before the leaves appear and fruiting in May–
June (–July), often before the leaves are fully
expanded. Temperatures above 12° C for about 6
days apparently trigger flowering. Female trees
generally flower and leaf out before male trees.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Quaking aspen commonly establishes from seed in
Alaska, northern Canada, and eastern North America.
Seedling establishment is less common in the West
but occurs there in moist sites such as kettles and
other topographic depressions, seeps, springs, lake
margins, and burnt-out riparian zones. Drought stress
kills seedlings, as does standing water.
Young trees first flower at 2-3 years but production
of large seed crops begins at about 10-20 years.
maximum seed production occurs at 50-70 years.
Heavy seed crops are produced at 4-5-year intervals.
Seeds are wind-dispersed for distances of 500 meters
to several kilometers.
Germination generally begins nearly immediately
after moisture is received and can occur across a
broad temperature range, with optimal germination at
15-25° C. Surface placement or a very shallow depth
of burial on exposed mineral soil (such as burned or
scarified sites) apparently provide the best
environment for germination. Continuous moisture is
required.
Asexual reproduction and clones
Reproduction of quaking aspen is primarily by root
sprouts, and extensive clones of root-interconnected
Page 3
trees are characteristic of the species. Most root
sprouts develop within 10 meters of the parent stem,
although some are produced at 30 meters or more.
They develop from roots within 2-10 centimeters of
the surface. Growth in primordia and buds is
suppressed by apical dominance but resumes after
stems are top-killed by fire, harvest or wind-
breakage, or after defoliation and many thousands of
sprouts per acre may be produced. Removal of the
above-ground plant portion in June or July after
maximum auxin production (the chemical agent of
apical dominance) results in fewer suckers than top-
removal during the dormant season. Sprouts
produced in a closed stand usually die unless in a
canopy gap. Saplings may begin producing root
sprouts at 1 year of age.
Stands of quaking aspen may consist of a single clone
or represent a mosaic of different clones. Even in a
small area, wide variation in genetic traits exists
between clones – differences may be seen in leaf
shape and size, bark colour and texture, branching
habit, resistance to disease and insect attack, sexual
expression, growth rate, and phenology. The most
conspicuous differences may be in the timing of
spring leaf flush and in autumn leaf coloration.
The staminate-pistillate ratio of clones is 1:1 in most
localities, but in the eastern US staminate trees may
outnumber pistillate ones by 3:1. Some clones
alternate between staminate and pistillate forms in
different years or produce combinations of perfect,
staminate, and pistillate flowers.
Individual trees of quaking aspen are short-lived
(maximum age in the Great Lakes states is 50–60
years, up to 150 years in the West). Stands may be
even-aged (after a single top-kill event) or only
broadly even-aged (from sprouting of a gradually
deteriorating stand). The clones are much older:
many in the Rocky Mountain and Great Basin
regions are at least 8000 years old, persisting since
the last glacial retreat. A male clone in the Wasatch
Mountains of Utah occupies 17.2 acres (43 ha) and
has more than 47,000 stems – this clone is estimated
to be 1 million years old and may be the world s most
massive known organism. Clones east of the Rocky
Mountains usually cover no more than a few acres.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The thin, soft bark of quaking aspen makes it
susceptible to many diseases and insect infestations
as well as mechanical and fire damage. Fires may
kill trees or cause basal scars that serve as entry
points for wood-rotting fungi, which are common in
older stands. The wood decays easily. Fires may
also kill surface roots that could reduce sucker
regeneration.
The poplar borer beetle, one of the most common
wood borers of aspen, weakens trees by boring
galleries in the trunk near the lower portion of the
crown. Outbreaks of forest tent caterpillar may last
4-5 years and result in serious defoliation -- cold
weather in the spring shortly after the eggs hatch and
above-average fall temperatures can cause a rapid
decline in caterpillar populations by killing eggs and
larvae. Overgrazing by livestock or big-game
animals disturbs roots and compacts soil, limiting
sucker formation. Heavy grazing of young sucker
stands by cattle for three years in a row may destroy
them.
Quaking aspen can be propagated by seed, following
cold stratification. Germination of fresh seed may be
80-95%, but viability lasts only 2-4 weeks under
favorable natural conditions (low temperature and
humidity). Seeds dried for 3 days and stored at cool
temperatures may retain good viability for up to a
year.
The species roots poorly from woody stem cuttings,
but newly initiated (softwood) shoots can usually be
induced to root by dipping in IBA (indolebutyric
acid) or other commercially available rooting
powders. A more preferred method uses root sprouts.
Collect dormant lateral roots in early spring -- plant
root cuttings 1-2 in diameter and 3-5 centimeters long
in vermiculite and place in the greenhouse for 6
weeks. Excise the young sucker shoots and root in
perlite/vermiculite (2-3 weeks, using IBA), misting
frequently. Transplant the developing plants to
peat/vermiculite mix and grow at 15-25º C. Or, the
root cuttings may be planted directly into the perlite
mix, with the top of the cutting just below the media
surface.
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='potr5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bozie, T. 1999. The aspen tree (Populus
tremuloides). In your woodlot, Vol. 8, Issue #3.
Farm Woodlot Assoc. of Saskatchewan. SEP00.
<.http://www.aginfonet.com/agricarta/content/farm_w
oodlot_assoc_of_sask/aspen.html>.
Page 4
Perala, D. A. 1990. Populus tremuloides. Michx.
Quaking aspen. Pp. 555-569, IN: R.M. Burns and
B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 2.
Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook
654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Volume
_2/populus/tremuloides.htm>. Accessed September
2000.
Peterson, E. B. &. N. M. Peterson 1992. Ecology,
management, and use of aspen and balsam poplar in
the Prairie Provinces, Canada. Special Report 1.
Forestry Canada, Northwest Region, Northern
Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
Prasad, A. M. &. L. R. Iverson 1999. A climate
change atlas for 80 forest tree species of the eastern
United States. USDA, Forest Service, Northeastern
Research Station, Delaware, Ohio. SEP00.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/delaware/atlas/>.
The Australian Naturopathic Network 2000. Populus
tremuloides. SEP00.
<.http://www.ann.com.au/herbs/Monographs/populus.
htm>.
Tirmenstein, D. 1988 (rev. J.L. Howard 1996).
Populus tremuloides. IN: D. G. Simmerman
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences
Laboratory, Missoula, Montana. AUG00.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/poptre
/>.
Wheeler, E. E. 2000. Forest Products – Commercial
Species. Dept. of Community and Economic
Development. Alaska Division of Trade and
Development. AUG00.
<.http://www.dced.state.ak.us/econdev/tree5.htm>.
Prepared By
Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
Species Coordinator
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Prunus americana Marsh.
Plant Symbol = PRAM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Missouri State Office
(Gilmore 1977, Kindscher 1992). They bound
together the twigs of the wild plum and made them
into a broom. The Cheyenne mixed the crushed
fruits of the wild plum with salt to treat mouth
disease (Hart 1981). They also crushed and boiled
the small rootlets and the bark of older wild plum
with the roots of the scarlet thorn (Crataegus
chrysocarpa) as a diarrhea remedy (Youngken 1925).
The Mesquakies used the root bark of the wild plum
to cure canker sores around the mouth (Smith 1928).
The Teton Dakota used the sprouts or young growth
of the wild plum as a wand in the “waunyampi”
ceremony (Gilmore 1977). This is an offering or
form of prayer, consisting of a wand made from a
peeled and painted wild plum sprout. The
“waunyampi” ceremony is usually offered with
prayers for the sick.
The various species of wild plum are astringent and
sedative, and the bark is a tonic (Smythe 1901). The
roots and bark contain a bitter substance as well as a
substance called phloretin, which is an active agent
against gram positive and negative bacteria (Lewis
and Elvin-Lewis 1977).
Wildlife: Wild plums are eaten by turkey, black bear,
and wolves (Thwaites 1904). Foxes, black-headed
grosbeaks, and ring-tailed cats utilize wild plums
(Martin et al. 1951). Plum thickets often furnish
valuable protective shelter.
Conservation: Wild plums have been recommended
for their drought resistance and widely planted in
shelter belts in the western Great Plains (Jerry Kaiser
pers. comm. 1999). They also make good wildlife
habitat and are effective in erosion control because
their roots hold the soil. Their thorny branches catch
tumbleweeds, leaves, and other plant materials,
which, when windstorms occur during times of
drought, provide an effective means of slowing wind
erosion of soil.
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
WILD PLUM
Mike Clayton
@ Imhoff (2000)
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
American plum, American wild plum, sandhill plum,
Osage plum, river plum, sand cherry, thorn plum,
wild yellow plum, red plum, August plum, goose
plum, hog plum, and sloe
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Wild plum fruit was and still is
extensively consumed by the Indians of the prairies,
either fresh or made into a sauce (Kindscher 1987).
The Pawnee, Kiowa, Comanche, Omaha, Teton
Dakota, Lakota, Comanche, Crow, Assiniboin, and
Kiowa ate the wild plums or chickasaw plums
(Prunus angustifolia) fresh or dried. Plums were also
pitted and dried, although the Pawnee reportedly
often dried them without removing the pits (Gilmore
1977). Early explorers and travelers of the Prairie
Bioregion often mentioned wild plums in their
journals and diaries and also appreciated them as
food (Kindscher 1987). Today wild plums are eaten
fresh, canned, preserved in jams and jellies, baked,
and made into fruit roll-ups.
The Omaha scraped and boiled the bark from the
roots of the wild plum and applied it to abrasions
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). Wild plum
(Prunus americana) is a shrub or small tree 3-8 m (3-
24 ft) tall, and are usually forming thickets. The
small branches are sometimes spiny. The leaves are
alternate, egg-shaped to oval, 6-10 cm (2-4 in) long.
The upper leaf surface is shiny green and the lower
surface is slightly hairy. leaf margins are sharply
toothed. The white roseaceous flowers are in-groups
of 2-5 at the ends of branchlets. Flowers usually
appear before the leaves in April and May. There are
five separate, oval petals 8-12 mm (5/16-1/2 in) long.
The reddish-purple plums are fleshy, oval, 2.0-2.7 cm
(0.75-1.25 in) long. each fruit contains one seed.
Wild plum flowers are insect pollinated.
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The range is from Massachusetts west to
Manitoba and Montana, south to Utah, Colorado, and
Oklahoma, east to Florida, and north to New York
(Stephens 1975).
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Wild plum grows in prairies, woodlands,
pastures, and along roadsides and riverbanks.
Wild plums can be planted from seed and they are
relatively easy to transplant. Plant in well drained
soil. wild plum tolerates shade. Flowering occurs in
April and May and fruit ripens from August to
September. The plant has fruit every year.
Propagation from Cuttings: Prunus americana
cuttings are not easy to root. Hardwood cuttings
taken in late January have been rooted. Hardwood
cuttings are those made of matured, dormant
hardwood after leaves have abscised and before new
shoots emerge in the spring. Material should be
taken from healthy, moderately vigorous stock plants
grown in full sunlight. Central and basal portions
(not the tip) of a shoot make the best cuttings.
Cuttings vary from 10 to 76 cm (4 to 30 in). Ensure
that at least two nodes are included in the cutting. the
basal cut is just below a node and the top cut is 1.3 to
2.5 cm (0.5-1 in) above a node.
It is important that hardwood cuttings not dry out
during handling and storage. Dip bases of hardwood
cuttings with IBA at 20,000 ppm liquid formulation
to promote rooting. Alternatively, treat with 2% IBA
talc. This will promote rooting on both suckers and
stem cuttings. Dip the cuttings into root promoting
hormone, IBA at 2000 ppm, for a few seconds, then
keep in the dark at temperatures of 10º (50ºF). Plant
the cuttings in open ground in prepared holes with
good potting soil. Firm the soil around the cuttings
and water. To ensure survival of cuttings through the
following winter in cold climates, the potted cuttings
should be kept in heated cold frames or poly-houses
to hold the temperature between 0-7°C (32-45°F).
Rooted cuttings that had shoot growth in the fall, but
were not given nitrogen, had the best over-winter
survival in a cold frame with microfoam.
Propagation from Seed: Harvest the fruit in the
summer when ripe (the fruit turns dark purple),
usually in August. Remove the pulp or fruit from the
seed. Seeds can be extracted by maceration and
recovered by flotation. Put the seed in a 50ºF cooler
over the winter. For prolonged storage, seeds must
be air dried and stored in sealed containers at cold
temperatures. The seeds can also be planted outdoors
in the fall so they are naturally “cold stratified.”
Natural germination occurs predominantly in the first
or second year after seedfall, depending on the year.
If sowing seed in the fall, it is important to sow early
enough so seeds can pre-chill before seedbeds freeze.
This can be overcome by mulching the seedbeds.
Seedlings reach suitable size for transplanting in one
to two years. Cold stratifying up to 6 months in a
moist environment can break seed dormancy. Wild
plum seeds have fairly low germination. There are
6.5 seeds per gram.
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Wild plum grows on the edges of prairies and
woodlands. Traditional resource managers burned
this community regularly, thus maintaining the
patchwork mosaic of prairie and woods on the
landscape (Thwaites 1906). Burning provided habitat
for wild plum to become established, and the nutrient
enrichment increased fruit production. The branches
of wild plum were often pruned or cut back to
increase production.
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
‘Blackhawk’, ‘Hawkeye’, and ‘De Soto’ cultivars are
descendents of the wild species (Kindscher 1987).
There are many different cultivars of Prunus species
developed for both ornamental flowers and edible
fruits. Consult your local nurseries to choose the
right cultivar for your specific landscape.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1:116-118.
Beichel, C., E. McDonald, &. T. Cole (eds.) 1993.
Encyclopedia of gardening. Dorling Kindersley,
London, New York, Stuttgart. 648 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25:517-543.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977 (1919). Uses of plants by the
Indians of the Missouri River region. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. Reprint of a
work first published as the 33rd Annual Report of the
Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, D.C.
Grinnell, G.B. 1962. The Cheyenne Indians. 2 Vols.
Cooper Square Publishers, New York, New York.
Hart, J. A. 1976. Montana native plants and early
peoples. Montana Historical Society, Helena,
Montana.
Imhoff, J. 2000. Wild edible plants of Wisconsin.
<.http://www.wisc.edu/botit/Wisc_edib/>.. Version:
000323. University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wisconsin.
Kaiser, J. 1999. Personal communication. State
Plant Materials Specialist, USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Elsberry, Missouri.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
of Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas. 276 pp.
Lewis, W.H. &. M. Elvin-Lewis 1977. Medical
botany. Wiley, New York, New York.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants a guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
McClintock, W. 1909. Materia medica of the
Blackfeet. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie: 273-279.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &. E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1985. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. Research Reports in Ethnobotany,
Contribution 2, University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Schopmeyer, Technical Coordinator 1974. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. Forest Service, USDA,
Washington, D.C.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Ojibwa
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(3):327-525.
Smythe, B.B. 1901. Preliminary list of medicinal
and economic Kansas plants. Kansas Academy of
Science Transactions 18:191-209.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Thwaites, R.G. (ed.) 1904. Original journals of the
Lewis and Clark expedition. 6 Vols. Dodd, Mead,
and Company, New York, New York.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000323. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1974. Collecting,
processing, and germinating seeds of wildland
plants. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Youngken, H.W. 1924. The drugs of the North
American Indian. American Journal of Pharmacy 96:
485-502.
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Jerry Kaiser
USDA NRCS Missouri State Office, Elsberry,
Missouri
' WHERE symbol='pram';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Page 4
Edited 04dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
BITTER CHERRY
Prunus emarginata (Dougl. ex
Hook.) D. Dietr.
Plant Symbol = PREM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Wildlife: Prunus emarginata is a valuable species for
elk, mule deer, and black bears. The fruits are eaten
by small mammals, rodents, and various birds. This
species is preferred by sheep and cattle.
Agroforestry: Bitter cherry is used in forested riparian
buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion, protect
aquatic environments, enhance wildlife, and increase
biodiversity.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata) is a
native, deciduous shrub, four to twelve feet high, or
sometimes a small tree up to thirty feet high
(McMinn 1939). The leaves are oblong to oval, fine
toothed, and rounded at the tip. The flowers are
fragrant, blooming between April and May, in
clusters of five to twelve. The bark has a generally
smooth dark brown surface marked by horizontal
light gray interrupted hands and by rows of oblong
orange colored lenticels (Sargent 1961).
Distribution: Bitter cherry often forms extensive
thickets on moist slopes and along stream banks in
the transition and Canadian life zones in the coast
ranges, the mountains of southern California and in
the Sierra Nevada (McMinn 1939). It extends
northward to Idaho and British Columbia and
eastward to Nevada and Arizona (Ibid.). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Prunus emarginata is frequently abundant in very
dense. uniform stands, on steep, rocky slopes, and
can be found along valley bottoms next to streams
(Mozingo 1987). It establishes easily in disturbed
moist areas and prefers open sandy or gravelly sites.
This species succeeds in full sun or partial shade but
grows best in a sunny position. Bitter cherry does not
tolerate much shade competition from other trees.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seed is best sown as soon as
it is ripe, in the fall, in an open frame on a seedbed
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Saint Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The edible fruits are bitter and best
used in jams. A green and dark gray dye was
obtained from the fruits and leaves. The bark was
used for making baskets that were watertight and
resist decay (Moerman 1998). The thin outer bark
was used to make mats, ropes, arrows, and as an
ornament on bows (Ibid.).
Several native North American tribes used bitter
cherry to treat a variety of complaints. An infusion
of the bark was used in the treatment of tuberculosis
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of the root and inner
bark was taken daily as a treatment for heart troubles
(Ibid.). An infusion of the bark, combined with crab
apple (Malus spp.), was used as a cure all tonics in
treating colds and various other ailments (Ibid.). An
infusion of this species’ rotten wood was used as a
contraceptive.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
(Heuser 1997). It is important to protect the seeds
from mice or any seed-eating creatures. This species
requires a period of two to three months cold
stratification. The seeds can be slow to germinate,
sometimes taking up to eighteen months. When the
seedlings are large enough to handle, they can be
placed into individual pots. Grow seedlings in an
open frame or greenhouse their first winter and plant
into their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer of the following year.
Propagation from Softwood Cuttings: Cuttings
should be done in the spring or early summer in the
early morning. Take cuttings about five to ten
centimeters long, just above the node. Put cuttings in
plastic bags to prevent moisture loss (Heuser 1997).
They must not be allowed to wilt. Trim the cuttings
below the lowest node to remove the lower leaves
leaving three or four at the tip (Ibid.). A rooting
hormone maybe applied to improve rooting before
planting. Insert the cuttings in the rooting medium
up to half their length so the leaves don’t touch each
other. The cuttings root in two to three weeks, after
which they can be potted (Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='This species is a member of the genus that produces a
poison, hydrogen cyanide, which gives almonds a
characteristic flavor. This toxin is mainly found in
the seeds and leaves and has a bitter taste. Hydrogen
cyanide can stimulate respiration and is beneficial in
the treatment of cancer. It is also known to cause
respiratory failure and death in some instances.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through native plant nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Conneticut.
Howell, J.T. 1949. Marin flora: manual of the
flowering plants and ferns of Marin County,
California. University of California Press, Berkeley
&. Los Angeles, California.
McMinn, H.E. 1951. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
Berkeley &. Los Angeles, California.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Mozingo, H.N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: a
natural history. University of Nevada Press, Reno,
Las Vegas, &. London.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the Pacific
Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J. Jr. 1947. Rocky Mountain trees. 2nd ed.
Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C. &. C. Sprague 1922. Manual of the trees
of North America. Vol. 2. Dover Publication, Inc.,
New York, New York.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By:
Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='prem';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
HONEY MESQUITE
Prosopis glandulosa Torr.
Plant Symbol = PRGL2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
from Native Trees of Texas
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Description
General: Legume Family (Leguminosae). Honey
mesquite can be a shrub or tree ranging from 4 to 6 m
tall. One or two stout spines are found at the nodes.
The leaves are alternate, bipinnate, and have petioles.
There are usually one paired division (pinnae) per
leaf and 6 to 15 leaflets per pinna. The leaflets are 15
to 62 mm long and smooth. The flowers are in
axillary spikes that are 7 to 9 cm long. The flowers
are yellow in color. The calyx has a shallow, cup-
like shape. Each flower has 10 stamens and white
woolly ovaries. The legumes are straight and nearly
as thick as they are broad (7-20 cm long). The
legumes are reddish-brown in color and constricted
between seeds. The seeds are 6 to 6.5 mm long and
brownish in color.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Honey mesquite is found on plains and dry
ranges.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Honey mesquite is tolerant of high intensity fires.
Following top-kill by fire, sprouts arise from
underground buds that are dormant on an
underground stem.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Honey mesquite pods should be harvested when the
seeds rattle inside the pod and stored in a dry place.
Prior to planting the seed coats should be scarified by
chipping, cutting, or exposing to boiling water.
Seeds germinate best between temperatures of 20 to
40 °C. Germination usually occurs within six hours
of seed wetting. Scarified or sprouted seeds should
be planted in well-drained soils. The best growth
occurs where roots can reach ground water. Honey
mesquite prefers full sun.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Honey mesquite may suffer from stem fungal
diseases in southern Texas. However, generally
when grown in its native habitat and using local seed
stock, honey mesquite should not be prone to
debilitating pests.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
mesquite, glandular mesquite, algaroba
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Apache and Isleta applied the
juice from the leaves of honey mesquite to eyelids as
a treatment for irritation. The Comanche chewed the
leaves and swallowed the juice for an antacid. The
Acoma ground the beans into flour and prepared the
flour as a mush. They would also cook and eat the
beans whole. The Navajo used the wood from honey
mesquite to construct bows.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Weediness
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bainbridge, D.A. &. R.A. Virginia 1989. Mesquite,
species notes 1. Systems Ecology Research Group,
San Diego State University, San Diego, California.
14 pp.
Basehart, H.W. 1974. Apache Indians XII.
Mescalero Apache subsistence patterns and socio-
political organization. Garland Publishing Inc. New
York, New York. 480 pp.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Castetter, E.F. 1935. Ethnobiological studies in the
American Southwest I. Uncultivated native plants
used as sources of food. University of New Mexico
Bulletin 4:1-44.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner, Texas. 1881 pp.
Elmore, F.H. 1944. Ethnobotany of the Navajo.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New
Mexico. 136 pp.
Gilman, E.F. &. D.G. Watson 1994. Prosopis
glandulosa. Fact Sheet ST-502. University of
Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/trees/PROGLAA.pdf
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas. 1392 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-
bin/herb.
Mooney, H.A., B.B. Simpson, &. O.T. Solbrig 1977.
Phenology, morphology, physiology. IN B.B.
Simpson (ed), Mesquite: its biology in two desert
scrub ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross,
Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Pages 26-43.
Texas A&.M University 2002. Native trees of Texas.
Department of Horticulture, College Station, Texas.
<.http://aggie-
horticulture.tamu.edu/ornamentals/natives/prosopisgl
andulosavargland.htm>.. Accessed: 30May2002.
United States Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service 2001. Fire effects information system.
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory, Boise, Idaho.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/progla/i
ndex.html
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='prgl2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp . 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
Page 3
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
HONEY MESQUITE
Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var.
torreyana (L. Benson) M.C.
Johnston
Plant Symbol = PRGLT
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Park Botanic Garden
All other parts of honey mesquite were used. The
leaves were used to neutralize stomach acidity by the
Commanche. The Cahuilla, Kamia, and Yuma tribes
used the inner bark of trunks or branches for cordage
and rough wrapping material. The roots of young
trees were harvested and made into cordage for
harpoon lines, to bundle reeds, and make carrying
nets by the Seri of northwestern Mexico. The trunk
was made into wooden mortars and the smaller
branches were used for bow making. Sometimes
arrow foreshafts were of mesquite wood. Mesquite
made excellent firewood for cooking, baking pottery,
and warmth and mesquite bark was good for
kindling. Large branches were used for construction
such as posts for houses and rafters. The Seri use
mesquite to make the ribs of wooden boats. Thorns
were used as a needle in puncturing the skin for
tattoos. Mesquite gum was used to glue foreshafts of
arrows and adhere baskets to mortars. Tribes of the
southwest used the gum secreted from the bark to
mend pottery, make candy, and furnish a black dye.
Wildlife: Honey mesquite is an important tree to
wildlife. The seeds are eaten by jack rabbits, Gambel
quail, songbirds, various small mammal, and
domestic livestock. Western chipmunks, ground
squirrels, pocket mice, and various species of
kangaroo and wood rats consume the foliage.
Different birds also nest in the tree s canopy.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pea Family (Fabaceae). The honey
mesquite can penetrate downward into the water
table, often at great depths. This shrub or small tree
reaches less than 10 m in height and has a broad
crown of arched branchlets. The ascending branches
have straight, stipular spines. The jugate leaves have
many long, narrow, leaflets that are more than five
times longer than wide, glabrous, and widely spaced
on the rachilla or stem. The greenish yellow flowers
have fused petals and in dense racemes, 5-12 cm. and
spikelike. The fruit is a pod with a prominent beak at
the end.
Charles Webber
©California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Many parts of honey mesquite were
useful to indigenous groups of California, the
Southwest and northern Mexico, and some of these
uses are still enacted today. The Cahuilla picked the
flowers of honey mesquite in the spring and roasted
them in a pit of heated stones, after which they were
formed into balls and eaten. The blossoms were also
utilized in making a tea. Many tribes in southern
California and the Southwest including the Timbisha
Shoshone, Nevada and Utah Southern Paiute,
Kawaiisu, Cahuilla, Panamint, Luiseno, Pima, Yuma,
and Commanche ate the edible pods. The seeds
made into a fermented pinole was a favorite
intoxicating drink. The Cahuilla gathered the pods in
two stages, green or ripe. The green pods were
pounded into a juicy pulp and consumed as a summer
beverage. The ripe pods were eaten without any
processing or were pounded into a flour in a mortar
and then placed in a vessel, dampened with water,
and left for 24 hours to harden. The meal was
formed into cakes and eaten dry, made into a mush,
or mixed with water for a beverage.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is the common mesquite tree of the
subtropical scrub south and southeast of the Sonoran
desert in Sonora. In the desert it is found northward
from Guaymas on the coast to the Colorado River
and into the low elevation deserts of southeastern
California and western Arizona. It occurs in plains,
riverbanks, washes and playas in grasslands and
deserts below 1800 m.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Gather seed pods and remove the seeds from the
pods. Scarify the seeds before planting. Plant
scarified seeds in the fall in a well-drained soil in
deep pots. Sprinkle soil on top of the seeds and cover
soil with one-quarter inch of gravel. The seeds
should be spaced one-half inch apart and the pots
placed in partial shade. Water the pots right away.
Keep pots moist if the rains are insufficient. As soon
as the plants form one true leaf, transplant one plant
per pot and water. Keep the pots damp. Out plant
each seedling, in the ground, the following winter
when dormant in full sun, and well-drained soil.
Protect the plants from animals. Water the plants and
keep them damp if annual rains are insufficient.
Continue to water throughout the life of the plant
once in awhile. Mesquite should be lightly damp all
summer long.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The Timbisha Shoshone pruned honey mesquite,
keeping areas around the trees clear of undergrowth,
and also of dead limbs and lower branches. The
Cahuilla in southern California also pruned mesquite
trees and broke and cut branches regularly to provide
easier access to the seedpods.
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This plant is available through most sources in the
southwest specializing in native seed. Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barney, R.C. 1989. Prosopis. Pages 4-6 IN:
Fabales, Vol. 3, Part B in Intermountain Flora:
Vascular Plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A.
Cronquist, A., A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren, J.L.
Reveal, &. P.K. Holmgren (authors). New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Bell, W.H. &. E. F. Castetter 1937. The utilization of
mesquite and screwbean by the aborigines in the
American Southwest. Ethnobiol. Studies in the
American Southwest Bulletin 5. Biological Service.
University of New Mexico 4(5):3-63.
Carlson, G.G. and V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Commanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters Paper 25:517-
542.
Coville, F.V. 1892. The Panamint Indians of
California. The American Anthropologist 5(4)351-
362.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California.
Felger, R.S. and M.B. Moser 1985. People of the
desert and sea: Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97 IN:
Handbook of North American IndiansVolume 11,
Great Basin. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C.
Fowler, C.S. 1996. Historical perspectives on
Timbisha Shoshone land management practices,
Death Valley, California. IN: Case Studies in
Environmental Archaeology. E.J. Reitz, L.A.
Newsom, and S.J. Scudder (eds.). Plenum Press,
New York, New York.
Krochmal, A., S. Paur, and P. Duisberg 1954. Useful
native plants in the American Southwestern deserts.
Economic Botany 8(2):3-20.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Shreve, F. &. I.L. Wiggins 1964. Prosopis. Pages
602-605, IN: Vegetation and Flora of the Sonoran
Desert Vol. I. Stanford University Press, Stanford,
California.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='prglt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 30nov00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
HOLLYLEAF
CHERRY
Prunus ilicifolia (Nutt. ex
Hook. &. Arn.) D. Dietr.
Plant Symbol = PRIL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
upset the stomach if too much is consumed. The thin
pulp was welcome moisture for thirsty hunters. The
juice from the fruits was fermented and drunk. The
kernels within the large pits were particularly valued
for food by many Native Californians. In the past,
for some tribes, the kernels within these wild cherry
pits were second only to acorns in importance. The
fruit was usually hand picked from the trees. The
fruits that were not consumed fresh were allowed to
rot or sometimes placed in warm water in order to
facilitate removal of pit. The pits were then rubbed
to remove any remaining pulp and skin before being
spread out in the sun to dry. When dry, the pits were
cracked with a stone and the kernels removed. The
kernels contain hydrocyanic acid, a bitter tasting
poisonous compound, which was removed by a
leaching process prior to cooking. The kernels, either
left whole or pounded into a meal, were then leached
in several changes of cold or warm water. The
ground meal was used as a base for soup and made
into tortilla or tamale-like foods. The whole kernels
reportedly took several hours to cook. Sometimes the
kernels were roasted overnight in a grass-lined pit
(Bocek 1984). After cooking the kernels were
mashed and made into cakes or balls. The finished
cakes were served with meat or dipped into pinole.
For an in-depth discussion of what is recorded about
the differing preparations of islay by several Native
Californian groups, see Timbrook (1982). Prepared
islay was considered a delicacy that was used for
ceremonial offerings as well as offered as a
welcoming gift for visitors.
The Diegueño and the Cahuilla are among the tribes
that treated colds and coughs with infusions made
from hollyleaf cherry bark and roots (Almstedt 1977,
Romero 1954). During the spring and summer, while
the sap of the tree was running the infusion was made
from the bark. During the winter, while the tree was
dormant, the roots were used for the infusion. The
Costanoan used the wood to make bows (Bocek
1984). The Tipai people of Baja California are
among the few tribes that still gather islay today.
Livestock: The pits of hollyleaf cherry are poisonous
to most livestock. The leaves can also contain
varying concentrations of hydrocyanic acid, which is
poisonous to livestock.
Wildlife: Hollyleaf cherry is an excellent tree for
encouraging wildlife into the garden. The flowers
attract bees. The fruits are relished my many bird
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© St. Mary’s College
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Islay, yslay, evergreen cherry
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Warning: Hollyleaf cherry pits may be toxic when
taken internally, without sufficient preparation.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='The name islay, or yslay is the Spanish version of the
Salinan Native American name, “ slay”, and is the
common name historically used by most Native
Californian peoples to refer to the plant, the fruit, and
the food made from the pits of Prunus ilicifolia
(Harrington 1944). Don Pedro Fages, in his account
of the Gaspar de Portolá expedition from Spain in
1770, writes of the “good tamales” made from islay
by the Salinan people (Fages 1937). Hartweg (1848),
in his report to the London Horticultural Society,
remarks about the abundance of islay in the Santa
Lucia Mountains and reports, “the kernel, after being
roasted and made into gruel, is a favourite dish
amongst the [Salinan].”
The fruits were eaten both fresh and dried. The thin,
sweet flesh was eaten sparingly as it was purported to
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
species and the seeds are consumed by small
mammals. These birds and animals also help to
disperse the seeds away from the parent plant. In
addition, many bird and animal species use the plants
for cover as well as nesting places. Hollyleaf cherry
is an important browse species for bighorn sheep and
California mule deer (McMurray 1990). This is
because it is still available long into the dry
California summers when most other browse items
are gone.
Other: Hollyleaf cherry is useful to control erosion
and has been planted on steep, hillsides that are
susceptible to erosion (McMurray 1990). Hollyleaf
cherry has been used to make holiday wreaths and
decorations, especially in combination with the red-
berried branches of toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia),
another native California plant that occurs in the
same plant community.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Rose family (Rosaceae). Hollyleaf cherry
is a small, evergreen shrub or tree that is native to
California. The plants can reach 6 to 9 meters and
are usually as broad as they are tall. The bark is dark
gray and smooth. The twigs are grayish to reddish
brown. The many branches bear glossy dark green
leaves that are lighter green beneath. The leaves
resemble holly leaves with serrated edges and tiny
spines. Leaves are 16 to 120 mm in length and
alternately arranged. Feathery blooms of flowers
appear from March to May. The white flowers grow
on a raceme of several flowers with petals from 1 to 3
mm long. The stems of the individual flowers vary
from 1 to 5 mm long. The red to bluish-black cherry
fruits ripen in September or October and are 12 to
25mm in diameter. A thin layer of sweet, fleshy pulp
overlays a large smooth pit.
Distribution: Hollyleaf cherry is native to western
California. It occurs in the mountains of the Coast
Range from Napa County in the north to Baja in the
south. The subspecies lyonni, is a tree to 15m whose
native range is restricted to the Channel Islands off
the coast of southern California.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: These trees and shrubs grow in the moister
areas of dry chaparral shrublands and foothill
woodlands at elevations below 1600 meters. They
are often found in canyons and on north-facing
slopes.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Hollyleaf cherry is adapted to fire and survives by
resprouting from the root crown.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Hollyleaf cherry grows best in full sun or part shade
in an area with moderate moisture and course soil
with good drainage. The plants do not tolerate
prolonged freezing. In the best of conditions, the
plants can reach up to 9 meters in height and make
lovely specimens. They are used as backgrounds and
in screen plantings and ornamental hedges. Hollyleaf
cherry is easy to grow from seed and indeed, once the
plant has established and reached the fruiting stage
(about 2 to 3 years), the gardener will be provided
with numerous volunteers. Seeds are best sown
directly into the ground, but they may be grown in
gallon cans for transplanting later. Use only fresh
seed as the seeds do not store well and are reported to
be viable for less than 9 months. Plant several seeds
in the prepared seedbed or gallon can. The seeds
should sprout within 20 to 40 days. After sprouting,
select one healthy seedling and remove the others by
snipping them off with scissors so as not to disturb
the roots. Set container grown plants out once they
have reached about 30 cm. Do not leave the plants in
cans longer as the roots will become coiled and not
be able to develop correctly. The seeds and
seedlings may need to be protected from rodents and
other small mammals that will dig up the seeds and
browse on the seedlings. Water the plants regularly
after planting and during the first season of
establishment.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hollyleaf cherry does not require pruning unless it is
serving as a short hedge. In this case, it may be
pruned once or twice per year. The plants are neat all
round and require very little care beyond an
occasional summer irrigation.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Holly leaf cherry can suffer light damage from
caterpillars and white flies. It is resistant to oak root
fungus.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Hollyleaf cherry is readily available from native plant
nurseries. It may also be obtained at California
Page 3
Native Plant Society plant sales. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Almstedt, R.F. 1977. Diegueño curing practices.
San Diego Museum Paper No. 10. Ballena Press,
San Diego, CA. 38 pp.
Bean, L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh (from the
earth): Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of
plants. Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian
Reservation. 225 pp.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Brousseau, A. 1995. Prunus ilicifolia. St. Mary s
College. Digital Library Project, University of
California, Berkeley. Accessed 20 October 2001.
Fages, P. 1937. A historical, political, and natural
description of California. Translation by H.I.
Priestley, University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA. 83 pp.
Hartweg, T. 1848. Journal of a mission to California
in search of plants, Part IV. Journal of the
Horticultural Society of London, Vol. 3. Pp. 217-
228.
Harrington, J.P. 1944. Indian words in southwest
Spanish, exclusive of proper nouns. Plateau. Pp. 27-
40.
Heizer, R.F. &. A.B. Elsasser 1980. The natural
world of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA. 271 pp.
Hickman, J.D., Editor 1993. The Jepson manual:
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA. 1400 pp.
Hoover, R.L. 1971. Food plants of the California
Indians. Pacific Discovery Vol. 24, No. 3. Pp.11-17.
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
CA. 248 pp.
Lenz, L.W. 1956. Native plants for California
gardens. Abbey Garden Press, Pasadena, CA. 166
pp.
McMurrray, N.E. 1990. Prunus ilicifolia. In: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
2001, May. Fire Effects Information System,
[Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. [20 October
2001].
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Munz P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, CA. 1681 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY. 425 pp.
Romero, J.B. 1954. The botanical lore of the
California Indians. Vantage Press, Inc., New York,
NY. 82 pp.
Schmidt, M. 1990. Growing holly-leaved cherry
(Prunus ilicifolia). In B.M. Leitner, Editor. Native
plants for your garden. California Native Plant
Society Special Pub. No.11. California Native Plant
Society, Sacramento, CA. Pp. 81-82.
Sparkman, P.S. 1908. The culture of the Luiseño
Indians. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 8, No. 4.
Pp. 187-234.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians Vol. 2: Aboriginal uses of California’s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books USA,
Champaign, Illinois. 210 pp.
Timbrook, J. 1982. Use of wild cherry pits as food
by the California Indians. Journal of Ethnobiology
Vol. 2, No. 2. Pp. 162-176.
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='pril';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Page 4
Plant Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 09jan02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
DEVIL’S CLAW
Proboscidea parviflora (Woot.)
Woot. &. Standl
Plant Symbol = PRPA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. UC Davis Arboretum
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Martynia Family (Martyniaceae). This
annual plant has broadly ovate-triangular leaf blades
5-15 cm wide that are entire to shallowly 3-7 lobed.
The inflorescence is 4-10 flowered and ranges from
white to pink. The throat of the corolla is mottled
purple with two lines of purplish spots or not. The
nectar guides are yellow. The fruits have beaks or
claws and black seeds. The plants from the desert
have white seeds with claws that are greater than 18
cm long and have been called var. hohokamiana.
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Found in disturbed dry places below 1000 m. in the
deserts of southwestern California to Arizona,
southern Nevada, to western Texas and northern
Mexico. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
@ Native Seeds/SEARCH
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
unicorn plant, doubleclaw, Arizona devil’s claw, red
devil’s claw
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Ethnobotanic: The claws of the mature seedpods of
devil s claw were collected in autumn, split and used
to create black basketry designs by many tribes in
southern California and the Southwest. These tribes
include the Chemehuevi, Kawaiisu, Owens Valley
Paiute, Tubatulabal, Havasupai, Papago, and Pima.
Because the claws are durable, they were often used
to construct the base of baskets among the Papago
and Pima. The material is still gathered wild or
plants are cultivated in home gardens by
contemporary weavers. The Papago used the young
pods as food, while the Pima cracked the seeds
between the teeth and ate them like pine-nuts. To
treat rheumatic pains, the Pima broke off a small
piece of the claw and pressed it into the flesh, then
lighted it and allowed it to burn.
Other Uses: basketry, medicine, food, wildlife
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
W.L. Wagner
Smithsonian Institution, Botany Department
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Start devil s claw by seed. The seeds should be
soaked in warm water in a clean vessel for 8 hours
prior to spring planting. After soaking, plant the
seeds immediately in full sun in a well-drained soil
and at a depth that is the width of the seeds. Water
the seeds, keeping the area slightly moist. After
seedlings have appeared, allow the surface of the soil
to dry between watering. In areas with summer
rainfall, only supplement watering if rain is sparse.
In areas without summer rainfall, mimic this rainfall
pattern by watering once every 2 to 3 weeks. Once
the seedpods have started to ripen, stop watering.
Page 2
When the seedpods mature, collect them and shake
the seeds to get them out of the pods and let them air
dry in partial shade in a screened-in porch or indoor.
Keep the seeds in a container or paper bag on an open
shelf at room temperature until the next planting
cycle, the following spring. Devil s claw does not
need protection from wildlife.
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditionally, tribes in the Southwest saved the seed
from those pods with longer claws and planted them
apart from the others. The longer claws were highly
desirable for basketry design material. Today, this
white seeded form with longer horns is different
enough morphologically to be named as a special
domesticated variety of Proboscidea parviflora var.
hohokamiana.
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='This species is somewhat available through native
plant nurseries within its range. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Curtin, L.S.M. 1984. By the prophet of the earth
ethnobotany of the Pima. University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Heckard, L.R. 1993. Martyniaceae. Pages 762-763
IN The Jepson Manual: Higher plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Kissell, M.L. 1982. Basketry of the Papago and
Pima Indians. (Reprint of the 1916 ed.
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of
Natural History 17(4)). Rio Grande Press, Inc.,
Gloreta, New Mexico.
McKee, B., E. McKee, &. J. Herold 194?. Havasupai
baskets and their makers: 1930-1940. Northland
Press.
Nabhan, G.P. 1985. Gathering the desert.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
---------------1987. Plant domestication and folk-
biological change: The upper Piman/devil s claw
example. American Anthropologist 89(1):57-73.
Native Seeds/SEARCH 1999. Fall seedlisting:
Proboscidea parviflora. Version: 000329.
<.http://www.azstarnet.com/~nss/catalog/>.. Tucson,
Arizona.
Southwest School of Botanical Medicine 2000.
Proboscidea parviflora. Version: 000329.
<.http://chili.rt66.com/hrbmoore/HOMEPAGE/Home
Page.html>.. Bisbee, Arizona.
Strike, S.S. &. E.D. Roeder 1994. Ethnobotany of the
California Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of
California s indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific
Books, Champaign, Illinois.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000329. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Wayne’s Word 1999. Devil’s claws. Vol. 8, No. 1.
<.http://daphne.palomar.edu/wayne/ww0801.htm>..
Version: 000329. Escondido, California.
' WHERE symbol='prpa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Superintendent, UC Davis Arboretum, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 04dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Page 3
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
and the liquid applied to the fresh wound. Second,
the bark was ground up in a mortar, dried, and again
pounded into a fine meal in a metate and this powder
was applied to the wound after a few days. The Pima
also used a tea made from the roots of screwbean to
regulate a woman s menstrual troubles. A gummy
exudate sometimes found on the bark was gathered
and soaked in water and the Moapa Paiute used the
resulting liquid as eyewash. The large branches were
used in construction such as fencing and binding for
large granary baskets made by the Pima, and the
Cahuilla sometimes used the smaller branches for
bows. The mescal cutter, a long pole that was used
by the Cahuilla to sever agave leaves was made of
screwbean. The root wood is good for firewood for
cooking.
Wildlife: Screwbean is an important tree to wildlife.
The seeds are eaten by jackrabbits, Gambel quail,
songbirds, various small mammals, and domestic
livestock. Western chipmunks, ground squirrels,
pocket mice, and various species of kangaroo and
wood rats consume the foliage. Different birds also
nest in the tree s canopy. The early spring growth
also furnishes food for domestic livestock.
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
SCREWBEAN
Prosopis pubescens Benth.
Plant Symbol = PRPU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Various kinds of mesquite trees
provided staple foods for indigenous people of
southern California, the Great Basin and the
Southwest and their seed pods are still highly relished
today. Screwbean pods were eaten by the Maricopa,
Hualapai, Pima, Cahuilla, Luiseno, Mohave,
Panamint and Death Valley Shoshone, the
Chemehuevi, Ute, Gosiute, and Southern Paiute
groups as far east as the edge of the Colorado
Plateau. The pods can be harvested at two different
times, in the spring, while still green and consumed
raw as snacks or in the late summer when the pods
are ripe. If collected in the late summer, traditionally
they were placed in bedrock mortars or tree-stump
mortars and pounded to fine flour using stone pestles.
The meal was set out to dry and then stored in
baskets in grass- or bark-lined pits in rock-shelters or
caves. Basketfuls of meal were also kept in
indigenous homes and added to cooked agave or
made into small cakes. Another way to prepare the
pods was to cook the screwbeans in pits covered with
earth and left to stand three or four days, and then
spread to dry. The mass was then pounded in a
mortar and the fine meal eaten as pinole.
The plant was also important medicinally. The Pima
used the bark of the root of the screwbean as a
dressing for wounds. There were two ways to
prepare the dressing and then these concoctions were
applied at different times. First, the bark was boiled
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS NPDC
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pea Family (Fabaceae). This upright,
deciduous shrub or tree reaches up to 10 m in height.
Page 2
It has gnarled, shaggy multiple trunks and forms a
round spreading crown. The ascending branches
have pairs of spines that are 4-12 mm long. The
compound leaves are hairy and measure 2-6 cm long,
with as many as eighteen tiny leaflets per leaf. The
leaflets are arranged on the two-branched prongs of a
Y-shaped leaf stem. The yellow flowers have fused
petals and are in a raceme, 4-8 cm. and spikelike.
The dark tan fruit is tightly coiled, 3-5 cm and
appears in pod clusters of 2 to 15. The pods are
persistent and often exit holes can be seen on each
pod, evidence that tiny bruchid beetles have
deposited their nurseries inside. The tan seeds are
very small, about 3 mm. The pollen of screwbean is
toxic to honeybees. The plants crown-sprout after
injury to the trunk or after cutting.
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is uncommon in California, found
mainly in the San Bernardino Mountains and the
desert. It is more common in the southwestern
United States in southern Nevada, southwestern
Utah, southern Arizona and New Mexico, western
Texas and northern Mexico in Baja California,
Sonora, and Chihuahua. It is found in creek and river
bottoms, sandy/gravely washes, or ravines from 100-
1300 m.
Steve Hurst
USDA ARS Systematic Botany
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Gather the seed pods and take the seeds out of the
pods. Some seed lots may need scarification.
Otherwise the seeds require no treatment. Plant the
seeds in a well-drained soil in deep pots. Sprinkle soil
on top of the seeds and place one-quarter inch gravel
on top of the soil. The seeds should be spaced one-
half inch apart and the pots placed in partial shade.
The seeds germinate best at warm soil and air
temperatures. Water the pots right away. Keep the
pots moist if the rains are insufficient. As soon as the
plants form one true leaf, transplant one plant per pot
and water. Keep the pots damp. Plant each plant out
in the ground the following winter when dormant in
full sun and well-drained soil. Protect the plants
from wildlife. Water the plants and keep them damp
if the rains are insufficient. Also do some watering in
summer. Continue to water throughout the life of the
plant once in awhile. Mesquite should be lightly
damp all summer long.
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Screwbean can tolerate pruning and can be shaped
into a small tree with an exposed trunk or let grown
naturally with the branches touching the ground.
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This plant is available through some of the native
plant nurseries throughout its range. Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh:
Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants.
Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Castetter, E.F. &. W.H. Bell. 1942. Pima and Papago
Indian agriculture. The University of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Dobyns, H.F. 1956. Pre-conquest Hualapai plant
food gathering. An unpublished report to Marks and
Marks, Phoenix, Arizona and Strasser, Spielberg,
Fried and Frank, Washington, D.C.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. Pages 64-97 IN:
Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 11,
Great Basin. Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C.
McClintock, E. 1993. Prosopis. Pages 641-642 IN:
The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.
Page 3
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Mielke, J. 1993. Native plants for southwestern
landscapes. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
Nabhan, G.P. 1985. Mesquite as mirror, mesquite as
a harbor. Pages 60-74 IN: Gathering the Desert.
University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Phillips, J. 1987. Southwestern landscaping with
native plants. Museum of New Mexico Press, Sante
Fe, New Mexico.
Rea, A.M. 1997. At the desert s green edge: An
ethnobotany of the Gila River Pima. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Shreve, F. and I.L. Wiggins 1964. Prosopis. Pages
602-605 IN: Vegetation and Flora of the Sonoran
Desert. Volume I. Stanford University Press,
Standford, California.
Stewart, O. 1942. Culture element distributions 18
Ute-Southern Paiute. University of California
Anthropological Records 4:3.
Train, P., J.R. Henrichs, &. W.A. Archer 1957.
Contributions toward a flora of Nevada No. 45:
Medicinal uses of plants by Indian tribes of Nevada.
USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Maryland.
' WHERE symbol='prpu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
VELVET MESQUITE
Prosopis velutina Woot.
Plant Symbol = PRVE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. UC Davis Arboretum
George &. Audrey DeLange
www.delange.org
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames_='mesquite
Uses
Ethnobotanic: The pods of this mesquite provided an
important food to the Maricopa, Pima, Haulapais, and
other tribes of the Southwest and are still very
important today. The pods or the seeds alone are
ground in a mortar or the seeds are sometimes
parched and afterwards ground into a meal that is
very nourishing. This meal is eaten as is, used to
sweeten other seed mixtures, or made into bread.
Traditionally a drink was prepared from the beans by
pounding them in a stone mortar, mixing cold water
with the flour, and the product was strained and
drank. The black gum from the mesquite was an
important medicine to the Pima. It was boiled with a
little water and applied to sore lips and gums,
chapped fingers, and taken internally to cleanse the
system. Mesquite leaves were pounded and boiled
and placed on the eyes of Pima individuals as a
treatment for pink eye. The Pima used black gum in
a concoction to dye gray hair black.
Industrial: The wood is used for fence posts and the
heartwood takes a fine polish. The flowers are used
as a source of bee food in the honey industry.
Wildlife: Mesquite is an important tree to wildlife.
The seeds are eaten by jackrabbits, Gambel quail,
songbirds, various small mammals, and domestic
livestock. Western chipmunks, ground squirrels,
pocket mice, and various species of kangaroo and
wood rats consume the foliage. Different birds also
nest in the tree s canopy.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values. This species is a valuable
native of the southwest US. A synonym, Prosopis
articulata, referring to a South American plant, is
listed as noxious Federally and in the States of
Florida and North Carolina (two states that include
all names on the Federal list).
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='This deciduous shrub or tree is less than 15 m in
height with a spreading, rounded crown. Every part
of the plant has short, dense hairs. The branches are
crooked with spines 1-2 cm. The fern-like compound
leaves are divided into many tiny leaflets. The trunk
has a shaggy bark. The inflorescence is a spike-like
raceme and the yellow corolla has free petals. The
fruits are 8-15 cm linear and flat and are tan-colored
or sometimes streaked with red.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='This mesquite is found below 1700 m in desert
washes and plains in Yavapai County, Arizona east
and south to western Texas and northern Mexico. It
is common in Sonora at least as far south as Guaymas
and uncommon in California, being found in the San
Joaquin Valley, and the central and south coasts. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Gather the seed pods and take the seeds out of the
pods. Put the seeds in scalding water and let the
water cool. Plant seeds in a well-drained soil in deep
pots or tree tubes in autumn. Sprinkle soil on top of
the seeds and place one-quarter inch gravel on top of
the dirt. The seeds should be spaced one-half inch
apart and the tree tubes placed in partial shade with
morning sun and afternoon shade. Water the
containers right away and keep them moist. As soon
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
as the plants form one true leaf, transplant one plant
per container and water. Keep the containers watered
but allows the surface of the soil to dry out in
between watering. Plant each dormant seedling in
the ground the following fall or winter in partial sun
and well-drained soil. Plants will tolerate cold to 5
degrees F. Protect the plants from wildlife. Water
the plants and keep them damp if the rains are
insufficient. Also in areas without summer rainfall
do some watering in summer, about every 2 to 3
weeks. Continue to water deeply throughout the life
of the plant once in awhile. Mesquite should be
lightly damp all summer long.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Mesquite can tolerate pruning of the lower branches
and it can be shaped into a small tree with an exposed
trunk or let grown naturally with the branches
touching the ground.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is available from native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Arid Zone Trees 2000. Prosopis velutina. Version:
000323. <.http://wwwaridzonetrees.com>.. Queen
Creek, Arizona.
Barney, R.C. 1989. Prosopis. Pages 4-6 IN: Fabales,
Vol. 3, Part B in Intermountain Flora: Vascular
Plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. A.
Cronquist, A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren, J.L.
Reveal, and P.K. Holmgren (authors). New York
Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.
Curtin, L.S.M. 1984. By the prophet of the earth
ethnobotany of the Pima. University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Dobyns, H.F. 1956. Pre-conquest Hualapai plant
food gathering. Unpublished report to Marks and
Marks, Phoenix, Arizona and Strasser, Spiegelberg,
Fried and Frank, Washington, D.C.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
McClintock, E. 1993. Prosopis. Pages 641-642 IN:
The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Shreve, F. &. I.L. Wiggins 1964. Vegetation and
flora of the Sonoran Desert. Stanford University
Press, Stanford, California.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000301. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
USDI, GS 2000. The USGS-NPS vegetation mapping
program. Version: 000323. Photo: Aerial
Information Systems, Redlands, California.
<.http://biology.usgs.gov/npsveg/TUZI/proshrub.html
>.. Tuzigoot National Monument. Center for
Biological Informatics, Lakewood, Colorado.
' WHERE symbol='prve';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
Superintendent, UC Davis Arboretum
Edited 04dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CHOKECHERRY
Prunus virginiana L.
Plant Symbol = PRVI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS Pullman, Washington
and Manhattan, Kansas Plant Materials Centers and
Kansas State University Forestry Division
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
The seeds are toxic due to production of hydrocyanic
acid in the leaves, stems and seeds. The almond nuts
are treated to deactivate the poisonous glycosides
before they are put on the market. Cases of illness
and deaths have been traced back to eating the seeds
of these trees.
Conservation: Chokecherry is used extensively in
shelterbelts, windbreaks, wildlife habitat and mass
plantings for erosion control. Chokecherry does well
in riparian area planting. It provides thermal cover
over the water and works well in stabilizing
streambanks. It has been used on disturbed sites such
as mined land reclamation, highway right-of-ways
and construction sites. It is a good erosion control
plant because it can form thickets and spread by
rhizomes.
Wildlife: Chokecherry is important to many wildlife
animals. Birds, rabbits, hares, rodents and bears all
seek out and eat its fruit. It provides food, cover and
nesting habitat for a variety of birds. Birds will also
take advantage of its growth form for cover and
nesting habitat. It is used extensively by deer as a
browse source in the winter. The early spring
flowers provide an important source of nectar for
butterflies, honeybees and ants.
Food: The common name, chokecherry, came from
the bitter and astringent taste of the fruit. The fruit
was a staple for numerous Indian tribes across the
North American continent, especially to tribes who
lived on the plains and prairies. Chokecherries were
routinely cooked before they were eaten or dried
thoroughly. Both methods served to break down any
formation of prussic acid contained in the stone pits.
Drying chokecherries improves their taste by
sweetening them, or at the very least, getting rid of
the naturally occurring bitter taste. Chokecherries
were consumed in three ways by Indians. The fruit
and/or juice were eaten. Whole cherries, including
pulp, skin and stone, were pulverized into a pulp,
shaped into balls and dried in the sun. Fruit balls
could be stored for future use. Either boiling or
drying the fruit will neutralize the naturally occurring
hydrocyanic acid. The most important use was as
part of the recipe for pemmican, or mince-meat.
Pemmican was made by getting a slice of dried meat
(bison was preferred over elk, deer or antelope) and
pounding it with a stone until it had a fine texture.
Bone marrow and animal lard were then heated and
mixed with the meat. Crushed chokecherries were
©J.S Peterson @ PLANTS
PARTS OF THIS PLANT CAN BE
POISONOUS-See Environmental Concerns
section of this document
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='common chokecherry, choke cherry, black
chokecherry, red chokecherry, California
chokecherry, Virginia chokecherry, eastern
chokecherry, western chokecherry, rum chokecherry,
whiskey chokecherry, wild cherry, wild blackcherry,
bird cherry, jamcherry, chokeberry, cabinet cherry,
chuckleyplum, sloe tree, bitter-berry, caupulin.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Many people do not realize cherry and some other
very important commercial fruit trees (apple, peach,
plum, apricot, nectarines, and almonds) are in the
rose family. Anthropologists indicate cherries have
been harvested in Eurasia from 4,000 to 5,000 B.C.
In 1629, chokecherry was imported to England where
it has been cultivated as an ornamental. It was first
cultivated in North America as an orchard crop in
1724.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
then added. Pemmican would be cached as a winter
food. Some form of pemmican was a mainstay for all
plains tribes. Chokecherry butter was made by
cooking the mature fruit, straining out the seed and
skins, mixing this poultice with an equal quantity of
wild plums or crabapples and adding sugar. The bark
was brewed for a tea drink. Many tribes would add
the fruits to soups and stews as flavoring and as a
thickening agent. A green branch was speared
through a meat slab while it was cooking to add spice
to the taste.
Likewise, pioneers and settlers came to realize its
food value. Mature fruits are still collected today and
used to make jellies, jams, pie-fillings, syrups, sauces
and wines.
Like many plants and animals which were vital to
their survival some tribes used parts of the
chokecherry plant in their rituals. A green dye was
derived from the leaves, inner bark and immature
fruit. A purplish-red dye was derived from the ripe
fruit. The Cheyenne used the limbs to make arrow
shafts and bows. The Crows used it for tipi stakes
and pins. Mountain men washed their steel traps in
water boiled with the bark to remove the scent. It is
speculated many tribes planted seeds in places they
frequented to ensure a supply of chokecherries was
always available.
Chokecherry is being promoted for planting as a
minor crop in the prairie provinces of Canada for
juice production. Estimated fruit production potential
is 15,000 pounds per acre from mature plants. There
is a significant research effort in Canada for
developing fruit producing cultivars.
Landscaping: In some parts of the U.S., chokecherry
is a popular ornamental. Its quick growth, mature
size, attractive white flowers in the spring and strong,
sweet and almond-like aroma fragrance make it a
good yard tree in urban neighborhoods. Cultivars are
planted for ornamentals rather than the native
species. All native chokecherry varieties have a great
tendency to sucker, which can create problems in
lawn care. Most cultivated varieties do not have this
suckering trait while producing more attractive
flowers and/or larger fruit. The fruit also attracts a
diverse population of birds for a number of weeks.
Chokecherries can be a component in a screen or
noise barrier planting.
Ethnobotany: Chokecherry covered a large
geographic range in North America, so a majority of
tribes used it to treat a variety of health problems. It
was valued especially for its astringent properties and
beneficial effect upon the respiratory system.
The Arika women would drink the berry juice to stop
post-partum hemorrhage.
The Blackfeet drank berry juice for diarrhea and sore
throats. An infusion of the cambium layer mixed
with Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier almifolia)
was taken as a general purge treatment and to
lactating mothers so they could pass on the medicinal
qualities to the nursing baby. They also used it in an
enema solution for their children. Willow (Salix
spp.) tea was used to counteract the laxative effect of
chokecherry.
The Cherokees used chokecherry in the following
ways: mixed chokecherry with hazel alder (Alnus
serrulata), downy rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera
pubescens), Canadian wildginger (Asarum
canadense) and yellowroot (Xanthorhiza
simplicissima) to make a blood tonic. An infusion
made from boiled bark was given for coughs,
laryngitis, chills, ague, fevers and to loosen phlegm.
Warm chokecherry tea was given to women when
labor pains began. The root bark is a good astringent
and was mixed with water and used as a rinse for
open sores and old skin ulcers. The tree bark of
spicebush (Lindera benzoin) and flowering dogwood
(Cornus florida) was added to corn whiskey and used
to treat for measles. The fruit was boiled and eaten to
treat for bloody bowels. The branches and leaves
were one of six ingredients burned in sweat lodges to
treat for indigestion and jaundice.
The Cheyenne would gather the immature fruit, dry it
in the sun, pulverize it and use it as a treatment for
diarrhea.
The Paiutes made a medicinal tea from the leaves and
twigs to treat colds and rheumatism.
The Sioux chewed the dried roots and then placed
this poultice in open wounds to stop the bleeding.
The Sioux, Crows, Gros Ventres and others made a
bark tea to cure stomach aches, diarrhea and
dysentery. The Crows also used the bark to cleanse
sores and burns.
In the 19th century medical doctors used many
concoctions of chokecherry leaves and bark to treat a
number of ailments. Chokecherry bark was listed in
the U.S. Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1970. It is still
listed as a pharmaceutical aid, a flavor agent for
liquid medicines. Among the health complaints
treated were debility, hectic fever, irritative
dyspepsia, irritability of the nervous system, fever,
Page 3
pleurisy, whooping cough, tuberculosis, pneumonia,
sore throats and gastrointestinal problems. It was
recommended as a rinse on burns, open sores,
cankers and skin ulcers. Pharmaceutical books at that
time cautioned against boiling any mixture using
chokecherry leaves or bark because it would drive off
the medicinal properties. The bark was used as a
flavoring agent in many cough syrups. In 1834, Dr.
Proctor first identified the bark as containing prussic
acid.
In their journals, Lewis and Clark recorded that while
camped on the upper Missouri River Captain Lewis
became will with abdominal cramps and fever. He
made a tea from chokecherry twigs and was well the
next day.
Modern medicinal research shows in small dosages
hydrocyanic acid can stimulate respiration, improve
digestion and gives a false sense of well-being.
Some cancer research involving hydrocyanic acid is
being conducted.
Margaret Williams, Nevada Native Plant Society, @ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Weediness
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace more desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site.' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). Chokecherry is a
native, perennial, deciduous, woody, thicket-forming
large erect shrub or small tree. It rarely reaches a
height of over 30 feet. The crown is irregular and
from 10 to 20 feet wide when mature. The stems are
numerous and slender. Reproduction can either be by
seed or root rhizomes.
Leaves are dark green and glossy above and paler
beneath. They are alternate, simple, glabrous, oval to
broadly elliptic in shape, 1 to 4 inches long, and 3/4
to 2 inches wide. The margins are toothed with
closely-spaced sharp teeth pointing outward forming
a serrated edge. They turn yellow in autumn.
The bark of young trees may vary from gray to a
reddish brown. As it ages the bark turns darker, into
brownish-black and becomes noticeably furrowed.
The bark is distinctly marked by horizontal rows of
raised air pores (lenticels). With maturation the
lenticels develop into shallow grooves.
It has perfect flowers which are aromatic and
arranged in cylindrical racemes 3 to 6 inches long.
The racemes always grow on the current year s leafy
twig growth. Individual flowers are perfect, 1/4 to
3/8 inch in diameter with 5 white petals. The flowers
start appearing before the leaves are fully developed.
Flowers may appear from April to July and fruits
form a couple of months later.
The fruits are spherical drupes (fleshy fruit with a
stone in the center), globose, 1/4 to 3/8 inch in
diameter. Small ripe cherries range in color from
dark red or purple to almost black. There are from
3,000 to 5,000 seeds per pound.
The roots are a network of rhizomes. Deep root
systems grow at irregular intervals along the length
of the rhizomes. Rhizomes can extend beyond the
drip zone, up to 35 feet away from the base of the
tree. Rhizomes grow up to 3/4 inch in diameter.
There are three recognized varieties of Prunus
virginiana. The variety demissa is commonly called
western chokecherry. It produces dark red fruit. The
variety melanocarpa produces black fruit. The
variety virginiana produces crimson to deep red fruit.
This variety can be found in two forms, one with red
and one with white fruit.
Habitat: Chokecherry is found in a large geographic
area and it grows abundantly in many habitat types
and plant associations. It may be found in thin
stands, as dense thickets or individually in open
Page 4
forest clearings. It prefers direct sunlight and is not
an understory species of boreal forests.
Chokecherry occurs naturally in a wide range of soil
types and textures. Soils supporting chokecherry
vary considerably, from abandoned construction
sites, with almost no soil depth or fertility, to deep
virgin grasslands, with deep profiles and a high level
of nutrients. Soil textures range from silt to sandy
loam, it does not do well on heavy clay soils. Soil
pH can vary from 5.2 (mildly acid) to 8.4
(moderately alkaline) without any adverse effect
upon growth. Precipitation ranges from 13 to 65
inches annually. Sites range from low to mostly mid-
elevation, although it also occurs from 8,000 to
10,000 feet in Idaho, Nevada and Utah. It is widely
adaptable to temperature extremes. It is found in
USDA hardiness zones 2 to 7 naturally. If planted,
chokecherry will grow into zone 10. The four major
limiting factors in its habitat are that it is intolerant of
shade, poor drainage, frequent flooding and soils with
a large amount of clay.
Many wildlife animals eat the fruit and distribute it.
Birds are by far the most common carrier of the
seeds. As a consequence it grows abundantly on
places where birds rest, like along roadsides, fences,
hedgerows, riparian margins and forest clearings.
Chokecherry is well adapted to fire disturbance. It
can be top-killed by fire, but re-sprouts readily from
root crowns and rhizomes. Seed germination is
apparently improved with heat treatment, suggesting
a further adaptation to fire.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Known Distribution
Distribution: Chokecherry is found in all but eight
states or territories. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Nursery grown seedlings establish satisfactorily if
planted free of competition in areas having 15 or
more inches of annual precipitation. If seeds are
planted in the spring they should be pre-chilled for 3
months, then placed about 1/2 inch deep. Saplings
are not tolerant of weedy competition for 2 to 3 years
after planting. Use of weed barrier mat, a strict
cultivation regime, or proper herbicide treatment is
necessary if a successful planting is to occur. Check
with your local NRCS Field Office to determine if
chokecherry is adapted to your area or soils before
planting any trees.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Management of chokecherry will be dependent on
whether it is looked upon as a desirable or
undesirable plant. On range and pastures it is often
considered a potential hazard to livestock. As a
consequence either mechanical and/or herbicide
treatments combined with good grassland
management is needed to prevent animal loss. When
it is used in windbreaks, as an ornamental plant or as
a wildlife resource it is beneficial. Control of weedy
vegetation, and treatment for potential diseases, is
necessary if it is expected to grow for an extended
period of years
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Chokecherry is susceptible to X-disease, black knot,
stem decay, shothole, Valsa canker, and honey
fungus Plowrightia stansburiana. Common insects
pests are the prairie tent caterpillar, eastern tent
caterpillar and aphids. In the northeastern United
States, chokecherry is a primary host of the eastern
tent caterpillar. Browsing by deer on young
immature trees causes considerable damage in some
areas.' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_EnvironmentalConcerns TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_EnvironmentalConcerns='The leaves, bark, stem, and stone (seed pit) of
chokecherry are all toxic. It is potentially poisonous
to all classes of livestock, but cattle and sheep are the
ones commonly affected. The meaty flesh of the fruit
is not toxic.
Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) is often called Prussic acid.
HCN does not occur freely as a plant compound. It is
formed only after disruption of the plant cell, either
by mechanical injury or a sudden freeze. Only then
do the degradative enzymes (hydroxynitrile lyases)
and glycoside come into contact and mix together.
HCN acid occurs in greatest amounts in the leaves.
Generally, the amount of HCN in the leaves lessens
as the growing season progresses. By autumn
chokecherry leaves have so little glycoside, a
component of HCN, they are not normally considered
hazardous. Drought stress may cause the leaves to
concentrate the glycoside in heavier amounts than
usual. Wilted leaves are more toxic per unit weight
due to dehydration, which concentrates the
components, which make up HCN. HCN is so toxic
at low levels because it inhibits blood cells from
absorbing oxygen. One symptom of HCN poisoning
is the blood turns bright red when exposed to the air
and it clots abnormally slow.
Cyanogenic glycosides (prunasin, produced in the
leaves and twigs, and amygdalin, produced in the
stone) are the building blocks for HCN. Of the two,
Page 5
prunasin is found in a much larger quantity. HCN is
most commonly formed in the plant due to
mechanical injury (such as browsing), a sudden
change in temperature (an early and heavy frost) or in
the animal during digestion. The glycosides can
either be hydrolyzed by enzymes in the plants or by
rumen microorganisms. The glycosides occur in
vacuoles in plant tissue while the enzymes are found
in the cytosol.
Ingestion of about 0.25 percent of an animal s body
weight, or 50 milligrams/kilogram of body weight, is
the Lethal Dose of fifty percent of animals (LD50).
This means less than 4 ounces of fresh leaves can be
toxic to a 100 pound animal.
Poisoning generally occurs when animals graze this
amount or more in an hour or less. Formation of
HCN must occur primarily within the short time
between the mastication of the forage and its arrival
in the stomach, for the acidic contents of the stomach
slows down the reaction of the chemical process
which creates the HCN. The toxic elements become
even more active if the animal drinks water
immediately after browsing. HCN works so quickly
by the time poisoning symptoms are identified it is
generally too late to treat. Injection of a combination
of sodium thiosulfate and sodium nitrite in the veins
or peritoneum is the recommended antidote.
Oxidizing substances such as potassium
permanganate or hydrogen peroxide given as a
drench may help some. Any other medications
promoting respiratory help and nerve stimulants may
also contribute to recovery. For any treatment to be
effective it must be given immediately upon
symptoms of poisoning.
Removing livestock from the HCN source is the only
practical way to prevent mass poisoning and
numerous losses once it has been detected. Good
livestock management includes keeping hungry
livestock away from areas where chokecherry is
abundant. Maintaining a good level of preferred
forage in pastures will do a great deal in preventing
HCN poisoning.
When a person eats a single apple seed or cherry pit,
though not recommended, it is unlikely to cause
discomfort or serious illness. However, there have
been reported deaths, usually of children chewing on
the stems and leaves, or swallowing the stones.
Visible reactions to poisoning may include. anxiety.
uneasiness. confusion. dizziness. vertigo. headache.
nausea. vomiting. the lips turn blue. bloating.
dilation of the eyes. muscular weakness. abnormal
breathing, either very labored or very rapid. paralysis
of the throat. irregular heart beat. convulsions. coma
ensues and finally death. Clinically, death results
from the general anoxic state created by the
inhibition of cytochrome oxidase.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='Chokecherry can be propagated by seed, rhizome
cuttings, suckers, crown division, semi-hardwood
cuttings and grafting. Generally, seed crops are
regular and viable. The flowers are more abundant
and more fruit is produced on plants growing on open
sites or in forest clearings. Natural dispersal of the
seed occurs when it passes through the digestive
tracts of mammals and birds. The seeds may be
carried a long distance from the parent plant in this
manner. If the rhizomatous roots are damaged due to
a mechanical injury suckers will be produced. This is
often how thickets are formed. A fire initially causes
major damage to a stand of chokecherry. However,
regrowth is enhanced for several years following a
burn. It sprouts vigorously from surviving root
crowns and suckers arise from the rhizomes.
Chokecherry has seed dormancy. About half of the
seed which is not stratified germinates within a
couple of months. Delayed germination may occur
up to 4 months. An after-ripening period in the
presence of oxygen and moisture is needed for a
majority of seed to germinate. Good germination can
only be expected after a cool, moist stratification
regime lasting 90 to 160 days at 36 to 41 degrees
Fahrenheit. Sow 25 seeds per foot of drill row. One-
year-old bareroot stock should be planted on deep,
well-drained soils in sunny locations.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Planting materials can be obtained from most
commercial hardwood nurseries and seed sources.
Several cultivars have been released by government
agencies and private nurseries for use in landscaping
and/or fruit production. The two most commonly
marketed cultivars are Schubert , and Canada Red .
A lot of literature states that these two cultivars are
the same one with just different names. This is not
the entire truth. Schubert is one of the oldest
cultivars. Its parent rootstock is Prunus virginiana
melanocarpa selected from a native stand near Valley
City, North Dakota. It was released by the Oscar
Will Nursery which was located in Bismarck.
Canada Red was created by grafting Schubert on
Mayday rootstock to get rid of the suckering trait.
Releases from Canada include, Garrington , Goertz
and Robert .
Page 6
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Control TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Control='Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Acuna, U.M., et. al. 2002. Antioxidant Capacities of
Ten Edible North American Plants. Phytother
Research. Volume 16, Number 1, Pp 63-65.
Division of Pharmacognosy, University of Uppsala,
Uppsala, Sweden.
Anonymous. c.1864. General Directions for
Collecting and Drying Medicinal Substances of the
Vegetable Kingdom. List and Description of
Indigenous Plants, etc. their Medicinal Properties.
Forms of Administration, and Doses. Prunus
Virginianus. Confederate States of America.
Surgeon General s Office.
Boger, C.M. 1887. Extractum Pruni Virginianae
Fluidum. American Journal of Pharmacy. Volume
59, Number 5.
Casserly, D. 1980. An Apple A Day Keeps the
Doctor Away (But the Seeds Can Kill You!). The
American Legion. Volume 108, Number 3. Pp. 16-
17.
CBIF. Canadian Poisonous Plants Information
System. 2003. URL: (http://www.cbif.gc.ca/)
(accessed 16 September 2003). Canadian
Biodiversity Information Facility. Canada.
Center for New Crops and Plants Products. 2003.
Stone Fruits or Drupes. URL:
(http://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Default.html)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Purdue University. Center
for New Crops and Plants Products. West Lafayette,
Indiana USA.
Coon, E.E. 1977. Cyanogenesis, The Production of
Hydrogen Cynide, By Plants. In: Keeler, R.F.. Van
Kampen, K.R.. James, L.F. 1978. Effects of
Poisonous Plants On Livestock. Academic Press.
New York, New York USA. Pp. 301-310.
Coon, N. 1963. An American Herbal. Using Plants
For Healing. Rodale Press. Emmaus, Pennsylvania
USA. Pp. 167.
Crawford, H.S.. Kucera, C.L.. Ehrenreich, J.H. 1969.
Ozark Range and Wildlife Plants. Agriculture
Handbook Number 356. United States Department
of Agriculture. Forest Service. Washington, District
of Columbia USA. Pp. 204.
Densmore, F. 1928. How Indians Use Wild Plants
For Food, Medicine and Crafts. Dover Publications,
Inc. New York, New York USA. Pp. 291.
DOI, USGS, NPWRC. 2003. Midwestern Wetland
Flora. URL:
(http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/othrdata/plntgu
id/species.htm#contents) (accessed 31 July 2003).
Department of Interior. United States Geologic
Service. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center.
Jamestown, North Dakota USA.
Evers, R.A.. Link, R.P. 1972. Poisonous Plants of
the Midwest and Their Effects On Livestock. Special
Bulletin 24. College of Agriculture. University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Champaign, Illinois
USA. Pp. 77.
Felter, H.W.. Lloyd, J.U. 1898. Prunus Virginiana
(U.S.P.)-Wild Cherry. King s American
Dispensatory. URL at:
(http://www.ibiblio.org/herbmed/eclectic/kings)
(accessed 31 July 2003). The Public s Library and
Digital Archive. Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA.
Fernald, M.L. 1950. Gray s Manual of Botany,
Eigth (Centennial) Edition. American Book
Company, New York, New York USA. Pp. 879.
Folwer, M.. Craigmill, A.L.. Norman, B.B..
Michelsen, P. 1982. Livestock-Poisoning Plants of
California. Leaflet 21268. Division of Agricultural
Sciences. University of California. Davis, California
USA. Pp. 7-8.
Gleason, H.A. 1952. The New Britton and Brown
Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States
and Adjacent Canada. New York Botanical Garden.
Lancaster Press, Inc. Lancaster, Pennsylvania USA.
Pp. 329.
Gough, R.E. 2002. Growing Minor Stone Fruit in
Montana. Montana State University Extension
Service. Montana State University-Bozeman.
Bozeman, Montana USA.
Hamel, P.B.. Chiltoskey, M.U. 1975. Cherokee
Plants. Pp. 28-29.
Page 7
Hardin, J.W. 1973. Stock-Poisoning Plants of North
Carolina. Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
Number 414 (revised). North Carolina State
University. Raleigh, North Carolina USA. Pp. 74.
Herman, D.E.. Strange, C.M.. Quam, V.C. 1996.
North Dakota Tree Handbook. URL:
(http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/aginfo/trees/handboo
k.htm) (accessed 16 September 2003). United States
Department of Agriculture. Natural Resources
Conservation Service. North Dakota State University
Extension Service. Western Area Power
Administration. North Dakota State University.
North Dakota Tree Information Center. Fargo, North
Dakota USA. Pp. III-14.
Hitchock, C.L.. Cronquist, A. 1964. Vascular Plants
of the Pacific Northwest. Part 3: Saxifragaceae to
Ericaceae. University of Washington Press, Seattle,
Washington USA. Pp. 614.
HortiPlex Plant Database. 2003. Prunus virginiana.
URL: (http://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Virtual Mirror. Garden
Web. HortiPlex. Florence, Maryland USA.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian Herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala Press. Boston, Massachusetts
USA. Pp. 84-86.
Iezzoni, A.. Schmidt, H.. Blbertini, A. 1991.
Cherries (Prunus). URL:
(http://www.actahort.org/books/290/290_4.htm) Acta
Hort. (ISHS) 290:111-176.
Iowa State University. 2003. Prunus virginiana
(Choke cherry). URL:
(http://project.bio.Iastate.edu/trees/campustrees/ISU_
trees.html) (accessed 31 July 2003). Iowa State
University. Ames, Iowa USA.
Iverson, L.R.. Ketzner, D.. Karnes, J. 2003. Illinois
Plant Information Network Database. URL:
(http://fs.fed.us/ne/delaware/ilpin.html) (accessed 31
July 2003). Illinois Natural History Survey and
USDA Forest Service. Delaware, Ohio USA.
Johnson, F.L., Hoagland, B.W. 1999. Catalog of the
Woody Plants of Oklahoma. URL:
(http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/cover.htm)
(accessed 16 September 2003). Oklahoma Natural
Heritage Inventory. Oklahoma Biological Survey.
Norman, Oklahoma USA.
Johnson, K.A. 2000. Prunus virginiana. URL:
(http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/search.htm) (accessed
31 July 2003). United States Department of
Agriculture. Forest Service. State and Private
Forestry, Northeastern Area Office, Saint Paul Field
Office, Saint Paul, Minnesota USA.
Johnson, K.A. 2000. Prunus virginiana. In: USDA,
Forest Service Fire Effects Information System
Database. URL: (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis)
(accessed 22 January 2003). Rocky Mountatin
Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
Missoula, Montana USA.
Kindscher. K. 1992. Medicinal Wild Plants of the
Prairie. An Ethnobotanical Guide. University Press
of Kansas. University of Kansas. Lawrence, Kansas
USA. Pp. 169-174.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible Wild Plants of the
Prairie. An Ethnobotanical Guide. University Press
of Kansas. University of Kansas. Lawrence, Kansas
USA. Pp. 4-5, and 30-31, and 176-182.
Lambert, S.M. January, 1989. Streamside
Revegetation. Plant Materials Technical Note 12
(Revised). USDA, Natural Resources Conservation
Service. Spokane, Washington USA.
Leininger, W.C.. Taylor, J.E.. Wambolt, C.L. 1977.
Poisonous Range Plants in Montana. Cooperative
Extension Service Bulletin 348. Montana State
University. Bozeman, Montana USA. Pp. 44.
Kingsbury, J.M. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the
United States and Canada. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey USA. Pp 626.
Knight, A.R. Guide to Poisonous Plants. URL:
(http://www.colostate.edu/poisonous_plants/index.cf
m) (accessed 16 September 2003). Colorado State
University. College of Veterinary Medicine and
Biomedical Sciences. Fort Collins, Colorado USA.
Little, E.L. Jr. 1953. Check List of Native and
Naturalized Trees of the United States (Including
Alaska). 1953. United States Department of
Agriculture. Forest Service. Washington, District of
Columbia USA. Pp. 303-304.
Manitoba Agriculture and Food. Chokecherry
Production in Manitoba, History and Uses. URL:
(http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/fruit/bla01s
00.html) (accessed 18 February 2003).
Page 8
McGregor, R.L.. Barkley, T.M., et. al. 1977. Atlas of
the Flora of the Great Plains. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, Iowa USA. Pp. 148.' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
McGregor, R.L.. Barkley, T.M.. Brooks, R.E..
Schofield, E.K., et. al. 1986. Flora of the Great
Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas USA. Pp. 395-396.
Missouri Botanical Garden. URL:
(http://www.mobot.org/gardening/plantfinder)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Saint Louis, Missouri USA.
Nova Scotia Museum. 2003. The Rose Family.
URL at: (http://museum.gov/ns.ca/poison/roses.htm)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Nova Scotia Museum. The
Family of Provincial Museums. Nova Scotia Canada.
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.
2003. Ohio Perennial and Biennial Weed Guide.
URL: (http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center. Wooster, Ohio 44691
USA.
Plants For A Future. 2003. URL:
(http://www.ibiblio.org/) (accessed 31 July 2003).
Blagdon Cross, EX215DF, United Kingdom.
Pruski, K.W.. Lewis, T.. Astatkie, T.. Jowak, J.
2000. Micropropagation of Chokecherry and
Pincherry Cultivars. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ
Culture. 63(2) 93:100.
Radford, A.E.. Ahles, H.E.. Bell, C.R. 1964.
Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. The
University of North Carolian Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina USA. Pp. 568-569.
Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and
Shrubs Hardy in North America. Dioscorides Press.
Portland, Oregon USA. Pp. 275-281.
Schmutz, E.M.. Freeman, B.N.. Reed, R.E. 1968.
Livestock-Poisoning Plants of Arizona. The
University of Arizona Press. University of Arizona.
Tucson, Arizona USA. Pp. 9-10.
Sykes, C. Undated. Chokecherry Fact Sheet. URL:
(http://www.usak.ca/agriculture/plantsci/range/index.
html) (accessed 31 July 2003). University of
Saskatchewa. Department of Plant Sciences.
Saskatoon, Saskatchewa Canada.
Stephens, H.A. 1980. Poisonous Plants of the
Central United States. University Press of Kansas.
Lawrence, Kansas USA. Pp. 43-45 and 151.
Stephens, H.A. 1969. Trees, Shrubs, and Woody
Vines in Kansas. University Press of Kansas.
Lawrence, Kansas USA. Pp. 138-139.
University of Michigan-Dearborn. 2003. Native
American Ethnobotany. URL:
(http://herb.umd.unich.edu/herb/search.pl) (accessed
28 July 2003). In: University of Michigan-
Dearborn. Dearborn, Michigan USA.
University of Minnesota. 2003. The Right Tree
Handbook. Canada Red Chokecherry. URL:
(http://www.mnpower.com/treebook) (accessed 22
September 2003).
University of Pennsylvania. 2003. Poisonous
Plants. URL: (http://cal.nbc.upenn.edu/poison)
(accessed 31 July 2003). University of Pennsylvania
School of Veterinary Medicine. Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania USA.
USDA, ARS, NGRL. 2003. Dr. Duke s
Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases.
URL: (http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-
bin/duke/ethnobot.pl) (accessed 16 September 2003).
United States Department of Agriculture.
Agriculture Research Service. National Genetic
Research Laboratory. Beltsville, Maryland USA.
USDA, ARS, NGRP, GRIN. 2003. URL:
(http://www.ars-grin.gov/) (accessed 16 September
2003). United States Department of Agriculture.
Agriculture Research Service. National Genetics
Resources Program. Germplasm Resources
Information Network. Database Management Unit.
Plant Sciences Institute. Beltsville, Maryland USA.
USDA, ARS, PPRL. 2003. Chokecherry. URL:
(http://www.pprl.usu.edu/Poisonous_Plants.htm)
(accessed 18 February and 16 September 2003).
United States Department of Agriculture.
Agriculture Research Service. Poisonous Plant
Research Laboratory. Logan, Utah USA.
USDA, FS. 1985. Handbook on Seeds of Browse-
Shrubs and Forbs. Technical Publication R8-TP8.
United States Department of Agriculture. Forest
Service, Southern Region, Atlanta, Georgia USA.
Pp. 163-164.
USDA, ITIS. 2003. URL: (http://itis.usda.gov/)
(accessed 16 September 2003). United States
Page 9
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Conservation
Service.
Department of Agriculture. Integrated Taxonomic
Information System. Washington, District of
Columbia USA.
USDA, NRCS. 2004. The PLANTS database,
version 3.5. URL: (http://plants.usda.gov) (accessed
14Jan04). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana 70874-4490 USA.
Utah State University. 2003. Common Chokecherry.
URL:
(http://extension.usu.edu/forestry/utahforests/treeID)
(accessed 31 July 2003). Utah State University.
Forestry Extension. Provo, Utah USA.
Van Dersal, W.R. 1938. Native Plants of the United
States. Their Erosion-Control and Wildlife Values.
Miscellaneous Publication 303. United States
Department of Agriculture. Soil Conservation
Service. Washington, District of Columbia USA.
Virginia Tech Forestry Biology and Dendrology
Educational Site. 2003. URL:
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2003). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University. Virginia Tech Forestry Biology and
Dendrology. Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA.
Weed Science Society of America. 2003. Weeds
that are Poisonous When Eaten. URL:
(http://www.wssa.net/subpages/weed/herbarium0.htm
l) (accessed 31 July 2003). Lawrence, Kansas USA.
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Wayne Crowder
USDA NRCS Pullman, Washington
Plant Materials Center
Dr. Wayne A. Geyer
Forestry Division
K-State Research and Extension
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas
Patrick J. Broyles
Formerly USDA NRCS Manhattan Plant Materials
Center, Manhattan, KS
' WHERE symbol='prvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
Patrick J. Broyles
Formerly USDA NRCS Manhattan Plant Materials
Center, Manhattan, KS
Edited: 14jan04 jsp. 060808 jsp. 080716 jsp
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Page 1
Plant Guide
from spring buds to treat venereal diseases. The
Sinkyone of California made Douglas-fir bark tea
which eased colds and stomach ailments. The
Kayenta Navaho of Arizona used the tree to treat
stomach disease and headaches, although what part
of the plant was used is not known. Also, historically
the Kayenta Navajo ground part of tree with a certain
rock and mixed it with corn seeds to insure a good
crop. The Pueblo people used the wood to
construction dwellings while the twigs were worn on
various parts of dancers costumes. Prayer sticks
made of Douglas-fir wood were excavated from
archeological sites in New Mexico dating back to the
Anasazi. The White Mountain Apache used the pitch
of this conifer as gum and applied it to water jugs to
make them watertight. Douglas-fir roots were used
in California Indian basketry.
Commercial: The tree is one of the world s most
important and valuable timber trees and historically it
was used by Westerners for telephone poles and
railway ties among many other uses. Today Douglas-
fir is also grown for Christmas trees.
Wildlife: The winged seeds are eaten by western
squirrels, the red tree mouse, and the dusky-foot
woodrat. The foliage and twigs are browsed by
antelope, mule and white-tailed deer, elk, and
mountain sheep. The staminate cones and needles of
Douglas-fir provide a significant winter food of the
blue grouse.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine Family (Pinaceae). This native,
evergreen tree has a round crown when mature and a
conic crown when young. It reaches up to 67 m tall
and 4.4 m wide. The bark on mature trunks is dark
brown, thick, and deeply furrowed. The flat leaves
are 2-4 cm in length, taper to a short petiole, with two
whitish bands on the lower surface. The deciduous
seed cones are 5-9 cm and mature the first season.
The seeds have wings that are less than 25 mm.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
DOUGLAS FIR
Pseudotsuga menziesii
(Mirbel) Franco
Plant Symbol = PSME
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Two varieties of this species are currently
recognized: Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco var. glauca
(Beissn.) Franco and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii (Mirbel) Franco var. menziesii).
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Douglas-fir needles were made into a
tea and drank by Isleta Puebloans in New Mexico to
cure rheumatism. Douglas-fir resin was used by the
Shasta in northern California to poultice cuts and the
Yuki along the California coast used a decoction
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
site. This tree is common in the northern and
central parts of Arizona, southward to northern
Mexico, and eastward to western Texas. Douglas-fir
is also widespread in mixed evergreen and mixed
conifer forests in California below 2200 m. It is
found in the Klamath Ranges, the outer North Coast
Ranges, high Cascade Range, high Sierra Nevada,
San Francisco Bay Area, Central Coast, outer South
Coast Ranges, and northward to British Columbia.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Douglas-fir needs excellent drainage. In
the higher elevations of the West that receive snow
and in the lower foothills that have moderately cold
winters and hot summers, Douglas-fir requires
moderate summer watering, generally 1-4 times per
month depending upon the absorption rate and water
retention capacity of the soil. It does best in full or
part-shade and may tolerate morning and winter sun
in ocean-influenced areas of northern and central
California.
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@CalPhotos
If establishing the tree by seed, remove the seeds
from the cones, gently rub the wings off, and soak
them in water for 24 hours, drain them, and
thoroughly surface-dry them. Put them in a plastic
bag, without any medium, seal the bag and place
them in refrigerated conditions until their chilling
treatment begins. Allow three times the air space as
seed space in the bag. It is best to sow the seeds in
late February to early March. Expose the seeds to a
chilling treatment of at least four weeks prior to
sowing. After cold stratification, plant the seeds in a
well-drained coarse potting mix in leach tubes that
are narrow but deep with two seeds per tube. These
containers should allow roots to reach the air and stop
growing and be at least 6 inches deep. Fertilize the
containers with a starter formulation of fertilizer with
low or zero nitrogen. These containers can be kept in
a greenhouse for the first 4 to 6 weeks, receiving 70-
degree temperatures during the day. Keep the surface
of the soil moist during the germination phase. Next,
after the first set of cotyledons, water the plants with
a deep, thorough soaking and let the plants dry in
between watering. Thin the plants down to one per
container and move the pots into a shade-house with
30 percent shade after 4 to 6 weeks. Protect the
plants from wind and wildlife. During the main
summer growing season use a balanced fertilizer
applied to each container. At the end of the growing
season, use a finisher formulation of fertilizer. Plant
the plants in the ground outside in the late winter or
early spring in moist soil. Conduct supplemental
hand watering or irrigation if the rains are
insufficient. Clear weeds in a 3 feet by 3 feet area
around the plants to encourage better survival and
growth rate. Make sure a protective barrier is placed
around the conifers such as Vexar tubing to shield
them from jack rabbits, deer, and other wildlife that
may feed on the leaves, stems, and roots.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available from most nurseries specializing in native
plants within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo Province exploring ancient and
enduring uses. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa
Fe, New Mexico.
CalPhotos 2000. Pseudotsuga menziesii.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=11920&.one=T>. Version: 000229. CalFlora,
Berkeley, California.
Griffin, J.R. 1993. Pinaceae. Pages 115-121 IN:
The Jepson Manual: Higher plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley.
Hermann, R.K. &. D.P. Lavender 1990. Pseudotsuga
menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Douglas-Fir. Pages 527-
Page 3
540 IN: Silvics of North America Vol. 1: Conifers.
R. M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (tech. coordinators).
USDA, Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 654.
Kearney, T.H. &. R.H. Peebles 1960. Arizona flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Reagan, A.B. 1929. Plants used by the White
Mountain Apache Indians of Arizona. Wisconsin
Archeologist 8(4):143-160.
Strike, S.S. &. E.D. Roeder 1994. Ethnobotany of the
California Indians-volume 2. Aboriginal uses of
Claifornia s indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific
Books, Champaign, Illinois.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000229. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Wyman, L.C. &. S.K. Harris 1951. The Ethnobotany
of the Kayenta Navaho. University of New Mexico
Publications in Biology 5. University of New
Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
' WHERE symbol='psme';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 0500dec jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060808 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
COAST LIVE OAK
Quercus agrifolia Nee
Plant Symbol = QUAG
Contributed by: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden &.
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
J.S. Peterson
USDA NRCS NPDC
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Use TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Use='Erosion: Coast live oaks stabilize soil on slopes,
provide an organic-rich litter, and contribute to a
habitat for a diversity of insects, birds, and mammals.
Wildlife: Acorns are an important food source for
birds, small mammals, and deer. Deer may browse
the young foliage.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used acorns as an
important food staple and early European colonists
found that its wood made a superior charcoal for use
in a variety of industries, including baking and
preparing mortar.
Landscape and beautification: Coast live oak is an
important element in both natural and man-made
landscapes, providing shade and an aesthetic quality.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_=' Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Oak Family (Fagaceae). Coast live oak, an
evergreen tree 10 to 25 m tall, has a broad, dense
crown and widely spreading branches. The lower
limbs of ungrazed trees often recline on the ground.
Mature bark is gray and shallowly furrowed. Leaves
are oblong to oval, 2 to 6 cm in length, cupped, with
entire to toothed margins. The upper surface is
strongly convex, deep green and smooth, but the
lower surface is paler, with hairy-tufted vein axils.
Like all oaks, coast live oak is monoecious and wind-
pollinated. Acorn cups are composed of thin, flat
scales. The one-seeded nuts are 2 to 4 cm long,
narrowly conical, and mature in one year. On
average, trees have high acorn production once every
2 to 3 years. Flowering takes place from February to
April. Fruits mature between August and October.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution: Coast live oak occurs in the coast
ranges from north central California southward to
northern Baja California. For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: It grows in well-drained soils on bluffs,
gentle slopes, and canyons, and can be found up to
1400 m in elevation. This species is adapted to
relatively warm, wet winters and dry summers
moderated by fog and cool temperatures, but does not
occur where the ground freezes. Although tolerant of
various soil types, live oak prefers a deep loam.
Common associates include species of sumac,
lemonade berry, and toyon. Coast live oak is
particularly well adapted to fire. Branches may
produce new shoots after having been lightly burned.
Trunks exposed to moderate fires often resprout from
the base. Like most oaks, it has an obligate
relationship with mycorrhizal fungi, which provide
critical moisture and nutrients
Propagation by seeds: Oak seeds do not store well
and consequently seeds should be planted soon after
maturity. Nuts are considered ripe when they
separate freely from the acorn cap and fall from the
tree. Care should be taken to collect local fruits,
because they may be adapted to local environmental
conditions. Viable nuts are green to brown and have
unblemished walls. Nuts with discoloration or sticky
exudates, and small holes caused by insect larvae,
should be discarded.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Propagation of coast live oak is highly successful by
direct seeding at the beginning of winter. Once a site
is chosen, prepare holes that are 10 inches in
diameter and 4 to 5 inches deep. One gram of a
slow-release fertilizer should be placed in the bottom
and covered by a small amount of soil. Place 6 to 10
acorns in each hole at a depth of 1 to 2 inches.
Temporary enclosures should be used to minimize
herbivory by rodents or birds. A simple enclosure
can be constructed from a 1 quart plastic dairy
container with the bottom removed and a metal
screen attached. Near the end of the first season,
seedlings should be thinned to 2 or 3 per hole and to
1 seedling by the second season. Supplemental
watering may be necessary if a drought of 6 weeks or
more occurs during the spring.
Container Planting: Seeds may be planted in one-
gallon containers, using well-drained potting soil that
includes slow-release fertilizer. Tapered plastic
planting tubes, with a volume of 10 cubic inches, also
may be used. Seeds should be planted 1 to 2 inches
deep and the soil kept moist. Seedlings should be
transplanted as soon as the first true leaves mature.
Planting holes should be at least twice as wide and
deep as the container. Seedlings may require
watering every 2 to 3 weeks during the first season.
Care should be taken to weed and mulch around
young plants until they are 6 to 10 inches tall.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Natural live oak regeneration from seeds tends to
occur sporadically during winters with above average
precipitation that falls evenly throughout the season.
Seedlings are especially sensitive to trampling and
too herbivory by rodents, deer, and cattle. Common
insects include moth larvae and tent caterpillars.
Mature trees are especially susceptible to oak crown
and root rot fungi (e.g., Inonotus, Ganoderma, and
Laetiporus) which decay wood in trunks and roots.
Activities that disturb or compact soil around trees,
including construction and livestock grazing need to
be avoided or carefully managed within the near the
zone of leaf canopy. Summer irrigation near oaks
should also be avoided, especially in urban
landscapes, because it promotes oak root and crown
rot. When desirable, mature trees consumed by fires
may be allowed to recover from stump sprouts if
replanting on large tracts is uneconomical.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='It is best to plant species from your local area,
adapted to the specific site conditions where the
plants are to be grown. This species is available from
most native plant nurseries within its range. Contact
your local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
References
Bleier, C. 1993. A planner’s guide for oak
woodlands. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 94 p.
Griffin, J. 1977. Oak woodland. Pages 383-415. IN
M. Barbour and J. Major (eds.). Terrestrial
vegetation of California. Wiley Interscience, New
York, New York.
Pavlik, B.M., P.C. Muick, S. Johnson, &. M. Popper
1991. Oaks of California. Cachuma Press and the
California Oak Foundation, Los Olivos, California.
184 p.
Schettler, S. &. M. Smith 1980. Nursery propagation
of California oaks. Pages 242-245. IN T. Plumb
(ed.). Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology,
management, and utilization of California oaks.
USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station. Technical Report 44.
' WHERE symbol='quag';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator='Dieter Wilken &. Julie Burgher
Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara,
California
Email: dwilken@sbbg.org
Edited 18sep00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page 3
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SWAMP WHITE OAK
Quercus bicolor Willd.
Plant Symbol = QUBI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center and the Biota of North America Program
important food for wildlife such as squirrels, mice,
white-tailed deer, beaver, black bear, and a variety of
birds, including ducks and turkey.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans and pioneers have
eaten the acorns raw or cooked. They have been
ground into a powder and used as a thickening in
stews etc or mixed with cereals for making bread.
Roasted acorns have been ground and used as a
coffee substitute. Bitterness of the tannins is
removed by leaching in running water.
Oak galls, caused by the activity of the larvae of
various insects, can be used as a source of tannin and
dye. They also are strongly astringent and can be
used in the treatment of hemorrhages, chronic
diarrhea, and dysentery. Some Native Americans
used swamp white oak to treat cholera, broken bones,
and consumption. Mulch of the dead leaves is
reported to repel slugs, grubs, and various insects.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Beech Family (Fagaceae). Native trees
commonly growing to 15–20 m, sometimes to 30 m,
the lateral branches relatively persistent (slow in self-
pruning), with an open, irregularly shaped crown.
bark dark gray, scaly or flat-ridged, often peeling off
in large, ragged, papery curls. Leaves are deciduous,
alternate, obovate to narrowly elliptic or narrowly
obovate, (8–)12–18(–21) cm long, (4–)7–11(–16) cm
wide, usually with regularly spaced, shallow, rounded
teeth, or toothed in distal half only, or moderately to
deeply lobed, upper surfaces dark green and glossy,
lower surfaces lighter green to whitish, softly hairy.
Male and female flowers are borne in separate
catkins on the same tree (the species monoecious) on
the current year s branchlets. Acorns maturing the
first year, ovoid-ellipsoid or oblong, mostly 1.5–3 cm
long, single or clustered in groups of 2–4, on a stalk
(peduncle) 3-8 cm long. cup enclosing 1/3–1/2 of the
acorn, scales closely appressed, finely grayish
tomentose, those near rim of cup often with a short,
stout, irregularly recurved spinose tip. The common
name is from its typical habitat and its membership in
the white oak subgroup.
Robert H. Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: The wood of swamp white oak is light
brown, close-grained, heavy, and hard. It is similar
to that of white oak (Q. alba) and usually is cut and
sold under that name, but the amount of lumbered
swamp white oak is a small fraction of the total for
‘white oak.’ Also, because the lateral branches of
swamp white oak tend to persist (compared to white
oak), the wood is knottier and less valuable. The
wood is used for furniture, cabinets, veneers, interior
finishing, and flooring, as well as for boxes, crates,
fence posts, railroad ties, and beams and boards for
general construction. As in white oak, the wood
provides tight cooperage and was once widely used
in making barrels and kegs.
Conservation: Swamp white oak is planted on
highway rights-of-way and is frequently used as a
shade tree for large lawns, golf courses, parks, and
naturalized areas. The crown shape and bi-colored
leaves (dark above, lighter beneath) are attractive
features. fall color is yellow, with occasional red-
purple. The trees can grow well in areas that are dry,
poorly drained and wet, or even occasionally flooded,
and they will tolerate significant soil compaction.
Wildlife: Trees of swamp white oak provide cover for
birds and mammals. The acorns are sweet and are an
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Swamp white oak is a member of the white oak
subgroup (subgenus Quercus) and hybridizes with
related species, including white oak (Q. alba),
overcup oak (Q. lyrata), and bur oak (Q.
macrocarpa). Swamp white oak is distinguished
from all similar native species by its long-stalked
acorns.
Variation within the species: Formal variants are not
recognized.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Swamp white oak occurs mainly in the Midwestern
states from Iowa, Missouri, eastern Kentucky, and
southern Wisconsin east to New York, Pennsylvania,
Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Isolated
populations occur northward in Minnesota, other
New England states, and Quebec and Ontario, and
southward to Tennessee, Virginia, and North
Carolina. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Swamp white oak occurs in a variety of
soils (from silty clay to silt and sandy loams) in
swamp forests of river bottoms, streamsides,
depressions, borders of ponds, lakes and swamps, and
moist peaty flats. It also occurs on moist slopes and
poorly drained uplands, at elevations of 0-1000
meters. Swamp white oak grows best in full sun in
moist to wet, deep, acidic soils. Development of a 2-
layer root system allows it to grow well in areas that
are flooded in spring but markedly dry in summer.
Young trees of swamp white oak are tolerant of light
shade but become more characteristic of full sun with
maturity. Swamp white oak usually is a minor
component of the forests in which it occurs, perhaps
depending on local disturbance for release into the
canopy. Stands of elm-ash-cottonwood will convert
to oak-dominated stands that include swamp white
oak. White oak forests (of which swamp white oak is
a component) will progress towards hickory and
beech forests if undisturbed.
Flowering occurs in May–June, during early
development of the leaves, while fruiting occurs in
August–October.
General: Seed production in swamp white oak begins
at 20–30 years. The greatest production occurs
between 75–100 years. good seed crops are produced
every 3–5 years. The acorns have no dormancy and
may germinate the same season as ripening and
falling. The maximum age for trees of swamp white
oak is 300–350 years.
Swamp white oak can sprout from the stump or root
crown if damaged or top-killed.
Swamp white oak can be transplanted or propagated
from seed. Young plants from containers and young
trees in ball-and-burlap are best planted in early
spring. Bare-root transplants also are best done in the
spring, but these may be difficult because of the
strong and rapid development of the taproot.
Acorns are capable of germination as soon as ripe
and must be collected for storage shortly after falling
from the tree. They retain viability in storage for
only a few months, especially if allowed to dry, and
should be stored over winter in a cool, moist place at
1–4° C. Germination frequency may be enhanced by
stratifying 30–60 days at 1–5° C., but stratification is
not required for germination. Acorns planted in the
fall in permanent positions give the best results.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Swamp white oak is susceptible to various insect
pests, fungi, cankers, and wilts but none are serious.
It is relatively resistant to oak wilt but may be
affected by ".oak decline.". anthracnose may
sometimes be a problem. Growth in alkaline soils
(with pH above 7.2) may cause iron chlorosis.
Because of the slow self-pruning habit of swamp
white oak, lower branches may require pruning in
areas where high clearance is necessary.
Severe fires can top-kill mature trees of swamp white
oak. Fire-damaged survivors are susceptible to
disease and insect attack. Moderate fires may kill
seedlings and saplings, but young individuals can re-
sprout following fire. Acorns are easily destroyed by
fire because of high moisture content.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anonymous 1998. 1998 Urban tree of the year:
Swamp white oak. IN: City Trees, The Journal of
The Society of Municipal Arborists. Vol. 34, No. 1.
<.http://www.urban-
Page 3
forestry.com/citytrees/v34n1a07.html>. Accessed
October 2000.
Nixon, K.C. &. others 1993. Quercus. Pp. 445-506,
in Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 3.
Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>. Accessed
September 2000.
Rogers, R. 1990. Quercus bicolor Willd. Swamp
white oak. Pp. 614-624, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H.
Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 2.
Hardwoods. USDA, Forest Service Agric. Handbook
654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Volume
_2/quercus/lyrata.htm>. Accessed September 2000.
Snyder, S.A. 1992. Quercus bicolor. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [database]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/quebic
/>. Accessed September 2000.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. 001106. National Plant
Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='qubi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLUE OAK
Quercus douglasii Hook. &.
Arn.
Plant Symbol = QUDO
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
basketry and oak sprouts were reputed to have great
strength. Types of baskets included Miwok, Pomo,
and Maidu cradleboards with frameworks of oak
shoots, and Kawaiisu twined work-baskets made with
rims of blue oak branches. The Salinan along the
central coast made seed-beaters with a looped stick of
oak. The Yana used an oak paddle in cooking and
the Achomawi made spoons of oak. The Kawaiisu
made a ladle about a foot long that was carved from
the wood of blue oak. Forked oak sticks, darkened
by charring, were used as fake antlers on deer masks
of the Sierra Miwok for hunting purposes. The
Maidu of Chico Rancheria constructed their houses
with posts of oak. The Western Mono also used
young oak switches as construction materials for
certain structures such as acorn granary frameworks.
Digging sticks were made of blue oak by the Western
Mono for roasting yucca bulbs, blue oak was
preferred as firewood by the Kawaiisu and the pith of
the oak was used for starting fires. Fallen oak limbs
make excellent firewood, because the coals retain
heat and the Shasta, Sierra Miwok, and many other
tribes used the wood. Acorns were utilized by many
tribes in the manufacture of toys including acorn
buzzers and acorn tops. Split acorns often formed
dice, which could be rolled upon a flat, coiled
basketry tray. The Miwok, the Western Mono,
Pomo, Sinkyone, and other cultural groups used
these.
Wildlife: It is well known that bears (Ursus
americanus), ground squirrels (Spermophilus scrofa),
jays (Cyanocitta stelleri), band-tailed pigeons
(Columba fasciata), acorn woodpeckers (Melanerpes
formicivorus), pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae),
deer mice (Peromyscus spp.) and black-tailed deer
(Odocileus hemionus), among many other animals
find acorns a favorite food source.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Oak Family (Fagaceae). Blue oak is a
deciduous tree that is endemic to California. It has a
rounded crown and grows from 6-20 m. high. The
gray bark is shallowly checked into small thin scales.
The leaves are shallowly lobed and blue-green above.
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: Blue oaks had and continue to have
significant meaning to native cultures. The most
significant use of blue oak was for its highly
desirable acorns for food. Acorns were shelled,
dried, pounded into flour, sifted for fineness, leached
of bitter tannins, and mixed with other acorn types
such as black oak (Quercus kelloggii) and prepared
as mush, soup, paddies, or bread. Called ".acorn". by
contemporary gatherers, this food is still relished for
ceremonies, festivals, dances, and family gatherings.
California s blue oak provided many resources to
California Indian people including medicine, dyes,
utensils, games, toys, and construction materials.
The inner bark of the blue oak was boiled and the
brew drank for relief of arthritis by the Kawaiisu.
Acorns served as bait in traps and snares to catch
pigeons, flickers, quail, and jays by the Gabrielino,
Sierra Miwok and other tribes. California blue oaks
grow new sprouts vigorously after a fire and these
young shoots exhibit highly desirable qualities for
manufacturing products. These characteristics
include flexibility, length, no lateral branching, easily
split, and straightness. These shoots were used for
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The acorns mature in one year, are oval, and have
slightly tubercled scales.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Blue oak woodlands cover 3 million
acres in California, one-half of all oak covered lands.
It is the most abundant hardwood forest type in the
state. Blue oak may occur in near pure stands in
dense woodland or savanna. It may also occur as a
dominant in mixed stands that include foothill pine
(Pinus sabiniana), interior live oak (Quercus
wislizenii), valley oak (Quercus lobata), and/or coast
live oak (Quercus agrifolia), or as a minor
component in mixed stands of oaks and other
hardwoods.
If possible, gather acorns from many different trees
locally, to maintain genetic diversity of blue oak and
to ensure that the plants are adapted to the site. The
seeds of most oaks are short-lived and must be sown
or refrigerated quickly, otherwise they lose their
ability to germinate. They are best gathered directly
from the tree or from the ground within a short time
of their dropping, usually within several days. To
test their ripeness, select an acorn that is still in its
cap and twist it lightly. If it pops out of the cap, the
acorn is ripe. Store the seeds without their caps in a
grocery sack until ready to plant. The seeds can be
sown in autumn outdoors (see under direct seeding),
or if the seeds are started in pots in the greenhouse in
the early spring, they should be stratified for one and
one-half months between 33 and 40 degrees in a
refrigerator in a mix.
Fill a gallon Ziploc™ bag about half full with acorns,
and then add about a cup of dry perlite and a little bit
of vermiculite (3:1 mixture). Shake the bag to
distribute the perlite around the acorns, label the bag,
and place it in the refrigerator. Check the bag weekly
and discard moldy acorns. Any acorns that have
germinated need to be taken out of the bag and sown.
Plant the seeds on their sides directly in long, deep
pots (2 in. in diameter by 10 inches long) with potting
soil and a slow release fertilizer. Water the tubes and
place them in diffused light in the nursery or outside,
making sure to keep each tube suspended off the
ground or bench so the large air holes at the bottom
of the tube are exposed. When the tree roots hit the
air, they ll stop growing. Water the pots when the
surface of the soil is dry to the touch. Do not over-
water.
Plant the seedlings the following winter in a sunny
location and water the transplants to ensure sufficient
moisture and eliminate air pockets. Be careful to
keep the soil from falling off of the roots. Place the
seedlings in the ground such that the top of the soil
from the container is even with the ground line. Use
a pick mattock for planting, which has a pick on one
surface and a triangular wedge on the other surface.
Break up the soil, which will foster root growth.
Protect the seedlings from weeds, drying winds,
grasshoppers, and small and large mammals that
might feed on the roots, leaves, or trunks. Also,
water the seedlings deeply the first summer. A good
seedling protector is essential and can be a simple
wire window screen mesh and wooden stake. Bend
the mesh into a cylinder that is about 6-8 inches in
diameter and 3 feet tall. Attach the mesh cylinder
onto the wooden stake with staples or carpet tacks.
Place the tube over the seedling and pound the stake
into the ground. Seedlings should be kept free of
vegetation for 2 to 3 feet surrounding each seedling.
Direct Seeding: Pick acorns without insect exit holes
or diseases. Store acorns for one and one half months
in a sealed plastic bag in the refrigerator. Dig a hole
with the trowel, shovel, or hoe and be sure to break
up the soil much deeper (one to two feet) than the
acorn is planted and backfill with loosened soil to
accommodate the growing of roots. Plant the acorns
on their sides, one to two inches deep in the fall of
the year. Plant several acorns in each hole and thin
multiple seedlings down to a single most vigorous
plant. Water the acorns deeply the first summer.
Weed several feet around each seedling for several
years. Protect the seedlings from animals until well
established.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep lawns and plants that require a lot of moisture
away from the oaks. Blue oak should not be irrigated
Page 3
accept in years of unusually low rainfall. If a drought
year, supplemental watering can take place in the
spring to complement natural rainfall. Water the soil
from halfway between the trunk and the drip line to
10-15 feet beyond, allowing water to penetrate the
soil to a depth of 18 to 24 inches. It may be
necessary to water for 4 to 6 hours to get water to this
depth. Keep water at least 10 feet away from the
trunk. Native plants that are drought-tolerant and
shade-tolerant and require no summer water can be
planted under the oaks, such as California brome
(Bromus carinatus), deergrass (Muhlenbergia
rigens), sego lily (Calochortus spp.), and bluedicks
(Dichelostemma spp.), among others. Light pruning
can be done in the winter on mature oaks to remove
weak, diseased, and dead branches, but never top
oaks.
Once established, blue oak is quite fire-tolerant.
Many tribes in California set frequent light-surface
fires in areas of blue oak to ensure continual yields of
high-quality acorn. Major reasons for their burning
included the following: 1) facilitating acorn
collection. (2) increasing the quality and quantity of
acorn production through decreasing diseases. (3)
increasing the quality and quantity of acorn
production through decreasing acorn pests. 4)
stimulating the production of straight shoots
(epicormic) for the making of cultural items. 5)
decreasing the likelihood of major conflagrations that
would destroy the oaks. 6) burning for mushrooms.
and 7) increasing edible grasses and other seed-
bearing herbaceous plants under the oaks and within
the surrounding woodlands.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Readily available from most native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
CalPhotos 2000. Quercus douglasii. Version:
000229. CalFlora, Inc., Berkeley, California.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=11938&.one=T>..
Dagit, R. 1998. Transplanting oak trees. Growing
Native 9(6):1-24. Editor, L. Lacy. The Newsletter of
the Growing Native Research Institute.
Hagen, B.W. 1990. Keeping native California oaks
healthy. Tree Notes #7. California Department of
Forestry and Fire Protection.
Hagen, B.W., B.D. Coate, &. K. Oldham 1991.
Compatible plants under and around oaks.
Hill, D. 1978. The Indians of Chico Rancheria.
State of California, the Resources Agency.
Department of Parks and Recreation, Sacramento,
California. 108 pp.
Keator, G. 1998. The life of an oak: an intimate
portrait. Heyday Books and California Oak
Foundation. Berkeley, California.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &.A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Mason, J.A. 1912. The ethnology of the Salinan
Indians. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol. 10(4).
pp. 97-240.
McDonald, P.M. 1990. Silvics of North America.
Volume 2, Hardwoods. Burns, R.M. and B.H.
Honkala, tech. coords. Agriculture Handbook 654.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
Schulz, P.E. 1988. Indians of Lassen Volcanic
National Park and vicinity. Loomis Museum
Association. Lassen Volcanic National Park, Mineral,
California. 160 pp.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 000229. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='qudo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedByandSpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
Page 4
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
CALIFORNIA BLACK
OAK
Quercus kelloggii Newberry
Plant Symbol = QUKE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. UC Davis Arboretum
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: California black oak provided a
fountain of resources to Native Americans of
California and Oregon including food, medicine,
dyes, utensils, games, toys, and construction
materials. Large quantities of young, supple sprouts
were utilized for myriad items. An abundance of
acorns were gathered and formed a staple food
throughout much of California--eaten in the form of a
soup, mush, bread, or patties. Today, acorns are still
gathered by people of many different tribes in
California and southern Oregon and relished as food.
The tree and its uses are important touchstones for
maintaining tribal ethnicity.
Wildlife: It is well known that bears (Ursus
americanus), ground squirrels (Spermophilus scrofa),
jays (Cyanocitta stelleri), band-tailed pigeons
(Columba fasciata), acorn woodpeckers (Melanerpes
formicivorus), pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae),
deer mice (Peromyscus spp.) and black-tailed deer
(Odocileus hemionus), among many other animals,
find acorns a favorite food source. Studies have
shown that birds can harvest significant amounts of
acorn from tree canopies within a short duration and
bears will also sometimes harvest acorns before the
crop has dropped.
Building Materials: California black oak is currently
utilized for high-grade lumber and pallets, industrial
timbers, sawdust for mulching, and fuel wood. Its
hardness and finishing characteristics make it suitable
for industrial flooring and its grain characteristics
make it desirable for paneling and furniture.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Oak Family (Fagaceae). California black
oak is a deciduous, hardwood tree with a broad
rounded crown from 10-25 m. high. It is the largest
mountain oak in the West and surpasses all other
California oaks in volume, distribution, and
altitudinal range. The trunk bark is dark and covered
with small plates. The bright green leaves are
distinctly six-lobed ending in one to four bristle-
tipped teeth, and the leaves are 7 to 20 cm. long. The
acorns are 2.5 to 3.5 cm. in length and mature in the
second year. The nut is deeply set in the cup and the
cup is covered with thin, flat and imbricate scales.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The tree ranges from Baja, California on the
south up into southwestern Oregon. Mountain ranges
where it is found include the San Bernardino, San
Jacinto, Agua Tibia Mountains, and the Tehachapi
Mountains in southern California, the Santa Cruz and
Santa Lucia Mountains in central California, the
Sierra Nevada, and the Klamath and Cascade
Mountains of northern California and southern
Oregon. It spans an elevation of 200 to 2400 m. and
takes a shrubby form at higher elevations. It can be
found in northern oak woodlands, mixed conifer
forests and mixed evergreen forests.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='If possible, gather acorns from many different trees
locally, to maintain genetic diversity of California
black oak and to ensure that the plants are adapted to
the site. The seeds of most oaks are short-lived and
must be sown or refrigerated quickly, otherwise they
lose their ability to germinate. They are best
gathered directly from the tree or from the ground
within a short time of their dropping, usually within
several days. To test their ripeness--take an acorn
that s still in its cap and twist it lightly. If it pops out
of the cap, the acorn is ripe. Store the seeds without
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
their caps in a grocery sack until ready to plant. The
seeds can be sown in autumn outdoors, or if the seeds
are started in pots in the greenhouse in the early
spring, they should be stratified for two months
between 33 and 40 degrees in a refrigerator.
Fill a gallon Ziploc™ bag about half full with acorns,
and then add about a cup of dry perlite and a little bit
of vermiculite (3:1 mixture). Shake the bag up to
distribute the perlite around the acorns, label the bag,
and place in the refrigerator. Check the bag weekly
and discard moldy acorns. Any acorns that have
germinated need to be taken out of the bag and sown.
The acorns can be placed in the refrigerator in
October or November and taken out two to five
months later. Then plant the seeds on their side
directly in long, deep pots (2 in. in diameter by 10
inches long) with potting soil and a slow release
fertilizer. Water the tubes and place them in diffused
light in the nursery or outside, making sure to keep
each tube suspended off the ground or bench so the
large air holes at the bottom of the tube are exposed.
When the tree roots hit the air, they ll stop growing.
Water when the surface of the soil is dry to the touch,
but don t over-water.
Out-plant the seedlings the following winter in a
sunny location, and water the transplants to ensure
sufficient moisture and eliminate air pockets. Be
careful to keep the soil from falling off the roots.
Place the seedlings in the ground such that the top of
the soil from the container is even with the ground
line. Studies have shown that California black oak
seedlings planted in the fall or winter grow and
survive better than seedlings planted in the spring.
Use a pick mattock for planting, which has a pick on
one surface and a triangular wedge on the other
surface. Protect the seedlings from weeds, drying
winds, grasshoppers, and mammals that might feed
on the roots, leaves, or trunks. Also water (deeply)
the seedlings the first summer. A good seedling
protector is essential and can be a simple wire
window screen mesh and wooden stake. Bend the
mesh into a cylinder that is about 6-8 inches in
diameter and 3 feet tall. Attach the mesh cylinder
onto the wooden stake with staples or carpet tacks.
Place the tube over the seedling and pound the stake
into the ground. Seedlings should be kept free of
vegetation for 2 to 3 feet surrounding the seedling.
Direct seeding: Pick acorns without insect exit holes
or diseases. Store acorns for one month in a sealed
plastic bag in the refrigerator. Dig a hole with the
trowel, shovel, or hoe and be sure to break up the soil
much deeper (one to two feet). Plant the acorns on
their sides, one to two inches deep in the fall of the
year and backfill with loosened soil to accommodate
the growing of roots. Plant several acorns in each
hole and thin multiple seedlings down to a single
most vigorous plant. Water (deeply) the acorns the
first summer. Weed several feet around each
seedling for several years. Protect the seedlings from
animals until well established.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Keep grasses and other plants that require a lot of
moisture away from the oaks. California black oak
should not be irrigated except in years of unusually
low rainfall. If a drought year, supplemental
watering can take place in the spring to complement
natural rainfall. Water the soil from halfway between
the trunk and the drip line to 10-15 feet beyond,
allowing water to penetrate the soil to a depth of 18
to 24 inches. It may be necessary to water for 4 to 6
hours to get water to this depth. Native plants that
are drought tolerant and shade tolerant and require no
summer water can be planted under the oaks, such as
California brome (Bromus carinatus), deergrass
(Muhlenbergia rigens), Calochortus spp., and
Dichelostemma spp. among others. Light pruning
can be done in the winter on mature oaks to remove
weak, diseased, and dead branches but never top
oaks.
Once established, California black oak is quite fire-
tolerant. Many tribes in California set frequent light-
surface fires in areas of California black oak to
ensure continual yields of high quality acorn. Major
reasons for burning included: 1) facilitate acorn
collection. 2) increase the quality and quantity of
acorn production through decreasing diseases and
decreasing acorn pests. 3) stimulate the production of
straight shoots (epicormic) for the making of cultural
items. 4) decrease the likelihood of major
conflagrations that would destroy the oaks. 5)
burning for mushrooms in the oak/ponderosa pine
forests. and 6) increase edible grasses and other seed
bearing herbaceous plants. Fires were typically set in
the fall or early winter of the year, as families were
leaving the higher elevations to over-winter below
the snow line.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available from most native plant nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
Page 3
Young, B. 1998. How to propagate an oak from an
acorn. Growing Native 9(6):1-24. Editor, L. Lacy.
The Newsletter of the Growing Native Research
Institute.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Warren Roberts
UC Davis Arboretum, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='quke';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. 1993. The mountains smell like fire.
Fremontia. Journal of the California Native Plant
Society. Vol. 21:4(15-20).
Dagit, R. 1998. Transplanting oak trees. Growing
Native 9(6):1-24. Editor, L. Lacy. The Newsletter of
the Growing Native Research Institute.
Hagen, B.W. 1990. Keeping native California oaks
healthy. Tree Notes #7. California Department of
Forestry and Fire Protection.
Hagen, B.W., B.D. Coate, &. K. Oldham 1991.
Compatible plants under and around oaks.
Keator, G. 1998. The life of an oak: an intimate
portrait. Heyday Books and California Oak
Foundation, Berkeley, California.
McDonald, P.M. 1990. Silvics of North America.
Volume 2, Hardwoods. Burns, R.M. and B.H.
Honkala (tech. coords.) Agriculture Handbook 654.
USDA, Washington, D.C.
McDonald, P.M. &. W.E. Sundahl 1967. California
black oak: a general bibliography on an increasingly
valuable species. USDA, Forest Service Research
Note 134. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Berkeley, California.
Pavlik, B., P.C. Muick, S. G. Johnson &. M. Popper
1991. Oaks of California. Cachuma Press, Los
Olivos, California.
Roberts, T.A. &. C.H. Smith 1982. Growth and
survival of black oak seedlings under different
germination, watering, and planting regimes. Tree
Planters Notes pp. 10-12.
Schettler, S, &. M.N. Smith 1980. Nursery
propagation of California oaks. IN: T.R. Plumb, ed.
Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology,
management, and utilization of California oaks.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-44. Berkeley, CA. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 368
p.
USDA, Forest Service 1974. Seeds of woody plants
in the United States. USDA Agricultural Handbook
No. 450. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 416 pp.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
NORTHERN RED
OAK
Quercus rubra L.
Plant Symbol = QURU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center and the Biota of North America Program
Conservation: Northern red oak is commonly planted
as a landscape tree in eastern North America and
Europe -- used as a shade tree on lawns, parks,
campuses, golf courses, etc, where space is sufficient.
It is fast growing, easy to transplant, tolerant of urban
conditions (including dry and acidic soil and air
pollution), the abundant nuts attract wildlife, and the
leaves develop a brick-red fall color. It has been used
in various rehabilitation projects, including
revegetation of coal mine spoils in states of the east
central United States (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Kentucky, and Pennsylvania).
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Beech Family (Fagaceae). Native trees
often reaching 20–30 m tall, less commonly up to 50
m. bark dark gray or black, shallowly furrowed into
broad hard scaly ridges, inner bark reddish to pink.
generally developing a strong taproot and network of
deep, spreading laterals. Leaves are deciduous,
alternate, elliptic, 10–25 cm long and 8–15 cm wide,
divided less than halfway to midvein into 7–11
shallow wavy lobes with a few irregular bristle-
tipped teeth, sinuses usually extending less than 1/2
distance to midrib, glabrous and dull green above,
light dull green below with tufts of hairs in vein
angles. Male and female flowers are borne in
separate catkins on the same tree (the species
monoecious), the staminate catkins in leaf axils of
the previous year s growth, the pistillate in 2–many-
flowered spikes in the leaf axils. Acorns maturing in
the second year, about 15–30 cm long, with a broad
usually shallow cup, borne singly or in clusters of 2–
5. The common name is in reference to the red fall
foliage color, red petioles, and reddish interior wood.
This is a different species from “southern red oak”
(Q. falcata).
Northern red oak is a member of the red oak
subgroup (subg. Erythrobalanus = sect. Lobatae). It
hybridizes with related species, including scarlet oak
(Q. coccinea), northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis),
shingle oak (Q. imbricata), scrub oak (Q. ilicifolia),
blackjack oak (Q. marilandica), swamp oak (Q.
palustris), willow oak (Q. phellos), Shumard oak (Q.
shumardii), and black oak (Q. velutina).
© Mike Hogan
Trees of Alabama and the Southeast
Auburn University
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Red oak, common red oak, eastern red oak, mountain
red oak, gray oak
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Northern red oak is an important source of
hardwood lumber. The wood is close-grained, heavy,
and hard. it machines well and accepts a variety of
finishes. It is used for furniture, veneer, interior
finishing, cabinets, paneling, and flooring as well as
for agricultural implements, posts, and railway ties.
Wildlife: Northern red oak provides good cover and
nesting sites (including cavities) for a wide variety of
birds and mammals. Deer, elk, moose, and rabbits
commonly browse leaves and young seedlings and
the acorns are eaten by a wide variety of large and
small mammals and birds.
Ethnobotanic: The acorns of red oak (and other oak
species) were an important food source for Native
Americans. To remove bitter tannins, they were
boiled, leached with ashes, soaked for days in water,
or buried over winter. Some tribes used red oak bark
as a medicine for heart troubles and bronchial
infections or as an astringent, disinfectant, and
cleanser.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Variation within the species: There are different
interpretations of variation patterns among trees of
northern red oak. A single species without formally
variants is sometimes recognized, or two varieties
may be recognized.
Quercus rubra var. ambigua (A. Gray) Fernald
SY= Q. borealis Michx. f.
SY= Q. rubra var. borealis (Michx. f.) Farw.
Quercus rubra var. rubra
SY= Q. maxima (Marsh.) Ashe
SY= Q. borealis var. maxima (Marsh.) Ashe
Var. rubra has a shallow cup, to 3 cm wide,
enclosing 1/4–1/5 of the nut. Var. ambigua has a
deeper cup, to 2 cm wide, enclosing 1/3 of the nut.
McDougal and Parks (1984, 1986) found evidence of
correspondence between morphological types and
flavonoid chemotypes but the evolutionary status and
geographic distribution of these have not been
worked out in detail.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Northern red oak is widely distributed throughout
much of the eastern United States and southeastern
Canada. It grows from Quebec, Ontario, Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick southward to
southwestern Georgia, Alabama, northern
Mississippi, northern Arkansas, and eastern
Oklahoma. Northern red oak extends westward
through Minnesota and Iowa, south through eastern
Nebraska and Kansas to eastern Oklahoma. It occurs
locally in eastern and southwestern Louisiana and
western Mississippi. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Northern red oak commonly grows on
mesic slopes and well-drained uplands, less
commonly on dry slopes or poorly drained uplands,
at (0-) 150–1800 meters in elevation. It typically
grows on lower and middle slopes, in coves, ravines,
and on valley floors, most commonly on N- and E-
facing slopes and on clay, loam, and sandy or
gravelly soils. Best growth is in full sun and well
drained, slightly acidic, sandy loam. It occurs as a
dominant in many natural communities, including
mixed mesophytic and pine-oak.
Northern red oak is intermediate in shade tolerance
but generally unable to establish beneath its own
canopy. Seedlings usually do not reach sapling or
pole size unless gaps are created in the canopy.
Northern red oak is often replaced by more shade-
tolerant species such as sugar maple and American
basswood.
Flowering occurs in April–May, during or before leaf
development, while fruiting (August–) September–
October.
General: Northern red oak generally first bears fruit
at about 20–25 years, although most trees do not
produce acorns in abundance until 40–50 years.
Good crops are produced every 2–5 years. In most
years, birds, mammals, and insects commonly
destroy up to 80% of the crop and nearly the entire
crop can be eliminated in poor years. Seeds on the
soil surface are particularly vulnerable to rodent
predation, and germination frequencies are much
higher when a layer of leaf litter covers acorns.
Under natural conditions, acorns generally germinate
in the spring after over-wintering breaks dormancy.
Germination and seedling establishment may be
successful in full and partial shade, but early growth
is reduced by shade, poor soil, and competing
herbaceous vegetation. Seedlings in mature stands
may be present in large number, but few survive
more than a few years or grow to more than 15–20
cm in height. Under optimal conditions, northern red
oak is fast growing and trees may live up to 500
years.
Seedlings, saplings, and small poles of northern red
oak can sprout if cut or burned. Although young
oaks typically stump sprout readily, older and larger
individuals also may sprout.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The tight, relatively thin bark of northern red oak
makes the trees more susceptible to fire damage than
in species of oak with rougher, corkier bark. Apart
from immediate mortality, damaged basal cambial
tissue permits the entry of insects and heart-rot decay
that may ultimately kill the tree. Even so, northern
red oak is adapted to periodic fire, which is integrally
associated with oak forests. Older, larger individuals
often survive fire and seedlings, saplings, and pole-
sized individuals commonly sprout vigorously from
the stumps or root collar after being top-killed by
fire. Increased fire suppression has favored more
shade-tolerant hardwoods and resulted in a decrease
in oaks.
Acorns can maintain viability in controlled storage
for up to 2–3 years. They should be stratified at 1-3°
C for several months. those from northern
populations require the longer period. Growth is best
Page 3
when sown as soon as ripe into permanent position or
in an outdoor seedbed protected from predation.
Cuttings obtained from young trees can be rooted if
treated with hormones. Transplants of bare root
stock are best done in spring. Because of its
usefulness and popularity, northern red oak is
commonly available in ball-and-burlap and in
containers.
The gypsy moth and numerous other insects can
attack northern red oak, occasionally causing serious
damage. Numerous caterpillars enjoy oak foliage,
but feeding damage is usually not severe. Oak
decline is a serious disease of northern red oak and
has affected the species throughout much of the
central Appalachian region.
Oak wilt
Northern red oak is susceptible to oak wilt, a fungal
disease that invades the water-conducting vessels and
plugs them. As water movement is slowed, the
leaves wilt and rapidly drop off the tree. The disease
begins with a crinkling and paling of the leaves,
followed by wilting and browning from the margins
inward. Necrosis may be strongest along the veins or
between them. The symptoms move down branches
toward the center of the tree and the tree may die
within 1–3 months, although some diseased trees
may survive up to a year. The disease may be spread
by insects (primarily beetles) or pruning tools, but
most of the tree loss in oak wilt centers results from
transmission through root spread between adjoining
trees. A trench (dug and then immediately filled)
between neighboring trees severs the roots and
prevents fungus spread. Dead and infected trees must
be destroyed – once a tree has become infected, there
is little chance to save it. The wood may be used for
firewood provided it is debarked or covered and
sealed during the spring and summer (Johnson and
Appel 2000. Roberts 2000. Wisconsin Dept. of
Natural Resources 2000. City of Austin 2000).
This disease most seriously infects species of the red
oak group (including black and live oaks). Overcup
oak, bur oak, white oak, and other members of the
white oak group are not as susceptible and can be
planted in oak wilt centers. Oak wilt has reached
epidemic proportions in Texas and in the mid-West
from Iowa and Minnesota through Michigan and
Wisconsin into Ohio, West Virginia, and
Pennsylvania.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Auburn University 1999. Trees of Alabama and the
southeast web site. 001207. School of Forestry and
Wildlife Science, Auburn, Alabama.
<.http://www.forestry.auburn.edu/samuelson/dendrolo
gy/>.
City of Austin 2000. The oak wilt suppression
program. Austin Parks and Recreation, Austin,
Texas. <.http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/oakwilt/>.
Accessed September 2000.
Johnson, J. &. D. Appel 2000. Eight step program to
oak wilt management. Department of Plant
Pathology &. Microbiology, Texas A&.M University,
College Station, Texas.
<.http://cygnus.tamu.edu/Texlab/oakwilt.html>.
Accessed September 2000.
McDougal, K.M. &. C.R. Parks 1986. Environmental
and genetic components of flavonoid variation in red
oak, Quercus rubra. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 14:291–
298.
McDougal, K.M. &. C.R. Parks 1984. Elevational
variation in foliar flavonoids of Quercus rubra L.
(Fagaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 71:301–308.
Nixon, K.C. and others 1993. Quercus. Pp. 445-506,
IN: Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 3.
Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>. Accessed
September 2000.
Roberts, D.L. 2000. Oak wilt: A threat to red oaks.
Michigan State University Extension Website.
<.http://www.msue.msu.edu/reg_se/oakwilt/>.
Accessed September 2000.
Sander, I.L. 1990. Quercus rubra L. Overcup Oak.
Pp. 727-733, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala.
Silvics of North America. Volume 2. Hardwoods.
USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook 654,
Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Volume
_2/quercus/rubra.htm>. Accessed September 2000.
Page 4
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1991. Quercus rubra. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [database]. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/queru
b/>. Accessed September 2000.
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources 2000. Oak
wilt in Wisconsin: Biology and management.
Wisconsin DNR Website.
<.http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/forestry/fh/dise
ases/oakwilt.htm>. Accessed September 2000.
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='quru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Revised: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
should be planted with this in mind. The species has
been successfully grown in urban areas where air
pollution, poor drainage, compacted soil, and/or
drought are common. Compared to the similar
northern red oak (Q. rubra), Shumard oak tolerates a
broader range of soil moisture, and its more southern
distribution provides stock better suited for that area.
Shumard also apparently is little affected by
chlorosis, which often is a problem for other oaks in
high pH soils.
Industry: The wood of Shumard oak is close-grained,
hard, strong, and heavy. It is generally marketed
with other red oak lumber for flooring, furniture,
interior trim and veneer, cabinetry, and lumber.
Numerous species of songbirds, wild turkeys,
waterfowl, white-tailed deer, squirrels, and other
mammals eat the acorns, which are produced in
abundance.
Ethnobotanic: The acorns are bitter, but edible, if the
tannins are leached out. They have been ground and
used as flour, roasted and ground to make coffee, and
eaten whole.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Beech Family (Fagaceae). Native tree
growing to 25 m tall, with an open, rounded-
spreading crown. Bark dark gray, smoothish,
furrowed into ridges on lower trunk and older
branches, the trunk sometimes buttressed on older
trees. Leaves are alternate, elliptic, 8–18 cm long, to
12 cm wide, deeply divided into 5–9 bristle-tipped
lobes broadest toward the tip, the sinuses thumb-
shaped, dark green above, with tufts of hairs in vein
axils below, commonly turning red in fall. Male and
female flowers are borne in separate catkins on the
same tree (the species monoecious) on the current
year s branchlets. Acorns maturing in the second
year, egg-shaped, 1.5–3 cm long, with a flattened,
more or less shallow cup. This species is named for
Benjamin Franklin Shumard (1820-1869), state
geologist of Texas.
SHUMARD’S OAK
Quercus shumardii Buckl.
Plant Symbol = QUSH
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Noble Foundation Plant Image Gallery
© Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Shumard red oak, southern red oak, swamp red oak,
spotted oak, Schneck oak
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Conservation: High survival rates and steady growth
make Shumard oak a valuable contributor to
rehabilitation and reforestation of bottomlands and
upland sites, including minespoils. Shumard oak also
provides an excellent shade or specimen tree – to be
used in lawns, parks, along streets, and in buffer
strips and median plantings. The leaves remain green
long into the fall and then turn a deep orange-red.
The trees are strong, long-lived, and grow relatively
quickly. They potentially grow to a large size and
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Shumard oak belongs to the red oak group (subgenus
Erythrobalanus) and hybridizes with species of that
group:
Q. hypoleucoides, Q. imbricaria, Q. marilandica, Q.
nigra, Q. nuttallii, Q. palustris, Q. phellos, Q. rubra,
and Q. velutina.
Variation within the species:
Trees known as Q. shumardii var. texana (Q. texana,
Q. rubra var. texana, Q. nuttallii. Texas red oak,
Nuttall s oak) are now recognized as Q. buckleyi Dorr
&. Nixon (Dorr &. Nixon 1985). Quercus shumardii
var. schneckii (Britt.) Sarg. is now generally regarded
as within limits of typical variation for the species.
Quercus shumardii var. stenocarpa Laughlin
(Laughlin 1969), with very narrow acorns and
shallow acorn cups, has been described from
Missouri and Illinois.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Shumard oak occurs on the Atlantic and Gulf coastal
plains from North Carolina to northern Florida and
west to central Texas. Northward, it is common in
Missouri, western Tennessee and Kentucky, southern
Illinois, Indiana, and western Ohio. Occurrences
further north are more local and sporadic. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Shumard oak occurs on moist, well-drained loamy
soils of stream and river terraces and adjacent ridges
and bluffs as well as mesic slopes and poorly drained
upland sites, at elevations of 0–500 meters. It is
intolerant or only weakly tolerant of flooding and
does not usually occur on the lowest river bottoms.
Shumard oak is intolerant of shade but rare in early
successional stands, probably colonizing gaps in
mature forests. It usually occurs as scattered trees
with more prominent southern oak species of the oak-
hickory forest region.
Flowering occurs from March-April (June) and
fruiting from September-October.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Shumard oak begins to produce fruit at about 25
years, with optimum production at about 50 years and
good crops every 2–3 years. Germination occurs at
high frequencies. full light is required for good
seedling establishment and growth. Shumard oaks
are known to have reached at least 480 years of age.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Shumard oak can be successfully direct seeded or
planted as seedlings, but it is difficult to propagate by
cuttings. Seed dormancy is broken by stratification
for 60-90 days at 1-5° C. Seed can be stored moist
and cool overwinter but is best sown outdoors as
soon as ripe. Best growth is from seed sown in situ.
Young trees from deep pots are relatively easily
transplanted, but those left in a nursery bed for more
than two growing seasons without being moved will
have problems because of the deep taproot.
Reforestation of agricultural lands to bottomland
hardwoods has been successful with Shumard oak
direct-seeded to otherwise unprepared sites. Soil
fertilization does not improve success in early
establishment.
Shumard oak is probably moderately resistant to
immediate fire damage, because it persists in some
communities that are maintained by periodic fire.
Young trees, however, are relatively thin-barked and
basal wounding by fire usually results in at least top-
kill of such trees, either by girdling the tree or by
creating avenues for infection by wood-rotting fungi.
Top-killed Shumard oak produces root sprouts.
Initial pruning to develop a central leader will
provide better shaped street trees. Pruning in the
dormant season or in summer is best, but pruning
should be avoided in late spring and early summer in
areas where oak wilt is present.
Oak wilt
Shumard oak is highly susceptible to oak wilt
infection, a fungal disease that invades the water-
conducting vessels and plugs them. As water
movement is slowed, the leaves wilt and rapidly drop
off the tree. The disease begins with a crinkling and
paling of the leaves, followed by wilting and
browning from the margins inward. Necrosis may be
strongest along the veins or between them. The
symptoms move down branches toward the center of
the tree and the tree may die within 1–3 months,
although some diseased trees may survive up to a
year. The disease may be spread by insects
(primarily beetles) or pruning tools, but most of the
tree loss in oak wilt centers results from transmission
through root spread between adjoining trees. A
trench (dug and then immediately filled) between
neighboring trees severs the roots and prevents
fungus spread. Dead and infected trees must be
destroyed – once a tree has become infected, there is
little chance to save it. The wood may be used for
firewood provided it is debarked or covered and
sealed during the spring and summer (Johnson and
Appel 2000. Roberts 2000. Wisconsin Dept. of
Natural Resources 2000. City of Austin 2000).
Page 3
Oak wilt most seriously infects species of the red oak
group (including black and live oaks). Overcup oak,
bur oak, white oak, and other members of the white
oak group are not as susceptible and can be planted in
oak wilt centers. This disease has reached epidemic
proportions in Texas and in the mid-West from Iowa
and Minnesota through Michigan and Wisconsin into
Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='City of Austin 2000. The oak wilt suppression
program. Austin Parks and Recreation, Austin,
Texas. SEP00.
<.http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/oakwilt/>.
Dorr L.J. &. K.C. Nixon 1985. Typification of the oak
(Quercus) taxa described by S.B. Buckely (1809-
1884). Taxon 34:211-228.
Edwards, M.B. 1990. Quercus shumardii Buckl.
Shumard Oak. Pp. 734-737, IN: R.M. Burns and
B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 2.
Hardwoods. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook
654, Washington, D.C. SEP00.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Volume
_2/quercus/shumardii.htm>.
Johnson, J. &. D. Appel 2000. Eight step program to
oak wilt management. Department of Plant
Pathology &. Microbiology, Texas A&.M University,
College Station, Texas. SEP00.
<.http://cygnus.tamu.edu/Texlab/oakwilt.html>.
Laughlin, K. 1969. Quercus shumardii var.
stenocarpa Laughlin: Stenocarp Shumard oak.
Phytologia. 19:57–64.
Nixon, K.C. et al. 1993. Quercus. Pp. 445-506, IN:
Flora of North America, North of Mexico. Vol. 3.
Oxford Univ. Press, New York, New York.
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Roberts, D.L. 2000. Oak wilt: A threat to red oaks.
Michigan State University Extension Website.
SEP00. <.http://www.msue.msu.edu/reg_se/oakwilt/>.
Samuel Roberts Nobel Foundation 1999. Noble
foundation plant image gallery. Ardmore,
Oklahoma. 29nov2000.
<.http://www.noble.org/imagegallery/index.html>.
Sullivan, J. 1993. Quercus shumardii. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Database]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana. SEP00.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/quesh
u/>.
Waldron, G.E., S.W. Aboud, J.D. Ambrose, &. G.A.
Meyers 1987. Shumard oak, Quercus shumardii, in
Canada. Canad. Field-Nat. 101:532-538.
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources 2000. Oak
wilt in Wisconsin: Biology and management.
Wisconsin DNR Website. SEP00.
<.http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/forestry/fh/dise
ases/oakwilt.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='qush';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
Plant Symbol = QUWI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
INTERIOR LIVE OAK
Quercus wislizeni A. DC.
Ethnobotanic: After leaching away the bitter tannins,
Native Americans used the acorns of many oaks
(Quercus spp.) for cooking oils, soups, stews, or
breads after leaching away the tannins. Interior live
oak also has a high value for fuel wood and is also
used for landscaping.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Interior live oak is a slow-growing, variable
evergreen, which grows as a large shrub or small tree.
Plants may reach 30 to 75 feet in height or assume a
shrub-like growth form with heights of only 8 to 10
feet. Leaves, which persist for 2 years, are mostly
oblong-to-elliptic or lanceolate, and spiny-toothed to
entire. Both leaf surfaces are shiny green but the
upper surface is darker. Interior live oak is
monoecious. Male flowers are borne in catkins 1 to 3
inches in length, whereas female flowers grow in
clusters of two to four in the upper leaf axils.
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Quercus parvula, Quercus shrevei. dwarf interior live
oak, scrub interior live oak, Highland live oak Sierra
live oak. this species is recognized as having two
varieties: Quercus wislizeni var. frutescens and
Quercus wislizeni var. wislizeni
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife Use: Interior live oak provides important
food and cover for a wide variety of birds and
mammals: black-tailed jackrabbit, Audubon
cottontail, brush rabbit, Beechy ground squirrel,
Sonoma chipmunk, beaver, porcupine, and elk. It is
important for winter browse by Columbian black-
tailed deer. Acorns are a valuable food source for
deer and other wild ungulates, birds, and small
mammals in the fall.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. This plant is native to California
and Mexico. Interior live oak occurs from northern
California in Siskiyou and Shasta counties, south
along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada and inner
Coast Ranges, plus the Channel Islands. Adapted to
the following zones in California: Douglas-fir,
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
Page 2
Ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, redwood, western
hardwoods, and chaparral - mountain shrub.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation: This species is generally found on soils
with a pH range between 5.6 and 7.5, with depths of
20 to 40 inches. Interior live oak grows particularly
well on dry, shallow, well-drained loams, clay loams,
gravelly loams, or gravel. Interior live oak is tolerant
of shade, particularly when young. Interior live oak
appears to be well-adapted to persist with or without
fire. For more information, consult the FEIS
database.
Propagation/Regeneration: Interior live oak
regenerates vegetatively after disturbance and also
reproduces through seed. Cleaned acorns average
approximately 125 per pound (275/kg). Annual seed
production appears to be somewhat variable,
although each interior live oak tree generally
produces good seed crops at 5- to 7-year intervals.
Acorns generally ripen after mid-August. Research
indicates that the acorns of interior live oak can
germinate without exposure to low temperatures.
However, exposure to temperatures of 32 to 41° F
can effectively stratify seed and enhance germination.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Interior live oak sprouts vigorously after fire or
mechanical disturbance.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available from nurseries specializing in native plants
within California. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.W. 1980. Indians and fire. Western
Wildlands 6(3):17-21.
Bartolome, J.W. 1987. California annual grassland
and oak savannah. Rangelands. 9(3):122-125.
Block, W.M. &. M.L. Morrison 1990. Wildlife
diversity of the Central Sierra foothills. California
Agriculture 44(2):19-22.
Brophy, W. 1973. Evolution and ecology in
Quercus: A study of hybridization and introgression
between Quercus agrifolia Nee. and Q. wislizenii A.
DC. Thesis. California State University, Hayward,
California. 97 p.
Griffin, J.R. 1977. Oak woodland. pp. 383-415. IN:
Barbour, M.G. &. J. Major, eds. Terrestrial
vegetation of California. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, New York.
Myatt, R.G. 1980. Canyon live oak vegetation in the
Sierra Nevada. pp. 86-91. IN: Plumb, T.R. technical
coordinator. Proceedings of the symposium on the
ecology, management and utilization of California
oaks. 1979 June 26-28. Claremont, California. Gen.
Tech. Rep. PSW-44. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific
Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Berkeley, California.
Plumb, T.R. &. A.P. Gomez 1983. Five southern
California oaks: Identification and postfire
management. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-71. USDA,
Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. 56 p.
USDA, Forest Service 1990. Fire effects information
system. Version: 990928.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.. Prescribed
Fire and Fire Effects Research Work Unit, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Missoula, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
Version: 990928. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Van Dersal, W.R. 1938. Native woody plants of the
United States, their erosion-control and wildlife
values. USDA, Washington, D.C. 362 p.
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='J. S. Peterson, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='quwi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 29may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
Page 3
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
PRAIRIE
Plant Guide
CONEFLOWER
Ratibida columnifera (Nutt.)
Woot. &. Standl.
Plant Symbol = RACO3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Landscaping: Prairie coneflower is suggested for use
in roadside plantings, parks, recreational areas and
prairie restoration projects. where annual
precipitation is from ten to thirty inches. This species
is sometimes grown as an ornamental.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Composite Family (Asteraceae). Prairie
coneflower is a native perennial about a foot and a
half tall. The rays are generally three to five
centimeters long, much longer than the disk (solid
part between the rays). The floral disk is somewhat
globe-shaped, ovoid, or shortly ellipsoid, twelve to
twenty millimeters high (Steyermark 1963). Prairie
coneflower has well-developed leaves up to fifteen
centimeters long and six centimeters wide, pinnatifid
to partly bipinnatifid, with ultimate segments linear
to oblong, often very unequal (Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). This species has one to several
stems twelve to forty-seven inches tall. The fruit is a
small ashen.
Distribution: Prairie coneflower ranges from Alberta
to Mexico, east to Manitoba, Minnesota, Illinois,
Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas. and New
England (Steyermark 1963). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Ratibida columnifera grows well on loam, sandy
loam, and clayey loam soils. It prefers a sunny
position and well-drained rich soil types. This
species is tolerant of weakly acidic to moderately
alkaline soils and weak saline soils. It has low to
moderate water requirements. Prairie coneflower is
found on dry plains, prairies, waste ground, and along
roadsides and railroads.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Ratibida columnifera seeds are
best sown in early spring in a cold frame. Cover the
seeds and place the pot in a sunny location.
Optimum germination temperatures are between 68
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Mexican hat, yellow Mexican hat, upright prairie
coneflower, long-head coneflower, columnar prairie
coneflower
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Tea was made from the leaves and
flower heads. Cheyenne Indians boiled prairie
coneflower leaves and stems to make a solution
applied externally to draw the poison out of
rattlesnake bites. An infusion was used to relieve the
pain of headaches and to treat stomachaches and
fevers (Moerman 1998). A decoction was used as a
wash to relieve pain and to treat poison ivy rash
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Vance, F. R., J. R. Jowsey, &. J. S. McLean 1984.
Wildflowers of the northern Great Plains. University
of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Weber, W. A. 1987. Colorado flora: western slope.
Colorado Associated University Press, Boulder,
Colorado.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
to 86ºF, or 20 to 30ºC. Germination should be
achieved in two days.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Prairie coneflower seeds can be planted in the fall. If
they are placed in winter storage for spring planting,
they should be stratified with a cold dry treatment.
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through native plant seed sources
specializing in Great Plains species. Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='raco3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bare, J. E. 1979. Wildflowers and weeds of Kansas.
The Regents Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Bruggen, T. V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Dorn, R. D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana.
Mountain West Publishing, Cheyenne, Wyoming.
Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of
Colorado. 2nd ed. The Shallow Press Inc., Chicago.
Looman, J. &. K. F. Best. 1994. Budd’s flora of the
Canadian Prairie Provinces. Minister of Supply &.
Services Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Nelson, R. A. 1977. Handbook of Rocky Mountain
plants. 2nd ed. Skyland Publishers, Estes Park,
Colorado.
Sharp Brothers Seed Company 1989. Catalog of
wildflowers and forbs. Sharp Brothers Seed
Company, Amarillo, Texas.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames Iowa.
Straughbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of
West Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc.,
Morgantown, West Virginia.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
YELLOW
CONEFLOWER
Ratibida pinnata (Vent.)
Barnh.
Plant Symbol = RAPI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
competition from other plants. The seed heads are
eaten by birds in the late fall. The flowers attract
several different butterfly species.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sunflower family (Asteraceae). Yellow
coneflower is a native perennial herb growing from a
woody caudex up to one meter or taller. The leaves
are pinnantely compound, mostly with five to seven
lanceolate segments, with harsh and scurfy surfaces
(Bruggen 1976). The disk flowers are usually gray at
first becoming brown with age. When the disk heads
are crushed, an odor of anise is emitted. Each flower
has its own stalk and five to eight yellow, drooping
petals arranged in a cone shape.
Distribution: Yellow coneflower ranges from Ontario
and New York to Minnesota, South Dakota, and
Nebraska, south to Georgia, Arkansas and Oklahoma
(Steyermark 1963). For current distribution, please
consult the Plant profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species occurs in prairies, thickets, and borders
of woods. It is often found along roadsides and
railroad right-of-ways. Yellow coneflower grows
best on loam, clay, and sandy soil types that are from
medium moisture to dry. It prefers calcareous soils
that are neutral pH 6-7, but will grow in sunny
locations with well-drained soils, and is often found
in wet mesic, mesic and dry mesic sites.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Ratibida pinnata seeds are best
planted in the spring or fall. Generally the seeds does
not need any pre-treatment. They can be stratified at
33 to 38ºF for thirty days.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Harvesting of seeds should be done from October
through November. The cones should be clipped
form the stem and placed into a bucket to rub the
seeds off the cone to be used for propagation.
Division of Natural Areas and Preserves
Ohio Department of Natural Resources
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
gray-head prairie coneflower, drooping coneflower,
pinnate prairie coneflower
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Ratibida pinnata root was used to cure
toothache (Fielder 1975).
Landscaping &.Wildlife: Yellow coneflower is a
strong survivor of former prairies where the majority
of the original plants have perished. This is a long
live species and is best to plant where there is
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 jsp. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Somewhat available through native plant seed
sources within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rapi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bruggen, T. V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Fielder, M. 1975. Plant medicine and folklore.
Winchester Press, New York, New York.
Gleason, H. A. 1952. The new Britton and Brown
illustrated flora of the northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 3 vols. The New York Botanical
Garden, New York, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1993. The Illustrated book of
wildflowers and shrubs. Stackpole Books,
Mechanicsburg, PA.
Mohlenbrock, R.H., ed. 1975. Guide to the vascular
flora of Illinois. Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale, Illinois.
Mohlenbrock, R. H. &. J.W. Voight 1959. A flora of
southern Illinois. Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale, Illinois.
Ohio Department of Natural Resources 2000. Ohio
prairies. Division of Natural Areas and Preserves.
Accessed: 11jan02.
<.http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/dnap/prairies/OhioPrairi
es.htm>.
Small, J. K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames Iowa.
Swink, F. &. G. S. Wilhelm 1979. Plants of the
Chicago region. 3rd ed. The Morton Arboretum,
Lisle, Illinois.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
FRAGRANT SUMAC
Rhus aromatica Ait.
Plant Symbol = RHAR4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Oklahoma Biological Survey
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Aromatic sumac, lemon sumac, polecat bush
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: The fruit is an important winter food for
birds, including turkey, ruffed grouse, robins, and
flickers, and for various small mammals (e.g.,
raccoon, opossum, chipmunk). The foliage is
relatively unpalatable to most species of wildlife and
domestic livestock. Thickets of fragrant sumac
provide cover for many species of birds and small
mammals.
Conservation: Fragrant sumac is not widely used for
landscape plantings, probably because of its
relatively small size, but it is used as a ground cover,
especially on banks. The plants are hardy and can
grow in sun or partial shade. The main ornamental
feature is the orange to red fall foliage color. Several
cultivars have been selected – mostly for variation in
growth form. Fragrant sumac also has been used for
rehabilitating disturbed sites such as banks, cuts, and
fills.
Ethnobotanic: American Indians made a tart drink
(“Indian lemonade”) from the ripe fruits of fragrant
sumac (larger-fruited Rhus species provide a larger
quantity of the same substance). The bark of all
sumacs has been used as an astringent and leaves and
bark can be used for tanning leather because of the
Plant Guide
high tannin content. Various Indian tribes have used
fragrant sumac in treatment for various illnesses and
health problems. The leaves, mixed with tobacco,
were used as a smoking mixture.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Straggling
to upright native shrubs 0.5-2(-2.5) meters tall (rarely
tree-like), forming colonial thickets of up to 10 feet
spread, suckering from the roots, the branches slender
ascending, puberulent, glabrate, or densely pilose.
buds naked, tiny, yellow, hairy, surrounded by a
raised, circular leaf scar. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green to glossy blue-green, turning orange to red or
purple in the fall. Flowers: yellow, in small, dense
inflorescences on short lateral shoots, opening before
the leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne
on the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short panicles at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter,
bright red at maturity and densely hairy, containing a
single nutlet 3.8-4.5 mm long, in terminal clusters.
The common name “sumac” is from the Middle
English for related tree. The leaves are fragrant or at
least odorous.
Variation within the species: three varieties are
currently recognized, based on differences in
geography, leaf shape, and pubescence of stems,
leaves, and fruits. Var. aromatica occurs over nearly
the whole range of the species.
Rhus aromatica var. arenaria (Greene) Fern. –
restricted to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
Rhus aromatica var. serotina (Greene) Rehd. – the
western segment, occurring from South Dakota to
Texas and eastward to Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and
Illinois. It apparently intergrades with forms of Rhus
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
trilobata where their ranges meet in the Great Plains
(mainly from Texas to South Dakota).
Distribution: Fragrant sumac is native to most of the
US east of the Rocky Mountains, from Ontario and
western Quebec, Massachusetts and New Hampshire
to Florida and west to the Great Plains in Texas to
South Dakota. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Fragrant sumac is common along the forested eastern
margins of the Great Plains and in open or otherwise
disturbed sites on the margins of the Gulf Coast
prairie. It grows at a range of sites including open
rocky woodlands, valley bottoms, lower rocky slopes,
and roadsides. Flowering: March-May, usually
before the leaves expand. fruiting: June-August.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fragrant sumac reproduces from seed or clonally via
root suckers. It is a pioneer species, establishing
rapidly from seed after heavy disturbance,
particularly fire. Browsing by deer may be
responsible for rapid early removal of mature fruits.
birds are the primary dispersal later. Individual
plants may live about 20-30 years. clones can live
substantially longer. Fragrant sumac sprouts
vigorously after fire, and it can be propagated from
root cuttings.
Seed dormancy results from the presence of a hard,
impermeable seed coat. Fire scarifies seeds,
promoting germination. various artificial methods of
pretreatment have been tested, including sulfuric
acid, hot water soaks, mechanical scarification, and
cold treatment. Pretreated sumac seeds generally
begin germination within 10-20 days. The resistant
seed coats probably allow the seeds to remain viable
for several years in the humus layer, as do those in
seeds of some other Rhus species, allowing re-
establishment through seed progeny when conditions
are favorable for germination and growth.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fragrant sumac reportedly sprouts vigorously after
fire in the southern Great Plains, and the primary
mode of colonization after disturbance is through
sprouting from the adventitious-bud root crown.
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barkley, F.A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus
and its immediate allies in North and Central
America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Gard. 24:265-498.
Brizicky, G.K. 1962. The genera of Anacardiaceae
in the Southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor.
43:359-375.
Brizicky, G.K. 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural
notes on the genus Rhus (Anacardiaceae). J. Arnold
Arbor. 44:60-80.
Frankel, E. 1991. Poison ivy, poison oak, poison
sumac, and their relatives. The Boxwood Press,
Pacific Grove, Calif. For review see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 120(1):76. 19xx.
Gilbert, E.F. 1966. Structure and development of
sumac clones. Amer. Midl. Nat. 75:432-445.
Hardin, J.W. &. L.L. Phillips 1985. Hybridization in
eastern North American Rhus (Anacardiaceae). ASB
Bull. 32(3):99-106.
Johnson, T. 2000. Rhus aromatica. Herbweb.com.
[http://www.herbweb.com/index.html]
Oklahoma Biological Survey 2000. Rhus aromatica
Ait. IN Catalog of woody plants of Oklahoma.
Norman, Oklahoma. 20sep2000.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/rhara3.htm >.
Tirmenstein, D. 1987. Rhus aromatica. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Uttal, L.J. 1984. An environmental race of Rhus
aromatica Ait. in western Virginia. Jeffersonia
15:75-76.
Xiaojie L., J.M. Baskin, &. C.C. Baskin 1999.
Contrasting dispersal phenologies in two fleshy-
fruited congeneric shrubs, Rhus aromatica Ait. and
Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae). Canad. J. Bot.
77:976-988.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhar4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
FRAGRANT SUMAC
Rhus aromatica Ait. var.
arenaria (Greene) Fern.
Plant Symbol = RHARA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Oklahoma Biological Survey
and bark can be used for tanning leather because of
the high tannin content. Various Indian tribes have
used fragrant sumac in treatment for various illnesses
and health problems. The leaves, mixed with
tobacco, were used as a smoking mixture.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Straggling
to upright native shrubs 0.5-2(-2.5) meters tall (rarely
tree-like), forming colonial thickets of up to 10 feet
spread, suckering from the roots, the branches slender
ascending, puberulent, glabrate, or densely pilose.
buds naked, tiny, yellow, hairy, surrounded by a
raised, circular leaf scar. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green to glossy blue-green, turning orange to red or
purple in the fall. Flowers: yellow, in small, dense
inflorescences on short lateral shoots, opening before
the leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne
on the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short panicles at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter,
bright red at maturity and densely hairy, containing a
single nutlet 3.8-4.5 mm long, in terminal clusters.
The common name “sumac” is from the Middle
English for related tree. The leaves are fragrant or at
least odorous.
Variation within the species: three varieties are
currently recognized, based on differences in
geography, leaf shape, and pubescence of stems,
leaves, and fruits. Var. aromatica occurs over nearly
the whole range of the species.
Rhus aromatica var. arenaria (Greene) Fern. –
restricted to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
Rhus aromatica var. serotina (Greene) Rehd. – the
western segment, occurring from South Dakota to
Texas and eastward to Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and
Illinois. It apparently intergrades with forms of Rhus
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Aromatic sumac, lemon sumac, polecat bush
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: The fruit is an important winter food for
birds, including turkey, ruffed grouse, robins, and
flickers, and for various small mammals (e.g.,
raccoon, opossum, chipmunk). The foliage is
relatively unpalatable to most species of wildlife and
domestic livestock. Thickets of fragrant sumac
provide cover for many species of birds and small
mammals.
Conservation: Fragrant sumac is not widely used for
landscape plantings, probably because of its
relatively small size, but it is used as a ground cover,
especially on banks. The plants are hardy and can
grow in sun or partial shade. The main ornamental
feature is the orange to red fall foliage color. Several
cultivars have been selected – mostly for variation in
growth form. Fragrant sumac also has been used for
rehabilitating disturbed sites such as banks, cuts, and
fills.
Ethnobotanic: American Indians made a tart drink
(“Indian lemonade”) from the ripe fruits of fragrant
sumac (larger-fruited Rhus species provide a larger
quantity of the same substance). The bark of all
sumacs has been used as an astringent, and leaves
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
trilobata where their ranges meet in the Great Plains
(mainly from Texas to South Dakota).
Distribution: Fragrant sumac is native to most of the
US east of the Rocky Mountains, from Ontario and
western Quebec, Massachussetts and New Hampshire
to Florida and west to the Great Plains in Texas to
South Dakota. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Fragrant sumac is common along the forested eastern
margins of the Great Plains and in open or otherwise
disturbed sites on the margins of the Gulf Coast
prairie. It grows at a range of sites including open
rocky woodlands, valley bottoms, lower rocky slopes,
and roadsides. Flowering: March-May, usually
before the leaves expand. fruiting: June-August.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fragrant sumac reproduces from seed or clonally via
root suckers. It is a pioneer species, establishing
rapidly from seed after heavy disturbance,
particularly fire. Browsing by deer may be
responsible for rapid early removal of mature fruits.
birds are the primary dispersal later. Individual
plants may live about 20-30 years. clones can live
substantially longer. Fragrant sumac sprouts
vigorously after fire and can be propagated from root
cuttings.
Seed dormancy results from the presence of a hard,
impermeable seed coat. Fire scarifies seeds,
promoting germination. various artificial methods of
pretreatment have been tested, including sulfuric
acid, and hot water soaks, mechanical scarification,
and cold treatment. Pretreated sumac seeds generally
begin germination within 10-20 days. The resistant
seed coats probably allow the seeds to remain viable
for several years in the humus layer, as do those in
seeds of some other Rhus species, allowing re-
establishment through seed progeny when conditions
are favorable for germination and growth.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fragrant sumac reportedly sprouts vigorously after
fire in the southern Great Plains, and the primary
mode of colonization after disturbance is through
sprouting from the adventitious-bud root crown.
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barkley, F.A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus
and its immediate allies in North and Central
America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Gard. 24:265-498.
Brizicky, G.K. 1962. The genera of Anacardiaceae
in the Southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor.
43:359-375.
Brizicky, G.K. 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural
notes on the genus Rhus (Anacardiaceae). J. Arnold
Arbor. 44:60-80.
Frankel, E. 1991. Poison ivy, poison oak, poison
sumac, and their relatives. The Boxwood Press,
Pacific Grove, Calif. For review see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 120(1):76. 19xx.
Gilbert, E.F. 1966. Structure and development of
sumac clones. Amer. Midl. Nat. 75:432-445.
Hardin, J.W. &. L.L. Phillips 1985. Hybridization in
eastern North American Rhus (Anacardiaceae). ASB
Bull. 32(3):99-106.
Johnson, T. 2000. Rhus aromatica. Herbweb.com.
[http://www.herbweb.com/index.html]
Oklahoma Biological Survey 2000. Rhus aromatica
Ait. IN Catalog of woody plants of Oklahoma.
Norman, Oklahoma. 20sep2000.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/rhara3.htm >.
Tirmenstein, D. 1987. Rhus aromatica. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Uttal, L.J. 1984. An environmental race of Rhus
aromatica Ait. in western Virginia. Jeffersonia
15:75-76.
Xiaojie L., J.M. Baskin, &. C.C. Baskin 1999.
Contrasting dispersal phenologies in two fleshy-
fruited congeneric shrubs, Rhus aromatica Ait. and
Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae). Canad. J. Bot.
77:976-988.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhara';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
FRAGRANT SUMAC
Rhus aromatica Ait. var.
aromatica
Plant Symbol = RHARA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Oklahoma Biological Survey
and bark can be used for tanning leather because of
the high tannin content. Various Indian tribes have
used fragrant sumac in treatment for various illnesses
and health problems. The leaves, mixed with
tobacco, were used as a smoking mixture.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Straggling
to upright native shrubs 0.5-2(-2.5) meters tall (rarely
tree-like), forming colonial thickets of up to 10 feet
spread, suckering from the roots, the branches slender
ascending, puberulent, glabrate, or densely pilose.
buds naked, tiny, yellow, hairy, surrounded by a
raised, circular leaf scar. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green to glossy blue-green, turning orange to red or
purple in the fall. Flowers: yellow, in small, dense
inflorescences on short lateral shoots, opening before
the leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne
on the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short panicles at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter,
bright red at maturity and densely hairy, containing a
single nutlet 3.8-4.5 mm long, in terminal clusters.
The common name “sumac” is from the Middle
English for related tree. The leaves are fragrant or at
least odorous.
Variation within the species: three varieties are
currently recognized, based on differences in
geography, leaf shape, and pubescence of stems,
leaves, and fruits. Var. aromatica occurs over nearly
the whole range of the species.
Rhus aromatica var. arenaria (Greene) Fern. –
restricted to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
Rhus aromatica var. serotina (Greene) Rehd. – the
western segment, occurring from South Dakota to
Texas and eastward to Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and
Illinois. It apparently intergrades with forms of Rhus
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Aromatic sumac, lemon sumac, polecat bush
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: The fruit is an important winter food for
birds, including turkey, ruffed grouse, robins, and
flickers, and for various small mammals (e.g.,
raccoon, opossum, chipmunk). The foliage is
relatively unpalatable to most species of wildlife and
domestic livestock. Thickets of fragrant sumac
provide cover for many species of birds and small
mammals.
Conservation: Fragrant sumac is not widely used for
landscape plantings, probably because of its
relatively small size, but it is used as a ground cover,
especially on banks. The plants are hardy and can
grow in sun or partial shade. The main ornamental
feature is the orange to red fall foliage color. Several
cultivars have been selected – mostly for variation in
growth form. Fragrant sumac also has been used for
rehabilitating disturbed sites such as banks, cuts, and
fills.
Ethnobotanic: American Indians made a tart drink
(“Indian lemonade”) from the ripe fruits of fragrant
sumac (larger-fruited Rhus species provide a larger
quantity of the same substance). The bark of all
sumacs has been used as an astringent, and leaves
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
trilobata where their ranges meet in the Great Plains
(mainly from Texas to South Dakota).
Distribution: Fragrant sumac is native to most of the
US east of the Rocky Mountains, from Ontario and
western Quebec, Massachussetts and New Hampshire
to Florida and west to the Great Plains in Texas to
South Dakota. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Fragrant sumac is common along the forested eastern
margins of the Great Plains and in open or otherwise
disturbed sites on the margins of the Gulf Coast
prairie. It grows at a range of sites including open
rocky woodlands, valley bottoms, lower rocky slopes,
and roadsides. Flowering: March-May, usually
before the leaves expand. fruiting: June-August.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fragrant sumac reproduces from seed or clonally via
root suckers. It is a pioneer species, establishing
rapidly from seed after heavy disturbance,
particularly fire. Browsing by deer may be
responsible for rapid early removal of mature fruits.
birds are the primary dispersal later. Individual
plants may live about 20-30 years. clones can live
substantially longer. Fragrant sumac sprouts
vigorously after fire and can be propagated from root
cuttings.
Seed dormancy results from the presence of a hard,
impermeable seed coat. Fire scarifies seeds,
promoting germination. various artificial methods of
pretreatment have been tested, including sulfuric
acid, and hot water soaks, mechanical scarification,
and cold treatment. Pretreated sumac seeds generally
begin germination within 10-20 days. The resistant
seed coats probably allow the seeds to remain viable
for several years in the humus layer, as do those in
seeds of some other Rhus species, allowing re-
establishment through seed progeny when conditions
are favorable for germination and growth.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fragrant sumac reportedly sprouts vigorously after
fire in the southern Great Plains, and the primary
mode of colonization after disturbance is through
sprouting from the adventitious-bud root crown.
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barkley, F.A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus
and its immediate allies in North and Central
America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Gard. 24:265-498.
Brizicky, G.K. 1962. The genera of Anacardiaceae
in the Southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor.
43:359-375.
Brizicky, G.K. 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural
notes on the genus Rhus (Anacardiaceae). J. Arnold
Arbor. 44:60-80.
Frankel, E. 1991. Poison ivy, poison oak, poison
sumac, and their relatives. The Boxwood Press,
Pacific Grove, Calif. For review see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 120(1):76. 19xx.
Gilbert, E.F. 1966. Structure and development of
sumac clones. Amer. Midl. Nat. 75:432-445.
Hardin, J.W. &. L.L. Phillips 1985. Hybridization in
eastern North American Rhus (Anacardiaceae). ASB
Bull. 32(3):99-106.
Johnson, T. 2000. Rhus aromatica. Herbweb.com.
[http://www.herbweb.com/index.html]
Oklahoma Biological Survey 2000. Rhus aromatica
Ait. IN Catalog of woody plants of Oklahoma.
Norman, Oklahoma. 20sep2000.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/rhara3.htm >.
Tirmenstein, D. 1987. Rhus aromatica. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Uttal, L.J. 1984. An environmental race of Rhus
aromatica Ait. in western Virginia. Jeffersonia
15:75-76.
Xiaojie L., J.M. Baskin, &. C.C. Baskin 1999.
Contrasting dispersal phenologies in two fleshy-
fruited congeneric shrubs, Rhus aromatica Ait. and
Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae). Canad. J. Bot.
77:976-988.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhara2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
FRAGRANT SUMAC
Rhus aromatica Ait. var.
serotina (Greene) Rehd.
Plant Symbol = RHARS
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Oklahoma Biological Survey
and bark can be used for tanning leather because of
the high tannin content. Various Indian tribes have
used fragrant sumac in treatment for various illnesses
and health problems. The leaves, mixed with
tobacco, were used as a smoking mixture.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Straggling
to upright native shrubs 0.5-2(-2.5) meters tall (rarely
tree-like), forming colonial thickets of up to 10 feet
spread, suckering from the roots, the branches slender
ascending, puberulent, glabrate, or densely pilose.
buds naked, tiny, yellow, hairy, surrounded by a
raised, circular leaf scar. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green to glossy blue-green, turning orange to red or
purple in the fall. Flowers: yellow, in small, dense
inflorescences on short lateral shoots, opening before
the leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne
on the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short panicles at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter,
bright red at maturity and densely hairy, containing a
single nutlet 3.8-4.5 mm long, in terminal clusters.
The common name “sumac” is from the Middle
English for related tree. The leaves are fragrant or at
least odorous.
Variation within the species: three varieties are
currently recognized, based on differences in
geography, leaf shape, and pubescence of stems,
leaves, and fruits. Var. aromatica occurs over nearly
the whole range of the species.
Rhus aromatica var. arenaria (Greene) Fern. –
restricted to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
Rhus aromatica var. serotina (Greene) Rehd. – the
western segment, occurring from South Dakota to
Texas and eastward to Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and
Illinois. It apparently intergrades with forms of Rhus
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Alternatecommonnames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Alternatecommonnames='Aromatic sumac, lemon sumac, polecat bush
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: The fruit is an important winter food for
birds, including turkey, ruffed grouse, robins, and
flickers, and for various small mammals (e.g.,
raccoon, opossum, chipmunk). The foliage is
relatively unpalatable to most species of wildlife and
domestic livestock. Thickets of fragrant sumac
provide cover for many species of birds and small
mammals.
Conservation: Fragrant sumac is not widely used for
landscape plantings, probably because of its
relatively small size, but it is used as a ground cover,
especially on banks. The plants are hardy and can
grow in sun or partial shade. The main ornamental
feature is the orange to red fall foliage color. Several
cultivars have been selected – mostly for variation in
growth form. Fragrant sumac also has been used for
rehabilitating disturbed sites such as banks, cuts, and
fills.
Ethnobotanic: American Indians made a tart drink
(“Indian lemonade”) from the ripe fruits of fragrant
sumac (larger-fruited Rhus species provide a larger
quantity of the same substance). The bark of all
sumacs has been used as an astringent, and leaves
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
trilobata where their ranges meet in the Great Plains
(mainly from Texas to South Dakota).
Distribution: Fragrant sumac is native to most of the
US east of the Rocky Mountains, from Ontario and
western Quebec, Massachussetts and New Hampshire
to Florida and west to the Great Plains in Texas to
South Dakota. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Fragrant sumac is common along the forested eastern
margins of the Great Plains and in open or otherwise
disturbed sites on the margins of the Gulf Coast
prairie. It grows at a range of sites including open
rocky woodlands, valley bottoms, lower rocky slopes,
and roadsides. Flowering: March-May, usually
before the leaves expand. fruiting: June-August.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Fragrant sumac reproduces from seed or clonally via
root suckers. It is a pioneer species, establishing
rapidly from seed after heavy disturbance,
particularly fire. Browsing by deer may be
responsible for rapid early removal of mature fruits.
birds are the primary dispersal later. Individual
plants may live about 20-30 years. clones can live
substantially longer. Fragrant sumac sprouts
vigorously after fire and can be propagated from root
cuttings.
Seed dormancy results from the presence of a hard,
impermeable seed coat. Fire scarifies seeds,
promoting germination. various artificial methods of
pretreatment have been tested, including sulfuric
acid, and hot water soaks, mechanical scarification,
and cold treatment. Pretreated sumac seeds generally
begin germination within 10-20 days. The resistant
seed coats probably allow the seeds to remain viable
for several years in the humus layer, as do those in
seeds of some other Rhus species, allowing re-
establishment through seed progeny when conditions
are favorable for germination and growth.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fragrant sumac reportedly sprouts vigorously after
fire in the southern Great Plains, and the primary
mode of colonization after disturbance is through
sprouting from the adventitious-bud root crown.
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barkley, F.A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus
and its immediate allies in North and Central
America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri
Bot. Gard. 24:265-498.
Brizicky, G.K. 1962. The genera of Anacardiaceae
in the Southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor.
43:359-375.
Brizicky, G.K. 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural
notes on the genus Rhus (Anacardiaceae). J. Arnold
Arbor. 44:60-80.
Frankel, E. 1991. Poison ivy, poison oak, poison
sumac, and their relatives. The Boxwood Press,
Pacific Grove, Calif. For review see Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 120(1):76. 19xx.
Gilbert, E.F. 1966. Structure and development of
sumac clones. Amer. Midl. Nat. 75:432-445.
Hardin, J.W. &. L.L. Phillips 1985. Hybridization in
eastern North American Rhus (Anacardiaceae). ASB
Bull. 32(3):99-106.
Johnson, T. 2000. Rhus aromatica. Herbweb.com.
[http://www.herbweb.com/index.html]
Oklahoma Biological Survey 2000. Rhus aromatica
Ait. IN Catalog of woody plants of Oklahoma.
Norman, Oklahoma. 20sep2000.
<.http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/rhara3.htm >.
Tirmenstein, D. 1987. Rhus aromatica. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Uttal, L.J. 1984. An environmental race of Rhus
aromatica Ait. in western Virginia. Jeffersonia
15:75-76.
Xiaojie L., J.M. Baskin, &. C.C. Baskin 1999.
Contrasting dispersal phenologies in two fleshy-
fruited congeneric shrubs, Rhus aromatica Ait. and
Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae). Canad. J. Bot.
77:976-988.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhars';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 30may03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SMOOTH SUMAC
Rhus glabra L.
Plant Symbol = RHGL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Paul L. Redfearn Jr.
Ozarks Regional Herbarium
agriculture department regarding its status and use.
Weed information is also available from the
PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae). Smooth
sumac can be a shrub or small tree growing up to 3
meters in height. Smooth sumac forms thickets from
root suckers. The stems and branches are hairless
and covered with a whitish waxy coating. The leaves
are alternate and pinnately compound (3-5 dm long).
Smooth sumac has 11-31 leaflets that are lanceolate
to oblong-lanceolate (7-9 cm long). The leaflets
taper to a point at the tip and are rounded at the base.
The margins are sharply serrated. The upper surface
is dark green and lustrous. The lower surface is
covered with a whitish waxy coating. Smooth sumac
has a branched, racemose inflorescence with flowers
maturing from the bottom up (10-25 cm long). The
flowers have a greenish color. The drupes have a
flattened-globe shape (3.5-4.5 mm long) and are
covered with red, sticky hairs. The seeds are
yellowish in color and smooth (3-3.5 mm long).
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Smooth sumac is found in open woodlands,
prairies, on dry rocky hillsides, and in canyons.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Smooth sumac vigorously resprouts from rhizomes
following fire. The rhizomes are usually located
between 3 and 12 inches below the soil surface and
this may provide protection from heat during a fire.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation of smooth sumac can occur by use of
seeds or root cuttings. Seeds germinate best when
exposed to continuous light and alternating warm and
cool temperatures. Smooth sumac grows best in
poor, well-drained soils, with partial to full sun.
However, smooth sumac is a hardy species and will
tolerate many soil types including soil that is slightly
saline.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='If grown in its native habitat and using a local seed
stock, the smooth sumac should not be prone to
debilitating pests or problems.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Scarlet sumac
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: This was a widely used species
among Native American tribes. The uses included
the making of a root and leaf tea to treat diarrhea,
dysentery, and mouth/throat ulcers. The leaves of the
plant were smoked for asthma. The blossoms were
used by the Chippewa in a mouthwash for teething
children. Comanche children enjoyed the sour acid
taste of the fruits and leaves were added to tobacco
for smoking by adults. Dye was also created from
various parts of the smooth sumac. The fruits were
used to make red dyes and the inner bark used to
make yellow dyes.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Weediness
This plant may become weedy or invasive in some
regions or habitats and may displace desirable
vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult
with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative
Extension Service office, or state natural resource or
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These materials are readily available from
commercial plant sources. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Control
Please contact your local agricultural extension
specialist or county weed specialist to learn what
works best in your area and how to use it safely.
Always read label and safety instructions for each
control method. Trade names and control measures
appear in this document only to provide specific
information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or
warranty the products and control methods named,
and other products may be equally effective.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones. 1940. Some notes on
uses of plants by the Comanche Indians. Papers of
the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters
25:517-542.
Correl, D.S. &. M.C. Johnston. 1970. Manual of the
vascular plants of Texas. Texas Research
Foundation, Renner.
Corley, W., J. Midcap, M. Garber, &. G. Wade. 2001.
A compilation of low-maintenance plants for Georgia
landscapes.(http://www.ces.uga.edu/Agriculture/horti
culture/low-maintenance.html). The University of
Georgia, College of Agricultural and Environmental
Sciences Cooperative Extension Service, Athens.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine, and crafts. Dover Publications Inc.,
New York.
Foster, S. &. J.A. Duke. 2000. A field guide to
medicinal plants and herbs of eastern and central
North America. 2nd edition. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston.
Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the
Great Plains. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.
Gilmore, M. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri river region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln.
Harlow, W.M., E.S. Harrar, J.W. Hardin, &. F.M.
White. 1996. Textbook of dendrology. 8th edition.
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.
Meyer, M.H. &. M.E. Zins. 1998.
(http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticult
ure/DG1114.html) University of Minnesota
Extension Service, St. Paul.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American ethnobotany
database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American peoples.
(http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb).The
University of Michigan, Dearborn.
Redfearn, P.L. Jr. 2001. Rhus glabra.
(http://biology.smsu.edu/Herbarium/Plants%20of%2
0the%20Interior%20Highlands/Flowers/Rhus%20gla
bra.jpg). Ozarks Regional Herbarium, Department of
Biology, Southwest Missouri State University,
Springfield.
Rydberg, P.A. 1932. Flora of the prairies and plains
of central North America. The Science Press Printing
Company, Lancaster.
USDA Forest Service. 2001. Fire effects information
system.(http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shru
bs/rhugla/index.html). Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Boise.
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='
Matthew D. Hurteau
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='rhgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Species Coordinator:
M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department
University of California, Davis, California
Edited: 30May2002 jsp, 20Dec2004 rln. 060815 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page 3
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt.
Plant Symbol = RHTR
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='rhtr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
anisophylla (Greene) Jepson
Plant Symbol = RHTR
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtra';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
pilosissima Engelm.
Plant Symbol = RHTRP
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtrp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
quinata (Greene) Jepson
Plant Symbol = RHTR
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtrq';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
racemulosa (Greene) Barkl.
Plant Symbol = RHTRR
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtrr';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl.
Plant Symbol = RHTRS
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtrs';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SKUNKBUSH
Rhus trilobata Nutt. var.
trilobata
Plant Symbol = RHTRT
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
and red to reddish-purple), and it has been widely
planted at recreation sites, rest areas, and roadsides.
It is useful for windbreaks, shelterbelts, and because
of the strong root development, for erosion control.
Var. trilobata has been successfully transplanted onto
phosphate mine spoils in Idaho. Bighorn, a cultivar
from Wyoming, has been widely planted on pinyon-
juniper sites, and the species has been successfully
transplanted in aspen-maple, pinyon-juniper, and
mountain-brush zones.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sumac family (Anacardiaceae). Upright
arching native shrubs 0.5-2.5 meters tall, forming
rounded, moundlike, or upright thickets, crown
diameter often greater than the plant height. roots
deep and extensively branched, with woody, shallow,
and spreading rhizomes, sometimes connecting
shrubs more than 9 m apart. sprouts arising from
rhizomes and root crown. Leaves: deciduous,
alternate, compound with 3 leaflets, variable in size,
shape, lobing, and margin, the leaflets unstalked,
ovate to rhomboid, more or less wedge-shaped at the
base, coarsely-toothed, usually shiny-glabrous above,
the terminal leaflet 3-6.5 cm long. summer foliage
green, becoming orange or reddish in the fall.
Flowers: yellowish to whitish, in small, dense
clusters on short lateral shoots, opening before the
leaves, bisexual and unisexual, both types borne on
the same plant (the species polygamodioecious).
male (staminate) flowers in yellowish catkins, female
(pistillate) flowers in bright yellow, short clusters at
the ends of branches. Fruits: 5-7 mm in diameter, red
at maturity and sparsely hairy, each containing a
single nutlet. Rhus trilobata closely resembles R.
aromatica and is often treated as part of the latter.
The common name is derived from the odor of the
leaves, especially when bruised.
Variation within the species: a number of ecotypes
are known to occur in skunkbush. Growth form and
height vary geographically – plants are more
branched and compact in the Southwest and taller in
the north part of the range. Current practice
recognizes six formal varieties, distinguished by
morphological characteristics such as growth form,
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Skunkbrush, polecat bush, stinking sumac, ill-scented
sumac,' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='quailbush, squawbush, squawberry,
basketbush, lemonade sumac, three-lobed sumac,
three-leaved sumac, lemita
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Skunkbush fruits were used by Native
Americans in foods, beverages, and medicines.
Pliable young stems were woven with grass stems
into durable baskets that would hold water. The
leaves are said to have been smoked by the
Comanches.
Wildlife &. Livestock: Livestock in some locations use
skunkbush, but it is not a preferred species. It has
been planted in some locations as a deterrent to
grazing animals. It provides some browse for deer,
elk, and pronghorn when more preferred forage is
unavailable. Skunkbush fruits, which persist through
fall and winter, provide a food for birds and small
mammals when other foods are scarce or unavailable.
Skunkbush also may form dense thickets that provide
good hiding and nesting cover for small birds and
mammals.
Conservation: Skunkbush has been used as an
ornamental (the fall leaves turn bright yellow, orange,
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
height, leaf shape and size, fruit shape and
pubescence, commonly intergrading where they
occur together.
Var. anisophylla (Greene) Jepson - OR, CA, NV, UT,
AZ, and NM, south into Mexico.
Var. pilosissima Engelm. - CA to TX, south into
Mexico.
Var. quinata (Greene) Jepson – OR, CA, NV, AZ,
and NM.
Var. racemulosa (Greene) Barkl. - AZ and NM, south
into Mexico.
Var. simplicifolia (Greene) Barkl. – OK, CO, and
NM, to CA and OR, south to AZ and Mexico.
Var. trilobata – covers the range of the whole
species.
Distribution: Broadly distributed throughout the
western North America, from Saskatchewan and
Alberta south to Texas and California and into
Mexico. not in Washington or British Columbia. See
details below for distribution of varieties. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Skunkbush grows in prairies to shrublands and oak
woodlands at elevations of about 1000-3000 meters
and in a variety of sites including dry rocky slopes,
streamsides, seasonal drainages, and canyon bottoms,
sand dunes and sandhills, pastures, roadsides, and
waste places -- in sun or partial shade and over a
wide range of soils from nearly bare rock to sand and
heavy clay. It is intolerant of flooding and high water
tables. Skunkbush is a prominent species in many
early seral communities, especially after fire, but it
also is an indicator of climax in various shrub and
grassland communities. Flowering: April-July.
fruiting: June-October, then persisting through the
winter if not eaten.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Skunkbush produces seed nearly every year, but the
number of flowers that produce fruit is relatively low.
Branches 6-10 years of age produce the most viable
fruit. Mostly birds and mammals disperse seeds.
Roadside colonies frequently originate from
germination of seed in caches of mice and squirrels.
Skunkbush, like other species of Rhus, may be an
effective seedbank former, with long-lived seeds
stored in the humus layer. The seeds have dormancy
broken by cold treatment. Seedlings are intolerant of
crowding, even under optimal conditions. Growth of
skunkbush is most rapid during the first 3-5 years,
and plantings have remained healthy and vigorous for
more than 20 years. healthy rhizomes have been aged
at more than 30 years.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Skunkbush sprouts vigorously from woody rhizomes
or from adventitious buds at the root crown after top-
kill by fire. Crown width and overall coverage often
increase in response to fire. Skunkbush also may
have the ability to delay sprouting for up to a year
following fire.
Skunkbush can be propagated from root and
softwood cuttings – most effectively done well before
freezing weather. Best seed germination is from fall
and winter planting. The presence of seeded grasses
has reduced the survival of skunkbush at some sites,
and although the plants are generally drought-
tolerant, water-stressed seedlings may be stunted for
several years and sometimes fail to recover.
Skunkbush is generally reported to be tolerant of
heavy grazing.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Sanford, R.C. 1970. Skunk bush (Rhus trilobata
Nutt.) in the North Dakota Badlands: Ecology,
phytosociology, browse production, and utilization.
Ph.D. diss., North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, North
Dakota.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1987. Rhus trilobata. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. U.S.D.A., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rhtrt';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited:19jun02 jsp. 03june03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN CURRANT
Ribes aureum Pursh
Plant Symbol = RIAU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
currant bush and used it as a snakebite remedy.
Other tribes have used the fruits to color clay pots.
Conservation: The fragrant (clove odor), golden-
yellow flowers of spring, yellowish to red fall
foliage, edible fruits, and wide ecological range make
golden currant a valued ornamental shrub for a
variety of natural landscapes. Golden currant is
easily cultivated from seed or cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Currant family (Grossulariaceae). A native
shrub 1-3 m tall, spineless, with numerous, erect-
arching branches forming an irregular crown up to 6
meters tall or more. bark gray to red-brown.
rhizomatous. Leaves deciduous, light green and
glossy, alternate or clustered, orbicular or cuneate-
ovate with 3-5 rounded lobes, (0.6-)1-2.5(4.7) cm
long and wide, cuneate to subcordate at base,
glabrous or sometimes lightly hairy beneath. Flowers
in short racemes of 5-10(-15), with the fragrance of
cloves. long-tubed (from fused sepals) and trumpet-
shaped, with 5 yellow sepal lobes spreading at the
top, with 5, short, reddish petals inserted at the top of
the tube. Fruit a berry 6-10 mm diameter, globose to
ellipsoid, ripening from green to yellow to red and
finally black to dark purple, with numerous seeds.
The common name pertains to the conspicuous,
golden flowers. “currant” is the general name for
Ribes fruit.
Variation within the species: Ribes odoratum, often
considered a distinct species, recognized by its
considerably larger flowers, has been placed (re-
placed, as var. villosum) as the eastern segment of the
broader species.
Var. aureum – (golden currant)
Var. gracillimum (Coville &. Britt.) Jepson –
(golden currant)
Var. villosum DC. – (fragrant golden currant,
buffalo currant, clove currant)
synonym: Ribes odoratum H. Wendl.
Distribution: Var. aureum is widespread in the
western US and southeastern Canada, with
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Buffalo currant, fragrant golden currant, golden
flowering currant, clove currant, spicebush
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Ribes species, including the golden
currant, are a valuable food source for songbirds,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, as well as numerous
wildlife species and other animals.
Ethnobotanic: The sweet and flavorful fruits are full
of seeds but are popular for making jam, jelly, pie,
and even ice cream. Some western Indian tribes used
currants (Ribes species) for making pemmican. The
Kiowa Indians believed that snakes were afraid of the
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
populations in Ontario and perhaps Quebec, as far
south in the US as trans-Pecos Texas. Var.
gracillimum is endemic to California. Var. villosum
in the central US, from western Texas to Montana
and eastward to New York and Vermont. it is absent
from the Atlantic seaboard. The species is
naturalized in Europe from garden escapes. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Golden currant grows in grasslands, coniferous
forests and woodlands, and riparian and mountain
shrub communities. It occurs on floodplains, along
streams, in ravines and washes, by springs, and on
mountain slopes, at elevations of about 800–2600
meters. It is generally an early to mid-seral species in
western coniferous forests. Var. villosum occurs on
cliffs, rocky slopes, ravines, bluffs, open hillside, and
thicket margins, often in sandy habitats. Golden
currant is somewhat shade tolerant and may grow in
open, scattered, and dense pine stands, but it is
usually suppressed by a denser canopy.
Flowering (March–)April–June, just after appearance
of the leaves. fruiting (May–)June–August.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Plants of Ribes generally begin fruiting after 3 years.
Seeds may remain viable in the soil and duff for
many years. Germination is enhanced by
scarification, but relatively good germination of
golden currant seeds was obtained by stratification at
-2.2–2.2 degrees C for 60 days without scarification.
Golden currant transplants well and forms suckers.
Plants can also be grown from cuttings. It reproduces
vegetatively by rhizomes, sprouting after cutting and
fire.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Golden currant can be used to re-vegetate roadsides
and disturbed areas, such as mine spoils and
rangeland. It is rated mostly good in initial
establishment, growth rate. persistence, germination,
seed production, ease of planting, and natural spread.
It tolerates shearing and may be used on dry, exposed
sites in a range of soil types, and it is a good soil
stabilizer.
Golden currant is an alternate host for white pine
blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). this and other
species of Ribes have been targets of various
eradication efforts where white pine is of commercial
interest. Please check the PLANTS Profile for this
plant for links to additional information.
Fire top-kills golden currant, but it can survive low-
to moderate-severity fire by sprouting from rhizomes.
Such fires also scarify soil-stored seed and enhance
germination. Severe fire probably kills golden
currant and may destroy soil-stored seeds.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. One cultivar (‘Crandall’) has
been referred to as ".the North Country s answer to
Forsythia.". Other horticultural selections have been
made for hardiness, flower color and density, and
fruit taste and size.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Conrad, C. E. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral
and associated ecosystems of southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. USDA, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Berkeley, California.
Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of
native shrubs. IN: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The
challenge of producing native plants for the
Intermountain area. Proceedings, Intermountain
Nurseryman s Association conference. Las Vegas,
NV, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
Winkler, G. 1987 (rev. K.A. Marshall 1995) Ribes
aureum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire
effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station,
Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,
Montana.
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='riau';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN CURRANT
Ribes aureum Pursh var.
aureum
Plant Symbol = RIAUA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Kiowa Indians believed that snakes were afraid of the
currant bush and used it as a snakebite remedy.
Other tribes have used the fruits to color clay pots.
Conservation: The fragrant (clove odor), golden-
yellow flowers of spring, yellowish to red fall
foliage, edible fruits, and wide ecological range make
golden currant a valued ornamental shrub for a
variety of natural landscapes. Golden currant is
easily cultivated from seed or cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Currant family (Grossulariaceae). A native
shrub 1-3 m tall, spineless, with numerous, erect-
arching branches forming an irregular crown up to 6
meters tall or more. bark gray to red-brown.
rhizomatous. Leaves deciduous, light green and
glossy, alternate or clustered, orbicular or cuneate-
ovate with 3-5 rounded lobes, (0.6-)1-2.5(4.7) cm
long and wide, cuneate to subcordate at base,
glabrous or sometimes lightly hairy beneath. Flowers
in short racemes of 5-10(-15), with the fragrance of
cloves. long-tubed (from fused sepals) and trumpet-
shaped, with 5 yellow sepal lobes spreading at the
top, with 5, short, reddish petals inserted at the top of
the tube. Fruit a berry 6-10 mm diameter, globose to
ellipsoid, ripening from green to yellow to red and
finally black to dark purple, with numerous seeds.
The common name pertains to the conspicuous,
golden flowers. “currant” is the general name for
Ribes fruit.
Variation within the species: Ribes odoratum, often
considered a distinct species, recognized by its
considerably larger flowers, has been placed (re-
placed, as var. villosum) as the eastern segment of the
broader species.
Var. aureum – (golden currant)
Var. gracillimum (Coville &. Britt.) Jepson –
(golden currant)
Var. villosum DC. – (fragrant golden currant,
buffalo currant, clove currant)
synonym: Ribes odoratum H. Wendl.
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Buffalo currant, fragrant golden currant, golden
flowering currant, clove currant, spicebush
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Ribes species, including the golden
currant, are a valuable food source for songbirds,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, as well as numerous
wildlife species and other animals.
Ethnobotanic: The sweet and flavorful fruits are full
of seeds but are popular for making jam, jelly, pie,
and even ice cream. Some western Indian tribes used
currants (Ribes species) for making pemmican. The
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: Var. aureum is widespread in the
western US and southeastern Canada, with
populations in Ontario and perhaps Quebec, as far
south in the US as trans-Pecos Texas. Var.
gracillimum is endemic to California. Var. villosum
in the central US, from western Texas to Montana
and eastward to New York and Vermont. it is absent
from the Atlantic seaboard. The species is
naturalized in Europe from garden escapes. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Golden currant grows in grasslands, coniferous
forests and woodlands, and riparian and mountain
shrub communities. It occurs on floodplains, along
streams, in ravines and washes, by springs, and on
mountain slopes, at elevations of about 800–2600
meters. It is generally an early to mid-seral species in
western coniferous forests. Var. villosum occurs on
cliffs, rocky slopes, ravines, bluffs, open hillside, and
thicket margins, often in sandy habitats. Golden
currant is somewhat shade tolerant and may grow in
open, scattered, and dense pine stands, but it is
usually suppressed by a denser canopy.
Flowering (March–)April–June, just after appearance
of the leaves. fruiting (May–)June–August.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Plants of Ribes generally begin fruiting after 3 years.
Seeds may remain viable in the soil and duff for
many years. Germination is enhanced by
scarification, but relatively good germination of
golden currant seeds was obtained by stratification at
-2.2–2.2 degrees C for 60 days without scarification.
Golden currant transplants well and forms suckers.
Plants can also be grown from cuttings. It reproduces
vegetatively by rhizomes, sprouting after cutting and
fire.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Golden currant can be used to re-vegetate roadsides
and disturbed areas, such as mine spoils and
rangeland. It is rated mostly good in initial
establishment, growth rate. persistence, germination,
seed production, ease of planting, and natural spread.
It tolerates shearing and may be used on dry, exposed
sites in a range of soil types, and it is a good soil
stabilizer.
Golden currant is an alternate host for white pine
blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). this and other
species of Ribes have been targets of various
eradication efforts where white pine is of commercial
interest. Please check the PLANTS Profile for this
plant for links to additional information.
Fire top-kills golden currant, but it can survive low-
to moderate-severity fire by sprouting from rhizomes.
Such fires also scarify soil-stored seed and enhance
germination. Severe fire probably kills golden
currant and may destroy soil-stored seeds.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. One cultivar (‘Crandall’) has
been referred to as ".the North Country s answer to
Forsythia.". Other horticultural selections have been
made for hardiness, flower color and density, and
fruit taste and size.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Conrad, C. E. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral
and associated ecosystems of southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. USDA, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Berkeley, California.
Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of
native shrubs. IN: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The
challenge of producing native plants for the
Intermountain area. Proceedings, Intermountain
Nurseryman s Association conference. Las Vegas,
NV, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
Winkler, G. 1987 (rev. K.A. Marshall 1995) Ribes
aureum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire
effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station,
Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,
Montana.
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='riaua';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN CURRANT
Ribes aureum Pursh var.
gracillimum (Coville &. Britt.)
Jepson
Plant Symbol = RIAUG
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
currants (Ribes species) for making pemmican. The
Kiowa Indians believed that snakes were afraid of the
currant bush and used it as a snakebite remedy.
Other tribes have used the fruits to color clay pots.
Conservation: The fragrant (clove odor), golden-
yellow flowers of spring, yellowish to red fall
foliage, edible fruits, and wide ecological range make
golden currant a valued ornamental shrub for a
variety of natural landscapes. Golden currant is
easily cultivated from seed or cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Currant family (Grossulariaceae). A native
shrub 1-3 m tall, spineless, with numerous, erect-
arching branches forming an irregular crown up to 6
meters tall or more. bark gray to red-brown.
rhizomatous. Leaves deciduous, light green and
glossy, alternate or clustered, orbicular or cuneate-
ovate with 3-5 rounded lobes, (0.6-)1-2.5(4.7) cm
long and wide, cuneate to subcordate at base,
glabrous or sometimes lightly hairy beneath. Flowers
in short racemes of 5-10(-15), with the fragrance of
cloves. long-tubed (from fused sepals) and trumpet-
shaped, with 5 yellow sepal lobes spreading at the
top, with 5, short, reddish petals inserted at the top of
the tube. Fruit a berry 6-10 mm diameter, globose to
ellipsoid, ripening from green to yellow to red and
finally black to dark purple, with numerous seeds.
The common name pertains to the conspicuous,
golden flowers. “currant” is the general name for
Ribes fruit.
Variation within the species: Ribes odoratum, often
considered a distinct species, recognized by its
considerably larger flowers, has been placed (re-
placed, as var. villosum) as the eastern segment of the
broader species.
Var. aureum – (golden currant)
Var. gracillimum (Coville &. Britt.) Jepson –
(golden currant)
Var. villosum DC. – (fragrant golden currant,
buffalo currant, clove currant)
synonym: Ribes odoratum H. Wendl.
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Buffalo currant, fragrant golden currant, golden
flowering currant, clove currant, spicebush
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Ribes species, including the golden
currant, are a valuable food source for songbirds,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, as well as numerous
wildlife species and other animals.
Ethnobotanic: The sweet and flavorful fruits are full
of seeds but are popular for making jam, jelly, pie,
and even ice cream. Some western Indian tribes used
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: Var. aureum is widespread in the
western US and southeastern Canada, with
populations in Ontario and perhaps Quebec, as far
south in the US as trans-Pecos Texas. Var.
gracillimum is endemic to California. Var. villosum
in the central US, from western Texas to Montana
and eastward to New York and Vermont. it is absent
from the Atlantic seaboard. The species is
naturalized in Europe from garden escapes. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Golden currant grows in grasslands, coniferous
forests and woodlands, and riparian and mountain
shrub communities. It occurs on floodplains, along
streams, in ravines and washes, by springs, and on
mountain slopes, at elevations of about 800–2600
meters. It is generally an early to mid-seral species in
western coniferous forests. Var. villosum occurs on
cliffs, rocky slopes, ravines, bluffs, open hillside, and
thicket margins, often in sandy habitats. Golden
currant is somewhat shade tolerant and may grow in
open, scattered, and dense pine stands, but it is
usually suppressed by a denser canopy.
Flowering (March–)April–June, just after appearance
of the leaves. fruiting (May–)June–August.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Plants of Ribes generally begin fruiting after 3 years.
Seeds may remain viable in the soil and duff for
many years. Germination is enhanced by
scarification, but relatively good germination of
golden currant seeds was obtained by stratification at
-2.2–2.2 degrees C for 60 days without scarification.
Golden currant transplants well and forms suckers.
Plants can also be grown from cuttings. It reproduces
vegetatively by rhizomes, sprouting after cutting and
fire.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Golden currant can be used to re-vegetate roadsides
and disturbed areas, such as mine spoils and
rangeland. It is rated mostly good in initial
establishment, growth rate. persistence, germination,
seed production, ease of planting, and natural spread.
It tolerates shearing and may be used on dry, exposed
sites in a range of soil types, and it is a good soil
stabilizer.
Golden currant is an alternate host for white pine
blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). this and other
species of Ribes have been targets of various
eradication efforts where white pine is of commercial
interest. Please check the PLANTS Profile for this
plant for links to additional information.
Fire top-kills golden currant, but it can survive low-
to moderate-severity fire by sprouting from rhizomes.
Such fires also scarify soil-stored seed and enhance
germination. Severe fire probably kills golden
currant and may destroy soil-stored seeds.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. One cultivar (‘Crandall’) has
been referred to as ".the North Country s answer to
Forsythia.". Other horticultural selections have been
made for hardiness, flower color and density, and
fruit taste and size.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Conrad, C. E. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral
and associated ecosystems of southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. USDA, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Berkeley, California.
Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of
native shrubs. IN: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The
challenge of producing native plants for the
Intermountain area. Proceedings, Intermountain
Nurseryman s Association conference. Las Vegas,
NV, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
Winkler, G. 1987 (rev. K.A. Marshall 1995) Ribes
aureum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire
effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station,
Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,
Montana.
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='riaug';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN CURRANT
Ribes aureum Pursh var.
villosum DC.
Plant Symbol = RIAUV
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Kiowa Indians believed that snakes were afraid of the
currant bush and used it as a snakebite remedy.
Other tribes have used the fruits to color clay pots.
Conservation: The fragrant (clove odor), golden-
yellow flowers of spring, yellowish to red fall
foliage, edible fruits, and wide ecological range make
golden currant a valued ornamental shrub for a
variety of natural landscapes. Golden currant is
easily cultivated from seed or cuttings.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Currant family (Grossulariaceae). A native
shrub 1-3 m tall, spineless, with numerous, erect-
arching branches forming an irregular crown up to 6
meters tall or more. bark gray to red-brown.
rhizomatous. Leaves deciduous, light green and
glossy, alternate or clustered, orbicular or cuneate-
ovate with 3-5 rounded lobes, (0.6-)1-2.5(4.7) cm
long and wide, cuneate to subcordate at base,
glabrous or sometimes lightly hairy beneath. Flowers
in short racemes of 5-10(-15), with the fragrance of
cloves. long-tubed (from fused sepals) and trumpet-
shaped, with 5 yellow sepal lobes spreading at the
top, with 5, short, reddish petals inserted at the top of
the tube. Fruit a berry 6-10 mm diameter, globose to
ellipsoid, ripening from green to yellow to red and
finally black to dark purple, with numerous seeds.
The common name pertains to the conspicuous,
golden flowers. “currant” is the general name for
Ribes fruit.
Variation within the species: Ribes odoratum, often
considered a distinct species, recognized by its
considerably larger flowers, has been placed (re-
placed, as var. villosum) as the eastern segment of the
broader species.
Var. aureum – (golden currant)
Var. gracillimum (Coville &. Britt.) Jepson –
(golden currant)
Var. villosum DC. – (fragrant golden currant,
buffalo currant, clove currant)
synonym: Ribes odoratum H. Wendl.
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Buffalo currant, fragrant golden currant, golden
flowering currant, clove currant, spicebush
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Ribes species, including the golden
currant, are a valuable food source for songbirds,
chipmunks, ground squirrels, as well as numerous
wildlife species and other animals.
Ethnobotanic: The sweet and flavorful fruits are full
of seeds but are popular for making jam, jelly, pie,
and even ice cream. Some western Indian tribes used
currants (Ribes species) for making pemmican. The
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: Var. aureum is widespread in the
western US and southeastern Canada, with
populations in Ontario and perhaps Quebec, as far
south in the US as trans-Pecos Texas. Var.
gracillimum is endemic to California. Var. villosum
in the central US, from western Texas to Montana
and eastward to New York and Vermont. it is absent
from the Atlantic seaboard. The species is
naturalized in Europe from garden escapes. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Golden currant grows in grasslands, coniferous
forests and woodlands, and riparian and mountain
shrub communities. It occurs on floodplains, along
streams, in ravines and washes, by springs, and on
mountain slopes, at elevations of about 800–2600
meters. It is generally an early to mid-seral species in
western coniferous forests. Var. villosum occurs on
cliffs, rocky slopes, ravines, bluffs, open hillside, and
thicket margins, often in sandy habitats. Golden
currant is somewhat shade tolerant and may grow in
open, scattered, and dense pine stands, but it is
usually suppressed by a denser canopy.
Flowering (March–)April–June, just after appearance
of the leaves. fruiting (May–)June–August.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Plants of Ribes generally begin fruiting after 3 years.
Seeds may remain viable in the soil and duff for
many years. Germination is enhanced by
scarification, but relatively good germination of
golden currant seeds was obtained by stratification at
-2.2–2.2 degrees C for 60 days without scarification.
Golden currant transplants well and forms suckers.
Plants can also be grown from cuttings. It reproduces
vegetatively by rhizomes, sprouting after cutting and
fire.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Golden currant can be used to re-vegetate roadsides
and disturbed areas, such as mine spoils and
rangeland. It is rated mostly good in initial
establishment, growth rate. persistence, germination,
seed production, ease of planting, and natural spread.
It tolerates shearing and may be used on dry, exposed
sites in a range of soil types, and it is a good soil
stabilizer.
Golden currant is an alternate host for white pine
blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). this and other
species of Ribes have been targets of various
eradication efforts where white pine is of commercial
interest. Please check the PLANTS Profile for this
plant for links to additional information.
Fire top-kills golden currant, but it can survive low-
to moderate-severity fire by sprouting from rhizomes.
Such fires also scarify soil-stored seed and enhance
germination. Severe fire probably kills golden
currant and may destroy soil-stored seeds.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. One cultivar (‘Crandall’) has
been referred to as ".the North Country s answer to
Forsythia.". Other horticultural selections have been
made for hardiness, flower color and density, and
fruit taste and size.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Conrad, C. E. 1987. Common shrubs of chaparral
and associated ecosystems of southern California.
Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-99. USDA, Forest Service,
Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Berkeley, California.
Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of
native shrubs. IN: P.M. Murphy (compiler). The
challenge of producing native plants for the
Intermountain area. Proceedings, Intermountain
Nurseryman s Association conference. Las Vegas,
NV, 1983. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. USDA, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah.
Wasser, C.H. 1982. Ecology and culture of selected
species useful in revegetating disturbed lands in the
West. FWS/OBS-82/56. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, DC.
Winkler, G. 1987 (rev. K.A. Marshall 1995) Ribes
aureum. IN: W.C. Fischer (compiler). The fire
effects information system [Data base]. USDA Forest
Service, Intermountain Research Station,
Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,
Montana.
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Page 3
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='riauv';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
VIRGINIA ROSE
Rosa virginiana P. Mill.
Plant Symbol = ROVI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913
Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada. Vol. 2: 285.
Courtesy of Kentucky Native Plant Society.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
pasture rose, wild rose, common wild rose
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The seed was a good source of vitamin
E, it was grounded into a powder and mixed with
flour or added to other foods as a supplement
(Facciola 1990). A decoction of the roots was used
as a bath and to treat worms in children (Moerman
1998). An infusion of the roots was used to treat
bleeding cuts on the feet and as a wash to treat sore
Plant Guide
eyes (Ibid.). The fruit served as a good source of
essential fatty acids, which is fairly rare for a fruit.
Medical: It is being investigated as a food that is
capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also
as a means of halting or reverting the growth of
cancer (Matthews 1994). The fruits are high in
vitamin C and may be eaten out of hand or used to
make preserves.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose family (Roseaceae). Virginia rose
(Rosa virginiana) is an upright shrub growing
between four to six feet tall. The glossy dark green
foliage develops excellent yellow to red fall color
(Dirr 1997). This species bears fragrant pink flowers
that are two to three-inches in diameter and occur in
clusters of five to eight.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution: Rosa virginiana ranges from Arkansas,
east to Alabama, north to Newfoundland and west to
Ontario (Vines 1960). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Virginia rose grows along the edges of salt marshes,
roadsides and in pastures. This species succeeds in
moist soils, growing well in heavy clayey soils. It
prefers a sunny position and does well under winter
conditions. This is an outstanding ornamental shrub
that is easy to grow.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Most rose seeds often take one
to two years to germinate because of an immature
embryo and a hardened seed coat. To reduce the
waiting period, scarify the seed and place in damp
peat at a temperature of 27 to 32ºC for four to five
months by which the seed should began to germinate.
Place the seedlings into individual pots when they are
large enough to handle. Out plant seedling in the
summer if the plants are more than twenty-five
centimeters tall, otherwise grow in a cold frame for
the winter and out plant in late spring.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Riotte, L. 1978. Companion planting for successful
gardening. Garden Way, Vermont.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 10sep03. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Pruning should be done to remove spent blooms and
diseased areas after winter for winter injury, and to
shape a plant.
Roses are one of the most susceptible ornamentals to
most pests and require control from intensive IPM
control programs.
Beneath the flesh of the fruit, there is a layer of hairs
around the seeds that can cause irritation to the mouth
and digestive tract if ingested.
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are somewhat available through native
plant nurseries. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rovi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dirr, M. A. &. C. W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia - a source book of
edible plants. Kampong Publications.
Genders, R. 1994. Scented flora of world. Robert
Hall, London.
Grimm, W.C. 1970. Home guide to trees, shrubs,
and wildflowers. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Matthews, V. 1994. The new plantsman. Vol. 1.
Royal Horticultural Society.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. The MacMillan
Company, New York, New York.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
bleeding cuts on the feet and as a wash to treat sore
eyes (Ibid.). The fruit served as a good source of
essential fatty acids, which is fairly rare for a fruit.
Medical: It is being investigated as a food that is
capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also
as a means of halting or reverting the growth of
cancer (Matthews 1994). The fruits are high in
vitamin C and may be eaten out of hand or used to
make preserves.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose family (Roseaceae). Virginia rose
(Rosa virginiana) is an upright shrub growing
between four to six feet tall. The glossy dark green
foliage develops excellent yellow to red fall color
(Dirr 1997). This species bears fragrant pink flowers
that are two to three-inches in diameter and occur in
clusters of five to eight.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution: Rosa virginiana ranges from Arkansas,
east to Alabama, north to Newfoundland and west to
Ontario (Vines 1960). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Virginia rose grows along the edges of salt marshes,
roadsides and in pastures. This species succeeds in
moist soils, growing well in heavy clayey soils. It
prefers a sunny position and does well under winter
conditions. This is an outstanding ornamental shrub
that is easy to grow.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Most rose seeds often take one
to two years to germinate because of an immature
embryo and a hardened seed coat. To reduce the
waiting period, scarify the seed and place in damp
peat at a temperature of 27 to 32ºC for four to five
months by which the seed should began to germinate.
Place the seedlings into individual pots when they are
large enough to handle. Out plant seedling in the
summer if the plants are more than twenty-five
centimeters tall, otherwise grow in a cold frame for
the winter and out plant in late spring.
VIRGINIA ROSE
Rosa virginiana P. Mill. var.
lamprophylla (Rydb.) Fern.
Plant Symbol = ROVIL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913
Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada. Vol. 2: 285.
Courtesy of Kentucky Native Plant Society.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
pasture rose, wild rose, common wild rose
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The seed was a good source of vitamin
E, it was grounded into a powder and mixed with
flour or added to other foods as a supplement
(Facciola 1990). A decoction of the roots was used
as a bath and to treat worms in children (Moerman
1998). An infusion of the roots was used to treat
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. The MacMillan
Company, New York, New York.
Riotte, L. 1978. Companion planting for successful
gardening. Garden Way, Vermont.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 10sep03. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Pruning should be done to remove spent blooms and
diseased areas after winter for winter injury, and to
shape a plant.
Roses are one of the most susceptible ornamentals to
most pests and require control from intensive IPM
control programs.
Beneath the flesh of the fruit, there is a layer of hairs
around the seeds that can cause irritation to the mouth
and digestive tract if ingested.
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are somewhat available through native
plant nurseries. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rovil';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dirr, M. A. &. C. W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia - a source book of
edible plants. Kampong Publications.
Genders, R. 1994. Scented flora of world. Robert
Hall, London.
Grimm, W.C. 1970. Home guide to trees, shrubs,
and wildflowers. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Matthews, V. 1994. The new plantsman. Vol. 1.
Royal Horticultural Society.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
VIRGINIA ROSE
Rosa virginiana P. Mill. var.
virginiana
Plant Symbol = ROVIV2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
bleeding cuts on the feet and as a wash to treat sore
eyes (Ibid.). The fruit served as a good source of
essential fatty acids, which is fairly rare for a fruit.
Medical: It is being investigated as a food that is
capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and also
as a means of halting or reverting the growth of
cancer (Matthews 1994). The fruits are high in
vitamin C and may be eaten out of hand or used to
make preserves.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose family (Roseaceae). Virginia rose
(Rosa virginiana) is an upright shrub growing
between four to six feet tall. The glossy dark green
foliage develops excellent yellow to red fall color
(Dirr 1997). This species bears fragrant pink flowers
that are two to three-inches in diameter and occur in
clusters of five to eight.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Distribution: Rosa virginiana ranges from Arkansas,
east to Alabama, north to Newfoundland and west to
Ontario (Vines 1960). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Virginia rose grows along the edges of salt marshes,
roadsides and in pastures. This species succeeds in
moist soils, growing well in heavy clayey soils. It
prefers a sunny position and does well under winter
conditions. This is an outstanding ornamental shrub
that is easy to grow.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Most rose seeds often take one
to two years to germinate because of an immature
embryo and a hardened seed coat. To reduce the
waiting period, scarify the seed and place in damp
peat at a temperature of 27 to 32ºC for four to five
months by which the seed should began to germinate.
Place the seedlings into individual pots when they are
large enough to handle. Out plant seedling in the
summer if the plants are more than twenty-five
centimeters tall, otherwise grow in a cold frame for
the winter and out plant in late spring.
Britton, N.L., and A. Brown. 1913
Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada. Vol. 2: 285.
Courtesy of Kentucky Native Plant Society.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
pasture rose, wild rose, common wild rose
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The seed was a good source of vitamin
E, it was grounded into a powder and mixed with
flour or added to other foods as a supplement
(Facciola 1990). A decoction of the roots was used
as a bath and to treat worms in children (Moerman
1998). An infusion of the roots was used to treat
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. The MacMillan
Company, New York, New York.
Riotte, L. 1978. Companion planting for successful
gardening. Garden Way, Vermont.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 10sep03. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Pruning should be done to remove spent blooms and
diseased areas after winter for winter injury, and to
shape a plant.
Roses are one of the most susceptible ornamentals to
most pests and require control from intensive IPM
control programs.
Beneath the flesh of the fruit, there is a layer of hairs
around the seeds that can cause irritation to the mouth
and digestive tract if ingested.
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are somewhat available through native
plant nurseries. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='roviv2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dirr, M. A. &. C. W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia - a source book of
edible plants. Kampong Publications.
Genders, R. 1994. Scented flora of world. Robert
Hall, London.
Grimm, W.C. 1970. Home guide to trees, shrubs,
and wildflowers. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Matthews, V. 1994. The new plantsman. Vol. 1.
Royal Horticultural Society.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
WOODS’ ROSE
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var.
glabrata (Parish) Cole
Plant Symbol = ROWOG
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J. Scott Peterson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
teas, jellies, fruitcakes, and puddings. The inner bark
and roots were boiled to treat diarrhea and stomach
aliments and a tea was made from the bark to treat
muscles.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Rose family (Rosaceae). Native subshrubs or shrubs
growing 0.2-2(-3) m high, rhizomatous, with shallow,
frequently branching fibrous roots, sometimes
forming nearly impenetrable thickets. stems reddish-
brown to gray, with straight or slightly curved
prickles. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, odd-
pinnately compound, leaflets 5-7(-11), obovate to
ovate or elliptic, ca. 1.5-3(-4) cm long, finely toothed
toward the tip. Flowers occur on branches lateral
from the old wood, 10-20 cm long, few in a cluster at
the stem tip, less commonly solitary. petals 5, (10-
)15-25 mm long, pink to lilac-pink, or lavender.
sepals lanceolate, 1-2 cm long, erect and usually
persistent, tomentose on the margins and inner
surface. Fruit is a fleshy, red, globose to ellipsoid
“hip” 5-12 mm wide, derived from the base of the
sepals and petals. nutlets 15-35, 3-4 mm long.
Named for Joseph Woods, 1776-1864, an early
English student of roses.
Variation within the species: many variants have
been described, and the species now includes many
roses previously described as species. The following
varieties are sometimes now recognized (Cronquist &.
Holmgren 1997) but they are combined as a single
variable species by others (e.g., Ertter 1993 in The
Jepson Manual).
Rosa woodsii var. glabrata (Parish) Cole – CA
Rosa woodsii var. gratissima (Greene) Cole – CA
and NV
Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana (S. Wats.) Jepson
Rosa woodsii var. woodsii
Woods’ rose forms natural hybrids with R. acicularis
Lindl., R. arkansana Porter, R. blanda Ait., and
probably others.
Woods’ rose is recognized among many similar
species of rose by its combination of shrubby,
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common wild rose, wild rose, mountain rose
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Woods’ rose are a good source of
energy and protein and are eaten by many animals,
including squirrels, deer, coyotes, and bears. Many
birds and mammals are sustained by the persistent
dry hips when the ground is covered with snow. The
plants are browsed by livestock and big game from
spring through fall, but the young spring leaves are
especially palatable. Porcupines and beavers also
browse the leaves. Thickets formed by Woods’ rose
provide nesting and escape cover for many birds and
small mammals.
Conservation: The rhizome system makes Woods’
rose effective in erosion control, and the species has
been used to revegetate disturbed sites along road
cuts, streambanks, and seeps. Plants are used as
ornamentals near homes to attract birds and other
wildlife.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Woods’ rose for
foods and therapeutic materials. The hips are a
source of vitamin C and are dried for use in flavoring
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
thicket-forming habit, stems with straight prickles,
and leaves and sepals without glands.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Widely distributed over western North America, from
Ontario and Manitoba, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Iowa, south to Texas and northern Mexico, west to
California and Alaska through every other western
state and province. Var. woodsii (see below) occurs
in Alaska and Yukon but no other provinces or states
bordering the Pacific. var. ultamontana is the far-
western entity, sometimes regarded as including var.
glabrata (California endemic) and var. gratissima
(California and Nevada). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Woods’ rose is commonly a dominant species on
riparian and wetland sites, but it is adapted to a broad
range of moisture conditions. It is common in
various regions as a pioneer on disturbed sites,
especially along roadsides and south-facing cutbanks.
It occurs on bluffs, dry grassy slopes, prairie
sandhills, and in clearings in boreal and subalpine
forests or sometimes as an understory species in
stands dominated by cottonwood, ponderosa pine,
and Douglas fir. Moderate shade-tolerance allows it
to persist as an understory species in mid-seral to
climax communities. at elevations of 800-3500
meters. Flowering June-August. fruiting August and
into the fall, the hips remaining on the plant through
the winter.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Woods’ rose produces flowers and fruits at about 2-5
years of age. Good crops are usually produced every
2 years. Birds and mammals eat the fruits and
disperse the seeds in droppings. The seeds remain
viable for 2-5 years, and after warm or cold
stratification, they germinate within 30 to 40 days.
Woods’ rose also reproduces through rhizomes, root
crown sprouts, and layering. Establishment for
ornament or rehabilitation is from transplants,
hardwood cuttings, and direct seeding.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire of low- to moderate-severity typically top-kills
Woods’ rose, but sprouts from root crowns and
rhizomes enable it to persist or even increase. The
shallow root crowns are injured by severe fire and
populations consequently may decrease in vitality
and abundance. Reproduction from seed is rarely
observed after fire, and seedling growth rate in a
burned area may be slow.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Blauer, A.C., A.P. Plummer, E.D. McArthur [and
others] 1975. Characteristics and hybridization of
important Intermountain shrubs. I. Rose family.
Res. Pap. INT-169. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah.
Cronquist, A. and N.H. Holmgren 1997. Rosa. Pp.
134-140, IN: Intermountain flora. Vol. 3, Part A.
Subclass Rosidae (except Fabales). New York Bot.
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Tesky, J.L. 1992. Rosa woodsii. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences
Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rowog';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Bc/o
Plant Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page 3
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
TEHACHAPI ROSE
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var.
gratissima (Greene) Cole
Plant Symbol = ROWOG2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J. Scott Peterson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
teas, jellies, fruitcakes, and puddings. The inner bark
and roots were boiled to treat diarrhea and stomach
aliments and a tea was made from the bark to treat
muscles.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Rose family (Rosaceae). Native subshrubs or shrubs
growing 0.2-2(-3) m high, rhizomatous, with shallow,
frequently branching fibrous roots, sometimes
forming nearly impenetrable thickets. stems reddish-
brown to gray, with straight or slightly curved
prickles. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, odd-
pinnately compound, leaflets 5-7(-11), obovate to
ovate or elliptic, ca. 1.5-3(-4) cm long, finely toothed
toward the tip. Flowers occur on branches lateral
from the old wood, 10-20 cm long, few in a cluster at
the stem tip, less commonly solitary. petals 5, (10-
)15-25 mm long, pink to lilac-pink, or lavender.
sepals lanceolate, 1-2 cm long, erect and usually
persistent, tomentose on the margins and inner
surface. Fruit is a fleshy, red, globose to ellipsoid
“hip” 5-12 mm wide, derived from the base of the
sepals and petals. nutlets 15-35, 3-4 mm long.
Named for Joseph Woods, 1776-1864, an early
English student of roses.
Variation within the species: many variants have
been described, and the species now includes many
roses previously described as species. The following
varieties are sometimes now recognized (Cronquist &.
Holmgren 1997) but they are combined as a single
variable species by others (e.g., Ertter 1993 in The
Jepson Manual).
Rosa woodsii var. glabrata (Parish) Cole – CA
Rosa woodsii var. gratissima (Greene) Cole – CA
and NV
Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana (S. Wats.) Jepson
Rosa woodsii var. woodsii
Woods’ rose forms natural hybrids with R. acicularis
Lindl., R. arkansana Porter, R. blanda Ait., and
probably others.
Woods’ rose is recognized among many similar
species of rose by its combination of shrubby,
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common wild rose, wild rose, mountain rose
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Woods’ rose are a good source of
energy and protein and are eaten by many animals,
including squirrels, deer, coyotes, and bears. Many
birds and mammals are sustained by the persistent
dry hips when the ground is covered with snow. The
plants are browsed by livestock and big game from
spring through fall, but the young spring leaves are
especially palatable. Porcupines and beavers also
browse the leaves. Thickets formed by Woods’ rose
provide nesting and escape cover for many birds and
small mammals.
Conservation: The rhizome system makes Woods’
rose effective in erosion control, and the species has
been used to revegetate disturbed sites along road
cuts, streambanks, and seeps. Plants are used as
ornamentals near homes to attract birds and other
wildlife.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Woods’ rose for
foods and therapeutic materials. The hips are a
source of vitamin C and are dried for use in flavoring
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
thicket-forming habit, stems with straight prickles,
and leaves and sepals without glands.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Widely distributed over western North America, from
Ontario and Manitoba, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Iowa, south to Texas and northern Mexico, west to
California and Alaska through every other western
state and province. Var. woodsii (see below) occurs
in Alaska and Yukon but no other provinces or states
bordering the Pacific. var. ultamontana is the far-
western entity, sometimes regarded as including var.
glabrata (California endemic) and var. gratissima
(California and Nevada). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Woods’ rose is commonly a dominant species on
riparian and wetland sites, but it is adapted to a broad
range of moisture conditions. It is common in
various regions as a pioneer on disturbed sites,
especially along roadsides and south-facing cutbanks.
It occurs on bluffs, dry grassy slopes, prairie
sandhills, and in clearings in boreal and subalpine
forests or sometimes as an understory species in
stands dominated by cottonwood, ponderosa pine,
and Douglas fir. Moderate shade-tolerance allows it
to persist as an understory species in mid-seral to
climax communities. at elevations of 800-3500
meters. Flowering June-August. fruiting August and
into the fall, the hips remaining on the plant through
the winter.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Woods’ rose produces flowers and fruits at about 2-5
years of age. Good crops are usually produced every
2 years. Birds and mammals eat the fruits and
disperse the seeds in droppings. The seeds remain
viable for 2-5 years, and after warm or cold
stratification, they germinate within 30 to 40 days.
Woods’ rose also reproduces through rhizomes, root
crown sprouts, and layering. Establishment for
ornament or rehabilitation is from transplants,
hardwood cuttings, and direct seeding.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire of low- to moderate-severity typically top-kills
Woods’ rose, but sprouts from root crowns and
rhizomes enable it to persist or even increase. The
shallow root crowns are injured by severe fire and
populations consequently may decrease in vitality
and abundance. Reproduction from seed is rarely
observed after fire, and seedling growth rate in a
burned area may be slow.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Blauer, A.C., A.P. Plummer, E.D. McArthur [and
others] 1975. Characteristics and hybridization of
important Intermountain shrubs. I. Rose family.
Res. Pap. INT-169. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah.
Cronquist, A. and N.H. Holmgren 1997. Rosa. Pp.
134-140, IN: Intermountain flora. Vol. 3, Part A.
Subclass Rosidae (except Fabales). New York Bot.
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Tesky, J.L. 1992. Rosa woodsii. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences
Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rowog2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Bc/o
Plant Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page 3
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WOODS’ ROSE
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var.
ultramontana (S. Wats.)
Jepson
Plant Symbol = ROWOU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J. Scott Peterson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
foods and therapeutic materials. The hips are a
source of vitamin C and are dried for use in flavoring
teas, jellies, fruitcakes, and puddings. The inner bark
and roots were boiled to treat diarrhea and stomach
aliments and a tea was made from the bark to treat
muscles.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Rose family (Rosaceae). Native subshrubs or shrubs
growing 0.2-2(-3) m high, rhizomatous, with shallow,
frequently branching fibrous roots, sometimes
forming nearly impenetrable thickets. stems reddish-
brown to gray, with straight or slightly curved
prickles. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, odd-
pinnately compound, leaflets 5-7(-11), obovate to
ovate or elliptic, ca. 1.5-3(-4) cm long, finely toothed
toward the tip. Flowers occur on branches lateral
from the old wood, 10-20 cm long, few in a cluster at
the stem tip, less commonly solitary. petals 5, (10-
)15-25 mm long, pink to lilac-pink, or lavender.
sepals lanceolate, 1-2 cm long, erect and usually
persistent, tomentose on the margins and inner
surface. Fruit is a fleshy, red, globose to ellipsoid
“hip” 5-12 mm wide, derived from the base of the
sepals and petals. nutlets 15-35, 3-4 mm long.
Named for Joseph Woods, 1776-1864, an early
English student of roses.
Variation within the species: many variants have
been described, and the species now includes many
roses previously described as species. The following
varieties are sometimes now recognized (Cronquist &.
Holmgren 1997) but they are combined as a single
variable species by others (e.g., Ertter 1993 in The
Jepson Manual).
Rosa woodsii var. glabrata (Parish) Cole – CA
Rosa woodsii var. gratissima (Greene) Cole – CA
and NV
Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana (S. Wats.) Jepson
Rosa woodsii var. woodsii
Woods’ rose forms natural hybrids with R. acicularis
Lindl., R. arkansana Porter, R. blanda Ait., and
probably others.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common wild rose, wild rose, mountain rose
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Woods’ rose are a good source of
energy and protein and are eaten by many animals,
including squirrels, deer, coyotes, and bears. Many
birds and mammals are sustained by the persistent
dry hips when the ground is covered with snow. The
plants are browsed by livestock and big game from
spring through fall, but the young spring leaves are
especially palatable. Porcupines and beavers also
browse the leaves. Thickets formed by Woods’ rose
provide nesting and escape cover for many birds and
small mammals.
Conservation: The rhizome system makes Woods’
rose effective in erosion control, and the species has
been used to revegetate disturbed sites along road
cuts, streambanks, and seeps. Plants are used as
ornamentals near homes to attract birds and other
wildlife.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Woods’ rose for
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Woods’ rose is recognized among many similar
species of rose by its combination of shrubby,
thicket-forming habit, stems with straight prickles,
and leaves and sepals without glands.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Widely distributed over western North America, from
Ontario and Manitoba, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Iowa, south to Texas and northern Mexico, west to
California and Alaska through every other western
state and province. Var. woodsii (see below) occurs
in Alaska and Yukon but no other provinces or states
bordering the Pacific. var. ultamontana is the far-
western entity, sometimes regarded as including var.
glabrata (California endemic) and var. gratissima
(California and Nevada). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Woods’ rose is commonly a dominant species on
riparian and wetland sites, but it is adapted to a broad
range of moisture conditions. It is common in
various regions as a pioneer on disturbed sites,
especially along roadsides and south-facing cutbanks.
It occurs on bluffs, dry grassy slopes, prairie
sandhills, and in clearings in boreal and subalpine
forests or sometimes as an understory species in
stands dominated by cottonwood, ponderosa pine,
and Douglas fir. Moderate shade-tolerance allows it
to persist as an understory species in mid-seral to
climax communities. at elevations of 800-3500
meters. Flowering June-August. fruiting August and
into the fall, the hips remaining on the plant through
the winter.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Woods’ rose produces flowers and fruits at about 2-5
years of age. Good crops are usually produced every
2 years. Birds and mammals eat the fruits and
disperse the seeds in droppings. The seeds remain
viable for 2-5 years, and after warm or cold
stratification, they germinate within 30 to 40 days.
Woods’ rose also reproduces through rhizomes, root
crown sprouts, and layering. Establishment for
ornament or rehabilitation is from transplants,
hardwood cuttings, and direct seeding.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire of low- to moderate-severity typically top-kills
Woods’ rose, but sprouts from root crowns and
rhizomes enable it to persist or even increase. The
shallow root crowns are injured by severe fire and
populations consequently may decrease in vitality
and abundance. Reproduction from seed is rarely
observed after fire, and seedling growth rate in a
burned area may be slow.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Blauer, A.C., A.P. Plummer, E.D. McArthur [and
others] 1975. Characteristics and hybridization of
important Intermountain shrubs. I. Rose family.
Res. Pap. INT-169. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah.
Cronquist, A. and N.H. Holmgren 1997. Rosa. Pp.
134-140, IN: Intermountain flora. Vol. 3, Part A.
Subclass Rosidae (except Fabales). New York Bot.
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Tesky, J.L. 1992. Rosa woodsii. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences
Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rowou';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Bc/o
Plant Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
Page 3
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WOODS’ ROSE
Rosa woodsii Lindl. var.
woodsii
Plant Symbol = ROWOW
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J. Scott Peterson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
teas, jellies, fruitcakes, and puddings. The inner bark
and roots were boiled to treat diarrhea and stomach
aliments and a tea was made from the bark to treat
muscles.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Rose family (Rosaceae). Native subshrubs or shrubs
growing 0.2-2(-3) m high, rhizomatous, with shallow,
frequently branching fibrous roots, sometimes
forming nearly impenetrable thickets. stems reddish-
brown to gray, with straight or slightly curved
prickles. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, odd-
pinnately compound, leaflets 5-7(-11), obovate to
ovate or elliptic, ca. 1.5-3(-4) cm long, finely toothed
toward the tip. Flowers occur on branches lateral
from the old wood, 10-20 cm long, few in a cluster at
the stem tip, less commonly solitary. petals 5, (10-
)15-25 mm long, pink to lilac-pink, or lavender.
sepals lanceolate, 1-2 cm long, erect and usually
persistent, tomentose on the margins and inner
surface. Fruit is a fleshy, red, globose to ellipsoid
“hip” 5-12 mm wide, derived from the base of the
sepals and petals. nutlets 15-35, 3-4 mm long.
Named for Joseph Woods, 1776-1864, an early
English student of roses.
Variation within the species: many variants have
been described, and the species now includes many
roses previously described as species. The following
varieties are sometimes now recognized (Cronquist &.
Holmgren 1997) but they are combined as a single
variable species by others (e.g., Ertter 1993 in The
Jepson Manual).
Rosa woodsii var. glabrata (Parish) Cole – CA
Rosa woodsii var. gratissima (Greene) Cole – CA
and NV
Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana (S. Wats.) Jepson
Rosa woodsii var. woodsii
Woods’ rose forms natural hybrids with R. acicularis
Lindl., R. arkansana Porter, R. blanda Ait., and
probably others.
Woods’ rose is recognized among many similar
species of rose by its combination of shrubby,
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common wild rose, wild rose, mountain rose
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Wildlife: Fruits of Woods’ rose are a good source of
energy and protein and are eaten by many animals,
including squirrels, deer, coyotes, and bears. Many
birds and mammals are sustained by the persistent
dry hips when the ground is covered with snow. The
plants are browsed by livestock and big game from
spring through fall, but the young spring leaves are
especially palatable. Porcupines and beavers also
browse the leaves. Thickets formed by Woods’ rose
provide nesting and escape cover for many birds and
small mammals.
Conservation: The rhizome system makes Woods’
rose effective in erosion control, and the species has
been used to revegetate disturbed sites along road
cuts, streambanks, and seeps. Plants are used as
ornamentals near homes to attract birds and other
wildlife.
Ethnobotanic: Native Americans used the roots,
stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Woods’ rose for
foods and therapeutic materials. The hips are a
source of vitamin C and are dried for use in flavoring
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
thicket-forming habit, stems with straight prickles,
and leaves and sepals without glands.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Widely distributed over western North America, from
Ontario and Manitoba, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Iowa, south to Texas and northern Mexico, west to
California and Alaska through every other western
state and province. Var. woodsii (see below) occurs
in Alaska and Yukon but no other provinces or states
bordering the Pacific. var. ultamontana is the far-
western entity, sometimes regarded as including var.
glabrata (California endemic) and var. gratissima
(California and Nevada). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant Profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Woods’ rose is commonly a dominant species on
riparian and wetland sites, but it is adapted to a broad
range of moisture conditions. It is common in
various regions as a pioneer on disturbed sites,
especially along roadsides and south-facing cutbanks.
It occurs on bluffs, dry grassy slopes, prairie
sandhills, and in clearings in boreal and subalpine
forests or sometimes as an understory species in
stands dominated by cottonwood, ponderosa pine,
and Douglas fir. Moderate shade-tolerance allows it
to persist as an understory species in mid-seral to
climax communities. at elevations of 800-3500
meters. Flowering June-August. fruiting August and
into the fall, the hips remaining on the plant through
the winter.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Woods’ rose produces flowers and fruits at about 2-5
years of age. Good crops are usually produced every
2 years. Birds and mammals eat the fruits and
disperse the seeds in droppings. The seeds remain
viable for 2-5 years, and after warm or cold
stratification, they germinate within 30 to 40 days.
Woods’ rose also reproduces through rhizomes, root
crown sprouts, and layering. Establishment for
ornament or rehabilitation is from transplants,
hardwood cuttings, and direct seeding.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Fire of low- to moderate-severity typically top-kills
Woods’ rose, but sprouts from root crowns and
rhizomes enable it to persist or even increase. The
shallow root crowns are injured by severe fire and
populations consequently may decrease in vitality
and abundance. Reproduction from seed is rarely
observed after fire, and seedling growth rate in a
burned area may be slow.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Blauer, A.C., A.P. Plummer, E.D. McArthur [and
others] 1975. Characteristics and hybridization of
important Intermountain shrubs. I. Rose family.
Res. Pap. INT-169. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station,
Ogden, Utah.
Cronquist, A. and N.H. Holmgren 1997. Rosa. Pp.
134-140, IN: Intermountain flora. Vol. 3, Part A.
Subclass Rosidae (except Fabales). New York Bot.
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Tesky, J.L. 1992. Rosa woodsii. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain
Research Station, Intermountain Fire Sciences
Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='rowow';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Bc/o
Plant Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Page 3
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
AMERICAN RED
RASPBERRY
Rubus idaeus L.
Plant Symbol = RUID
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
raspberry, grayleaf red raspberry, red raspberry
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: A tea was made from the leaves and
used in the treatment of diarrhea and as an aid in
childbirth (Moerman 1998). The tea has also been
known to relieve painful menstrual cramps (Ibid.).
Externally, the leaves and roots are used as a gargle
to treat tonsillitis and mouth inflammations, sores,
minor wounds, burns and varicose ulcers (Brown
1995). Europeans in the 17th century regarded the
raspberries as an antispasmodic and they made a
syrup of the juice which they employed to prevent
vomiting (Readers Digest 1990). In the 18th century
physicians and herbalists deemed the berries useful as
a remedy for heart disease (Ibid). Red raspberries are
eaten fresh or in jams and jellies, or added to pies and
other baked goods, candies and dairy products to add
flavor. Purple to dull blue dye was obtained from the
fruit.
Wildlife: American red raspberry provides food and
cover for many wildlife species. Grouse, birds,
raccoons, coyotes, squirrels, skunks, and chipmunks
eat the fruits. Raspberry thickets provide shelter for
Plant Guide
rabbits and squirrels and service as a nesting spot for
many birds.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose family (Roseaceae). American red
raspberry is a native, deciduous shrub that grows up
to 1.5 meters high with biennial stems. The leaves
are pinnately compound, with three to five leaflets.
The flowers are white to greenish white, drooping,
single or in small grapelike clusters. The fruit is a
red raspberry, rounded, two centimeters long and
broad, maturing between July through September.
Distribution: American red raspberry is a native
North American species that grows across northern
Europe to northwestern Asia. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Rubus idaeus ssp. strigosus is frequently found along
the edges of swamps and bogs and is especially
commonly found after burnings, clearings, or other
disturbances. This species grows good in well-
drained loamy soil in a sunny location or in a semi-
shaded area. It tolerates a wide range of soil pH
texture and requires adequate soil moisture.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: American red raspberry seeds
are best sown in the early autumn in a cold frame.
Stored seeds should be stratified for one month at
3ºC. When the seedlings are large enough to handle
place them into individual pots and grow them in a
cold frame. Plant seedlings in their permanent
position in the late spring of the following year.
Propagation by Cuttings: hardwood cuttings can
propagate American red raspberry. Cuttings should
be propagated in a site out of full sun and sheltered
from drying winds (Heuser 1997). A slow release
fertilizer should be added to the rooting medium
where the cuttings will stay for a year before
transplanting.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Voss, E.G. 1985. Michigan flora. Part II.
Cranbrook Institute of Science Bulletin 59 &.
University of Michigan Herbarium.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are available through commercial nurseries.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='ruid';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bown, D. 1995. Encyclopedia of herbs and their
uses. Dorling Kindersley, London.
Britton, N.L. &. A. Brown 1970. An illustrated flora
of the northern United States and Canada. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Chevallier, A. 1996. The encyclopedia of medicinal
plants. Dorling Kindersley.
Epple, A.O. 1995. A field guide to the plants of
Arizona. Falcon Press, Helena, Montana.
Harrington, H.D. 1967. Edible native plants of the
Rocky Mountains. University of New Mexico Press,
New Mexico.
Heuser, C.W. Jr., 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. Taunton Press, Newtown, Connecticut.
Hitchock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist 1973. Flora of the
Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press,
Seattle &. London.
MacKinnon, A, J.Pojar, and R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of Northern British Columbia. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Readers Digest 1990. Magic &. medicine of plants.
The Readers Digest Association, Inc., Pleasantville,
New York.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. Ag. Handbook No. 14.
Washington, D.C.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SALMONBERRY
Rubus spectabilis Pursh
Plant Symbol = RUSP
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Oregon Plant Materials Center
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanical: Salmonberry fruits are edible, but
are considered too soft to dry. Both the large,
raspberry-like fruit and the young shoots were widely
eaten by coastal peoples of British Columbia and
western Washington. Fruits were an important food
source for Native Americans and are still collected
today. The berries are among the first to ripen, and
are a beautiful salmon color that stand out in the
generally rainy weather of spring. Large quantities of
fresh berries were picked and were often served at
feasts, usually with oil or ooligan grease, said to
prevent constipation. Today salmonberries are
frozen, canned, or made into jams and jellies.
The young growing sprouts are harvested from April
to early June. They are snapped off with the fingers
before they become woody, then peeled, and eaten
raw or, more commonly cooked by steaming or
boiling. Sprouts are also tied in bundles and pit-
cooked. They were usually eaten with seal oil or
ooligan grease, and, more recently, with sugar, often
as an accompaniment to dried salmon or meat. Some
Nuu-chah-nulth people boiled the leaves with fish as
a flavoring. The Kaigani Haida used the leaves to
line baskets, wipe fish, and cover food in steaming
pits.
Plant Guide
The Makah dry and peel a branch of salmonberry,
remove the pith, and use it for a pipe stem. The
Quileute plug the hair seal float used in whaling with
the hollow stem of elderberry wood, then insert a
piece of salmonberry wood as a stopper. This
salmonberry plug can be removed for further
inflation of the float.
Salmonberry has an astringent quality in the bark and
leaves. The Quileute chew the leaves and spit them
on burns, and in winter when the leaves are not
obtainable they use the bark instead. The Makah
pound the bark and lay it on an aching tooth or a
festering wound to kill the pain. The Quinault boil
the bark in seawater, and the brew is drank to lessen
labor pains and to clean infected wounds, especially
burns.
Wildlife: Salmonberry fruits, ripe from June to
August, rank at the very top of foods for wildlife.
The early blooming flowers, blossoming from March
to June, are an important nectar source for bees,
butterflies, various other insects, and hummingbirds.
The berries are relished by songbirds, bears, and
small mammals a much as they are enjoyed by
humans. Leaves, twigs, and stems are grazed by
browsers, such as deer, elk, and rabbits. The dense
thickets provide excellent escape habitats for birds
and small mammals, and nesting sites for songbirds.
Restoration: Salmonberry is a useful shrub in created
wetlands because it transplants easily, with good soil-
binding qualities once it is established, and is well
adapted to eroded or disturbed sites.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rose Family (Rosaceae). Salmonberry is a
deciduous rhizomatous shrub, usually 1-4 m tall, with
erect or arching stems. The stems are often densely
prickly on the upper portions of new growth. The
twigs in winter tend to have a distinctive golden-
brown to rust-red color. The flowers are large (about
1.5 inches across) and borne singly. Salmonberry
blooms in early spring with beautiful deep pink rose-
like flowers. The leaves are pinnately compound.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The fruits are raspberry-like, round, and yellow to
orange to deep red.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Salmonberry grows in moist places and
wetlands, and is especially abundant along
streamsides and riparian areas at elevations below
1400 m. It can form dense thickets or grow
individually. The range is from Alaska south to
northwestern California, from the coast to the
Cascades.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Salmonberry grows well in full or partial shade.
Cultivars are available in the horticultural trade.
These shrubs are good for stabilizing or restoring
degraded sites, and for slope stabilization and erosion
control. Salmonberry shrubs may become invasive
one they are established.
Live Plant Collections: Salmonberry is easily grown
from layering, basal sprouting, rhizomes, root
cuttings, and hardwood cuttings. Small offshoots
growing from the parent plant under four feet tall are
easily transplanted. Branches that touch the ground
tend to root, and they can be separated from the
parent plant. Pull the rooted tips of larger plants and
plant into one-gallon pots.
Hardwood cuttings should be 1-2.5 cm in diameter
and 45 cm or more in length with at least three nodes.
Rooting invariably occurs at the base of a cutting and
at nodes with leaf buds. Store hardwood cuttings
over winter in damp sawdust of peat moss. this
promotes callusing and prevents desiccation. As with
hardwood cuttings of other species, vigorous rooting
can be enhanced in Rubus species by using a liquid
rooting hormone and burying the cuttings in damp
wood shavings.
Seed Collections: Salmonberry can be grown from
fresh seed. Collect the fruits when ripe (they are
orange or red). Generally salmonberry fruits ripen
from June through August, and can be collected by
hand. Extract seeds by macerating in water and
floating off the pulp and empty seeds. Seed should
be planted in the fall. If seeds are to be stored, they
should be dried. Seeds will keep for several years at
5°C. A warm stratification of 20-30°C is necessary
for spring-sown seeds, although fall sowing provides
best germination. Germination is improved if seeds
are scarified with sulfuric acid for 20-60 minutes or
with a 1% solution of sodium hyperchlorite for seven
days prior to cold stratification. Seeds need 90 days
of cold stratification at 36° - 41°F to break seed
dormancy. Sow in ground in drills, cover lightly with
soil, and mulch over winter. Seeds per kilogram:
315,255
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional Resource Management: This includes the
following: 1) Occasional burning to stimulate new
growth. 2) pruning the branches after picking the
berries to stimulate new growth and fruit production
the next growing season. and 3) ownership of
salmonberry shrubs provides the basis for careful
tending and sustainable yield of valued resources.
This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available from some native plant nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Albright, M. 1996. Greenhouse manager. USDI,
National Park Service, Olympic National Park, Port
Angeles, Washington. Personal communication.
Angier, B. 1974. Field guide to edible wild plants.
Stackpole Books. 256 pp.
Brinkman, K.A. 1974. Rubus L. blackberry,
raspberry. IN: Schopmeyer, C.S. (tech. coord.) 1974.
Seeds of the Woody Plants in the United States.
USDA, FS, Agric. Handbook 450, Washington, D.C.
883 pp.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of Western Washington and
Northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Galloway, B. 1982. Upper Stollo ethnobotany.
Coqualeetza Education Training Center, Sardis,
British Columbia, Canada.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Page 3
Haeussler, S., D. Coates, &. J. Mather 1990.
Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A
literature review. British Columbia Ministry of
Forests. FRDA Report 158. 272 pp.
Heller, C.A. 1976. Wild edible and poisonous plant
of Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin F-
40, University of Alaska, College, Alaska.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Jacobs, M. &. M. Jacobs 1982. Southeast Alaska
native foods. IN : Hope. A., ed. Raven s Bones, Sitka,
Alaska.
Jensen, E.C., D.J. Anderson, J.C. Zasada, &. J.C.
Tappeiner II 1995. The reproductive ecology of
broad-leaved trees and shrubs: salmonberry, Rubus
spectabilis Pursh. Forest Research Laboratory,
Oregon State University, Research Publication 9e. 7
pp.
Kari, P.R. 1987. Tanaina plantlore. Dena ina
K et una. An ethnobotany of the Dena ina Indians of
south-central Alaska. USDI, National Park Service,
Alaska Region, Anchorage, Alaska.
King County Department of Public Works, Surface
Water Management Division 1994. Northwest native
plants, identification and propagation for
revegetation and restoration Projects. King County,
Washington.
Ksan, People of 1980. Gathering what the great
nature provided. Food traditions of the Gitksan.
Douglas &. McIntyre, Vancouver and University of
Washington Press, Seattle, Washington.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Leigh, M. August 1997. Grow your own native
landscape: A guide to identifying, propagating, and
landscaping with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Moser, C.L. 1993. Native American basketry of
southern California. Riverside Museum Press. 155
pp.
Norton, H.H. 1981. Plant use in Kaigani Haida
culture: correction of an ethnohistorical oversight.
Econ. Botany 35:434-449.
Port Simpson Curriculum Committee 1983. Port
Simpson foods. The People of Port Simpson and
School District No. 52, Prince Rupert, British
Columbia, Canada.
Randall, W.R., R.F. Keniston, D.N. Bever, &. E.C.
Jensen 1994. Manual of Oregon trees and shrubs.
Oregon State University Bookstore, Corvallis,
Oregon. 305 pp..
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D. Haase 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
Schopmeyer, C.S. (Tech. Coord.) 1974. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. USDA, Forest Service,
Washington, D.C.
Stevens, M. &. R. Vanbianchi 1993. Restoring
wetlands in Washington. A guidebook for wetland
restoration, planning and implementation.
Washington State Department of Ecology.
Publication #93-17.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24. 165 pp.
Page 4
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
99 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal Peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan &. S.
Hashisaki 1994. A citizen s guide to wetland
restoration. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 10. 71 pp.' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1974. Collecting,
processing, and germinating seeds of wildland
plants. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Corvallis,
Oregon
' WHERE symbol='rusp';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060809 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees
Plant Symbol = SAAL5
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
the pith of new sprouts. The pith from branches was
made into a decoction used to wash and dress burns.
Infusions of the plant were used to treat lower chest
pain, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, constipation and
diarrhea. The bark was used as an emetic
purification after funeral ceremonies. Bark infusions
were given to babies and children to treat itching,
enlarged eyes, fever, drooling, and loss of appetite.
Children with worms drank and were bathed in an
infusion that included the bark of sassafras. The
plant was taken to treat gallstones and bladder pain.
In addition to this variety of medicinal uses, sassafras
was used for food, construction and other purposes.
The leaves were used fresh as a spice, much like bay
leaves, for flavoring in meat soups. Leaves were
dried and pounded and used as a thickening agent and
to add flavor to foods and soups. “Filé”, made from
the ground roots or leaves, is an important spice used
today in Cajun foods, such as gumbo. The white or
red roots, made a pleasant-tasting tea, although the
red roots were preferred. The wood from the
sassafras tree was used to make furniture. The
flowers were used as a fertilizer when planting beans.
The plant was used as a fragrance to scent soap. The
bark contains oil of sassafras, an important flavoring.
Wildlife: The fruits are readily eaten by wildlife.
Birds, such as quails, wild turkeys, kingbirds, crested
flycatchers, mockingbirds, sapsuckers, pileated
woodpeckers, yellowthroat warblers and phoebes eat
the fruits and disperse the seeds. Black bears, beaver,
rabbits and squirrels eat the fruit, bark and wood.
White-tailed deer browse the twigs and foliage.
Other: Sassafras has been cultivated since 1630 for
its leaves, bark, and wood. The plants are used for
tea, oil, and soap. The heartwood is orange-brown
and course-grained. It is used for purposes requiring
lightwood, such as boat construction, because it is
soft but durable.
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Laurel Family (Lauraceae). Sassafras is a
native, perennial, deciduous shrub or tree. The trees
are short to medium-tall (9 to 18 m), and spread from
6 to 8 m. Young trees have greenish bark. Older
SASSAFRAS
© William S. Justice
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common sassafras, ague tree
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: All parts of the sassafras plant are
spicy and aromatic. The roots, bark, leaves, new
shoots, and pith from the branches of sassafras were
used extensively for a wide variety of purposes by
may Native American tribes including the Cherokee,
Chippewa, Choctaw, Creek, Delaware, Oklahoma,
Houma, Iroquois, Koasati, Mohegan, Nanticoke,
Rappahannock, and Seminole. The medicinal uses of
sassafras by Native Americans were many. Infusions
made from the bark of the roots were taken internally
as a preventive to ward off fever, as well as a remedy
to treat diarrhea, rheumatism, measles, and scarlet
fever. An infusion of the roots was used as a blood
purifier, and as a dietary aid to treat “overfattness.”
Infusions of the plant were used as a cough medicine,
mouthwash, and gargle for colds. Root infusions
were also used to treat fevers that occurred in women
after giving birth and as a wash for eyesores.
Decoctions made from roots were used to treat heart
troubles. An infusion of the plant was mixed with
whiskey and used for rheumatism, tapeworms, and as
a blood remedy to purify the blood. The leaves were
made into a poultice that would be rubbed onto bee
stings, wounds, cuts, sprained ankles, and bruises.
Nosebleeds were treated with a decoction made from
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
trees have reddish brown bark that is rough, thick,
and deeply ridged. The leaves are alternate and
variable in shape with either none or one to three
lobes at the apex. The two-lobed leaves are mitten-
shaped. The leaves are light, bright green during the
summer and turn to bright yellow-orange and red-
orange in the fall. The trees are dioecious (a tree will
have either male or female flowers) with fragrant
flowers. The female flowers (1cm across), borne on
small, terminal clusters before the leaves, are without
petals, but have six greenish-yellow sepals (3 to 5
mm long). Male flowers are inconspicuous. The
female trees have small, oval fruits (6 to 10 mm) that
are dark blue with thick, red stalks. The leaf buds
appear at the same time the tree flowers in early
spring. The fruits ripen in the fall.
Distribution: Sassafras is native to the eastern United
States. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
Habitat: This plant is a pioneer tree on disturbed sites
in its native range. It is adapted to various soils with
low pH. It can be found in woodlands, fields and
along roadsides.
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sassafras trees are valued for their fragrant spring
bloom, interesting horizontal branching pattern, and
striking fall color. The small trees are medium to fast
growing and work well for landscape use as
specimen trees and mass plantings. They are easy to
culture and require little care. Although adapted to
dry, sandy soils, they do best in moist, fertile soils in
partial to full shade. Seeds, root-cuttings or suckers
may propagate sassafras trees. Seeds are produced
every one or two years after the plant reaches the
minimum seed-bearing age of ten years. Seeds may
be gathered when the fruits turn a dark blue. Seeds
should be cleaned and stored at cool temperatures
where they will last for up to two years. The seeds
require prechilling for 120 days in order to germinate.
Sow the seeds .5 to 1.5 cm deep in prepared beds in
the late fall. The plants do not transplant well
because of a deep taproot. It is therefore best to
purchase young plants that have been grown in
containers for successful transplanting.
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The trees can form dense thickets from sucker
growth. These thickets can be quite striking in color
during the fall months. If a single stem is desired,
remove the suckers that develop. Mowing can easily
control the suckers. The tree may be pruned in the
winter to remove dead wood.
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='The trees can develop a variety of insect and disease
problems that are generally not serious. Insects will
eat the foliage, but rarely eat the entire leaves. The
plants may experience root rot if grown in wet, clay
soils.
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Bushnell, D.I., Jr. 1909. The Choctaw of Bayou
Lacomb St. Tammany Parish Louisiana.
Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American
Ethnology. Bulletin 48. 59pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon. 493 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign,
Illinois. 1187 pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York. 278
pp.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory, &. G.A. Stokes 1994.
The historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Louisiana
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='saal5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 324
pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001)
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference 14(4): 49-75.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
PEACHLEAF
WILLOW
Salix amygdaloides Anderrs.
Plant Symbol = SAAM2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Illinois State Office
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Robert Mollenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='Wright willow, almond willow, willow
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Willows were used for making dye, furniture, mats,
baskets, drums, stirrups, tipi pegs and pins, fox and
fish traps, hunting lodge poles, and meat-drying racks
(Kindscher 1992). Willows were and still are used
for baskets throughout their range. The Paiute, Ute,
Shoshone, Hopi, Havasupai, Mandan, Cheyenne,
Arapaho, Kiowa, and others use Salix lucida for
basketweaving (James 1972, Mason 1988).
Kelly Kindscher(1992) wrote in Medicinal Wild
Plants of the Prairie: ".The Blackfeet made a tea from
the fresh root of Salix species to treat internal
hemorrhage, throat constrictions, swollen neck
glands, and bloodshot or irritated eyes. The twigs
were also gathered and preserved. Steeped in boiling
water, they were made into a tea to cure fever or
alleviate pain.".
Salix species were used as chew sticks to clean teeth
by many other Indian tribes, including the Choctaw,
Delaware, and Cheyenne. The peachleaf willow was
favored by the Osage, Delaware, and Cherokee for
this purpose (Elvin-Lewis 1979). The Kiowa made a
tea of willow leaves, which they rubbed on the body
to cure pneumonia and relieve rheumatic aches.
They also chewed the bark to relieve toothaches
(Vestal and Shultes 1939). The Comanche burned
the stems of the willow and used the ashes to treat
sore eyes (Carlson and Jones 1939). To restore
themselves both physically and mentally, the Dakota
drank a willow-bark tea (Andros 1883). The Ojibwe
used peachleaf willow bark externally to treat skin
rashes.
Aspirin is the pharmaceutical equivalent of willow
bark tea, which is an effective remedy for headache,
fever or sore throat. More than 2,400 years ago, the
Greeks learned to use extracts of several native
willow species to treat pain, gout, and other illnesses.
In more recent times, in 1839, salicylic acid was
isolated from wild plants and manufactured
synthetically. Early salicylic acid-based products had
unpleasant side effects. Sixty years later, the Bayer
Company developed a derivative of salicylic acid,
called it aspirin, and the rest is history.
Tea made from willow leaves will cure laryngitis.
Willow reduces inflammation of joints and
membranes (Moore 1979). When used as an
analgesic, willow treats urethra and bladder irritation,
infected wounds, and eczema. Willow is used as an
over-all treatment of many diseases, including hay
fever, diarrhea, prostatitis, satyriasis, and as a relief
of ovarian pain. A poultice is made for treating
gangrene and skin ulcers.
Young willow shoots can be stripped of their bark
and eaten. The young leaves may be eaten in case of
emergency. The inner bark can be eaten raw,
prepared like spaghetti, or made into flour.
Riparian: Peachleaf willow is an overstory dominant
species in many riparian ecosystems throughout the
American west and midwest. Riparian ecosystem
functions provided by willows include the following:
1) Riparian vegetation traps sediments and nutrients
from surface runoff and prevents them from entering
the aquatic system. 2) the dense matrix of roots in the
riparian zone can serve as an effective filter of
shallow groundwater. 3) water quality is improved
through filtration and the trapping of sediment,
nutrients (particularly nitrogen dissolved in
groundwater), and pollutants. and 4) riparian areas
act as a sponge by absorbing floodwaters. The water
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
is then slowly released over a period of time, which
minimizes flood damage and sustains higher base
flows during late summer.
Wildlife: Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species. The
multiple layers of vegetation provide multiple niches
for many species of insects and wildlife canopies of
plants growing on streambank provide shade, cooling
stream water, while roots stabilize and create
overhanging banks, providing habitat for fish and
other aquatic organisms.
Rabbits and many ungulates (including deer, moose,
and elk) browse on willow twigs, foliage, and bark
(Martin 1951). Beaver love willow branches.
Several species of birds eat willow buds and young
twigs. Riparian forests support a high diversity of
breeding birds (Miller 1951). The percentage of
breeding individuals, which are migratory, is very
high in the cottonwood-willow habitat. Moister
conditions in the cottonwood-willow forest may
promote lusher plant growth, higher invertebrate
populations and, therefore, more available food for
flycatchers, warblers, and other migratory,
insectivorous birds. Riparian areas support up to
10.6 times the density of migrant birds per hectare as
adjacent non-riparian areas (Stevens et al. 1977).
Most of these migratory birds belong to the foliage
insect (47%) or air insect (34%) foraging guilds.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Willow Family (Salicaceae). Peachleaf willow (Salix
amygdaloides) is a small to medium sized tree with
one to several trunks up to 12 m tall (40 feet)
(McGregor et al. 1986, Stephens 1973). The twigs
are gray to light yellow, shiny, and flexible. The
leaves look like peach leaves. they are yellowish
green above, pale to white-glaucous beneath,
glabrous, lance-shaped, 3-8 cm (1.2-3".) long and
finely serrate. The petioles are glandless. Catkins
emerge with the leaves. pistillate (female) catkins are
3-8 cm long, on leaf branchlets 1-4 cm long. Bracts
are deciduous, pale yellow, and villous on the inside.
The fruits are ovoid capsules 3-5 mm long, glabrous,
uncrowded on the axis giving the catkin a loose, open
appearance. When ripe, the capsules open to release
tiny wind-born seeds with silky hairs at their base.
Peachleaf willow flowers in May and fruits in June.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Peachleaf willow grows in riparian areas such as the
banks of streams and ponds, low woods, roadside
gullies, and prairie sloughs. It ranges from Quebec,
west across southern Canada to British Columbia,
south to Oregon, Utah, and Arizona, east to Texas,
and northeast to Kentucky and Vermont. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Willows root freely from cuttings, and are easy to
propagate. Willows are difficult to propagate in
quantity by seed.
The NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, New
Mexico, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, developed a pole planting technique
for establishing willow (Hoag 1993a). We reprint
this procedure below. ".Trial planting on well adapted
sites indicate more that 80% survival of cottonwood
and willow poles when dormant poles are cut and
planted between November and February. It is
essential to monitor the water tables at proposed
planting sites for at least one year before planting.
Poles planted where the water table fluctuates widely
will have lower survival rates than those planted
where water table is relatively stable. If groundwater
monitoring shows the water level will drop more than
3 feet during the growing season (May-October),
another site should be selected. Monitoring of
observation wells for at least one calendar year
before planting will allow better planting depth to
ensure establishment.".
Steps for Successful Pole Plantings
• Select collection sites as close to the area as
possible to conserve genetic diversity. Try to
match donor site and revegetation site in terms of
soils, elevation, hydro-dynamics, permanent
groundwater table, and soil salinity (which
should be low).
area for at least 1 year, preferably longer, to
determine the lowest water table depth. Take a
reading at least once a month, preferably more
often during the driest months of the year. Cut
• Select willow cuttings from a local, native stand
in healthy condition. Prune no more than 2/3 of
plants in an area. Willow cuttings for pole
plantings should generally be at least 1/2 inch in
diameter or larger. Select the longest, straightest
poles available. Use only two to four-year old
wood. The total length of the poles needed
depends upon the water table depth.
• Measure water table fluctuations in the planting
Page 3
poles while dormant. Remove all side branches
except the top two or three.
• Prepare cuttings by trimming off the top to
remove the terminal bud, allowing a majority of
the energy in the stem to be sent to the lateral
buds for root and shot development.
• Soak poles in water for at least 5 to 7 days before
planting.
• Dig holes to the depth of the lowest anticipated
water table. Sites where the water table will be
within one foot of the ground surface during the
growing season are better suited for willows than
cottonwoods.
• The cuttings should extend several inches into
the permanent water table to ensure adequate
moisture for sprouting. At least 1/2 to 2/3 s of
the cutting should be below ground to prevent
the cutting from being ripped out during high
flows. Usually, at least 2 to 3 feet should be
below ground. It should also be long enough to
emerge above adjacent vegetation such that it
will not be shaded out.
• Place the cuttings in the holes the same day they
were removed from the soak treatment. Set the
butt as close to the lowest annual water table
elevation as possible.
• Electric hammer drills (Dewalt model DW530)
fitted with one-inch diameter, 3-foot bits were
used to plant thousands of willows in New
Mexico. With one drill, two people installed 500
willow cuttings per day to a 3-foot depth. A
power auger or a punch bar can also be used.
• Willow pole cuttings were generally planted on
10 to 20 foot centers in New Mexico. Areas
with a shallow water table (4-6 feet) were
generally planted with a higher number of pole
cuttings to enhance overall survival. Often
understory species were planted under the
canopy of pre-existing overstory (cottonwoods,
tree willows), since they are often observed
occupying this niche.
It is critical to ensure that the soil is packed
around the cutting to prevent air pockets.
".Mudding". (filling the hole with water and then
adding soil to make mud slurry) can remove air
pockets.
•
• When necessary, install tree guards around the
poles to protect from beavers, other rodents, or
rabbits. Willows tend to be fairly resistant to
pruning from beavers, so tree guards may not be
necessary.
• As buds begin to swell (usually in April or May),
remove them from the lower two-thirds of the
pole. This will reduce evapo-transpiration water
loss and stimulate root growth.
• Exclude the planting area from livestock grazing
for at least two to three growing seasons.
Seed Collections
• Willow seeds must be collected as soon as the
capsules mature (when they turn from green to
yellow or tan).
• Plant seeds immediately, since they retain their
viability for only a few days at room
temperature. Even under the most favorable
conditions, maximum storage is four to six
weeks.
• Germination takes place 12 to 14 hours after
planting. Keep soil moist while seedlings
germinate and grow.
• When seeding outdoors, willows require moist
soil from spring over-bank flows, capillary
wetting of the soil surface, or irrigation for
establishment.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional resource management of willow includes
the following:
• Willows were traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Willow is gathered only at certain times of the
year, beginning in the autumn after the leaves
fall. For many weavers, gathering will continue
until the following spring when the sap begins to
rise again.
• Often, basketweavers will prune many willows,
sometimes replanting the stems, so there will be
nice straight basketry materials the following
year.
• Before gathering, the weavers make offerings of
thanks and pray for permission to gather. Often
tobacco or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed on
willows and along streams have a much higher
health risk for humans when they are processed
and used for traditional materials.
Howe and Knopf (1991) conclude that to ensure the
survival of willows and cottonwoods in riparian
communities, resource managers need to implement
strategies to control the spread of exotic species.
Livestock grazing has widely been identified as a
leading factor causing or contributing to degradation
of riparian habitats in the western United States
(Chaney et al. 1990, Fleischner 1994, Ohmart 1996).
Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure and
composition of riparian habitat. Overgrazing,
Page 4
especially by livestock and big game, frequently
changes plant species composition and growth form,
density of stands, vigor, seed production of plants,
and insect production. Livestock grazing can cause
the replacement of bird and mammal species
requiring the vertical vegetation structure of riparian
habitat to species, which are ubiquitous in their
habitat preferences. Previous heavy cattle grazing
changed the bird and small mammal community
composition in riparian areas through reduction of
shrub and herbaceous cover.
Slovlin (1984) recommended a 5-year rest from cattle
grazing to re-establish healthy stands of riparian
vegetation such as cottonwood and willows. Siekert
et al. (1985) reported that spring grazing showed no
significant changes in channel morphology, whereas
summer and fall grazing did. However, even with
limited seasonal grazing, all tree seedlings would be
eliminated. Marlow and Pogacnik (1985)
recommended fencing riparian habitat, rest-rotation,
light grazing (<.20% forage removal), and grazing
after streambanks have dried to 10% moisture.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Containerized peachleaf willow saplings are available
from most nurseries in the areas where they grow.
We recommend using plants from the same region,
elevation, climate, soil type, moisture, or hydrologic
regime as you are replanting.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1: 116-118.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Bentrup, G. &. J. C. Hoag 1998. The practical
streambank bioengineering guide. User s guide for
natural streambank stabilization techniques in the
arid and semi-arid Great Basin and Intermountain
West. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Ellis, L.M. 1994. Bird use of salt cedar and
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in Northeastern Colorado. USDA, FS,
Research Note RM-370:1-4.
Elvin-Lewis, M. 1979. Empirical rationale for teeth
cleaning plant selection. Medical Anthropology
(Fall) 1979:431-456.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8:1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8:629-644.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hoag, J.C. 1992. Use of willow and cottonwood
cuttings for vegetation shorelines and riparian areas.
USDA NRCS Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series #3, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993a. Selection and acquisition of
woody plant species and materials for riparian
corridors and shorelines. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series #2, USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993b. How to plant willows and
cottonwood for riparian rehabilitation. Technical
Note #23, USDA, NRCS, Idaho Plant Materials,
Boise, Idaho.
James, G.W. 1909 (rev. 1972). Indian basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 271
pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 276 pp.
Page 5
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_IvanDozier TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_IvanDozier='USDA, NRCS, Champaign, Illinois
' WHERE symbol='saam2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised 18jan01 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Knopf, F.I. &. F.B. Samson 1994. Scale perspectives
on avian diversity in western riparian ecosystems.
Conservation Biology 8(3):669-676.
Marlow, C.B. &. T.M. Pogacnik 1985. Time of
grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284. IN Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R.
Patton, P.F. Folliott, and R.H. Hamre. (Tech.
Coords.) Riparian ecosystems and their management:
Reconciling conflicting uses. Proc. First North Am.
Riparian Conf., USDA, FS, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-
120. 523 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, O.T. 1988. American Indian basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &.E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1976. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds, pp. 156-164. IN Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (Tech. Coords.). Importance,
preservation and management of riparian habitat: a
symposium. USDA, Forest Service, Gen. Tech.
Report RM-43, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Tilford, G.L. 1997. Edible and medicinal plants of
the west. Mountain Press Publishing Company,
Missoula, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 1995. Midwestern wetland flora.
Wetland Science Institute, Laurel, Maryland.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000321. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
WHITE SAGE
Salvia apiana Jepson
Plant Symbol = SAAP2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
seeds were eaten by the Cahuilla to cure colds. The
Diegueño used white sage tea for this purpose.
Leaves of white sage were smoked, made into a tea,
and used in sweathouses to cure colds. White sage
leaves were also used by the Diegueño as a shampoo
to clean their hair and to keep it from turning gray.
Crushed leaves were rubbed on the body to eliminate
body odor. this was often done by Cahuilla men
before they went hunting. The smoke from burning
white sage is used widely by many Native groups as
part of their purification ceremonies. White sage is
widely valued and cherished among many Indians
and other cultures today, prized for its soft
".feminine". qualities (Stevens, unpublished field
notes, 1998).
Today the leaves and stems of Salvia apiana are
gathered, dried, and used for smudging by many
tribes around the country. The Chumash and other
California Indian people are concerned about over-
harvesting and disrespect of this plant for commercial
purposes.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Sage tea will decrease sweating, salivation, milk
secretions, and mucous secretions of the sinuses,
throat, and lungs (Moore 1979). It is the best herbal
treatment for decreasing lactation during weaning in
either animals or humans. A cold cup of the tea is a
good stomach tonic. The lukewarm tea is sufficiently
bacteriostatic and astringent to make it useful for
treating nearly all sore throats, first gargled and then
drunk. The crushed leaves are made into a reliable
uterine hemostatic tea, good for heavy menstruation
but inadvisable for the new mother who plans to
nurse.
Wildlife: White sage is an important browse plant for
deer, antelope, elk, mountain sheep, and rabbits. The
flowers attract hummingbirds, butterflies, bees, and
other insects. Small mammals, sparrows, grouse, and
quail eat the seeds. Salvia apiana is a beautiful low
maintenance ornamental plant.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mint Family (Lamiaceae). White sage is a
perennial sub-shrub less than 1 m tall. Leaves are
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: White sage seeds were one component
in pinole, which was a staple food of the Indians of
the Pacific coast (Barrows 1977). Seeds were
collected with a seed beater basket and flat basket,
and were parched and ground into meal. The
Cahuillas of southern California used this meal to
create a mix with one part meal, three parts wheat
flour, and a little sugar. This mixture was eaten dry,
mixed with water to form gruel, or baked into little
cakes or biscuits. The seeds were harvested in
quantity and stored in baskets in the home. The
tribes, north of Santa Barbara, kept small baskets of
seeds and other foodstuffs on hand, with some stored
for the winter. The Chumash and other California
tribes also ate leaves and stems of white sage.
The Cahuilla, Costanoan, Diegeño, Kawaiisu, and
Maidu tribes of California used white sage or chia
seeds to clean and heal their eyes (Strike 1994). One
method was to place a few Salvia seeds in their eyes
at bedtime. During the night, the seeds would swell
and become gelatinous. Moving around under the
eyelids during sleep, the seeds collected any foreign
substances on the eyeballs. In the morning the seeds
were removed, leaving the eyes clear and free of
contaminants. Cahuilla women drank an infusion of
white sage roots after giving birth to remove the
afterbirth and promote internal healing. White sage
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
generally 4-8 cm long, lanceolate, with a tapered base
and minute teeth. The leaves are simple, with dense
hairs and a distinctive fragrance. The inflorescence is
many-flowered raceme with white to pale lavender
blossoms. The fruits are light brown, shiny nutlets. ' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Distribution
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. White sage generally occurs at elevations below
1500 m. It is common on dry slopes in coastal-sage
scrub, chaparral, and yellow pine forests. It occurs in
the South Coast, Transverse Ranges, Peninsular
Ranges, and the western edge of the Desert Province.
Salvia apiana extends south from southern California
to Baja California.' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Establishment
Salvia apiana requires well-drained, fairly dry soils
and full sun. Excessive watering of white sage,
especially during summer months, is likely to kill the
plant. White sage is particularly good for stabilizing
or restoring disturbed or degraded areas. Bart
O’Brien, Director of Horticulture, Rancho Santa Ana
Botanic Garden and Rick Hepting, Theatrum
Botanicum, provided the following horticultural
information:
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seeds: Salvia apiana propagates more easily from
seed than from cuttings. Plant seeds in flats in an
appropriate planting soil. Seeds may respond to
light, so plant seeds at the soil surface or plant 1/8". to
1/4". in a well-drained soil mix. Immediately after
planting, soak flats thoroughly, and then water
sparingly as needed. Seeds germinate in 2-3 weeks at
20 to 30° C (68 to 86° F). Plant the seedlings into 2".
or 4". pots after they grow 2-4 leaves beyond the
cotyledons. Water as needed, but do not overwater.
Salvia apiana plants grow rapidly. they are usually
ready to outplant in 6 months to a year. It is best to
outplant in the fall. don t plant in the summer.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cuttings: Gather soft wood cuttings of young
vegetative shoots before the plant has flowered. The
rooting ability of these cuttings is enhanced by
collection and preparation in the spring. Collect
cuttings 3-4 inches long, and remove the lowest pair
of leaves. Dipping the basal 1-2 inch portion of the
cutting in rooting hormones enhances rooting. Bury
the cuttings so that the lowest node is ½ inch under
ground. Plants will root quickly if they are going to
survive. If the cutting material is too hard, rooting
may take a long time, or cuttings won t ever root. If
the cutting material is too soft, it will rot. It takes
some experience to collect the cuttings at the right
time. Cuttings establish more readily if kept warm
under the flats for weeks at 20 to 30° C (68 to 86° F).
Once roots are established on cuttings, plant them in
2". or 4". pots. Pot them in bigger containers as the
plants grow. Salvia apiana grows rapidly, so it is
usually ready to out-plant in 6 months to a year in
southern California (warmer climates). In northern
California, out-plant when the plants are a year old
because the winters are sometimes too severe for
them. It is best to outplant in the fall. don t plant in
the summer.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Horticultural management includes avoiding over-
watering seedlings and plants. Plants will mildew if
they experience excessive humidity or too much
shade. Aphids can be a problem for younger plants,
particularly in the spring. As the plants grow older,
they are fairly resistant to herbivores.
Traditional Resource Management: Traditional
management of white sage includes the following:
• Pruning leaves and branches to stimulate new
growth.
• Since this is a valued medicine plant, prayer,
thanksgiving, and ceremony are important
components of harvest and renewal.
• Burning occurred during September and October
after seeds ripened. Salvia species were burned
for plant improvement by the Cupreño,
Mountain Cahuilla, Northern Digueño, and
Southern Digueño.
• Seeds were planted from wild plants. A
Diegueño woman reported her people always
cleared a small spot near their dwelling to plant
seeds of plants with greens, seeds, or roots.
• Ownership of seed-gathering grounds promoted
long term care and sustainable harvest practices.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is readily available from native plant
nurseries throughout its range. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, K.M. 1993. Native Californians as
ancient and contemporary cultivators. IN: Thomas
C. Blackburn and Kat Anderson (eds.). Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by native
Californians. Pages 151-174. Ballena Press.
Page 3
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 220 pp.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson, &. D.D. Earle 1993.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. IN: Thomas C.
Blackburn and Kat Anderson. (eds.). Before the
wilderness. Environmental management by native
Californians. Pages 117-150. Ballena Press.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Version: 990518.
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Bart O’Brien
Director of Horticulture, Rancho Santa Ana Botanic
Garden, Claremont, California
' WHERE symbol='saap2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association, Yosemite National Park, California.
388 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1977. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Morongo Indian
Reservation, Banning, California. 82 pp.
Bean, L.J. &. H.W. Lawton 1993. Some explanations
for the rise of cultural complexity in native California
with comments on proto-agriculture and Agriculture.
IN: Thomas C. Blackburn and Kat Anderson ( eds.)
Before the wilderness. Environmental management
by native Californians. Pages 27-54. Ballena Press.
Clebsch, B. 1997. A book of Salvias. Sages for every
garden. Timber Press, Inc. 220 pp.
Hartmann, H. T., D. E. Kester, F. T. Davies, Jr. 1990.
Plant propagation principles and practices. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Martin, A.C., H. S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
500 pp.
Mayer, K. E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (ed.) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, and PG&.E.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
O’Brien, B.C. 1998. California’s Salvias (part 2).
The Southern California Gardener 7(3):2-5
O’Brien, B.C. 1997. California’s Salvias (part 1).
The Southern California Gardener 7(2):2-5.
O’Brien, B.C. 1997. Horticulture and classification
of the section Audibertia of the Genus Salvia. IN:
Out of the wild and into the garden II: California’s
horticulturally significant plants. 1995 Symposium
Proceedings Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden
Occasional Publications #2. Pages 136-163.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
BEBB WILLOW
Salix bebbiana Sarg.
Plant Symbol = SABE2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Wetland Plants and Plant Communities in Minnesota and
Wisconsin
Northern Plains Wildlife Research Center
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
diamond willow, beak willow, long-beaked willow,
livid willow, smooth gray willow, smooth Bebb
willow
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: A decoction of the branches was taken
by women for several months after childbirth to
increase the blood flow (Moerman 1998). A poultice
of bark and sap was applied as a wad to bleeding
wounds (Ibid.). A poultice of the damp inner bark
was applied to the skin over a broken bone (Ibid.).
Plant Guide
Economic: The diamond shaped wood is carved into
canes, lampposts, furniture, and candleholders
(Viereck &. Little 1972). The wood has also been
used to make furniture, baskets, baseball bats,
charcoal, and gunpowder.
Wildlife: snowshoe hares, deer, elk, and moose
browse Bebb willow. The buds, shoots, and catkins
are eaten by birds, beaver and small mammals.
Agroforestry: Bebb willow is used in forested
riparian buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion,
protect aquatic environments, enhance wildlife, and
increase biodiversity.
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bebb willow (Salix bebbiana) is a large
native shrub ten feet tall or a small bushy tree fifteen
to twenty-five feet (Viereck &. Little 1972). The
leaves are elliptical to oblanceolate. one to three
inches long, and are hairy when young smooth and
strongly veined when old. The fruit is capsules, six
to eight millimeters long, long beaked, and sparsely
hairy (Farrar 1995). The bark is thin, reddish, olive-
green, or gray tinged with red and slightly divided by
shallow fissures (Sargent 1961). The roots are
shallow and dense.
Distribution: Bebb willow range from Alaska south
to British Columbia to east Newfoundland and in
northeast United States and upper mid-western
United States. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Bebb willow is adapted to a wide variety of soil
textures. It prefers moist sites and is drought tolerant.
This species tolerates moderate alkaline soils but not
extremely alkaline conditions. It is frequently found
in swamps, lakes, borders of streams, open woods
and forests (Sargent 1961). Bebb willow is a fast
growing but short-lived species that occurs most
commonly under shade of trees where the sites are
poor (Viereck &. Little 1972).
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seeds must be sown as soon
as they are ripe in the spring. Seeds are viable for
only a few days and the maximum storage period is
four to six weeks with germination rates dropping off
fast after ten days at room temperature (Dirr &.
Heuser 1987). Willow seeds have no dormancy and
germinate within twelve to twenty-four hours after
falling on moist ground (Ibid.). Seedbeds must be
kept moist until seedlings are well established.
Propagation from Cuttings: Hardwood cuttings can
be collected and prepared for insertion, normally
from November through March. Cuttings seven to
ten inches long and a half to one inch thick are
initially planted close in stool beds and dug after one
year (Dirr &. Heuser 1987). Willows have a rooting
percentage of ninety to one-hundred percent and the
rooting number is not promoted by rooting hormones
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The depressions on these willows are caused by one
or more fungi, which attack willows at the junction of
a branch with the main trunk (Viereck &. Little 1972).
The term “diamond willow” applies to species when
the stems are carved resulting in a pattern of
diamond-shaped cavities with a sharp contrast
between the white or cream sapwood and the reddish-
brown heartwood.
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Readily available through native plant nurseries
within its area of distribution. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Epple, A.O. 1995. Plants of Arizona. Falcon Press,
Helena, Montana.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Graves, A.H. 1956. Illustrated guide to trees and
shrubs. Harper &. Brother Publishers, New York,
New York.
Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of the
great plains. University press of Kansas, Lawerence,
Kansas.
MacKinnon, A., J. Pojar, &. R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of the northern British Columbia. Lone Pine
Publishing, Canada.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustrated manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
Berkeley, Los Angeles, &. London.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of Pacific Coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Nelson, R.A. 1977. Handbook of Rocky Mountain
plants. 2nd ed. Skyland Publishers, Estes Park,
Colorado.
Peattie, D.C. 1950. A natural history of trees of
eastern and central North America. Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
USDI, GS 2002. Wetland plants and plant
communities in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Northern
Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, North
Dakota. Accessed: 11jan02.
<.http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/1998/mnplant/
sabe.htm>.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture. Agriculture Handbook No. 410,
Washington, D.C.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sabe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CHIA
Salvia columbariae Benth.
Plant Symbol = SACO6
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Chia seeds are a valuable source of nutrients, protein
and oil. When roasted, they have a pleasant, nutlike
flavor. The Diegueño took chia seeds on journeys
where a few seeds kept in the mouth and periodically
chewed, would keep up their strength (Hedges &.
Beresford 1986). One tablespoon of chia seed is said
to be enough to supply a person with 24 hours worth
of energy.
The seeds were usually harvested by bending the
stalks over a seed burden or gathering basket and
beating the seeds out of the prickly, dry heads with a
seedbeater. Even though the seeds are tiny, in this
way, several quarts could be gathered within a few
hours. The Cahuilla tribe of southern California
would harvest the entire stalk and tie them into
bundles (Romero 1954). The bundles were then
taken to a specially prepared clear, hard area of
ground where the seeds were separated by thrashing
the stalks with sticks and bare feet. Baskets were
used to fan away the chaff, leaving the seeds to be
gathered.
After hulling and winnowing, the seeds were stored
underground for later use or were often parched with
hot coals or pebbles in baskets or clay trays. The
seeds were pulverized in a bedrock mortar into a
meal that was used to make biscuits, cakes, and a
mush called pinole. A porridge or soup was made by
mixing the ground seeds with water and then cooking
in a specially made watertight basket to which hot
rock or stones were added. Upon the arrival of wheat
with the Europeans, the Cahuilla and other native
peoples continued to grind chia along with the wheat
berries (Barrow 1978). Mason (1912) writes that the
Salinan mixed chia with flour to make “tortillas,
delicate and agreeable to the taste as if they had
kneaded them with lard.” The Diegueño would
“improve the flavor” of a large quantity of wheat by
adding only a small amount of chia (Hedges &.
Beresford 1985).
Chia seeds contain a musilagenous substance and
expand considerably into a gelatinous volume when
moistened. An aromatic, minty beverage could be
made by soaking raw chia seeds in water (Saunders
1923). Ground seeds were soaked in water to make a
refreshing beverage that is said to have high thirst-
quenching properties. Chia, used in this way, is also
said to make the alkaline water of the desert
palatable.
© Charles Webber
California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Sage
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Chia, the Spanish name for Salvia
columbariae, is a plant of great economic importance
to many Native American tribes in California, who
have long used chia for food and medicinal purposes.
Historically, chia seeds were a staple food for many
Pacific coast groups including the Salinan, Costanoan
and Chumash as well as inland tribes such as the
Paiute, Maidu, and Kawaiisu. Chia is one of the first
plants obtained by humans in Kawaiisu mythology
(Zigmond 1981). Chia was regularly cultivated along
with corn in the fields of the Nahua peoples of
ancient Mexico. Salvia columbariae seeds were used
by the Chumash on Santa Rosa Island, one of the
Channel Islands off the coast of Southern California,
as long as 600 years ago, as evidenced by radio
carbon dating of seeds found in pottery jars at burial
sites there (Clebsch 1997). Large beds of chia plants
are reported to bloom in areas that once were the
locations of ancient Native American villages
(Romero 1954). Chia is an important resource that
was often managed by native peoples. The Chumash
and Cahuilla were among those groups who would
increase the following year’s harvest by periodically
burning stands of chia plants (Timbrook et al.
1982.Bean &. Saubel 1972).
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Seeds mixed with water were also used to treat fevers
(Bocek 1984). A hot poultice of ground chia seeds
was placed inside a cloth or bandage and applied to
infected areas of the body. Europeans quickly
adapted medicinal uses of chia. early California
mission fathers learned how to make an infusion
from chia seeds to treat fevers and it is said that chia
makes the “finest poultice for gunshot wounds”
(Jepson 1911). The Costanoan were among the
many tribes who used chia seeds to remove foreign
matter or reduce irritation of the eye (Bocek 1984).
A single to several of the whole seeds were dropped
into the eye, and rolled around or left in overnight.
The Cahuilla tribe used chia seeds in this fashion to
remove sand in the eyes acquired from sandstorms
encountered after a long day of hunting (Romero
1954). Seeds were sometimes mashed with a rock or
hammer and placed in the eye overnight (Zigmond
1981). The film that resulted from the gelatinous
seeds in either method absorbed any foreign body or
irritant and helped to ease inflammation. Chia seeds
were often used for ceremonial offerings (Timbrook
1990).
Other: Chia is one of the traditional foods that is
considered useful by researchers in treating diabetes,
a disease that afflicts many modern Native
Americans and may be attributed to the loss of many
traditional foods (Lowry 1999).
Wildlife: Chia flowers are an important source of
nectar for bees and butterflies. Many species of
birds, small mammals, and insects eat the seeds.
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mint family (Lamiaceae). Chia is native to
western North America. The plants can vary greatly
in size depending on moisture availability ranging, in
both height and diameter, from 3 to 4 cm under very
dry conditions to 60 cm under optimal conditions.
The thick, wrinkled leaves (10 to 15 cm long) are
dark green and deeply lobed with a thin covering of
fine, soft, grayish hairs on the upper surface. Leaves
grow predominantly from the basal area of the plant
with smaller leaves growing up the stems. Several
stems emerge from the base of the plant, each bearing
from one to four interrupted (2 to 3 cm apart) button-
like whorls of tiny, tubular flowers (6-16mm). The
pale blue to deep blue flowers have two lips. the
white-tipped lower lip is cleft into three lobes, with
the central lobe slightly larger in size. Several
contrasting leafy, burgundy-colored bracts subtend
the flower heads. A spiny tip protrudes from a
central notch in each bract. Each flower results in up
to 13 tiny, gray to light brown, flat seeds 1.5-2mm in
length.
Flowers bloom in late spring or early summer, from
March through June in California. As the season
progresses, the blossoms dry and turn from clear blue
to golden, and remain dry upon their stems. The tiny
seeds disperse by shaking out of the dry blossoms.
Distribution: Chia’s native range extends through the
coastal and inner coast ranges of California from
Mendocino County in the north to Baja in the south.
Chia grows throughout southern California and into
adjacent areas of Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and
Northwestern Mexico. Chia was once more common
in many of its native areas, but its populations have
declined due to overgrazing, urban development, and
fire suppression (Timbrook et al. 1982).
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Chia is a member of the foothill woodland,
coastal sage scrub and chaparral communities in
California, where it sometimes forms extensive
stands (Bean &. Saubel 1972). It can be found in the
open, exposed grassy areas of woodlands, in sandy
washes, dry, open plains, hillsides and gravelly,
disturbed sites. It is commonly found at elevations
below 1200 meters but is known to grow in some
areas up to 2100 meters (Munz &. Keck 1963).
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Chia is adapted to arid conditions and soils of low
fertility. It is one of the so-called “fire following”
species, in that it increases in abundance after a fire
(Timbrook et al. 1982).
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Annual wild flowers, such as chia, are generally
planted directly into a prepared bed or border area.
Chia requires full sun, good drainage and only
enough water to become established. Do not plant
chia near lawns and other plants that require frequent
watering.
Seeds may benefit from pretreatment, but this
treatment may vary depending on the origin of the
seeds (Emery 1998). Ask your seed supplier as to
their recommendations. Broadcast the chia seeds in
Page 3
autumn by sprinkling the seeds onto the surface of
the soil. Rake the seeds lightly into the soil. A light
sprinkling of charate (the charred remains of burned
plants) over the sown seedbed has been shown to
increase germination (Emery 1988). Once
established, Chia is quite drought tolerant. The
plants will tolerate some moisture during the growing
period but should not be watered frequently.
Remove weeds as they appear.
If necessary, seeds may be planted in flats in the early
spring and then transplanted later into a sunny, open
area. Fill flats with a light, porous soil. Appropriate
soils may be purchased or a homemade combination
of equal portions of compost, garden loam and sand
may be used. Sprinkle the seeds evenly over the
surface. Cover with a fine layer of more soil not
exceeding two times the diameter of the seed.
Lightly press the surface to insure contact of the
seeds with surrounding soil. Use a fine spray nozzle
to gently water the flats. Keep the flats evenly moist
and do not let them dry out. Reduce watering
frequency after the seedlings emerge.
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Chia will self-sow freely if the seeds survive
predation by birds, mice and ants. Several bee
species have been observed pollinating chia, however
it also has the ability to self-pollinate in the absence
of these insect visitors (Visco &. Capon 1970).
Chia hybridizes freely with other Salvia species,
including perennial shrubs, such as S. mellifera
(Clebsch 1997).
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bean, L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh (from the
earth): Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of
plants. Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian
Reservation. 225 pp.
Bickford, C. &. P. Rich 1984. Vegetation and flora of
the Landels-Hill Big Creek Reserve, Monterey
County California. Second Edition. Publication No.
15, Environmental Field Program, University of
California, Santa Cruz, California. 122 pp.
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, CA. 768 pp.
Brusa, B.W. 1975. The Salinan Indians and their
neighbors. Naturgraph Publishers, Inc., Happy
Camp, CA. 95 pp.
Clebsch, B. 1997. A book of Salvias: Sages for
every garden. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 221
pp.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Gardens,
Santa Barbara, CA. 115 pp.
Epling, C. 1938. The California salvias: A review of
Salvia, section Audibertia. Annals of the Missouri
Botanical Gardens. Vol. 25. Pp 95-152.
Gifford, E.W. 1932. The Northfork Mono.
University of California Publications in American
Archaeology and Ethnology 31. University of
California, Berkeley, CA. Pp. 15-65.
Hanes, T.L. 1990. Terrestrial vegetation of
California. California Native Plant Society Special
Publication Number 9. M.G. Barbour &. J. Major,
Editors. Sacramento, CA. Pp 417-469.
Hickman, J.D., Editor 1993. The Jepson manual:
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA. 1400 pp.
Hoover, R.L. 1971. Food plants of the California
Indians. Pacific Discovery Vol. 24, No. 3. Pp.11-17.
Jepson, W.L. 1911. A flora of western middle
California. Second Edition. Cunningham, Curtiss &.
Welch, San Francisco, CA. 515 pp.
Lowry, J.L. 1999. Gardening with a wild heart:
Restoring California’s native landscapes at home.
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 252
pp.
Mason, J.A. 1912. The ethnology of the Salinan
Indians. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 10, No.
4. Pp 97-240.
Mathews, M.A. 1997. An illustrated field key to the
flowering plants of Monterey County and ferns, fern
allies, and conifers. California Native Plant Society,
Sacramento, CA. 401 pp.
Page 4
Webber, C. 1998. Salvia columbariae. Calflora &.
Digital Library Project, University of California,
Berkeley. [Online].
Available:http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?s
eq_num=16350&.one=T. [27 September 2001].
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. 102
pp.
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='saco6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Munz, P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, CA. 1681 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY. 425 pp.
Prevost, R., Publisher &. Editor 1974. Nutritional &.
medicinal native plants of California. Renan Prevost,
Lemon Grove, CA. 164 pp.
Romero, J.B. 1954. The botanical lore of the
California Indians: With side lights on historical
incidents in California. Vantage Press, Inc., New
York, NY. 82 pp.
Saunders, C.F. 1923. With the flowers and trees in
California. Robert M. McBride &. Company, New
York, NY. 286 pp.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA. 366 pp.
Sparkman, P.S. 1908. The culture of the Luiseño
Indians. University of California Publications in
American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 8, No. 4.
Pp 187-234.
Timbrook, J. 1990 Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians,
California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany Vol. 44, No. 2. Pp
235-253.
Timbrook, J. 1986. Chia and the Chumash: A
reconsideration of sage seeds in Southern California.
Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology
Vol. 8, No. 1. Pp 50-64.
Timbrook, J., J.R. Johnson &. D.D. Earle 1982.
Vegetation burning by the Chumash. Journal of
California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol.4, No.
2. Pp 163-186.
Visco, F.J. &. B. Capon 1970 Pollination
mechanisms in three species of Salvia native to
Southern California. Aliso Vol. 7, No. 2. Pp 231-
242.
Walters, D.R., M. McLeod, A.G. Meyer, D.Rible, R
O. Baker, &. L. Farwell 1977. Native plants: A viable
option. Special Publication No. 3, California Native
Plant Society, Berkeley, CA. 213 pp.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Sagittaria cuneata E. Sheldon
Plant Symbol = SACU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Medicinally, the Maidu of California used an
infusion of arrowhead roots to clean and treat
wounds. The Navaho use these plants for headaches.
The Ojibwa and the Chippewa used Sagittaria
species as a remedy for indigestion. The Cherokee
used an infusion of leaves to bath feverish babies,
with one sip given orally. The Iroquois used wapato
for rheumatism, a dermatological aid, a laxative, and
as a ceremonial blessing when they began planting
corn.
Wildlife: The small, flattish seeds of arrowheads are
eaten by ducks, and the tubers are valuable to many
species of wildlife. Muskrat and porcupine are
known to eat the tubers Swans, geese, wood ducks,
blue-winged teal, lesser and greater scaup, ruddy
duck, ring necked duck, pintail, mallard, mottled
duck, gadwall, canvasback, black duck and king rail
are known to eat arrowhead seeds and tubers (Martin
1951).
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Arrowhead Family (Alismataceae).
Sagittaria cuneata is an aquatic plant growing in
swampy ground or standing water in ponds, lakes,
stream edges, and ditches (Hickman 1993). Wapato
have white or bluish tubers, which are edible. The
leaves are sagittate, with 5-15 cm long erect or
floating leaf blades. the lower lobes of the emergent
leaf blades are less than the terminal lobe. The
inflorescence is simple or branching, often with the
lower flowers pistillate and the upper ones staminate.
The flowers are white, with three white petals and 3
sepals. Stamens are numerous and bright yellow.
The pistils are numerous, spirally arranged on the
receptacle. The fruit is a greenish colored achene.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Sagittaria species are obligate wetland plants
found in marshes and wetlands throughout temperate
North America. Sagittaria cuneata is
transcontinental, extending from north central Alaska
to Labrador, extending south to California and
WAPATO
© M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, NPDC
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Indian potato, arrowhead
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Sagittaria is an aquatic plant with
tuberous roots that can be eaten like potatoes. The
tubers of Sagittaria species were eaten by many
different Indigenous groups in Canada, as well as
many groups of Washington and Oregon (Kuhnlein
and Turner 1991). The tubers were widely traded
from harvesting centers to neighboring areas. On the
Lower Columbia in Chinook Territory, Katzie
families owned large patches of the wapato plants.
Family groups camped beside their harvesting sites
for a month or more.
Indian women collected wapato in shallow water
from a canoe, or waded into ponds or marshes in the
late summer and loosened the roots with their toes.
The roots would rise to the top of the water where
they were gathered and tossed into floating baskets.
Today, the tubers are harvested with a hoe, pitchfork,
or rake. Tubers are baked in fire embers, boiled, or
roasted in the ashes. Tubers are skinned and eaten
whole or mashed. After cooking, some tubers were
dried and stored for winter use. The Chippewa
gathered the ".Indian potatoes". in the fall, strung
them, and hung them overhead in the wigwam to dry.
Later, they were boiled for use.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
northern Texas. In California, Sagittaria cuneata
ranges from middle to high elevations <. 2500 m.
Sagittaria species grow in ponds, slow streams,
ditches and freshwater wetlands.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sagittaria species may be planted from bare root
stock, by transplanting the tubers, and by seeding
directly into wetland soil. Live plant transplants or
transplanting tubers are preferred revegetation
methods where there is moving water. It takes two
years for seed to germinate. planting bare root stock
or tubers gives faster revegetation results.
Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. A depth of 15
cm (6 in) is sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This
will leave enough plants and rhizomes to grow back
during the growing season.
Wild plants should be collected from the time leaves
emerge in spring until first frost. Plants can be pulled
up easily from wet soil. When collecting wild plants,
rinse roots gently. Leaves and stems can be clipped
from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). this allows the
plant to allocate more energy into root production.
The roots should always remain moist or in water
until planted. Plants should be transported and stored
in a cool location prior to planting. Water depth
should be 0 to 6". and the soils should be wet.
Sagittaria grows prolifically around ponds or
wetlands in shallow water. Plug spacing of 25-30 cm
will fill in within one growing season. Soil should be
kept saturated, with approximately 1 cm of water
over the surface of the soil after planting. If water is
low in nutrients (oligotrophic), fertilization will speed
biomass production and revegetation. Many surface
waters are already rich in nutrients (eutrophic), and
fertilization is not necessary.
Transplanting tubers: Transplant success may be
greater with the tubers than with bare root stock. The
little underground potatoes can be separated from the
parent plants with a rake, hoe, or shovel. In
unconsolidated soils, the tubers can be pulled up by
hand by searching around the roots of the plant.
After collecting, the Sagittaria tubers should be kept
moist and cool, and stored in peat moss. Wapato
tubers are then planted in shallow water, in the same
conditions as described above for the whole plants.
Tubers should be collected and planted when plants
are dormant, in the fall, winter and early spring.
Seeds: Seeds of Sagittaria species take two years to
germinate, because they have a double dormancy
requiring cold then warm then cold temperatures.
Temperature has a multiple role in the regulation of
timing of germination. Dormant seeds become
nondormant only at specific temperatures, non-
dormant seeds have specific temperature
requirements for germination, and nondormant seeds
of some species are induced into dormancy by certain
temperatures. Once Sagittaria seeds germinate, they
have fairly high viability.
Procedures for growing Sagittaria seeds in the
greenhouse have not been developed at this time.
however, Sagittaria seeds can be planted directly in
wetlands or ponds. Prepare the area by creating a
washboard in shallow water, at mudflat consistency.
Seeds should then be scattered on the surface of the
soil, as the seeds need sunlight to germinate well.
Light and temperature in natural conditions will
promote seed germination, and in two years
Sagittaria plants will emerge.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
Sagittaria species require moist soils to standing
water for successful revegetation.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrat eat-outs increase
wetland diversity by opening up the dense tule and
cattail stands, and providing opportunities for aquatic
vegetation, such as Sagittaria to become established
in the open water. Muskrat huts provide a substrate
for shrubs and other plant species. Caches of
Sagittaria tubers stored by muskrat and beaver were
often sought by Indian people.
We have no record of specific traditional resource
management techniques other than anecdotal
information of the use of fire to keep dense tule
marshes open, which provided an opportunity for
colonization and spread of Sagittaria species. The
harvest of arrowhead was usually made in late
summer as the stems and leaves were dying (and
usually when the water table was lower) (Balls 1962).
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is readily available from native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Angier, B. 1974. Field guide to edible wild plants.
Stackpole Books. 255 pp.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association. Yosemite National Parks, California.
388 pp.
Clarke, C. B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Fowler, C. S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the Cattail-Eater Northern Paiute
People of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
#5. USDI, FWS, Stillwater National Wildlife
Refuge. 264 pp.
Gilmore, M. R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians
of the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln and London. 125 pp.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V. P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books. Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 686 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M. E. Sellers 1995. Use of greenhouse
propagated wetland plants versus live transplants to
vegetate constructed or created wetlands.
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant Development
Project. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1994. Seed and live
transplant collection procedures for 7 wetland plant
species. Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant
Development Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian Indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, Botany and Use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A. L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press. 878 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr. (eds) 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA,
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, and PG&.E.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of Native
America. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Peterson, L.A. 1977. A field guide to edible wild
plant. Eastern and central North America.
Houghton Mifflin Company. 330 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='sacu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
Page 4
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
COYOTE WILLOW
Salix exigua Nutt.
Plant Symbol = SAEX
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, New Mexico Plant Materials Center, &. Idaho
Plant Materials Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Sandbar willow, gray willow, narrow-leaved willow,
dusky willow, pussywillow
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The value of willow as the raw
material necessary for the manufacture of a family s
household goods cannot be over-estimated. Among
the Paiute, every woman carried bundles of long,
slender willow which had been scraped white, and
coils of willow sapwood that she had gathered and
prepared during the winter months when the leaves
were gone (Wheat 1967). Willow branches are used
as the warp for twined baskets and the foundation in
coiled baskets. Willows are used to weave water
jugs, cradles for newborn infants, hats, cooking
vessels, serving bowls, trays, seed beaters, and
storage baskets. Some tribes use willow roots as a
sewing strand. Virtually all California tribes use
willow in their baskets.
Tribes which use willow, such as Salix exigua,
include the Chemehuevi, Paiute, Mono, Panamint,
Pviotso (Northern Paiute), Shoshoni, Bannock, Ute,
Washo, Chiricahua, Jicarilla Apache, Mescalero
Apache, Navajo, San Carlos Apache, Western
Apache, White Mountain Apache, Havasupai,
Maricopa, Yavapai, Hopi, San Juan Pueblo (Tewa),
Zuni, Papago, and Pima Indians extending through
the American Southwest and Mexico. In Ancestral
Puebloan times, willow, along with threeleaf sumac,
Plant Guide
was the material of choice for manufacturing Native
American baskets.
Willow is gathered from the time the leaves fall in
autumn until the buds begin to swell in spring. The
year-old wands without branches are chosen, and
sorted by size and length. The bark can easily be
stripped off in the spring when the sap rises. Willow
wands with the smallest leaf scars are split and peeled
to obtain the tough, flexible sapwood used for the
weft in basket weaving. Color variation is achieved
by alternating peeled and unpeeled willow sticks in
the warp. Ute Indians used to concoct a green dye
for coloring buckskin by soaking willow leaves in hot
water and then boiling the mixture to concentrate the
pigment. Willow roots also have been used by others
to manufacture a rose-tan dye.
The Paiute built willow-frame houses covered with
mats of cattails or tules. Slender willow withes were
woven into tight circular fences as protection from
the wind that blew sand into eyes and food. For
shade, shed roofs thatched with willows, called
".willow shadows"., were constructed. In the Pueblo
province, coyote willow branches are employed with
leaves attached for thatching roofs. Other light
construction uses included the tops of storage bins or
racks for aerating corn while it dried, such as one
recently unearthed at prehistoric Arroyo Hondo
Pueblo.
A bed or sleeping bench of willow poles raised high
off the ground indicated a wealthy man in the Miwok
culture in California s Sierra Nevada. Willow brush
was placed radically over the roof timbers of an earth
lodge. Boats had eight willow ribs and a gunwale of
willow pole along each side. Sweat lodges are made
with willow. A women’s shinney game was played
on a field similar to a football field with five-foot
long, sharp willow poles. A ring of rope or string
was thrown into an indent in the field and the women
had to move it up the field and throw it against a goal
post without touching or carrying it on the poles.
Counting games are played with willow counting
sticks.
Ancestral Puebloans used willow wood for textile
loom anchors, rods to control the weaving rhythm,
and finishing needles. Bows, arrow points, pot rests,
scrapers and cradle parts all were crafted from
willow. In later times, Navajo made weaving sticks
and arrow shafts from willow along with other
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
straight-grained woods, and Ute Indians made
snowshoe frames from dried willow branches.
Matting was another early product made from
willows.
Other implements made from willow include fire
sticks twirled as a spindle to generate enough heat to
ignite a flame and what appear to be prayer sticks
recovered from various archaeological sites. Willow
is still used for making prayer sticks by the Zunis and
doubtless by some of the Rio Grande pueblo. Inner
bark was used in spring for rope in California
(Murphey 1959).
Aspirin is the pharmaceutical equivalent of willow
bark tea, which is an effective remedy for headache,
fever or sore throat. More than 2,400 years ago, the
Greeks learned to use extracts of several native
willow species to treat pain, gout, and other illnesses.
In more recent times, in 1839, salicylic acid was
isolated from wild plants and manufactured
synthetically. Early salicylic acid-based products had
unpleasant side effects. Sixty years later, the Bayer
Company developed a derivative of salicylic acid,
called it aspirin, and the rest is history.
Tea made from willow leaves will cure laryngitis.
Willow reduces inflammation of joints and
membranes. When used as an analgesic, willow
treats urethra and bladder irritation, infected wounds,
and eczema. Willow is used as an over-all treatment
of many diseases, including hay fever, diarrhea,
prostatitis, satyriasis, and relief of ovarian pain. A
poultice is made for treating gangrene and skin
ulcers. For one remedy used by the Paiute, burned
willow charcoal was added to water and taken as a
tea to stop diarrhea. A San Juan tribal elder said he
used willow leaves to make his mouth water and
relieve thirst.
Young willow shoots can be stripped of their bark
and eaten. The inner bark can be eaten raw, prepared
like spaghetti, or made into a flour. The young
leaves may be eaten in case of emergency
Other Uses: Ecological diversity, bank and sediment
stabilization, maintenance of channel morphology,
water quality improvement, ground-water recharge,
flood abatement, fish and wildlife habitat, ribs of
boats, and games.
Riparian Ecosystem Services and Functions: The
riparian zone essentially encompasses those alluvial
sediment deposits where river and alluvial ground
water supplement that available from local
precipitation. High-to-low elevations, north-south
and east-west gradients, and steep-to-shallow terrain
all influence the relationship between geomorphic
and fluvial processes and vegetation community
structure. Riparian ecosystem functions include the
following:
• Ecological diversity.
• Riparian vegetation traps sediments and nutrients
from surface runoff and prevents them from
entering the aquatic system.
• Dense matrix of roots in the riparian zone can
serve as an effective filter of shallow
groundwater.
• Water quality is improved through filtration and
trapping of sediment, nutrients (particularly
nitrogen dissolved in groundwater), and
pollutants.
• Riparian vegetation tends to prevent the river
from down-cutting or cutting a straight path
(channeling), thus promoting a sinuous course,
ground-water recharge, and maintenance of an
elevated water table.
• Riparian areas act as a sponge by absorbing
floodwaters which is then slowly released over a
period of time, which minimizes flood damage
and sustains higher base flows during late
summer.
• Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species.
Different groups of animals occupy or use the
different layers of vegetation, and this multi-
story arrangement is often present nowhere else
in the arid landscapes.
• Canopies of plants growing on streambanks
provide shade, cooling stream water, while roots
stabilize and create overhanging banks,
providing habitat for fish and other aquatic
organisms.
Wildlife: Rabbits and many ungulates, including deer,
moose, and elk, browse on willow twigs, foliage and
bark (Martin 1951). Beavers consume willow
branches, while several species of birds eat willow
buds and young twigs.
California s riparian forests support a high diversity
of breeding birds (Miller 1951). In one study
conducted on the Sacramento River, 147 bird species
were recorded as nesters or winter visitants’ (Laymon
1985). The percentage of breeding individuals that
are migratory is very high in the cottonwood-willow
habitat. Moister conditions in the cottonwood-willow
forest may promote lusher plant growth, higher
invertebrate populations and, therefore, more
available food for flycatchers, warblers and other
Page 3
migratory, insectivorous birds. Riparian areas
support up to 10.6 times the density of migrant birds
per hectare as adjacent non-riparian areas (Stevens et
al. 1977). Most of these migratory birds belong to
the foliage insect (47%) or air insect (34%) foraging
guilds.
Coyote willow is browsed avidly by deer and to some
extent by sheep, goats, and cattle, in summer and
early fall. Cattle will leave the willow patches when
the foliage matures and dries, whereas deer devour
the current leafless stem throughout the winter. The
browse rating for willow is good to fair for sheep and
goats. good to poor for cattle. fair for deer. and fair to
useless for horses (Sampson et al. 1981).
Livestock: Riparian ecosystems offer water, shade,
and food for domestic livestock. Cattle and sheep
congregate in riparian areas, particularly during hot
or dry periods. Overgrazing of domestic livestock in
riparian areas destroys riparian ground cover, disrupts
the reproductive cycle of cottonwood trees,
destabilizes streambanks, and thus increases sediment
loads to streams.
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Willow Family (Salicaceae). Salix exigua,
with its long, thin leaves, is the most distinctive of
the willow species. The leaves have a very short
petiole, and mature blades are 50 - 124 mm long,
linear, with an acuminate leaf tip and either a serrate
or entire leaf edge. Coyote willow is a shrub <. 7 m
tall, and spreads clonally by root-sprouting. The
catkin inflorescence appears with or after the leaves
in the spring, and are 22-70 mm long on leafy shoots
5-110 mm long. The flower bracts are a tawny
yellow color.
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Salix exigua is distributed in wetlands, along
alluvial bottomlands and streamsides at elevations
lower than 2700 m. Coyote willow is distributed
throughout California north to Alaska, east across
North America, and south to Arizona and Mexico
(Hickman (1993). Mason (1957) says Salix exigua is
often found at sites of former Indian habitation, and
notes this was one of the common basket willows of
the Indians
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Coyote willow dominates the riparian
forests of lower terrace deposits and stabilized gravel
bars. Willows are found near water. they require a
bare gravel or sand substrate with adequate moisture
for germination and development. Willows grow
very rapidly when their roots are in contact with the
permanent water table.
Typically, in California, cottonwoods and willows
predominate on the immediate stream banks, whereas
valley oaks are spread irregularly over the natural
levees farther away from stream banks. In other parts
of the American west, temporal gradients occur
within a location in the riparian zone. Early pioneer
communities such as cottonwood/willow give way to
late successional communities such as mesquite or
sagebrush, often a consequence of sediment
accumulation (Patten 1998). Many similarities
among western riparian ecosystems exist because
several dominant genera (e.g. Populus and Salix spp.)
are common throughout the West, and many
geomorphic and hydrologic processes that influence
riparian establishment are similar.
Western riparian ecosystems have been greatly
altered by human activity. Riparian forests have been
reduced to fragmented, discontinuous patches
because of human intervention. For example,
estimates are that 70 - 90 percent of the natural
riparian ecosystems in the U.S. have been lost to
human activities (Warner 1979). Regional losses in
these ecosystems have been estimated to exceed 98%
in the Sacramento Valley in California (Smith 1977)
and 95% in Arizona (Warner 1979). Many factors
have contributed to these resource losses, including
the following: natural resource use. urbanization.
alteration of stream flows through dam construction
and ground-water withdrawal. modification of biotic
conditions through grazing, agriculture, and
introduction of non-native species. and alteration
within watersheds (Patten 1998).
Coyote willow roots freely from cuttings, and is an
easy species to propagate. Coyote willow is a shrub
3 to 15 feet in height with multiple branches and
deciduous leaves. Its architecture is resilient to
disturbance such as high velocity floodwaters,
sediment deposition, medium to high flooding
(anoxic conditions), high winds, heavy precipitation,
or pruning from beaver, deer or wildlife. Beaver
browsed more than 5,000 willow cuttings to ground
level in New Mexico, and all the willow resprouted
(Los Lunas Plant Materials Center 1998). These
Page 4
It is essential to monitor the water tables at
cutting also survived over two months of continuous
inundation.
The NRCS Plant Materials Center at Los Lunas in
cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
developed a pole planting technique for establishing
willow and cottonwood (USDA, NRCS). We reprint
this procedure below.
•
".Trial planting on well adapted sites indicate
more that 80% survival of cottonwood and willow
poles when dormant poles are cut and planted
between November and February.
•
proposed planting sites for at least one year before
planting. Poles planted where the water table
fluctuates widely will have lower survival rates than
those planted where water table is relatively stable.
If groundwater monitoring shows the water level will
drop more than 3 feet during the growing season
(May-October), another site should be selected.
Monitoring of observation wells for at least one
calendar year before planting will allow better
planting depth to ensure establishment.
• Salt cedar (Tamarix chinensis), Russian olive
(Eleagnus angustifolia), and giant reed (Arundo
donax) will need to be controlled before poles are
planted. However, young cottonwoods and willows
can grow successfully in quite small openings in
stands of salt cedar. Study of natural stands suggest
they will eventually shade out the salt cedar.".
Steps for Successful Pole Plantings:
• Select sites as close to the area as possible to
conserve genetic diversity. Try to match donor site
and revegetation site in terms of soils, elevation,
hydro-dynamics, permanent groundwater table, and
soil salinity (which should be low).
• Select willow cuttings from a local, native stand
in healthy condition. Prune no more than 2/3 of
plants in an area. Willow cuttings for pole plantings
should generally be at least 1/2 inch in diameter or
larger. Select the longest, straightest poles available.
Use only two to four-year old wood. The total length
of the poles needed depends upon the water table
depth (see #7 below).
• Measure water table fluctuations for at least 1
year, preferably longer, to determine the lowest water
table depth. Take a reading at least once a month,
preferably more often during the driest months of the
year.
• Cut poles while dormant during January and
February. Remove all side branches except the top
two or three.
• Prepare cuttings by trimming off the top to
remove the terminal bud, allowing a majority of the
energy in the stem to be sent to the lateral buds for
root and shot development.
• Soak poles in water for at least 5 to 7 days before
planting.
• Dig holes to the depth of the lowest anticipated
water table. Sites where the water table will be
within one foot of the ground surface during the
growing season are better suited for willows than
cottonwoods.
• The cuttings should extend several inches into
the permanent water table to ensure adequate
moisture for sprouting. At least 1/2 to 2/3 of the
cutting should be below ground to prevent the cutting
from being ripped out during high water flows.
Usually, at least 2 to 3 feet should be below ground.
It should also be long enough to emerge above
adjacent vegetation such that it will not be shaded
out.
• Place cuttings in the hole the same day they are
removed from the soak treatment. Set the butt as
close to the lowest annual water table elevation as
possible.
• Electric hammer drills (Dewalt model DW530)
fitted with one-inch diameter, 3-foot bits were used to
plant thousands of coyote willows in New Mexico.
With one drill, two people installed 500 willow per
day to a 3-foot depth. A power auger or a punch bar
can also be used.
• Coyote willow pole cuttings were generally
planted on 10 to 20 foot centers in New Mexico.
Areas with a shallow water table (4-6 feet) were
generally planted with a higher number of pole
cuttings to enhance overall survival of the project. in
this case, coyote willow was planted on 1-foot
centers or even closer. Often understory species were
planted under the canopy of pre-existing overstory
(cottonwoods, tree willows) since they are often
observed occupying this niche.
•
the cutting to prevent air pockets. ".Mudding". (filling
the hole with water and then adding soil to make a
mud slurry) can remove air pockets.
• When necessary, install tree guards around the
poles to protect from beavers, other rodents, or
rabbits. Coyote willows tend to be fairly resistant to
pruning from beavers, so tree guards may not be
necessary.
• As buds begin to swell (usually in April or May),
wipe them off the lower two-thirds of the pole. This
will reduce evapotranspiration water loss and
stimulate root growth.
• Exclude the planting area from livestock grazing
for at least two to three growing seasons.
It is critical to ensure the soil is packed around
Page 5
There are other techniques for stabilization of banks
and erosion control, called bioengineering, which
utilize coyote willows. These include brush layers,
brush mattresses, brush or tree revetments, brush
trenches, vertical bundles, and willow wattles. Often
fiberschine, erosion control fabric and hay bales are
utilized to stabilize an eroding site. For further
information on these techniques, refer to The
Practical Streambank Bioengineering Guide by
USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service
(Bentrup and Hoag 1998).
Establishment From Seed: Willow seeds must be
collected as soon as the capsules mature (when they
turn from green to yellow) and planted immediately
since they retain their viability for only a few days at
room temperature. Even under the most favorable
conditions, maximum storage is four to six weeks.
No dormancy occurs, so germination takes place 12
to 14 hours after planting if the seeds are kept
constantly moist willows are difficult to propagate in
quantity by seed.
Willows root so readily by either stem or root
cuttings that there is little need to use other methods.
Hardwood cuttings planted in early spring root
promptly.
For natural seed revegetation, coyote willow requires
moist soil from spring over-bank flows or capillary
wetting of the soil surface for establishment. A
number of studies have related components of the
reproductive cycle of Salix species to floodplain site
conditions produced by streamflow and associated
fluvial processes. In particular, components of the
annual pattern of streamflow, or annual hydrograph,
are associated with specific stages of Salix seedling
emergence and growth. These include the following:
1) flood flows that precede Salix seed dispersal
produce suitable germination sites. 2) flow recessions
following a peak expose germination sites and
promote seedling root elongation. and 3) base flows
supply soil moisture to meet summer and winter
seedling water demand (Shafroth et al. 1998.
Mahoney et al. 1998). The combination of root
growth and capillary fringe defines the successful
recruitment band for seedling establishment, which is
usually from about 0.6 to 2 m in elevation above the
late summer stream stage (Mahoney et al. 1998). The
rate of stream stage decline is also critical for
seedling survival and should not exceed 2.5 cm per
day.
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional Resource Management: Willow is
nature’s healer. Poles of willow readily sprout, and
help to stabilize stream banks and provide habitat.
Sweat lodges constructed of willow have been known
to sprout and grow, even though the willows were
subjected to very high heat.
Willows were traditionally tended by pruning, to
produce long straight stems. Willow is gathered only
at certain times of the year, beginning in the autumn
after the leaves fall. For many weavers, gathering
will continue until the following spring when the sap
begins to rise again. Some gatherers, once they find
a good stand, will cut as much as they can. The
willows in many areas have not been tended in a long
time, and the stems are old, woody, and twisted.
Often basket weavers will prune many willows,
sometimes replanting the stems, so there will be nice
straight basketry materials the following year.
The Chemehuevi gather shoots, which they have
burned several times, until only the living stumps of
the willow, remain (Collings 1979). Straight young
shoots grow from these stumps in profusion. Each
twig is carefully selected. Those finally selected are
at least fifteen inches long and between 1/8 and 3/16
of an inch in diameter with as little taper from end to
end as possible.
Before gathering, the weavers I have interviewed
make offerings of thanks and pray for permission to
gather (Stevens, unpublished field notes, 1998).
Often tobacco or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
Basket weavers process materials with their hands
and mouths. Herbicides sprayed on willows and
along streams have a much higher health risk for
humans when they are used for traditional materials.
A Washoe basket weaver says, “Sometimes when
you take the willows skins off, they have spots from
pesticides.” Another weaver says the plants then
grow deformed. the shoots don t grow straight and
the willows are bumpy and wormy inside (Fulkerson
1995).
Howe and Knopf (1991) conclude that to ensure the
survival of willows and cottonwoods in riparian
communities, resource managers need to implement
strategies to control the spread of exotic species.
Livestock grazing has widely been identified as a
leading factor causing or contributing to degradation
of riparian habitats in the western United States (U.S.
General Accounting Office 1988. Chaney et al. 1990,
Fleischner 1994, Ohmart 1996). Livestock grazing
can alter vegetative structure and composition of
riparian habitat. Overgrazing, especially by livestock
Page 6
and big game, frequently changes plant species
composition and growth form, density of stands,
vigor, seed production of plants, and insect
production. Livestock grazing can cause the
replacement of bird and mammal species requiring
the vertical vegetation structure of riparian habitat to
species, which are ubiquitous in their habitat
preferences.
Slovlin (1984) recommended a 5-year rest from cattle
grazing to re-establish healthy stands of riparian
vegetation, such as cottonwood and willows. Siekert
et al. (1985) reported that spring grazing showed no
significant changes in channel morphology, whereas
summer and fall grazing did. However, even with
limited seasonal grazing, all tree seedlings would be
eliminated. Marlow and Pogacnik (1985)
recommended fencing riparian habitat, rest-rotation,
light grazing (<.20% forage removal), and grazing
after streambanks have dried to 10% moisture.
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Containerized coyote willow saplings are available
from most nurseries in the areas where adapted. We
recommend using plants from the same region,
elevation, climate, soil type, moisture or hydrologic
regime as you are replanting.
Coyote willow poles, suitable for transplanting, are
available from the NRCS Plant Materials Center at
Los Lunas, New Mexico and Tucson, Arizona. The
Plant Materials Centers vegetatively propagate these
poles from parent stock. Each center maintains
parent stock of several ecotypes collected from the
center s NRCS service area. These ecotype
collections vary in the amount of genetic diversity
within ecotypes. These centers can supply poles to
NRCS Field and State Offices, and other public
agencies.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Auble, G.T. &. M.L. Scott 1998. Fluvial disturbance
patches and cottonwood recruitment along the upper
Missouri River, Montana. Wetland 18(4): 546-556.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Beier, P. &. R.H. Barret 1987. Beaver habitat use
and impact in the Truckee River basin, California
USA. J. Wildlife Management 51: 794-799.
Bentrup, G. &. J.C. Hoag 1998. The practical
streambank bioengineering guide. User s guide for
natural streambank stabilization techniques in the
arid and semi-arid Great Basin and Intermountain
West. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Brode, J. &. R.B. Bury 1984. The importance of
riparian systems to amphibians and reptiles. Pages
30 - 35 IN: R.E. Warner and K. Hendrix, eds.
California riparian systems. ecology, conservation,
and productive management. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Brotherson, J.D., S.R. Rushford, W.E. Evenson, &. C.
Morden 1983. Population dynamics and age
relationships of eight trees in Navajo National
Monument, Arizona. J. Range Management 36: 250-
256.
Brunsfeld, S.J. &. F.D. Johnson 1985. Field guide to
the willows of east-central Idaho. Forest, Wildlife
and Range Experiment Station. University of Idaho
Bull. #39.
Bull, E.L. &. J.N. Slovlen 1982. Relationships
between avifauna and streamside vegetation. Trans.
North. Am. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 47: 496-506.
Cemments, C. 1991. Beavers and riparian systems.
Rangelands 13:277-279.
Chaney, E., W. Elmore, &. W.S. Platts 1990.
Livestock grazing on western riparian areas. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Region 8, Denver,
Colorado.
Collings, J.L. 1979. Profile of a Chemehuevi basket
weaver. American Indian Art Magazine (Autumn).
pp 3-11.
Conard, S.G., R.L. MacDonald &. R.F. Holland 1977.
Riparian vegetation and flora of the Sacramento
Valley. Pages 47-56, IN: Anne Sand (ed.), Riparian
Forests in California. Their Ecology and
Conservation.
Crouch, G.L. 1979. Long-term changes in
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed Plains
bottomland in Northeastern Colorado. USDA,
Forest Service Research Note RM 370: 1-4.
Page 7
Ditterberner, P.L. &. M.R. Olson 1983. The plant
information network (PIN) data base Colorado,
Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-83/36.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1997. Wild plants
and native peoples of the Four Corners. Museum of
New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico. 312 pp.
Dunmire, W.W. &. G.D. Tierney 1995. Wild plants
of the Pueblo province. Exploring ancient and
enduring use. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa
Fe, New Mexico. 290 pp.
Ellis, L.M. 1994. Bird use of salt cedar and
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in Northeastern Colorado. USDA,
Forest Service Research Note RM-370:1-4.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
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Fenner, P.W., W.W. Brady, &. D.R. Patton 1984.
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grazing in western North America. Conservation
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people of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
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Wildlife Refuge. 264 pp.
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Glinski, R.L. 1977. Regeneration and distribution of
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5.
Grime, J.P. 1978. Interpretation of small-scale
patterns in the distribution of plant species in space
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of Plant Populations. Elsevier. North-Holland,
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1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
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Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
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Hoag, J.C. 1992. Use of willow and cottonwood
cuttings for vegetation shorelines and riparian areas.
USDA, NRCS, Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series #3, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993a. Selection and acquisition of
woody plant species and materials for riparian
corridors and shorelines. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series #2. USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993b. How to plant willows and
cottonwood for riparian rehabilitation. Idaho Plant
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Howe, W.H. &. R.L. Knopf 1991. On the imminent
decline of Rio Grande cottonwoods in central New
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and R.H. Hamre (tech. coord.) Riparian ecosystems
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Page 8
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press
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ecosystems. Conservation Biology 8(3):669-676.
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structure and dynamics: Dog Island, Red Bluff,
California. Pages 587-597 IN: R.E. Warner and K.
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conservation, and productive management. Univ. of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Mahoney, J.M. &. S.B. Rood 1998. Streamflow
requirements for cottonwood seedling recruitment -
an integrative model. Wetlands 18(4): 634-645.
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grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284 IN: Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R.
Patton, P.F. Ffolliott, and R.H. Hamre (Tech.
Coords). Riparian Ecosystems and Their
Management: Reconciling Conflicting Uses. Proc.
First North Am. Riparian Conf. USDA, For. Serv.
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Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
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McGinley, M.A. &. T.G. Whitham 1985. Central
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test of foraging predictions and the impact of
selective feeding on the growth form of cottonwoods
(Populus fremontii). Oecologia 66: 558-562.
Michny, F.J., D. Boos &. F. Wernette 1974. Riparian
habitats and avian densities along the Sacramento
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and Game. 23 pages.
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West. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
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of livestock grazing on fish and wildlife resources in
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Karausman (ed.) Rangeland Wildlife. Society for
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Ohmart, R.D. &. B.W. Anderson 1986. Riparian
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Patten, D.T. 1998. Riparian ecosystems of semi-arid
North America: diversity and human impacts.
Wetland 18(4): 498-512.
Platts, W. et al. 1987. Methods for evaluating
riparian habitat with applications to management.
USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research
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Pope, D.P., J.H. Brock, &. R.A. Backhaus 1990.
Vegetative propagation of key Southwestern woody
riparian species. Desert Plants 10: 91-95.
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Roberts, W.G, J.G. Howe &. J. Major 1977. A survey
of riparian forest flora and fauna in California.
Pages 3-20 IN: Anne Sand (ed.). Riparian Forests in
California. Their Ecology and Conservation.
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forests of California. Pages 21-34 IN: Anne Sand
(ed.). Riparian Forests in California. Their Ecology
and Conservation.
Rucks, M.G. 1984. Composition and trend of
riparian vegetation on five perennial streams in
southeastern Arizona. pp 97-107 IN: R.E. Warner
and K.M. Hendrix (eds.). California Riparian
Systems: Ecology, Conservation, and Productive
Management. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
St. John, T.V. 1987. Mineral acquisition in native
plants. Pages 529-536 IN: Elias, Thomas S. (ed.)
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St. John, T.V. 1988. Soil disturbance and the
mineral nutrient of native plants. Pages 34-39 IN:
Rieger J.P. and B.K. Williams (eds.) Proceedings of
the Second Native Plant Revegetation Symposium.
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range brushlands and browse plants. Division of
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51(3):286-292.
Page 9
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sycamore distribution and regeneration along the
Nacimiento River, California. pp 196-201 IN: R.E.
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Systems: Ecology, Conservation, and Productive
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Berkeley, California.
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&. J.D. Rodgers 1985. Channel response of an
ephemeral stream in Wyoming to selected grazing
treatments. Pages 276-278 IN: Johnson, R.R., C.D.
Ziebell, D.R. Patton, P.F. Ffolliott, and R.H. Hamre
(Tech. coords). Riparian Ecosystems and Their
Management: Reconciling Conflicting Uses. Proc.
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and D.A. Jones (tech. coords.). Importance,
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Page 10
and other wetland communities in California. Pages
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' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Greg Fenchel
USDA, NRCS Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas,
New Mexico
Chris Hoag
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant Development
Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho
' WHERE symbol='saex';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Page 1
Plant Guide
Salix humilis Marsh.
Plant Symbol = SAHU2
PRAIRIE WILLOW
In more recent times, in 1839, salicylic acid was
isolated from wild plants and manufactured
synthetically. Early salicylic acid-based products had
unpleasant side effects. Sixty years later, the Bayer
Company developed a derivative of salicylic acid,
called it aspirin, and the rest is history.
Tea made from willow leaves will cure laryngitis.
Willow reduces inflammation of joints and
membranes (Moore 1979). When used as an
analgesic, willow treats urethra and bladder irritation,
infected wounds, and eczema. Willow is used as an
over-all treatment of many diseases, including hay
fever, diarrhea, prostatitis, satyriasis, and as a relief
of ovarian pain. A poultice is made for treating
gangrene and skin ulcers.
Young willow shoots can be stripped of their bark
and eaten. The young leaves may be eaten in case of
emergency. The inner bark can be eaten raw,
prepared like spaghetti, or made into flour.
Riparian: Riparian ecosystem functions provided by
prairie willow include the following: 1) Riparian
vegetation traps sediments and nutrients from surface
runoff and prevents them from entering the aquatic
system. 2) the dense matrix of roots in the riparian
zone can serve as an effective filter of shallow
groundwater. 3) water quality is improved through
filtration and the trapping of sediment, nutrients
(particularly nitrogen dissolved in groundwater), and
pollutants. and 4) riparian areas act as a sponge by
absorbing floodwaters. The water is then slowly
released over a period of time, which minimizes
flood damage and sustains higher base flows during
late summer.
Wildlife: Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species. The
multiple layers of vegetation provide multiple niches
for many species of insects and wildlife canopies of
plants growing on streambank provide shade, cooling
stream water, while roots stabilize and create
overhanging banks, providing habitat for fish and
other aquatic organisms.
Rabbits and many ungulates (including deer, moose,
and elk) browse on willow twigs, foliage, and bark
(Martin 1951). Beaver love willow branches.
Several species of birds eat willow buds and young
twigs. Riparian forests support a high diversity of
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Illinois State Office
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='dwarf willow, willow
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Willows were used for making dye, furniture, mats,
baskets, drums, stirrups, tipi pegs and pins, fox and
fish traps, hunting lodge poles, and meat-drying racks
(Kindscher 1992). Willows were and still are used
for baskets throughout their range. The Paiute, Ute,
Shoshone, Hopi, Havasupai, Mandan, Cheyenne,
Arapaho, Kiowa, and others use Salix lucida for
basketweaving (James 1972, Mason 1988).
Kelly Kindscher(1992) wrote in Medicinal Wild
Plants of the Prairie: ".The Blackfeet made a tea from
the fresh root of Salix species to treat internal
hemorrhage, throat constrictions, swollen neck
glands, and bloodshot or irritated eyes. The twigs
were also gathered and preserved. Steeped in boiling
water, they were made into a tea to cure fever or
alleviate pain.".
Salix species were used as chew sticks to clean teeth
by many other Indian tribes, including the Choctaw,
Delaware, and Cheyenne. The prairie willow was
favored by the Osage, Delaware, and Cherokee for
this purpose (Elvin-Lewis 1979). The Kiowa made a
tea of willow leaves, which they rubbed on the body
to cure pneumonia and relieve rheumatic aches.
They also chewed the bark to relieve toothaches
(Vestal and Shultes 1939). The Comanche burned
the stems of the willow and used the ashes to treat
sore eyes (Carlson and Jones 1939). To restore
themselves both physically and mentally, the Dakota
drank a willow-bark tea (Andros 1883). The Ojibwe
used prairie willow bark externally to treat skin
rashes.
Aspirin is the pharmaceutical equivalent of willow
bark tea, which is an effective remedy for headache,
fever or sore throat. More than 2,400 years ago, the
Greeks learned to use extracts of several native
willow species to treat pain, gout, and other illnesses.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
breeding birds (Miller 1951). The percentage of
breeding individuals, which are migratory, is very
high in the cottonwood-willow habitat. Moister
conditions in the cottonwood-willow forest may
promote lusher plant growth, higher invertebrate
populations and, therefore, more available food for
flycatchers, warblers, and other migratory,
insectivorous birds. Riparian areas support up to
10.6 times the density of migrant birds per hectare as
adjacent non-riparian areas (Stevens et al. 1977).
Most of these migratory birds belong to the foliage
insect (47%) or air insect (34%) foraging guilds.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Willow Family (Salicaceae). Prairie willow
is a colonial shrub as tall as 3m (10 feet) (McGregor
et al. 1986, Stephens 1973). The young branches are
yellow beneath the gray pubescence. Leaves are
alternate, simple, lance-shaped, 6-10 cm (2.4-3.9 in)
long. Leaves are dark green and usually glabrous
above and densely short-hairy beneath, with the
golden yellow veins raised prominently on the lower
surface. Plants bloom from April to May and fruit in
early June. Catkins emerge before the leaves. The
pistillate (female) catkins are sessile, 1-4 cm (0.4-1.6
in) long, and ovoid-conic. The small, hairy capsules
are 4-6 mm (1/4 in) long. When ripe, they open to
release tiny wind-born seeds with silky hairs at their
base.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Prairie willow grows in upland sites in prairies and
sparse woods, especially in sandy soil. It grows in
midwestern prairies in Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas and
Oklahoma. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Willows root freely from cuttings, and are easy to
propagate. Willows are difficult to propagate in
quantity by seed.
The NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, New
Mexico, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, developed a pole planting technique
for establishing willow (Hoag 1993a). We reprint
this procedure below. ".Trial planting on well adapted
sites indicate more that 80% survival of cottonwood
and willow poles when dormant poles are cut and
planted between November and February. It is
essential to monitor the water tables at proposed
planting sites for at least one year before planting.
Poles planted where the water table fluctuates widely
will have lower survival rates than those planted
where water table is relatively stable. If groundwater
monitoring shows the water level will drop more than
3 feet during the growing season (May-October),
another site should be selected. Monitoring of
observation wells for at least one calendar year
before planting will allow better planting depth to
ensure establishment.".
Steps for Successful Pole Plantings
• Select collection sites as close to the area as
possible to conserve genetic diversity. Try to
match donor site and revegetation site in terms of
soils, elevation, hydro-dynamics, permanent
groundwater table, and soil salinity (which
should be low).
• Select willow cuttings from a local, native stand
in healthy condition. Prune no more than 2/3 of
plants in an area. Willow cuttings for pole
plantings should generally be at least 1/2 inch in
diameter or larger. Select the longest, straightest
poles available. Use only two to four-year old
wood. The total length of the poles needed
depends upon the water table depth.
• Measure water table fluctuations in the planting
area for at least 1 year, preferably longer, to
determine the lowest water table depth. Take a
reading at least once a month, preferably more
often during the driest months of the year.
• Cut poles while dormant. Remove all side
branches except the top two or three.
• Prepare cuttings by trimming off the top to
• Dig holes to the depth of the lowest anticipated
water table. Sites where the water table will be
within one foot of the ground surface during the
growing season are better suited for willows than
cottonwoods.
• The cuttings should extend several inches into
the permanent water table to ensure adequate
moisture for sprouting. At least 1/2 to 2/3 s of
the cutting should be below ground to prevent
the cutting from being ripped out during high
flows. Usually, at least 2 to 3 feet should be
below ground. It should also be long enough to
remove the terminal bud, allowing a majority of
the energy in the stem to be sent to the lateral
buds for root and shot development.
• Soak poles in water for at least 5 to 7 days before
planting.
Page 3
emerge above adjacent vegetation such that it
will not be shaded out.
• Place the cuttings in the holes the same day they
were removed from the soak treatment. Set the
butt as close to the lowest annual water table
elevation as possible.
• Electric hammer drills (Dewalt model DW530)
fitted with one-inch diameter, 3-foot bits were
used to plant thousands of willows in New
Mexico. With one drill, two people installed 500
willow cuttings per day to a 3-foot depth. A
power auger or a punch bar can also be used.
• Willow pole cuttings were generally planted on
10 to 20 foot centers in New Mexico. Areas
with a shallow water table (4-6 feet) were
generally planted with a higher number of pole
cuttings to enhance overall survival. Often
understory species were planted under the
canopy of pre-existing overstory (cottonwoods,
tree willows), since they are often observed
occupying this niche.
It is critical to ensure that the soil is packed
around the cutting to prevent air pockets.
".Mudding". (filling the hole with water and then
adding soil to make mud slurry) can remove air
pockets.
•
• When necessary, install tree guards around the
poles to protect from beavers, other rodents, or
rabbits. Willows tend to be fairly resistant to
pruning from beavers, so tree guards may not be
necessary.
• As buds begin to swell (usually in April or May),
remove them from the lower two-thirds of the
pole. This will reduce evapotranspiration water
loss and stimulate root growth.
• Exclude the planting area from livestock grazing
for at least two to three growing seasons.
Seed Collections
• Willow seeds must be collected as soon as the
capsules mature (when they turn from green to
yellow or tan).
• Plant seeds immediately, since they retain their
viability for only a few days at room
temperature. Even under the most favorable
conditions, maximum storage is four to six
weeks.
• Germination takes place 12 to 14 hours after
planting. Keep soil moist while seedlings
germinate and grow.
• When seeding outdoors, willows require moist
soil from spring over-bank flows, capillary
wetting of the soil surface, or irrigation for
establishment.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional resource management of willow includes
the following:
• Willows were traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Willow is gathered only at certain times of the
year, beginning in the autumn after the leaves
fall. For many weavers, gathering will continue
until the following spring when the sap begins to
rise again.
• Often, basketweavers will prune many willows,
sometimes replanting the stems, so there will be
nice straight basketry materials the following
year.
• Before gathering, the weavers make offerings of
thanks and pray for permission to gather. Often
tobacco or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed on
willows and along streams have a much higher
health risk for humans when they are processed
and used for traditional materials.
Howe and Knopf (1991) conclude that to ensure the
survival of willows and cottonwoods in riparian
communities, resource managers need to implement
strategies to control the spread of exotic species.
Livestock grazing has widely been identified as a
leading factor causing or contributing to degradation
of riparian habitats in the western United States
(Chaney et al. 1990, Fleischner 1994, Ohmart 1996).
Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure and
composition of riparian habitat. Overgrazing,
especially by livestock and big game, frequently
changes plant species composition and growth form,
density of stands, vigor, seed production of plants,
and insect production. Livestock grazing can cause
the replacement of bird and mammal species
requiring the vertical vegetation structure of riparian
habitat to species, which are ubiquitous in their
habitat preferences. Previous heavy cattle grazing
changed the bird and small mammal community
composition in riparian areas through reduction of
shrub and herbaceous cover.
Slovlin (1984) recommended a 5-year rest from cattle
grazing to re-establish healthy stands of riparian
vegetation such as cottonwood and willows. Siekert
et al. (1985) reported that spring grazing showed no
significant changes in channel morphology, whereas
summer and fall grazing did. However, even with
limited seasonal grazing, all tree seedlings would be
eliminated. Marlow and Pogacnik (1985)
recommended fencing riparian habitat, rest-rotation,
Page 4
light grazing (<.20% forage removal), and grazing
after streambanks have dried to 10% moisture.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Prairie willow saplings are available from most
nurseries in the areas where they grow. We
recommend using plants from the same region,
elevation, climate, soil type, moisture, or hydrologic
regime as you are replanting.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1: 116-118.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Bentrup, G. &. J. C. Hoag 1998. The practical
streambank bioengineering guide. User s guide for
natural streambank stabilization techniques in the
arid and semi-arid Great Basin and Intermountain
West. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Ellis, L.M. 1994. Bird use of salt cedar and
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in northeastern Colorado. USDA, FS,
Research Note RM-370:1-4.
Elvin-Lewis, M. 1979. Empirical rationale for teeth
cleaning plant selection. Medical Anthropology
(Fall) 1979:431-456.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8:1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8:629-644.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hoag, J.C. 1992. Use of willow and cottonwood
cuttings for vegetation shorelines and riparian areas.
USDA NRCS Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series #3, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993a. Selection and acquisition of
woody plant species and materials for riparian
corridors and shorelines. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series #2, USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993b. How to plant willows and
cottonwood for riparian rehabilitation. Technical
Note #23, USDA, NRCS, Idaho Plant Materials,
Boise, Idaho.
James, G.W. 1909 (rev. 1972). Indian Basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 271
pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 276 pp.
Knopf, F.I. &. F.B. Samson 1994. Scale perspectives
on avian diversity in western riparian ecosystems.
Conservation Biology 8(3):669-676.
Marlow, C.B. &. T.M. Pogacnik 1985. Time of
grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284. IN Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R.
Patton, P.F. Folliott, &. R.H. Hamre. (Tech. Coords.)
Riparian ecosystems and their management:
Reconciling conflicting uses. Proc. First North Am.
Riparian Conf., USDA, FS, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-
120. 523 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York,
New York. 500 pp.
Mason, O.T. 1988. American Indian basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &.E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1976. Flora of the Great Plains.
Page 5
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds, pp. 156-164. IN Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (Tech. Coords.). Importance,
preservation and management of riparian habitat: a
symposium. USDA, Forest Service, Gen. Tech.
Report RM-43, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Tilford, G.L. 1997. Edible and medicinal plants of
the west. Mountain Press Publishing Company,
Missoula, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000321. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Ivan Dozier
USDA, NRCS, Champaign, Illinois
' WHERE symbol='sahu2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised 18sep00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
BROADLEAF
ARROWHEAD
Sagittaria latifolia Willd.
Plant Symbol = SALA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA NRCS 1972
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Arrowhead, Indian potato, tule potato, wapato
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Sagittaria is an aquatic plant with
tuberous roots that can be eaten like potatoes. Lewis
and Clark found it at the mouth of the Willamette and
considered it equal to the potato, and valuable for
trade. Indian women collected it in shallow water
from a canoe, or waded into ponds or marshes in the
late summer and loosened the roots with their toes.
The roots would rise to the top of the water where
they were gathered and tossed into floating baskets.
Today, the tubers are harvested with a hoe, pitchfork,
or rake. Tubers are baked in fire embers, boiled, or
roasted in the ashes. Tubers are skinned and eaten
whole or mashed.
After roasting, some tubers were dried and stored for
winter use. The Chippewa gathered the ".Indian
potatoes". in the fall, strung them, and hung them
overhead in the wigwam to dry. Later they were
boiled for use.
The tubers of Sagittaria species were eaten by many
different indigenous groups in Canada, as well as
many groups of Washington and Oregon (Kuhnlein
and Turner 1991). The tubers were also widely traded
from harvesting centers to neighboring areas. The
tubers were also a major item of commerce on the
Lower Columbia in Chinook Territory. Katzie
families owned large patches of the plant and
clearing the patches claimed ownership. Family
groups would camp beside their claimed harvesting
sites for a month or more.
A species of Sagittaria grows in China, and is sold in
the markets of China and Japan as food, the corms
being full of starch. Sagittaria latifolia is extensively
cultivated in the San Francisco Bay area in California
to supply the Chinese markets, and the tubers are
commonly to be found on sale. The Chinese, on
coming to California, used it for food and may have
cultivated it somewhat. In so doing, they are
believed to have extended its range into the southern
part of the state (Mason 1957).
Medicinally, the Maidu of California used an
infusion of arrowhead roots to clean and treat
wounds. The Navajo use these plants for headaches.
The Ojibwa and the Chippewa used Sagittaria
species as a remedy for indigestion. The Cherokee
used an infusion of leaves to bathe feverish babies,
with one sip given orally. The Iroquois used it for
rheumatism, a dermatological aid, and a laxative.
The Iroquois used it as a ceremonial blessing when
they began planting corn.
Wildlife: Tubers are planted as an wildlife food.
Ducks eat the small, flat seeds of arrowheads, but the
tubers are the most valuable to wildlife. Muskrat and
porcupine are known to eat the tubers. Swans, geese,
wood ducks, blue-winged teal, lesser and greater
scaup, ruddy duck, ring necked duck, pintail, mallard,
mottled duck, gadwall, canvasback, black duck and
king rail are known to eat arrowhead seeds and
tubers. For wildlife use, the tubers of Sagittaria
latifolia are often too large and too deeply buried to
be useful to ducks (Martin 1951).
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation such as Sagittaria species for
food. Muskrat grazed areas increase wetland
diversity by opening up the dense stands of Typha
and Schoenoplectus (Scirpus) species, and providing
opportunities for aquatic vegetation such as
Sagittaria to become established in the open water.
Muskrat huts provide a substrate for shrubs and other
plant species. Indian people often sought caches of
Sagittaria tubers stored by muskrat and beaver.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Arrowhead Family (Alismataceae). Both
Sagittaria latifolia and Sagittaria cuneata are aquatic
plants growing in swampy ground or standing water
in ponds, lakes, stream edges, and ditches (Hickman
1993). Both species have white or bluish tubers,
which are edible. The leaves are sagittate, with leaf
blades are either erect or floating on the surface of
the water. S. cuneata leaf blades are smaller, from 5
15 cm, and the lower lobes of emergent leaf blades
are less than the terminal lobe. In S. latifolia, leaf
blades are from 6-30 cm, and the lower lobes of the
emergent leaf blade are approximately equal to the
terminal lobe. The inflorescence is simple or
branching, often with the lower flowers pistillate and
the upper ones staminate. The flowers are white,
with three white petals and 3 sepals. Stamens are
numerous and bright yellow. The pistils are
numerous, spirally arranged on the receptacle. The
fruit is an achene and is greenish colored. A
diagnostic feature distinguishing the two species is
the beak on the fruit of S. cuneata is ascending to
erect and <.0.5 mm. the beak on the fruit of S. latifolia
is spreading and 1-2 mm.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Sagittaria species are obligate wetland plants
found in marshes and wetlands throughout temperate
North America. The ranges of S. cuneata and S.
latifolia overlap. S. latifolia is found from central
and southern British Columbia to Nova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island, south to California and into
South America. In California, S. latifolia is confined
to lower elevations <.1500 m. Sagittaria species
grow in ponds, slow streams, ditches and freshwater
wetlands.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Sagittaria species may be planted from bare root
stock, by transplanting the tubers, and by seeding
directly into wetland soil. Live plant transplants or
transplanting tubers are preferred revegetation
methods where there is moving water. It takes two
years for seed to germinate. planting bare root stock
or tubers gives faster revegetation results.
Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. If no more than
0.09 m² (1 ft²) are removed from a 0.4 m2 (4 ft2)
area, the plants will grow back into the hole in one
good growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during the
growing season.
Wild plants should be collected after the leaves begin
to emerge in the spring until the first frost. The
plants can be pulled up easily from wet soil. When
collecting wild plants, rinse roots gently. Leaves and
stems can be clipped from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more energy
into root production. The roots should always remain
moist or in water until planted. Plants should be
transported and stored in a cool location prior to
planting. Water depth should be 0 to 6". and the soils
should be wet.
Sagittaria grows prolifically around ponds or
wetlands in shallow water. Plug spacing of 25-30 cm
will fill in within one growing season. Soil should be
kept saturated, with approximately 1/2". of water over
the surface of the soil after planting. If water is low
in nutrients (oligotrophic), fertilization will speed
biomass production and revegetation. Many surface
waters are already rich in nutrients (eutrophic), and
fertilization is not necessary.
Indian potatoes transplant success may be greater
with the tubers than with bare root stock. The little
underground potatoes can be separated from the
parent plants with a rake, hoe, or shovel. In
unconsolidated soils, the tubers can be pulled up by
hand by searching around the roots of the plant.
After collecting, the Sagittaria potatoes should be
kept moist and cool, and stored in peat moss.
Potatoes are then planted in shallow water, in the
same conditions as described above for the whole
plants. Potatoes should be collected and planted
Page 3
when plants are dormant, in the fall, winter and early
spring.
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
Seed Germination: Seeds of Sagittaria species take
two years to germinate, because they have a double
dormancy requiring cold then warm then cold
temperatures. Temperature has a multiple role in the
regulation of timing of germination. Dormant seeds
become non-dormant only at specific temperatures,
non-dormant seeds have specific temperature
requirements for germination, and non-dormant seeds
of some species are induced into dormancy by certain
temperatures. Once Sagittaria seeds germinate, they
have fairly high viability. Procedures for growing
Sagittaria seeds in the greenhouse have not been
developed at this time.
Sagittaria seeds can be planted directly in wetlands
or ponds. Prepare the area by creating a washboard
in shallow water, at mudflat consistency. Seeds
should then be scattered on the surface of the soil, as
the seeds need sunlight to germinate well. Light and
temperature in natural conditions will promote seed
germination, and in two years Sagittaria plants will
emerge.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
Sagittaria species require moist soils to standing
water for successful revegetation.
We have no record of specific traditional resource
management techniques other than anecdotal
information of the use of fire to keep dense tule
marshes open, which provided an opportunity for
colonization and spread of Sagittaria species. The
harvest of arrowhead was usually made in late
summer as the stems and leaves were dying (and
usually when the water table was lower) (Balls 1962).
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available from native plant nurseries specializing in
aquatic plants. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Angier, B. 1974. Field guide to edible wild plants.
Stackpole Books. 255 pp.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok caterial
culture Indian life of the Yosemite region. Yosemite
Association. Yosemite National Parks, California.
388 pp.
Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York. 397 pp.
Fowler, C.S. 1992. In the shadow of Fox Peak. An
ethnography of the cattail-eater Northern Paiute
people of Stillwater Marsh. Cultural Resource Series
#5. USDI, FWS, Stillwater National Wildlife
Refuge. 264 pp.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln and London. 125 pp.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Hedrick, U.P. 1972. Sturtevant s edible plants of the
world. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 686 pp.
Hickman, James C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1995. Use of greenhouse
propagated wetland plants versus live transplants to
vegetate constructed or created wetlands.
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant Development
Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers 1994. Seed and live
transplant collection procedures for 7 wetland plant
species. Interagency Riparian/Wetland Plant
Development Project, USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials
Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Page 4
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Kuhnlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous p eoples.
Nutrition, botany and use. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 633 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife
food habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York.
500 pp.
Mason, H.L. 1957. A flora of the marshes of
California. University of California Press. 878 pp.
Mayer, K.E. &. W.F. Laudenslayer Jr., eds. 1988. A
guide to wildlife habitats of California. USDA
Forest Service, California Department of Fish and
Game, PG&.E.
Moerman, D.E. 1986. Medicinal plants of native
America. University of Michigan Museum of
Anthropology. Technical Reports, Number 19. 534
pp.
Peterson, L.A. 1977. A field guide to edible wild
plant. Eastern and Central North America. Houghton
Mifflin Company. 330 pp.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal Uses of California s
Indigenous Plants. Koeltz Scientific Books
USA/Germany. 210 pp.
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 05apr1999.
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
' WHERE symbol='sala2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
SHINING WILLOW
Salix lucida Muhl.
Plant Symbol = SALU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Illinois State Office
Robert Mollenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
willow
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Willows were used for making dye, furniture, mats,
baskets, drums, stirrups, tipi pegs and pins, fox and
fish traps, hunting lodge poles, and meat-drying racks
(Kindscher 1992). Willows were and still are used
for baskets throughout their range. The Paiute, Ute,
Shoshone, Hopi, Havasupai, Mandan, Cheyenne,
Arapaho, Kiowa, and others use Salix lucida for
basketweaving (James 1972, Mason 1988).
Kelly Kindscher(1992) wrote in Medicinal Wild
Plants of the Prairie: ".The Blackfeet made a tea from
the fresh root of Salix species to treat internal
hemorrhage, throat constrictions, swollen neck
glands, and bloodshot or irritated eyes. The twigs
were also gathered and preserved. Steeped in boiling
water, they were made into a tea to cure fever or
alleviate pain.".
Salix species were used as chew sticks to clean teeth
by many other Indian tribes, including the Choctaw,
Delaware, and Cheyenne. The shining willow was
favored by the Osage, Delaware, and Cherokee for
this purpose (Elvin-Lewis 1979). The Kiowa made a
tea of willow leaves, which they rubbed on the body
to cure pneumonia and relieve rheumatic aches.
They also chewed the bark to relieve toothache
Plant Guide
(Vestal and Shultes 1939). The Comanche burned
the stems of the willow and used the ashes to treat
sore eyes (Carlson and Jones 1939). To restore
themselves both physically and mentally, the Dakota
drank a willow-bark tea (Andros 1883). The Ojibwe
used shining willow bark externally to treat skin
rashes.
Aspirin is the pharmaceutical equivalent of willow
bark tea, which is an effective remedy for headache,
fever or sore throat. More than 2,400 years ago, the
Greeks learned to use extracts of several native
willow species to treat pain, gout, and other illnesses.
In more recent times, 1839, salicylic acid was
isolated from wild plants and manufactured
synthetically. Early salicylic acid-based products had
unpleasant side effects. Sixty years later, the Bayer
Company developed a derivative of salicylic acid,
called it aspirin, and the rest is history.
Tea made from willow leaves will cure laryngitis.
Willow reduces inflammation of joints and
membranes (Moore 1979). When used as an
analgesic, willow treats urethra and bladder irritation,
infected wounds, and eczema. Willow is used as an
over-all treatment of many diseases, including hay
fever, diarrhea, prostatitis, satyriasis, and ovarian
pain. A poultice is made for treating gangrene and
skin ulcers.
Young willow shoots can be stripped of their bark
and eaten. The young leaves may be eaten in case of
emergency. The inner bark can be eaten raw,
prepared like spaghetti, or made into flour.
Riparian: Riparian ecosystem functions provided by
willows include the following: 1) Riparian vegetation
traps sediments and nutrients from surface runoff and
prevents them from entering the aquatic system. 2)
the dense matrix of roots in the riparian zone can
serve as an effective filter of shallow groundwater. 3)
water quality is improved through filtration and the
trapping of sediment, nutrients (particularly nitrogen
dissolved in groundwater), and pollutants. and 4)
riparian areas act as a sponge by absorbing
floodwaters. The water is then slowly released over a
period of time, which minimizes flood damage and
sustains higher base flows during late summer.
Wildlife: Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species. The layers
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
of vegetation provide multiple niches for many
species of insects and wildlife. Canopies of plants
growing on streambank provide shade, cooling
stream water, while roots stabilize and create
overhanging banks, providing habitat for fish and
other aquatic organisms.
Rabbits and many ungulates (including deer, moose,
and elk) browse on willow twigs, foliage, and bark
(Martin 1951). Beaver love willow branches.
Several species of birds eat willow buds and young
twigs. Riparian forests support a high diversity of
breeding birds (Miller 1951). The percentage of
breeding individuals, which are migratory, is very
high in the cottonwood-willow habitat. Moister
conditions in the cottonwood-willow forest may
promote lush plant growth, higher invertebrate
populations and, therefore, more available food for
flycatchers, warblers, and other migratory,
insectivorous birds. Riparian areas support up to
10.6 times the density of migrant birds per hectare as
adjacent non-riparian areas (Stevens et al. 1977).
Most of these migratory birds belong to the foliage
insect (47%) or air insect (34%) foraging guilds.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Willow Family (Salicaceae). Shining willow is a
shrub or small tree to 4 m (13 feet) (McGregor et al.
1986, Stephens 1973). The twigs are gray to
yellowish-brown. Leaves are yellowish green to
green and semi-glossy above, pale beneath, initially
reddish-pubescent, soon glabrous. Leaves are lance-
shaped, 4-12 cm (1.2-4.7".) long and finely glandular-
serrate. The petioles are glandular above. Catkins
emerge with the leaves. pistillate (female) catkins are
1-3 cm long, on leaf branchlets 1-3 cm long. Bracts
are deciduous, pale yellow, and villous on the inside.
The fruits are ovoid capsules 4-6.5 mm long, with a
long neck. When ripe, the capsules open to release
tiny wind-born seeds with silky hairs at their base.
Shining willow flowers in May and fruits in June.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Shining willow grows in swamps, shores and wet
meadows. It occurs in Minnesota, north Iowa, North
Dakota, Labrador, Newfoundland to Saskatchewan,
south to Delaware, Ohio, Iowa, and South Dakota.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Willows root freely from cuttings, and are easy to
propagate. Willows are difficult to propagate in
quantity by seed.
The NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, New
Mexico, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, developed a pole planting technique
for establishing willow (Hoag 1993a). We reprint
this procedure below. ".Trial planting on well adapted
sites indicate more that 80% survival of cottonwood
and willow poles when dormant poles are cut and
planted between November and February. It is
essential to monitor the water tables at proposed
planting sites for at least one year before planting.
Poles planted where the water table fluctuates widely
will have lower survival rates than those planted
where water table is relatively stable. If groundwater
monitoring shows the water level will drop more than
3 feet during the growing season (May-October),
another site should be selected. Monitoring of
observation wells for at least one calendar year
before planting will allow better planting depth to
ensure establishment.".
Steps for Successful Pole Plantings
• Select collection sites as close to the area as
possible to conserve genetic diversity. Try to
match donor site and revegetation site in terms of
soils, elevation, hydro-dynamics, permanent
groundwater table, and soil salinity (which
should be low).
• Select willow cuttings from a local, native stand
in healthy condition. Prune no more than 2/3 of
plants in an area. Willow cuttings for pole
plantings should generally be at least 1/2 inch in
diameter or larger. Select the longest, straightest
poles available. Use only two to four-year old
wood. The total length of the poles needed
depends upon the water table depth.
• Measure water table fluctuations in the planting
area for at least 1 year, preferably longer, to
determine the lowest water table depth. Take a
reading at least once a month, preferably more
often during the driest months of the year.
• Cut poles while dormant. Remove all side
branches except the top two or three.
• Prepare cuttings by trimming off the top to
remove the terminal bud, allowing a majority of
the energy in the stem to be sent to the lateral
buds for root and shot development.
• Soak poles in water for at least 5 to 7 days before
planting.
Page 3
• Dig holes to the depth of the lowest anticipated
water table. Sites where the water table will be
within one foot of the ground surface during the
growing season are better suited for willows than
cottonwoods.
• The cuttings should extend several inches into
the permanent water table to ensure adequate
moisture for sprouting. At least 1/2 to 2/3 s of
the cutting should be below ground to prevent
the cutting from being ripped out during high
flows. Usually, at least 2 to 3 feet should be
below ground. It should also be long enough to
emerge above adjacent vegetation such that it
will not be shaded out.
• Place the cuttings in the holes the same day they
were removed from the soak treatment. Set the
butt as close to the lowest annual water table
elevation as possible.
• Electric hammer drills (Dewalt model DW530)
fitted with one-inch diameter, 3-foot bits were
used to plant thousands of willows in New
Mexico. With one drill, two people installed 500
willow cuttings per day to a 3-foot depth. A
power auger or a punch bar can also be used.
• Willow pole cuttings were generally planted on
• When necessary, install tree guards around the
poles to protect from beavers, other rodents, or
rabbits. Willows tend to be fairly resistant to
pruning from beavers, so tree guards may not be
necessary.
• As buds begin to swell (usually in April or May),
remove them from the lower two-thirds of the
pole. This will reduce evapotranspiration water
loss and stimulate root growth.
• Exclude the planting area from livestock grazing
for at least two to three growing seasons.
Seed Collections
• Willow seeds must be collected as soon as the
capsules mature (when they turn from green to
yellow or tan).
10 to 20 foot centers in New Mexico. Areas
with a shallow water table (4-6 feet) were
generally planted with a higher number of pole
cuttings to enhance overall survival. Often
understory species were planted under the
canopy of pre-existing overstory (cottonwoods,
tree willows), since they are often observed
occupying this niche.
It is critical to ensure that the soil is packed
around the cutting to prevent air pockets.
".Mudding". (filling the hole with water and then
adding soil to make mud slurry) can remove air
pockets.
•
• Plant seeds immediately, since they retain their
viability for only a few days at room
temperature. Even under the most favorable
conditions, maximum storage is four to six
weeks.
• Germination takes place 12 to 14 hours after
planting. Keep soil moist while seedlings
germinate and grow.
• When seeding outdoors, willows require moist
soil from spring over-bank flows, capillary
wetting of the soil surface, or irrigation for
establishment.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Traditional resource management of willow includes
the following:
• Willows were traditionally tended by pruning or
burning to produce long straight stems.
• Willow is gathered only at certain times of the
year, beginning in the autumn after the leaves
fall. For many weavers, gathering will continue
until the following spring when the sap begins to
rise again.
• Often, basketweavers will prune many willows,
sometimes replanting the stems, so there will be
nice straight basketry materials the following
year.
• Before gathering, the weavers make offerings of
thanks and pray for permission to gather. Often
tobacco or other offerings are given before
beginning to gather.
• Basket weavers process materials with their
hands and mouths. Herbicides sprayed on
willows and along streams have a much higher
health risk for humans, when willows are
processed and used for traditional materials.
Howe and Knopf (1991) conclude that to ensure the
survival of willows and cottonwoods in riparian
communities, resource managers need to implement
strategies to control the spread of exotic species.
Livestock grazing has widely been identified as a
leading factor causing or contributing to degradation
of riparian habitats in the western United States
(Chaney et al. 1990, Fleischner 1994, Ohmart 1996).
Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure and
composition of riparian habitat. Overgrazing,
especially by livestock and big game, frequently
changes plant species composition and growth form,
density of stands, vigor, seed production of plants,
and insect production. Livestock grazing can cause
the replacement of bird and mammal species
requiring the vertical vegetation structure of riparian
habitat to species, which are ubiquitous in their
Page 4
habitat preferences. Previous heavy cattle grazing
changed the bird and small mammal community
composition in riparian areas through reduction of
shrub and herbaceous cover.
Slovlin (1984) recommended a 5-year rest from cattle
grazing to re-establish healthy stands of riparian
vegetation such as cottonwood and willows. Siekert
et al. (1985) reported that spring grazing showed no
significant changes in channel morphology, whereas
summer and fall grazing did. However, even with
limited seasonal grazing, all tree seedlings would be
eliminated. Marlow and Pogacnik (1985)
recommended fencing riparian habitat, rest-rotation,
light grazing (<.20% forage removal), and grazing
after streambanks have dried to 10% moisture.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Containerized shining willow saplings are available
from most nurseries in the areas where they grow.
We recommend using plants from the same region,
elevation, climate, soil type, moisture, or hydrologic
regime as you are replanting.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Andros, F. 1883. The medicine and surgery of the
Winnebago and Dakota Indians. American Medical
Association Journal 1: 116-118.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Bentrup, G. &. J. C. Hoag 1998. The practical
streambank bioengineering guide. User s guide for
natural streambank stabilization techniques in the
arid and semi-arid Great Basin and Intermountain
West. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho.
Carlson, G.G. &. V.H. Jones 1939. Some notes on
use of plants by the Comanche Indians. Michigan
Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters 25: 517-543.
Ellis, L.M. 1994. Bird use of salt cedar and
cottonwoods on a grazed and ungrazed plains
bottomland in Northeastern Colorado. USDA, FS,
Research Note RM-370:1-4.
Elvin-Lewis, M. 1979. Empirical rationale for teeth
cleaning plant selection. Medical Anthropology
(Fall) 1979:431-456.
Farley, G.H., L.M. Ellis, J.N. Stuart, &. N.J. Scott, Jr.
1994. Avian species richness in different-aged stands
of riparian forest along the middle Rio Grande, New
Mexico. Conservation Biology 8:1098-1108.
Fleishner, T.L. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock
grazing in western North America. Conservation
Biology 8:629-644.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647
pp.
Hoag, J.C. 1992. Use of willow and cottonwood
cuttings for vegetation shorelines and riparian areas.
USDA NRCS Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series #3, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993a. Selection and acquisition of
woody plant species and materials for riparian
corridors and shorelines. Riparian/Wetland Project
Information Series #2, USDA, NRCS, Plant
Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho.
Hoag, J.C. 1993b. How to plant willows and
cottonwood for riparian rehabilitation. Technical
Note #23, USDA, NRCS, Idaho Plant Materials,
Boise, Idaho.
James, G.W. 1909 (rev. 1972). Indian basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 271
pp.
Kindscher, K. 1992. Medicinal wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 340 pp.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of
Kansas. 276 pp.
Knopf, F.I. &. F.B. Samson 1994. Scale perspectives
on avian diversity in western riparian ecosystems.
Conservation Biology 8(3):669-676.
Marlow, C.B. &. T.M. Pogacnik 1985. Time of
grazing and cattle-induced damage to streambanks.
Pages 279-284. IN Johnson, R.R., C.D. Ziebell, D.R.
Patton, P.F. Ffolliott, and R.H. Hamre. (Tech.
Coords.) Riparian ecosystems and their
Page 5
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Environmental Horticulture,
University of California, Davis, California
Revised 04dec00 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
management: Reconciling conflicting uses. Proc.
First North Am. Riparian Conf., USDA, FS, Gen.
Tech. Rep. RM-120. 523 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants. A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Mason, O.T. 1988. American Indian basketry.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York.
McGregor, R.L., T.M. Barkley, R.E. Brooks, &.E.K.
Schofield (eds.) 1976. Flora of the Great Plains.
Great Plains Flora Association. University Press of
Kansas. 1402 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4(2):175-326.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the north
central plains. The University Press of Kansas. 530
pp.
Stevens, L.E., B.T. Brown, J.M. Simpson, &. R.R.
Johnson 1977. The importance of riparian habitat to
migrating birds, pp. 156-164. IN Johnson, R.R. &.
D.A. Jones (Tech. Coords.). Importance,
preservation and management of riparian habitat: a
symposium. USDA, Forest Service, Gen. Tech.
Report RM-43, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. 217 pp.
Tilford, G.L. 1997. Edible and medicinal plants of
the west. Mountain Press Publishing Company,
Missoula, Montana.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000321. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vestal, P.A. &. R.E. Schultes 1939. The economic
botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='salu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Ivan Dozier
USDA, NRCS, Carlinville, Illinois
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
PACIFIC WILLOW
Salix lucida Muhl. ssp.
lasiandra (Benth.) E. Murr.
Plant Symbol = SALUL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
Agroforestry: Salix lasiandra is used in tree strips for
windbreaks. They are planted and managed to
protect livestock, enhance production, and control
soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with
harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of
winter storms and reduce home heating costs during
the winter months.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pacific willow (Salix lasiandra) is a tall,
slender, large shrub or small tree, fifteen to forty-five
feet high (McMinn &. Maino 1963). The leaves are
long, thin, shiny, five to ten centimeters long with
finely
toothed edges. The fruits are thick catkins that are
hairless, light reddish-brown, and six to eight
millimeters long. The bark is furrowed with broad
flat scaly plates.
Distribution: Pacific willow is native along stream
banks from British Columbia southward to southern
California and New Mexico (McMinn &. Maino
1963). For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Salix lasiandra is a fast growing but short-lived tree.
This species prefers a damp heavy soil but will
succeed in most soils. This species is often found in
riverbanks, floodplains, lakeshores, and wet
meadows often standing in quiet river backwaters
(MacKinnon, Pojar, &. Coupe 1992). It grows best in
a sunny position scattered at low elevations along
major rivers (Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seeds must be sown as soon
as they are ripe in the spring. Seeds are viable for
only a few days and the maximum storage period is
four to six weeks with germination rates dropping off
fast after ten days at room temperature (Dirr &.
Heuser 1987). Willow seeds have no dormancy and
germinate within twelve to twenty-four hours after
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='yellow willow, red willow, black willow, whiplash
willow, golden willow, caudate willow, western
black willow, waxy willow, western shining willow,
Salix lasiandra (SALA5)
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The inner bark was dried, ground into
a powder, and then added to flour for making bread.
The stems and bark were used in basket making
(Moerman 1998). The native Americans used the
stems for bow making and the bark for fabric making
and tea.
Medicinal: Willows produce salicin, which is closely
related to acetylsalicyclic acid, commonly known as
aspirin. Various preparations from willows are used
to treat stomachache, sore throats, colds, diarrhea,
and dandruff. The inner bark is haemostatic and has
been applied externally to bleeding cuts (Moerman
1998).
Landscaping &. Wildlife: Pacific willow is an
excellent species for use in landscaping. It provides
food and cover for many wildlife species. Deer and
elk browse the young shoots of the plant. It is also a
preferred food of mouse and cattle.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
falling on moist ground (Ibid.). Seedbeds must be
kept moist until seedlings are well established.
Propagation from Cuttings: Hardwood cuttings can
be collected and prepared for insertion, normally
from November through March. Cuttings seven to
ten inches long and a half to one inch thick are
initially stuck close and dug after one year (Dirr &.
Heuser 1987). Willows have a rooting percentage of
ninety to one-hundred percent and the rooting
number is not promoted by rooting hormones (Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Pacific willow is used to colonize disturbed sites for
streambank stabilization projects. Cuttings are used
for revegetating disturbed riparian areas to extract
soil moisture and high amounts of carbohydrates.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='
Available from wetland plant nurseries within its
range. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Howell, J.T. 1949. Marin Flora: manual of the
flowering plants and ferns of Marin County,
California. University of California Press, Berkeley
&. Los Angeles, California.
MacKinnon, A., J. Pojar, &. R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of the northern British Columbia. Lone Pine
Publishing, Canada.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of Pacific Coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the Pacific
Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 410.
Washington, D.C.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
' WHERE symbol='salul';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 09jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
DWARF PALMETTO
Sabal minor (Jacq.) Pers.
Plant Symbol = SAMI8
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Bluestem, scrub palmetto, bush palmetto.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic:
The Houma used juice crushed from the small roots
as an eye medicine to relieve irritation. Dried roots
were taken for high blood pressure. A tea from the
dried roots was taken for kidney ailments and as a
stimulant for “swimming in the head.” The fresh
roots were baked and served as “palmetto bread.”
The small fruits, sometimes called “famine food”
were also eaten. The Seminoles, Houma, Choctaw,
and other Native American tribes used the leaves of
dwarf palmetto much in the same way that they used
the leaves of the related tree, cabbage palmetto
(Sabal palmetto). The fan-shaped leaves were used
to thatch homes. Immature blades from the leaves
were prepared by sun-bleaching and then braided into
thin strips for use as lashings or sewn together to
make baskets and other useful articles. Leaves were
used to make fans that were carried during certain
dances. Coiled-grass baskets tied with palmetto were
made by the Houma as late as the 1930s. These
unique baskets were made only in Louisiana and
Tierra del Fuego. Contemporary people use the
Plant Guide
palmetto leaves to weave baskets and make small
dolls with hair of Spanish moss.
Wildlife: The fruits are an important food for robins
and raccoons, providing from 10% to 20% of their
diet. Fish crows, mockingbirds, myrtle warblers,
pileated and red-bellied woodpeckers, and gray
squirrels also eat the fruits.
Livestock: This plant is reported to be frequently
grazed by cattle, more so than any other palm.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: This shrub-like palm generally reaches a
height of only 0.5 to 2 m. The stem is usually not
visible, being either buried or very short, although it
has been reported to occasionally reach 8m tall in
Louisiana and Texas. The circular, fan-like leaves
are composed of 16 to 40 pale- or blue-green blades
that are 15dm wide. These stiff, nearly flat blades do
not have a prominent midrib. The white flower
petals are 2 to 3 mm long. The small fruits (6-8mm
in diameter) are glossy black in color and enclose a
large seed (5-6mm). The fruits ripen in the fall.
Similar species: Cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto)
is a palm tree that can reach 20 m in height. Saw
palmetto (Serenoa repens) often has a similar
appearance as dwarf palmetto as it has a short or
horizontal stem. It grows in the same native range
but is less cold hardy.
Distribution: Native to the Gulf Coast States and
Florida. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Dwarf palmetto grows along streams, in swampy or
rocky hammocks and in maritime heaths along the
coastal plain in the southeastern United States. It is
common to freshwater wetlands and floodplain
forests where it often forms dense thickets. It rarely
occurs in upland woodlands. This is the hardiest of
the Sabal genus as well as one of the hardiest of
palms.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Dwarf palmetto is simple to grow and can be grown
in a wide variety of soils with medium drainage and
fertility in both moist and fairly dry areas. It has a
slow to moderate growth rate.
Seeds: May be easily propagated from seed as fresh
seed germinates readily. Transplant in the following
year.
Transplanting: It is best to transplant in June or July.
Water frequently until the plant shows growth to
ensure proper establishment of the root system.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Established plants tend to self-sow. Fruit drupes may
be removed if self-sowing is not desired.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Barbour, M.G. &. W.D. Billings, Editors 2000.
North American terrestrial vegetation, Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK. 708 pp.
Brown, R.C. 1994. Florida’s first people: 12,000
years of human history. Pineapple Press, Inc.,
Sarasota, Florida. 262 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol. 1.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 712
pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory &. G.A. Stokes 1994.
The historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Louisiana
State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 324
pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American
ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927
pp.
Neill, W.T. 1956. The story of Florida’s Seminole
Indians. Second Edition. Great Outdoors Publishing
Co., St. Petersburg, Florida. 128 pp.
Ottesen, C. 1995. The native plant primer. Harmony
Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody
ornamentals for Deep South gardens. University of
West Florida Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man: Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference Vol. XIV(4): 49-75.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts.
328 pp.
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Page 3
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='sami8';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 21May2001 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMON
ELDERBERRY
Sambucus nigra L. ssp.
canadensis (L.) R. Bolli
Plant Symbol = SANIC4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Elderberries are quite edible. The blue or purple
berries are gathered and made into elderberry wine,
jam, syrup, and pies. The entire flower cluster can be
dipped in batter and fried while petals can be eaten
raw or made into a fragrant and tasty tea. The flowers
add an aromatic flavor and lightness to pancakes or
fritters.
The elderberry is of well-known value to the Indians
of North America and the many purposes it serves
(Barrow 1967). Elderberry is highly prized by both
Spaniards and Cahuillas. Throughout the months of
July and August the small clusters of berries are
gathered in large quantities. These clusters are dried
carefully on the drying floor and preserved in
considerable amounts. When wanted, they are
cooked into a rich sauce that needs no sweetening. A
Cahuilla family during this season of the year will
subsist largely on these messes of ".sauco.".
Frequently, the elderberry was so greatly enjoyed that
families would live for weeks on little else. Many
were dried for use in the winter, and were either re-
cooked or eaten raw. Elderberries are still highly
prized for food by modern Indian people.
Elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating
dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep
black by soaking them for a week or so in a wash
made from the berry stems of the elderberry
(Barrows 1967). The Cahuilla split basketry
materials from the aromatic sumac (Rhus trilobata).
Elderberry branches were used to make the shaft of
arrows. Flutes and whistles were constructed by
boring holes into stems hollowed out with hot sticks.
Clapper sticks were made by splitting the stem and
clapping the two halves against each other. Clapper
sticks were used ceremonially in the round-house to
accompany singing and dancing. The pith of the
stems was used as tinder, and the stem itself was
employed as a twirling stick for starting the fire.
Hollowed-out elderberry stems can be made into
squirt guns.
In the middle ages elderberry was considered a Holy
Tree, capable of restoring good health, keeping good
health, and as an aid to longevity.
Fruits of elderberry are gathered from the wild for
wine, jellies, candy, pies, and sauces. The plants are
commercially cultivated for fruit production in
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Arizona elderberry, American elder, sweet elder, wild
elder, flor sauco, tree of music, Danewort, Walewort,
New Mexican elderberry, velvet-leaf elder, hairy blue
elderberry, and dwarf elder. Taxonomically, there
have been recent changes in this elderberry species.
It was previously divided into Sambucus coriacea,
Sambucus orbiculata, Sambucus velutina, and
Sambucus caerulea (Munz 1968). This species is
known in some floras as Sambucus mexicana.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Only the blue or purple berries of
elderberry are edible. Edible berries and flower are
used for medicine, dyes for basketry, arrow shafts,
flute, whistles, clapper sticks, and folk medicine.
The active alkaloids in elderberry plants are
hydrocyanic acid and sambucine. Both alkaloids will
cause nausea so care should be observed with this
plant. Elderberries are high in Vitamin C. The red
berries of other species are toxic and should not be
gathered.
The wood is hard and has been used for combs,
spindles, and pegs, and the hollow stems have been
fashioned into flutes and blowguns.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Oregon. Sambucus canadensis and S. nigra have
long been used in the same way, and cultivars of both
have been developed. All parts of the elderberry
plant are considered to be a valuable healing plant in
many folk medicine traditions (Hutchens 1991,
Walker et al. 1993. Barrett et al. 1933. Clarke 1977).
Elderberry flowers contain flavenoids and rutin,
which are known to improve immune function,
particularly in combination with vitamin “C.” The
flowers also contain tannins, which account for its
traditional use to reduce bleeding, diarrhea, and
congestion.
The flowers are the mildest part of the plant and
prepared as a tea, are used to break dry fevers and
stimulate perspiration, aid headache, indigestion,
twitching eyes, dropsy, rheumatism, appendix
inflammation, bladder or kidney infections, colds,
influenza, consumption (bleeding in lungs), and is
helpful to newborn babies (Hutchens 1991). Used as
a wash, the flowers or leaves are good for wounds,
sprains, and bruises, as well as for sores on domestic
animals. The leaves, which are stronger, have a
slightly laxative property. Applied externally, leaves,
flowers, bark and twigs are excellent as a poultice,
mixed equally with chamomile, for soreness,
inflammations, joint stiffness, and to reduce the
swelling of bee stings. The flowers and berries,
employed as a diuretic, can aid arthritis and
rheumatism. Steeped in water, the flowers are used
externally to aid in complexion beauty, tone and
soften the skin, and lighten freckles or spots. The
berry juice made into salve aids burns and scalds.
The juice taken internally will act as a purgative.
Livestock: Elderberry is a useful range plant for
domestic livestock, but is not equally palatable
during all seasons. It is usually receives limited
browsing in the spring and to a much greater extent
in the late summer and fall. The leaves are eagerly
devoured after the first heavy frost in the fall.
Because many branches are beyond the reach of the
animals, utilization is less destructive. Browse
rating: Good for goats. good to fair for sheep. good to
poor for deer. fair for cattle. and fair to poor for
horses (Sampson and Jesperson 1981).
Wildlife: Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species. Different
groups of animals occupy or use the different layers
of vegetation, and this multi-story arrangement is
often present nowhere else in the arid landscapes.
Canopies of plants growing on stream banks provide
shade, cooling stream water, while roots stabilize and
create overhanging banks, providing habitat for fish
and other aquatic organisms.
Game birds, squirrels and other rodents, and several
kinds of browsers also feed on the fruit or foliage of
elderberry. Bears love to eat the elderberry fruits
while deer, elk, and moose browse on the stems and
foliage. The elderberries are important sources of
summer food for many kinds of songbirds. For
example, the western bluebird, indigo bunting,
common house finch, red-shafted flicker, ash-
throated flycatcher, black-headed grosbeak, scrub
jay, Stellar jay, ruby-crowned kinglet, mockingbird,
red-breasted nuthatch, Bullock’s oriole, hooded
oriole, song sparrow, white-crowned sparrow,
western tanager, California thrasher, russet-backed
thrush, brown towhee, Audubon warbler, cedar
waxwing, Lewis and Nuttall s woodpecker, wren-tit,
grouse, pheasant, and pigeons all eat elderberries
(Martin et al. 1951).
The valley elderberry longhorn beetle (VELB)
(Desmocerus californicus dimorphus) was listed as
threatened under The Endangered Species Act on
August 8, 1980. The elderberry beetle is endemic to
moist valley oak riparian woodlands along the
margins of rivers and streams in the lower
Sacramento and upper San Joaquin Valley of
California where elderberry grows. The primary
threat to the VELB is loss of habitat, insecticide and
herbicide use, and lack of elderberry shrubs/trees as a
food plant for the beetle. The mitigation for VELB
habitat loss, considered a taking under The
Endangered Species Act, is quite stringent (U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service Mitigation Guidelines).
In general, longhorn beetles are characterized by
somewhat elongate and cylindrical bodies with long
antennae, often in excess of 2/3 of the body length.
Male VELB have a metallic-green pattern of 4
oblong maculations, surrounded by a bright red-
orange border. The body length is about 13-21 mm,
and antennae are about a long as the body. Females
are more robust, with body length about 18-25 mm,
and the dark pattern is not reduced.
Elderberry is planted because of its forage and cover
value, productivity, adaptability, and ease of
establishment. It is a useful ground cover for
stabilizing streambanks and eroding sites. It provides
food, cover, perching, and nesting sites for many
species of birds and food and cover for various other
wildlife, and it is important as browse for mule deer
and elk. In the spring the leaves may be strongly
scented and less palatable, but they sweeten and
become more palatable by fall.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, wetland indicator values.
Western riparian ecosystems have been greatly
altered by human activity. Riparian forests have been
reduced to fragmented, discontinuous patches
because of human intervention. For example,
estimates are that 70 - 90 percent of the natural
riparian ecosystems in the U.S. have been lost to
human activities. Regional losses in these
ecosystems have been estimated to exceed 98% in the
Sacramento Valley in California. Many factors have
contributed to these resource losses, including the
following: natural resource use. urbanization.
alteration of stream flows through dam construction
and ground-water withdrawal. modification of biotic
conditions through grazing, agriculture, introduction
of non-native species. and alteration within
watersheds.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).
Native shrubs growing 2-4(-8) m tall, less commonly
small single-stemmed trees, young twigs soft and
pithy but the wood hard. bark thin, grayish to dark
brown, irregularly furrowed and ridged. The
pinnately compound leaves are deciduous, opposite,
about 15-35 cm long, odd-pinnate with (3-)5-9
serrate leaflets 2-15 cm long, often with a long stalk,
often asymmetrical at the base. Elderberry leaves,
especially on seedlings or shrub-sized plants (without
fruits or flowers) resemble California walnut
(Juglans hindsii) and Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia).
The inflorescence is flat-topped, 4-20(-30) cm across,
broader than high. flowers bisexual, the corollas
small, white to cream, rotate, 5-lobed, with a
pleasant, yet slightly rancid odor. Fruit is berry-like,
5-6 mm wide, with 3-5 nutlets, blue- to purple-black
at maturity with a white-waxy bloom and appearing
powder blue. The common name “elder” is from the
Anglo-Saxon “ellen,” meaning fire-kindler, the dry,
pithy stems. blue from the fruit color.
Distribution: Common elderberry is common along
stream banks, river banks, and open places in riparian
areas lower than <. 3000 m. From west Texas north
to Montana, western Alberta, and southern British
Columbia, and all other western states, south into
northwest Mexico. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Elderberry grows on moist, well-drained sunny sites,
usually occurring in early seral communities or in
openings in moist forest habitats (slopes, canyons,
cliff bases, streamsides, streambanks) and moist areas
within drier, more open habitats (sagebrush,
mountain brush, pinyon-juniper, ponderosa pine,
often along fence rows and roads). at elevations of 3-
3000 meters. Elderberry is a dominant understory
species in riparian woodlands. It can persist past
seral stages as scattered individuals in open forests,
woodlands, chaparral, or riparian zones. This species
flowers from May to September and fruits from July
to October. Common elderberry is more common on
warmer sites than red elderberry (Sambucus
racemosa), although they overlap in habitat
preference.
In California, common riparian woodland associates
are valley oak (Quercus lobata), interior live oak
(Quercus wislizenii), California walnut (Juglans
hindsii), and California sycamore (Platanus
racemosa). Box elder (Acer negundo), Oregon ash
(Fraxinus latifolia), alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and
willow (Salix gooddingii, Salix exigua, Salix
lasiandra, and Salix laevigata) are particularly
prevalent in the subcanopy. Understory species are
mostly shrubs, including elderberry (Sambucus
mexicana), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis),
blackberry (Rubus spp.), and California rose (Rosa
californica). Lianas, such as poison oak
(Toxicodendron diversiloba) and California grape
(Vitis californica) are a dominant feature.
Herbaceous vegetation is 1% cover except in
openings where tall forbs may occur.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Elderberry produces a good seed crop almost every
year. The seeds are dispersed by birds and other
animals that eat the fruit. The seeds have a hard seed
coat and embryo dormancy and may remain viable
for up to 16 years in storage. Without pretreatment,
seed germination may be delayed from 2 to 5 years
after planting. Plants may flower and fruit after only
2-3 years and can reach full size in 3-4 years. They
are said to be “short-lived.” Vegetative reproduction
is limited to coppicing if the stems are killed or
injured.
Seeds:
Elderberry grows best from seed.
Elderberry fruits are collected when ripe and spread
in thin layers to dry.
To separate seeds from fruits either 1) run fruit
through a macerator with water and the pulp and
empty seeds float. 2) crush, dry and use without
Page 4
separating fruits and seeds. and 3) for small
amounts of fruit they can be cleaned in a fruit
blender.
• Elderberry seed can be stored dry at 41 °F for
several years.
• Elderberry seeds can be sown in the fall soon
after collection, or stratified and sown in the
spring. In either case, germination is often not
complete until the second spring.
•
• A seedling density of 35 plant per square foot is
sought. Seeds are sown 1/4 inch deep in drills
and covered with about 3/8 inch of sawdust
mulch.
In the greenhouse, seeds are warm stratified for
two months in a mixture of peat, vermiculite, and
sand at 21° to 30°C. (70 to 85°F). Seeds are then
placed close to the soil surface in flats in the
greenhouse. There are usually several hundred
seeds in one seed flat.
Seedlings are then potted from the flats in deep
3". pots.
• After one season of growth, the seedlings are
•
field planted in the fall or spring when they are 6
to 8 months old. If planted in the fall irrigation
may not be necessary in moist sites. In drier
sites or with spring planting, irrigation will be
required for seedling establishment.
Cuttings:
• Cuttings of elderberry tend to have lower
survival success than establishment from seed.
• Use hardwood cuttings from previous seasons
growth.
• Take ".heel cuttings". from older wood, so inner
pith is not exposed.
• Cuttings should be at least 10"., and have at least
two nodes. Cuttings are placed in 4". pots with
perlite and peat. Plants are kept moist.
• Cuttings have a fragile root system, with high
mortality occurring when transplanted. Care
should be taken to be very gentle with delicate
roots when transplanting.
• The cuttings, which do survive, seem to establish
and grow faster. Plant biomass production,
height, flowering and seed set is more rapid than
with seedlings.
Transplanting Trees and Stems:
• All elderberry plants with evidence of valley
elderberry longhorn beetle use (i.e. emergence
holes or presence of adults) should be
transplanted, as they provide habitat for a
threatened species under The Endangered
Species Act. For further technical information,
call a representative of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
• Cut tree back to 3 to 6 feet from the ground or to
50 percent of its height (whichever is greater) by
removing branches and stems above this height.
The trunk and all stems greater than 1.5 inches in
diameter can be replanted.
If the presence of tunnels excavated by the beetle
larvae inside the elderberry stem and trunk are
detected, place pruned material next to
transplanted elderberries.
• Move plant by the root ball. Keep the root ball
•
wet.
• Place transplant in holes 3 to 4 feet deep.
• Construct circular water retention basin from the
excavated earth about 8-10 feet in diameter and
12 to 14 inches high. Plant the main trunk of an
elderberry in the center of each water basin.
Plant other stems that have been rooted around
the circumference of the basin.
• Saturate soil with water. Irrigate as necessary,
especially through first growing season.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In six riparian restoration projects carried out in
California, competition from exotic weed species was
a key factor in mortality and site failure (Baird 1989).
On small sites, hand weeding around trees and shrubs
is the most effective means of weed control. One
way to avoid competition from weeds on larger sites
is to remove the surface soil, although this has the
disadvantage of removing nutrients, mycorrhizal
fungi, bacteria, and insect and invertebrate
populations critical to a healthy habitat. A cover crop
of native wildflowers was also used to control weeds,
with wildflower seeds hand-broadcast over the site.
On wetter, heavier soils this does not seem to provide
effective weed control.
There is considerable evidence that fertilization can
favor exotic weeds over native plants. Inoculation
with mycorrhizal fungi enables seedlings of some
species to better utilize limited supplies of both water
and nutrients. Inoculation of transplanted shrubs may
be accomplished through inclusion of large (1.2 m
deep by 2.8 m wide) root balls with plants. Smaller,
more economical soil plugs scattered throughout the
site serve the same purpose. The number of soil
plugs needed to ensure the establishment of soil flora
is directly related to the distance of the restoration
site from a similar, mature community.
Given that elderberry provides habitat for the
federally listed valley longhorn elderberry beetle,
livestock grazing of elderberry is not recommended.
Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure and
composition of riparian habitat. Overgrazing by
Page 5
livestock and big game frequently changes plant
species composition and growth form, density of
stands, vigor, seed production of plants, and insect
production.
Clear-cutting or seed tree cutting with high soil
disturbance sometimes favors the development of
elderberry in a seral community. It recovers well
from heavy grazing in the Great Basin. For use in
site stabilization or rehabilitation, seeds may be
planted directly or seedlings and 1-2-year old stock
may be transplanted. It also grows from transplanted
seedlings, cuttings, and rootstocks.
Elderberry usually is not present in the understory of
closed-canopy forests, and when fire occurs in these,
regeneration occurs from seed banks that may occur
between 2-10 cm deep in the soil, the seeds deposited
from off-site dispersal or from plants of an earlier
community. Fire scarifies the hard seed coat of
buried seeds and stimulates their germination, which
usually occurs the first growing season after the fire.
Subsequent burns may eliminate elderberry since it
spreads slowly by seed. Fire kills above-ground parts
but the root crown may sprout but a severe fire can
kill the root and stem buds from which sprouting
occurs.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Arnold, R.A. 1984. Interim report for contract C-
616 with the California Department of Fish and
Game. 14 pp.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian Life of the Yosemite Region.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 387 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1967. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Banning, California.
82 pp.
Bolli, R. 1994. Revision of the genus Sambucus.
Dissert. Bot. 223:1-227.
Burke, H.E. 1921. Biological notes on Desmocerus ,
a genus of roundhead borers, the species of which
infests various elders. J. Econ. Ent. 14:450-452.
Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
Crane, M. F. 1989. Sambucus cerulea. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Data base]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Cronquist, A., A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren et al.
1984. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the
Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 4. Subclass
Asteridae, (except Asteraceae). The New York
Botanical Garden. New York, New York.
Eriksson, T. &. M.J. Donoghue 1997. Phylogenetic
relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae,
Adoxaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal ITS
sequences and preliminary morphological data. Syst.
Bot. 22:555-574.
Felter, H.W. &. J.U. Lloyd 2000. Sambucus. IN
King’s American Dispensatory. Web site.
<.http://metalab.unc.edu/herbmed/eclectic/kings/samb
ucus.html>.
Finn, C. 1999. Temperate berry crops. Pp. 324–334.
IN: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and
new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, Virginia.
<.http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings19
99/v4-324.html#elderberry>.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala Books, Boston and London. pp
114-117.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
Page 6
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Munz, P.A. 1968. A California flora. University of
California Press. 224 pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press. 480 pp.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A
guide to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay
area. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Sampson, A.S. &. B.S. Jesperson 1981. California
range brushlands and browse plants. Agricultural
Sciences Publications. University of California.
Berkeley, California. 162 pp.
Schopmeyer, C.S. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the
United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 450.
Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D.C. 883 pp.
Walker, P.L. &. T. Hudson 1993. Chumash healing.
Changing Health and Medical Practices in an
American Indian Society. Malki Museum Press,
Banning, California. 161 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='sanic4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited 03apr01 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
Plant Guide
BLUE ELDERBERRY
Sambucus nigra L. ssp.
caerulea (Raf.) R. Bolli
Plant Symbol = SANIC5
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate names
Blueberry elder, elder, blue elder, Arizona elderberry,
American elder, sweet elder, wild elder, flor sauco,
tree of music, Danewort, Walewort, New Mexican
elderberry, velvet-leaf elder, hairy blue elderberry,
and dwarf elder. Synonym: Sambucus caerulea Raf.
(the epithet sometimes spelled “cerulea” or
“coerulea”). Taxonomically, there have been recent
changes in this elderberry species. It was previously
divided into Sambucus coriacea, Sambucus
orbiculata, Sambucus velutina, and Sambucus
caerulea (Munz 1968). This species is known in
some floras as Sambucus mexicana.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Only the blue or purple berries of
elderberry are edible. Edible berries and flower are
used for medicine, dyes for basketry, arrow shafts,
flute, whistles, clapper sticks, and folk medicine.
The active alkaloids in elderberry plants are
hydrocyanic acid and sambucine. Both alkaloids will
cause nausea so care should be observed with this
plant. Elderberries are high in vitamin C. The red
berries of other species are toxic and should not be
gathered.
The wood is hard and has been used for combs,
spindles, and pegs, and the hollow stems have been
fashioned into flutes and blowguns.
Elderberries are quite edible. The blue or purple
berries are gathered and made into elderberry wine,
jam, syrup, and pies. The entire flower cluster can be
dipped in batter and fried, while petals can be eaten
raw or made into a fragrant and tasty tea. The flowers
add an aromatic flavor and lightness to pancakes or
fritters.
The elderberry is of well-known value to the Indians
of North America and the many purposes it serves
(Barrow 1967). Elderberry is highly prized by both
Spaniards and Cahuillas. Throughout the months of
July and August, the small clusters of berries are
gathered in large quantities. These clusters are dried
carefully on the drying floor and preserved in
considerable amounts. When wanted, they are
cooked into a rich sauce that needs no sweetening. A
Cahuilla family, during this season of the year, will
subsist largely on these messes of ".sauco.".
Frequently, the elderberry was so greatly enjoyed that
families would live for weeks on little else. Many
were dried for use in the winter, and were either re-
cooked or eaten raw. Elderberries are still highly
prized for food by modern Indian people.
Elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating
dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep
black by soaking them for a week or so in a wash
made from the berry stems of the elderberry
(Barrows 1967). The Cahuilla split basketry
materials from the aromatic sumac (Rhus trilobata).
Elderberry branches were used to make the shaft of
arrows. Flutes and whistles were constructed by
boring holes into stems hollowed out with hot sticks.
Clapper sticks were made by splitting the stem and
clapping the two halves against each other. Clapper
sticks were used ceremonially in the round-house to
accompany singing and dancing. The pith of the
stems was used as tinder, and the stem itself was
employed as a twirling stick for starting the fire.
Hollowed-out elderberry stems can be made into
squirt guns.
In the middle ages, elderberry was considered a Holy
Tree capable of restoring good health, keeping good
health, and as an aid to longevity.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Fruits of blue elderberry are gathered from the wild
for wine, jellies, candy, pies, and sauces. The plants
are commercially cultivated for fruit production in
Oregon. Sambucus canadensis and S. nigra have
long been used in the same way, and cultivars of both
have been developed. All parts of the elderberry
plant are considered to be a valuable healing plant in
many folk medicine traditions (Hutchens 1991,
Walker et al. 1993. Barrett et al. 1933. Clarke 1977).
Elderberry flowers contain flavenoids and rutin,
which are known to improve immune function,
particularly in combination with vitamin C. The
flowers also contain tannins, which account for its
traditional use to reduce bleeding, diarrhea, and
congestion.
The flowers are the mildest part of the plant and
when prepared as a tea, are used to break dry fevers
and stimulate perspiration, aid headache, indigestion,
twitching eyes, dropsy, rheumatism, appendix
inflammation, bladder or kidney infections, colds,
influenza, consumption (bleeding in lungs), and is
helpful to newborn babies (Hutchens 1991). Used as
a wash, the flowers or leaves are good for wounds,
sprains, and bruises, as well as for sores on domestic
animals. The leaves, which are stronger, have a
slightly laxative property. Applied externally, leaves,
flowers, bark and twigs are excellent as a poultice,
mixed equally with chamomile, for soreness,
inflammations, joint stiffness, and to reduce the
swelling of bee stings. The flowers and berries,
employed as a diuretic, can aid arthritis and
rheumatism. Steeped in water, the flowers are used
externally to aid in complexion beauty, tone and
soften the skin, and lighten freckles or spots. The
berry juice made into salve aids burns and scalds.
The juice taken internally will act as a purgative.
Livestock: Blue elderberry is a useful range plant for
domestic livestock, but is not equally palatable
during all seasons. It usually receives limited
browsing in the spring and to a much greater extent
in the late summer and fall. The leaves are eagerly
devoured after the first heavy frost in the fall.
Because many branches are beyond the reach of the
animals, utilization is less destructive. Browse
rating: Good for goats. good to fair for sheep. good to
poor for deer. fair for cattle. and fair to poor for
horses (Sampson and Jesperson 1981).
Wildlife: Structurally complex riparian vegetation
communities provide many different habitats and
support a diverse array of animal species. Different
groups of animals occupy or use the different layers
of vegetation, and this multi-story arrangement is
often present nowhere else in the arid landscapes.
Canopies of plants growing on stream banks provide
shade, cooling stream water, while roots stabilize and
create overhanging banks, providing habitat for fish
and other aquatic organisms.
Game birds, squirrels and other rodents, and several
kinds of browsers also feed on the fruit or foliage of
elderberry. Bears love to eat the elderberry fruits
while deer, elk, and moose browse on the stems and
foliage. The elderberries are important sources of
summer food for many kinds of songbirds. For
example, the western bluebird, indigo bunting,
common house finch, red-shafted flicker, ash-
throated flycatcher, black-headed grosbeak, scrub
jay, Stellar jay, ruby-crowned kinglet, mockingbird,
red-breasted nuthatch, Bullock’s oriole, hooded
oriole, song sparrow, white-crowned sparrow,
western tanager, California thrasher, russet-backed
thrush, brown towhee, Audubon warbler, cedar
waxwing, Lewis and Nuttall s woodpecker, wren-tit,
grouse, pheasant, and pigeons all eat elderberries
(Martin et al. 1951).
The valley elderberry longhorn beetle (VELB)
(Desmocerus californicus dimorphus) was listed as
threatened under The Endangered Species Act on
August 8, 1980. The elderberry beetle is endemic to
moist valley oak riparian woodlands along the
margins of rivers and streams in the lower
Sacramento and upper San Joaquin Valley of
California where elderberry grows. The primary
threat to the VELB is loss of habitat, insecticide and
herbicide use, and lack of elderberry shrubs/trees as a
food plant for the beetle. The mitigation for VELB
habitat loss, considered a taking under The
Endangered Species Act, is quite stringent (U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service Mitigation Guidelines).
In general, longhorn beetles are characterized by
somewhat elongate and cylindrical bodies with long
antennae, often in excess of 2/3 of the body length.
Male VELB have a metallic-green pattern of 4
oblong maculations, surrounded by a bright red-
orange border. The body length is about 13-21 mm,
and antennae are about as long as the body. Females
are more robust, with body length about 18-25 mm,
and the dark pattern is not reduced.
Blue elderberry is planted because of its forage and
cover value, productivity, adaptability, and ease of
establishment. It is a useful ground cover for
stabilizing streambanks and eroding sites. It provides
food, cover, perching, and nesting sites for many
species of birds and food and cover for various other
wildlife, and it is important as browse for mule deer
and elk. In the spring, the leaves may be strongly
Page 3
scented and less palatable, but they sweeten and
become more palatable by fall.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, wetland indicator values.
Western riparian ecosystems have been greatly
altered by human activity. Riparian forests have been
reduced to fragmented, discontinuous patches
because of human intervention. For example,
estimates are that 70 - 90 percent of the natural
riparian ecosystems in the U.S. have been lost to
human activities. Regional losses in these
ecosystems have been estimated to exceed 98% in the
Sacramento Valley in California. Many factors have
contributed to these resource losses, including the
following: natural resource use. urbanization.
alteration of stream flows through dam construction
and ground-water withdrawal. modification of biotic
conditions through grazing, agriculture, introduction
of non-native species. and alteration within
watersheds.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).
Native shrubs growing 2-4(-8) m tall, less commonly
small single-stemmed trees, young twigs soft and
pithy but the wood hard. bark thin, grayish to dark
brown, irregularly furrowed and ridged. The
pinnately compound leaves are deciduous, opposite,
about 15-35 cm long, odd-pinnate with (3-)5-9
serrate leaflets 2-15 cm long, often with a long stalk,
often asymmetrical at the base. Elderberry leaves,
especially on seedlings or shrub-sized plants (without
fruits or flowers) resemble California walnut
(Juglans hindsii) and Oregon ash (Fraxinus latifolia).
The inflorescence is flat-topped, 4-20(-30) cm across,
broader than high. flowers bisexual, the corollas
small, white to cream, rotate, 5-lobed, with a
pleasant, yet slightly rancid odor. Fruit is berry-like,
5-6 mm wide, with 3-5 nutlets, blue- to purple-black
at maturity with a white-waxy bloom and appearing
powder blue. The common name “elder” is from the
Anglo-Saxon “ellen,” meaning fire-kindler, the dry,
pithy stems. blue from the fruit color.
Variation within the species:
A recent proposal treats Sambucus caerulea within a
broader species concept – where it is considered the
western US segment of S. nigra L., a species
covering all of North America and extending into
Europe. Ssp. canadensis (L.) R. Bolli (= S.
canadensis L.) is the eastern US entity of S. nigra,
extending westward into the Great Plains nearly to
the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains. Ssp. nigra
is the Old World entity but it also occurs in
Greenland, Newfoundland, and a few other localities
in northeastern North America.
Several varieties have been described within
Sambucus caerulea, although they are not currently
accepted:
Var. caerulea
Var. neomexicana (Woot.) Rehd. – New Mexican
elderberry
Var. velutina (Dur. &. Hilg.) Schwerin – Dwarf
Elder
Some familiar with elderberry in the western US,
however, remain convinced that more than a single
entity is represented within “var. caerulea,” differing
in habitat and biological features (e.g., see
http://www.laspilitas.com/plants/619.htm).
Distribution: Blue elderberry is common along
stream banks, river banks, and open places in riparian
areas lower than <. 3000 m. From west Texas north
to Montana, western Alberta, and southern British
Columbia, and all other western states, south into
northwest Mexico. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Blue elderberry grows on moist, well-drained sunny
sites, usually occurring in early seral communities or
in openings in moist forest habitats (slopes, canyons,
cliff bases, streamsides, streambanks) and moist areas
within drier, more open habitats (sagebrush,
mountain brush, pinyon-juniper, ponderosa pine,
often along fence rows and roads). at elevations of 3-
3000 meters. Blue elderberry is a dominant
understory species in riparian woodlands. It can
persist past seral stages as scattered individuals in
open forests, woodlands, chaparral, or riparian zones.
This species flowers from May to September and
fruits from July to October. Blue elderberry is more
common on warmer sites than red elderberry
(Sambucus racemosa), although they overlap in
habitat preference.
In California, common riparian woodland associates
are valley oak (Quercus lobata), interior live oak
(Quercus wislizenii), California walnut (Juglans
hindsii), and California sycamore (Platanus
racemosa). Box elder (Acer negundo), Oregon ash
(Fraxinus latifolia), alder (Alnus rhombifolia), and
willow (Salix gooddingii, Salix exigua, Salix
lasiandra, and Salix laevigata) are particularly
prevalent in the subcanopy. Understory species are
mostly shrubs, including elderberry (Sambucus
Page 4
mexicana), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis),
blackberry (Rubus spp.), and California rose (Rosa
californica). Lianas, such as poison oak
(Toxicodendron diversiloba) and California grape
(Vitis californica) are a dominant feature.
Herbaceous vegetation is 1% cover except in
openings where tall forbs may occur.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Blue elderberry produces a good seed crop almost
every year. The seeds are dispersed by birds and
other animals that eat the fruit. The seeds have a
hard seed coat and embryo dormancy and may
remain viable for up to 16 years in storage. Without
pretreatment, seed germination may be delayed from
2 to 5 years after planting. Plants may flower and
fruit after only 2-3 years and can reach full size in 3-4
years. They are said to be “short-lived.” Vegetative
reproduction is limited to coppicing if the stems are
killed or injured.
Seeds:
• Blue elderberry grows best from seed.
• Elderberry fruits are collected when ripe and
spread in thin layers to dry.
• To separate seeds from fruits either 1) run fruit
through a macerator with water, the pulp and
empty seeds float. 2) crush, dry and use without
separating fruits and seeds. and 3) small amounts
of fruit can be cleaned in a fruit blender.
• Elderberry seed can be stored dry at 41 °F for
several years.
• Elderberry seeds can be sown in the fall soon
after collection, or stratified and sown in the
spring. In either case, germination is often not
complete until the second spring.
• A seedling density of 35 plants per square foot is
sought. Seeds are sown 1/4 inch deep in drills
and covered with about 3/8 inch of sawdust
mulch.
In the greenhouse, seeds are warm stratified for
two months in a mixture of peat, vermiculite, and
sand at 21° to 30°C. (70 to 85°F). Seeds are then
placed close to the soil surface in flats in the
greenhouse. There are usually several hundred
seeds in one seed flat.
Seedlings are then potted from the flats in deep
3". pots.
• After one season of growth, the seedlings are
field planted in the fall or spring when they are 6
to 8 months old. If planted in the fall, irrigation
may not be necessary in moist sites. In drier
sites or with spring planting, irrigation will be
required for seedling establishment.
•
•
Cuttings:
• Cuttings of elderberry tend to have lower
survival success than establishment from seed.
• Use hardwood cuttings from previous seasons
growth.
• Take ".heel cuttings". from older wood, so inner
pith is not exposed.
• Cuttings should be at least 10"., and have at least
two nodes. Cuttings should be placed in 4". pots
with perlite and peat. Plants should be kept
moist.
• Cuttings have a fragile root system, with high
mortality occurring when transplanted. Care
should be taken to be very gentle with delicate
roots when transplanting.
• The cuttings that survive seem to establish and
grow faster. Plant biomass production, height,
flowering and seed set is more rapid than with
seedlings.
Transplanting Trees and Stems:
• All elderberry plants with evidence of valley
elderberry longhorn beetle use (i.e. emergence
holes or presence of adults) should be
transplanted, as they provide habitat for a
threatened species under The Endangered
Species Act. For further technical information,
call a representative of the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
• Cut tree back to 3 to 6 feet from the ground or to
50 percent of its height (whichever is greater) by
removing branches and stems above this height.
The trunk and all stems greater than 1.5 inches in
diameter can be replanted.
If the presence of tunnels excavated by the beetle
larvae inside the elderberry stem and trunk are
detected, place pruned material next to
transplanted elderberries.
• Move plant by the root ball. Keep the root ball
•
wet.
• Place transplant in holes 3 to 4 feet deep.
• Construct circular water retention basin from the
excavated earth about 8-10 feet in diameter and
12 to 14 inches high. Plant the main trunk of an
elderberry in the center of each water basin.
Plant other stems that have been rooted around
the circumference of the basin.
• Saturate soil with water. Irrigate as necessary,
especially through first growing season.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In six riparian restoration projects carried out in
California, competition from exotic weed species was
a key factor in mortality and site failure (Baird 1989).
On small sites, hand weeding around trees and shrubs
Page 5
is the most effective means of weed control. One
way to avoid competition from weeds on larger sites
is to remove the surface soil, although this has the
disadvantage of removing nutrients, mycorrhizal
fungi, bacteria, and insect and invertebrate
populations critical to a healthy habitat. A cover crop
of native wildflowers was also used to control weeds,
with wildflower seeds hand-broadcast over the site.
On wetter, heavier soils this does not seem to provide
effective weed control.
There is considerable evidence that fertilization can
favor exotic weeds over native plants. Inoculation
with mycorrhizal fungi enables seedlings of some
species to better utilize limited supplies of both water
and nutrients. Inoculation of transplanted shrubs may
be accomplished through inclusion of large (1.2 m
deep by 2.8 m wide) root balls with plants. Smaller,
more economical soil plugs scattered throughout the
site serve the same purpose. The number of soil
plugs needed to ensure the establishment of soil flora
is directly related to the distance of the restoration
site from a similar, mature community.
Given that elderberry provides habitat for the
federally listed valley longhorn elderberry beetle,
livestock grazing of elderberry is not recommended.
Livestock grazing can alter vegetative structure and
composition of riparian habitat. Overgrazing by
livestock and big game frequently changes plant
species composition and growth form, density of
stands, vigor, seed production of plants, and insect
production.
Clear-cutting or seed tree cutting with high soil
disturbance sometimes favors the development of
blue elderberry in a seral community. It recovers
well from heavy grazing in the Great Basin. For use
in site stabilization or rehabilitation, seeds may be
planted directly or seedlings and 1-2-year old stock
may be transplanted. It also grows from transplanted
seedlings, cuttings, and rootstocks.
Blue elderberry usually is not present in the
understory of closed-canopy forests. When fire
occurs in these, regeneration occurs from seed banks
that may occur between 2-10 cm deep in the soil. The
seeds deposited are from off-site dispersal or from
plants of an earlier community. Fire scarifies the
hard seed coat of buried seeds and stimulates their
germination, which usually occurs the first growing
season after the fire. Subsequent burns may
eliminate blue elderberry since it spreads slowly by
seed. Fire kills above-ground parts but the root
crown may sprout. A severe fire can kill the root and
stem buds from which sprouting occurs.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Arnold, R.A. 1984. Interim report for contract C-
616 with the California Department of Fish and
Game. 14 pp.
Baird, K. 1989. High quality restoration of riparian
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes
7(2):60-64.
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Indian Life of the Yosemite Region.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 387 pp.
Barrows, D.P. 1967. Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla
Indians. Malki Museum Press. Banning, California.
82 pp.
Bolli, R. 1994. Revision of the genus Sambucus.
Dissert. Bot. 223:1-227.
Burke, H.E. 1921. Biological notes on Desmocerus ,
a genus of roundhead borers, the species of which
infests various elders. J. Econ. Ent. 14:450-452.
Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
Crane, M. F. 1989. Sambucus cerulea. IN: W.C.
Fischer (compiler). The fire effects information
system [Database]. USDA, Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/>.
Cronquist, A., A.H. Holmgren, N.H. Holmgren et al.
1984. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the
Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 4. Subclass
Asteridae, (except Asteraceae). The New York
Botanical Garden. New York, New York.
Eriksson, T. &. M.J. Donoghue 1997. Phylogenetic
relationships of Sambucus and Adoxa (Adoxoideae,
Adoxaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal ITS
Page 6
American Indian Society. Malki Museum Press,
Banning, California. 161 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='sanic5';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited 03apr01 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
sequences and preliminary morphological data. Syst.
Bot. 22:555-574.
Felter, H.W. &. J.U. Lloyd 2000. Sambucus. IN
King’s American Dispensatory. Web site.
<.http://metalab.unc.edu/herbmed/eclectic/kings/samb
ucus.html>.
Finn, C. 1999. Temperate berry crops. Pp. 324–334.
IN: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and
new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, Virginia.
<.http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings19
99/v4-324.html#elderberry>.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kesler, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1400 pp.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala Books, Boston and London. pp
114-117.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Munz, P.A. 1968. A California flora. University of
California Press. 224 pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press. 480 pp.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A
guide to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay
area. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Sampson, A.S. &. B.S. Jesperson 1981. California
range brushlands and browse plants. Agricultural
Sciences Publications. University of California.
Berkeley, California. 162 pp.
Schopmeyer, C.S. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the
United States. Agriculture Handbook No. 450.
Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Washington, D.C. 883 pp.
Walker, P.L. &. T. Hudson 1993. Chumash healing.
Changing Health and Medical Practices in an
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Page 1
Plant Guide
CABBAGE
PALMETTO
Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd.
ex J.A. &. J.H. Schultes
Plant Symbol = SAPA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
thatched with the fan-shaped leaves. Split logs were
used for flooring. Immature fronds were bleached in
the sun, cut into strips, and plaited to make long
strips, which were used for lashing or sewn together
to make baskets. The stiff midribs of the leaves were
sometimes used to construct ball sticks or racquets.
Palmetto-thatched houses may still be found in
Houma country in Louisiana.
Wildlife: Fruits ripen in the late fall and are eaten by
crows, mockingbirds, warblers, pileated and red-
bellied woodpeckers and squirrels. Palmetto fruits
provide 10% to 25% of the diet of raccoons and
robins in the Southeast.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Palm family (Arecaceae). Cabbage
Palmetto is an evergreen palm tree that can reach
20m in height. The erect, unbranched trunk has
grayish to brownish bark with distinctive pineapple-
like markings where the old leaf stalks were attached.
Medium-green, stiff, fanlike leaves are palmately
compound and spread in all directions as they emerge
from the top of the trunk. The fans, often wider than
they are long (2-3 m wide), contain several long and
pointed leaflets with prominent midribs. During June
and July, abundant, small (.5cm), fragrant, white
flowers are borne upon drooping, branched clusters.
The berry-like fruits are small (1.5cm), shiny and
black. Each fruit contains one seed.
Similar species: The shrub-like, dwarf palmetto
(Sabal minor) is common to freshwater wetlands of
the southeastern United States. The leaves lack the
prominent midrib and it usually does not grow a
stem.
Distribution: Native to the Gulf Coast states and
Florida. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Cabbage palm grows in a wide variety of habitats in
which the water table is fairly close to the surface. It
is found in the drier, upland areas of both fresh and
© Palm &. Cycad Societies of Florida
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Palmetto, cabbage palm, cabbage tree, sabal palm,
blue palm.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Seminole, Houma, Choctaw, and
other Native American peoples in the southeastern
United States used cabbage palmetto for a wide
variety of purposes. The white, crisp palm hearts
were eaten either raw or cooked by boiling or
steaming. The leaf buds are purported to taste like
cabbage. However, both of these food uses--the heart
and the buds--result in the death of the plant. The
palm fruits, which ripen in the fall, are small and
mostly seed, but they are sweet with a slight bitter
aftertaste. The seeds and berries were used for
headaches and to lower fevers. The plants provided
fiber and wood used to construct houses, make food
paddles, drying frames for animal skins, potato
drying mats, fish drags, fish poison, ballsticks, arrows
and hunting dance staffs. Most Seminole homes
were built from the cabbage palm. Logs would be
used as poles for the framework of huts that were
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
saltwater wetlands, wet hammocks, riverbanks,
seasonally wet prairies, maritime forests and coastal
plains. In Florida and across the gulf states, cabbage
palmetto is commonly found in transition zones
between active floodplains and uplands. It also
occurs in maritime heath communities in the
Carolinas and Virginia as well as the hardwood
upland hammocks communities of the Everglades.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Cabbage palmetto is widely planted for landscaping
as an ornamental because of its stately structure and
large, graceful fan-shaped fronds. It has a slow to
moderate growth rate and is used for street trees as
well as for the patio or terrace. It can be grown in
sun or in part shade. The tree grows well in a wide
variety of soils with medium to poor drainage and
fertility in both moist and fairly dry areas. It is
recommended for seaside plantings, as it is tolerant of
salt. It is not hardy in mountain areas as it is
sensitive to cold.
Propagation by seeds: The trees may be easily
propagated from seed, as they germinate readily.
Transplantings: It is best to transplant cabbage
palmettos in June or July. Seedlings can be
transplanted the year following germination although
larger plants transplant more easily. This is because
increased food reserves stored in the main stem of
larger transplants help in the regeneration of new
roots. Tie the leaves together before transplanting to
protect the terminal bud. After transplanting into a
hole large enough to hold the roots, support the plant
with stakes. It is necessary to water frequently until
you can observe growth, to ensure proper
establishment of the root system.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Established plants tend to self-sow. Fruit drupes may
be removed if self-sowing is not desired. The plant
has no serious pests. Remove old leaf bases to
control their use as hiding places for roaches and
other insects.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Barbour, M.G. &. W.D. Billings, Editors 2000. North
American terrestrial vegetation, Second Edition.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom. 708 pp.
Brown, R.C. 1994. Florida’s first people: 12,000
years of human history. Pineapple Press, Inc.,
Sarasota, Florida. 262 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Godfrey, R.K. &. J.W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Southeastern United States. Vol. 1.
University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 712
pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A. R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory &. G.A. Stokes 1994.
The historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Louisiana
State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 324
pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American
ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927
pp.
Neill, W.T. 1956. The story of Florida’s Seminole
Indians. Second Edition. Great Outdoors Publishing
Co., St. Petersburg, Florida. 128 pp.
Ottesen, C. 1995. The native plant primer. Harmony
Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Palm &. Cycad Societies of Florida 2000. Sabal
palmetto. Accessed: 21May2001.
Page 3
<.http://www.plantapalm.com/vpe/photos/Species/sab
al_palmetto.htm>.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody
ornamentals for Deep South gardens. University of
West Florida Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland
plants of the Southeastern United States. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. 328 pp.
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='sapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 21May2001 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
SITKA WILLOW
Salix sitchensis Sanson ex
Bong.
Plant Symbol = SASI2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
The Haida used the spring catkins or pussy willows
of this species as decoration (Ibid.). The Indians used
the wood and twigs in drying fish, stretching skins,
and basket making (Viereck &. Little 1972).
Medicinal: Willows are the source of the natural
precursor to aspirin, salicylic acid, found in leaves
and bark (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The bark can
be pounded and applied to wounds as a healing agent
(Moerman 1998). An infusion of the stems has been
used in the treatment of stomach complaints (Ibid.).
Conservation: Sitka willow is used in forested
riparian buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion,
protect aquatic environments, enhance wildlife, and
increase biodiversity.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Willow Family (Salicaceae). Salix
sitchensis is a large shrub or small tree, six to twenty-
five feet high. The leaves are alternate, oblonceolate
or narrowly ovate, two to five inches long, and
usually sharp-pointed. The flowers appear before or
with the leaves, on short leafy shoots, males are five
centimeters long, and the females are eight
centimeters long (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The
bark is smooth, slightly furrowed, and scaly.
Distribution: Salix sitchensis is native to stream
banks from southern Alaska to southwestern Oregon
(Viereck &. Little 1972). For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Sitka willow is found on or near lake shores, wetland
margins, forest edges, wet openings, and clearings at
low to middle elevations. This species prefers damp,
heavy soil but will succeed in most soils. It grows
best in sunny locations but will tolerate some shade.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Seeds must be surface sown as
soon as they are ripe in late spring. Seeds are viable
for only a few days and the maximum storage period
is four to six weeks with germination rates dropping
Handbuch der Laubholzkunde (1889)
© Kurt Stubel’s Online Library
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
satin willow, silky willow
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The inner bark was dried, grounded
into a powder and then added to cereal for use in
making bread. Willow branches and bark was used
for making ropes for nets, tying, and bending. The
Straits Salish used the bark to make a gray dye for
mountain goat wool (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994).
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
off fast after ten days at room temperature (Dirr &.
Heuser 1987). Willow seeds have no dormancy and
germinate within twelve to twenty-four hours after
falling on moist ground (Ibid.). Seedbeds must be
kept moist until seedlings are well established.
Propagation by cuttings: Sitka willow can be
propagated through hardwood cuttings that can be
collected and prepared for insertion when they are
well ripened, from November to March. Cuttings
seven to ten inches long and a half to one inch thick
are initially stuck in the ground at close spacing and
lifted after one year (Dirr &. Heuser 1987). Willow
cuttings have a rooting percentage of ninety to one-
hundred percent without the use of rooting hormones
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Somewhat available in native plant nurseries within
its area of distribution. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Dippel, L. 1889. Handbuch der laubholzkunde.
From Kurt Stuber’s Online Library, Max-Planck-
Institut fur Zuchtungsforschung, Koln, Germany.
Accessed: 11jan02. <.http://caliban.mpiz-
koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/dippel/band2/127.html>.
Dirr, M.A. &. M.W. Heuser 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation. Varsity Press,
Athens, Georgia.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Lauriault, J. 1989. Identification guide to the trees of
Canada. Fitzhenry &. Whiteside, Ontario, Canada.
MacKinnon, A., J. Pojar, &. R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of the northern British Columbia. Lone Pine
Publishing, Canada.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of pacific coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Nelson, R.A. 1992. Handbook of rocky mountain
plants. Roberts Rinehart Publishers, Niwot,
Colorado.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the pacific
northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rehder, A. 1990. Manual of cultivated trees and
shrubs: hardy in North America. 2nd ed. Dioscorides
Press, Portland, Oregon.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook No. 410,
Washington, D.C.
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By:
Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sasi2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
HARDSTEM
BULRUSH
The rhizome (underground stem) is used for the black
element in basket design. Rhizomes are obtained by
digging around the plant and following them out
from the parent plant. Often the green stalks are cut,
to make the rooting area more accessible. Bulrushes
are called black root by Pomo basket weavers in
California. the cream-colored rhizome is dyed black
for basketry designs. The rhizomes are soaked from
3 to 6 months with acorns and a piece of iron, ashes
or walnut husks until a dark brown to black color is
obtained. Rhizomes are then stored in coils to dry,
then woven into coiled baskets. Only about the
thickness of a toothpick, the split rhizomes are both
flexible and strong.
Tule houses were common throughout many parts of
California. the overlapping tule matters were well-
insulated and rain-proof. Willow poles, arched and
anchored into the ground and tied with cordage or
bark formed the framework. The walls are thatched
with mats of tule or cattail and secured to the frame.
In Nevada, tules and willows were bound together in
a sort of crude weaving for ".Kani"., the Paiute name
for summerhouse. Tules and cattails were used as
insulating thatch for structures matting, bedding, and
roofing materials. As thatching material, these
bulrushes were spread out in bundles, tied together,
then secured in place with poles.
Several California Indian tribes make canoes of tule
stems bound together with vines from wild grape.
Groups located near the California coast, on mud
flats and in marshes, used tule to make large round
mud-shoes for their feet so they could walk without
sinking. They also make dwellings of tule. Shredded
tule was used for baby diapers, bedding, and
menstrual padding. Women made skirts from tule.
During inclement weather, men wore shredded tule
capes, which tied around the neck and was belted at
the waist. Duck decoys were made of tule.
Other Uses: Streambank stabilization, wetland
restoration, wildlife food and shelter, edible (young
shoots, pollen, seeds, rhizomes), basketry, houses,
roofing material, matting, bedding, canoes. These
native plants are especially good for stabilizing or
restoring disturbed or degraded (including logged or
burned) areas, for erosion and slope control, and for
wildlife food and cover. Bulrushes may be less
suitable for general garden use.
Schoenoplectus acutus (Muhl.
ex Bigelow) A. &. D. Love var.
occidentalis (S. Wats.) S.G.
Sm.
Plant Symbol = SCACO2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Idaho Plant Materials Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Bulrush, tule, black root. Known in some floras as
Scirpus acutus Bigelow var. occidentalis (S. Watson)
Beetle.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Hardstem bulrush is similar to the
cattail in edibility, although it is purportedly sweeter.
Young shoots coming up in the spring can be eaten
raw or cooked. Bulrush pollen is eaten as flour in
bread, mush or pancakes. Later in the season, the
seeds can be beaten off into baskets or pails, ground
into a similar meal and used as flour. The large
rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked. sometimes they
were dried in the sun, then pounded into a kind of
flour. Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (synonym:
Scirpus validus) , a similar species, has as much as
8% sugar and 5.5% starch in rhizomes, but less than
1% protein (Harrington 1972).
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Wildlife: The seeds, being less hairy and larger than
cattail, are one of the most important and commonly
used foods of ducks and of certain marshbirds and
shorebirds (Martin et al. 1951). Bulrushes provide
choice food for wetland birds: American wigeon,
bufflehead, mallard, pintail, shoveler, blue-winged
teal, cinnamon teal, greater scaup, lesser scaup,
avocet, marbled godwit, clapper rail, Virginia rail,
sora rail, long-billed dowitcher, and tricolored
blackbird. Canada geese and white-fronted geese
prefer the shoots and roots. The stems provide
nesting habitat for blackbirds and marsh wrens.
Fresh emergent wetlands are among the most
productive wildlife habitats in California. They
provide food, cover, and water for more than 160
species of birds and numerous mammals, reptiles and
amphibians. The endangered Santa Cruz long-toed
salamander and rare giant garter snake use these
wetlands as primary habitat. The endangered
Aleutian Canada goose, bald eagle, and peregrine
falcon use these wetlands for feeding and roosting.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation for hut construction and for food.
Typically, an area of open water is created around the
huts. Areas eaten out by muskrat increase wetland
diversity by providing opportunities for aquatic
vegetation to become established in the open water
and the huts provide a substrate for shrubs and other
plant species. Muskrats opening up the dense stands
of emergent vegetation also create habitat for other
species. Both beaver and muskrats often improve
wetland habitat.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge Family (Cyperaceae). Hardstem
bulrush, a deciduous herbaceous plant, is
distinguished by their long cylindric stems from 5 to
8 feet tall. The shoots senesce in the winter. The
leaves are slender, v-shaped blades that are sheathed
around the long stem. The flowers are arranged in a
spikelet and resemble orange-brown scales.
Hardstem bulrush has a tight panicle with 3 to many
spikelets, and the flower bracts are prominently
spotted. Bulrushes have clonal growth, with stout
rootstocks and long, thick, brown rhizomes
(underground stems).
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Bulrushes are often dominant emergent
vegetation found in marshes and wetlands throughout
temperate North America. Hardstem bulrush occurs
across temperate North America to British Columbia
and east to the Atlantic coast (Hickman 1993).
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Schoenoplectus species may be planted from bare
rootstock or seedlings from container stalk or directly
seeded into the soil. Germination problems have
been reported in the literature for S. acutus.
Consequently, live plant collections of this species
are recommended. Bare rootstock or seedlings are
preferred re-vegetation methods where there is
moving water.
Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. If no more than
0.09 m2 (1 ft2) should be removed from a 0.4 m2 (4
ft2) area, the plants will grow back into the hole in
one good growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during the
growing season.
Donor plants that are drought-stressed tend to have
higher revegetation success. Live transplants should
be planted as soon as possible in moist (not flooded
or anoxic) soils. Plants should be transported and
stored in a cool location prior to planting. Plugs may
be split into smaller units, generally no smaller than 6
x 6 cm (2.4 x 2.4 in), with healthy rhizomes and tops.
The important factor in live plant collections is to be
sure to include a growing bud in either plugs or
rhizomes. Weeds in the plugs should be removed by
hand. Soil can either be left on the roots of harvested
material or removed. For ease in transport, soil may
be washed gently from roots. The roots should
always remain moist or in water until planted.
Clip leaves and stems from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more energy
into root production. Plant approximately 1 meter
apart. Plants should be planted closer together if the
site has fine soils such as clay or silt, steep slopes, or
prolonged inundation.
Don t flood plants right away, or the seedlings will
experience high mortality. If possible, get the roots
started before flooding the soils. Ideally, plants
should be planted in late fall just after the first rains
(usually late October to November). This enables
Page 3
plant root systems to become established before
heavy flooding and winter dormancy occurs.
Survival is highest when plants are dormant and soils
are moist. Fertilization is very helpful for plant
growth and reproduction. Many more seeds are
produced with moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections: Select seed collection sites where
continuous stands with few intermixed species can
easily be found. At each collection location, obtain
permission for seed collection.
• Seed is harvested by taking hand clippers and
cutting the stem off below the seed heads or
stripping the seed heads off the stalk. Hardstem
bulrush plants tend to hold the seed for a long
period of time after seeds are mature, so
harvesting time is more flexible.
• Less than 1/2 hour is required to make a decent
collection of 1 to 2 cups of seed. The ease of
collection is affected by water depth.
• Collect and store seeds in brown paper bags or
burlap bags. Seeds are then dried in these bags.
• Seeds and seed heads need to be cleaned in a
seed cleaner like a Crippen Cleaner.
• Plant cleaned seed in fall. Plant in a clean,
weed-free, moist seed bed. Flooded or ponded
soils will significantly increase seedling
mortality.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
from the soil surface.
• Some seed may be lost due to scour or flooding.
Recommended seed density is unknown at this
time.
Seed germination in greenhouse' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='• Clean seed - blow out light seed. To grow seeds,
plant in greenhouse in 1". x 1". x 2". pots, 1/4".
under the soil surface. Keep soil surface moist.
Put in temperature of 100 degrees F (plus or
minus 5 degrees). Seeds begin to germinate after
a couple weeks in warm temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
•
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
In one study, greenhouse propagated transplants
of hardstem bulrush appeared more vigorous
than wild selected plants (Hoag et al. 1995).
However, there were no significant differences in
height or shoot density (spread) between
greenhouse propagated and wild transplants.
Wild collected transplants had a higher
percentage of shoots flower and set seed.
Greenhouse propagated transplants produced
more above ground biomass (were more robust).
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation, success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
Traditional Resource Management: The plant must
grow in coarse-textured soil free of gravel, clay and
silt for the roots to be of the quality necessary for
basket weaving. Plants are tended by gathering and
reducing the density between plants for longer
rhizome production. Sustainable harvesting of plants
occurs through limiting harvest in any given area.
Fire is used to manage tule wetlands to remove old
stems and restore open water to the wetland. This
stimulates growth of new shoots from rhizomes and
provides a bare soil substrate for seed germination.
Many Native Americans feel the use of herbicides is
inappropriate in traditional gathering sites. Bulrush
is densely rhizomatous with abundant seed
production. In most cases, it will out-compete other
species within the wetland area of the site,
eliminating the need for manual or chemical control
of invasive species. Heavy grazing will eliminate
Schoenoplectus species as well as other native
species.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is readily available from most nurseries.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dahl, T.E. &. C.E. Johnson 1991. Status and trends
of wetlands in the coterminous United States, mid-
1970s to mid-1980s. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
USDI, Washington, D.C. 28 pp.
Page 4
Harrrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque,
New Mexico. 156 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual:
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc. New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. no date. Indian uses of native
plants. Mendocino County Historical Society. 81
pp.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home: A
guide to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay
area. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1984. Wetlands of the United States:
Current status and recent trends. USDI, FWS,
National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, D.C. 58
pp.
Timbrook, J. (June) 1997. California Indian
Basketweavers Association Newsletter.
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Project, USDA,
NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen, Idaho
' WHERE symbol='scaco2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 27jan03 jsp. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
with oil was rubbed on childrens’ heads to make their
hair grow long and thick (Ibid.).
Schoenoplectus americanus seeds are rich in protein
and can be ground and added to flour when making
breads and cakes. The seed can be ground into a
powder, mixed with water, boiled and eaten as a
mush (Moerman 1998).
Wildlife: American three square rhizomes are
preferred by muskrat and snow goose. The seeds are
eaten by over wintering ducks in the south as a small
part of their diet. The achenes are eaten by
waterfowl. This species provides cover for many
birds and small mammals.
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge family (Cyperaceae). American
three square is a medium height to tall, erect native
herbaceous plant, up to seven feet tall (Tiner 1987).
This species is a perennial from long stout rhizomes.
with single stems that are in small groups, sharply
triangular, fifteen to one hundred centimeters tall
(Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The leaves are firm,
long, and strongly folded, sometimes flat and two to
four millimeters wide. The fruits are dark-brown,
seedlike, pointy tipped achenes, two to three
millimeters long (Ibid.).
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='American three square occurs along streams, around
ponds and lakes, in sloughs, swamps, fresh and
brackish marshes, wet woods, and roadside ditches.
common at low elevations. It also occurs in beach
pools and sandy flats, often in shallow water up to
about one foot or even 2.5 feet (Voss 1972).
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sow seeds in a cold frame pot
standing in three centimeters of water. The seeds
germinate quickly. When they are large enough to
CHAIRMAKER’S
BULRUSH
Schoenoplectus americanus
(Pers.) Volk. ex Schinz &. R.
Keller
Plant Symbol = SCAM6
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
R. Mohlenbrock
USDA,NRCS,Wetlands Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
American bulrush, Olney’s three-square, three-
cornered grass, three-cornered sedge, bayonet rush,
three square sedge, American three square, Scirpus
americanus
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: American three square stems were
used by the Nuu-chah-nulth as the foundation
material for their beautiful wrapped-twine baskets of
tall basket sedge (Pojar &. Mackinnon 1994). The
leaves were used in making shopping bags and
woven into hats (Moerman 1998). The leaves mixed
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
handle, plant them into their permanent positions in
early summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. It is best to pot smaller
divisions and grow them in a cold frame, out-planting
after they are well established in the summer.
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Management
Maintenance of American three square stands
depends primarily on water levels and salinity levels.
Maximum survival and growth in coastal areas occur
where average minimum yearly water levels do not
fall below five to four inches above the soil surface.
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through wetland plant nurseries. Contact
your local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Bruggen, T. V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Gleason, H. A. 1952. The new Britton and Brown
illustrated flora of the northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 3 vols. The New York Botanical
Garden, New York, New York.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Mohlenbrock, R.H., ed. 1975. Guide to the vascular
flora of Illinois. Southern Illinois University Press,
Carbondale, Illinois.
Munz, P.A. 1965. A California flora. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
Swink, F. &. G. S. Wilhelm 1979. Plants of the
Chicago region. 3rd ed. The Morton Arboretum,
Lisle, Illinois.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Tiner, R.W. Jr. 1987. A field guide to coastal
wetland plants of the northeastern United States.
The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst,
Massachusetts.
Voss, E.G. 1972. Michigan flora. Cranbrok Institute
of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, &. University
of Michigan Herbarium.
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='scam6';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CALIFORNIA
BULRUSH
Schoenoplectus californicus
(C.A. Mey.) Palla
Plant Symbol = SCCA11
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Idaho Plant Materials Center
Tule houses were common throughout many parts of
California with the overlapping tule matters being
well-insulated and rain-proof. Willow poles, arched
and anchored into the ground and tied with cordage
or bark, formed the framework. The walls were
thatched with mats of tule or cattail and secured to
the frame. In Nevada, tules and willows were bound
together in a sort of crude weaving for ".Kani"., the
Paiute name for summerhouse.
Tules and cattails were used as insulating thatch for
structures, matting, bedding, and roofing materials.
Shredded tule was used for baby diapers, bedding,
and menstrual padding. Women made skirts from
tule. During inclement weather, men wore shredded
tule capes, which tied around the neck and was belted
at the waist. Duck decoys were made of tule.
Several California Indian tribes made canoes of tule
stems bound together with vines from wild grape.
Groups located near the California coast used tule to
make large round mud-shoes so they could walk
without sinking.
Other Uses: Streambank stabilization, wetland
restoration, wildlife food and shelter, edible (young
shoots, pollen, seeds, rhizomes), and matting. These
native plants are especially good for stabilizing or
restoring disturbed or degraded (including logged or
burned) areas, for erosion and slope control, and for
wildlife food and cover. Bulrushes may be less
suitable for general garden use.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Wildlife: The seeds, being less hairy and larger than
cattail, are one of the most important and commonly
used foods of ducks and of certain marshbirds and
shorebirds (Martin et al. 1951). Bulrushes provide
choice food for wetland birds: American widgeon,
bufflehead, mallard, pintail, shoveler, blue-winged
teal, cinnamon teal, greater scaup, lesser scaup,
avocet, marbled godwit, clapper rail, Virginia rail,
sora rail, long-billed dowitcher, and tricolored
blackbird. canada geese and white-fronted geese
prefer the shoots and roots. The stems provide
nesting habitat for blackbirds and marsh wrens.
Freshwater emergent wetlands are among the most
productive wildlife habitats in California. They
provide food, cover, and water for more than 160
species of birds and numerous mammals, reptiles and
amphibians. The endangered Santa Cruz long-toed
salamander and rare giant garter snake use these
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Bulrush, tule, black root. Known in most floras as
Scirpus californicus.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Bulrush is similar to the cattail in
edibility, although it is purportedly sweeter. Young
shoots coming up in the spring can be eaten raw or
cooked. Bulrush pollen is eaten as flour in bread,
mush or pancakes. Later in the season, the seeds can
be beaten off into baskets or pails, ground into a
similar meal and used as flour. The large rhizomes
are eaten raw or cooked. sometimes they were dried
in the sun, then pounded into a kind of flour.
Schoenoplectus validus (synonym: Scirpus validus), a
similar species, has as much as 8% sugar and 5.5%
starch in rhizomes, but less than 1% protein
(Harrington 1972).
The rhizome (underground stem) is used for the black
element in basket design. Rhizomes are obtained by
digging around the plant and following them out
from the parent plant. Often the green stalks are cut,
to make the rooting area more accessible. Bulrushes
are called black root by Pomo basketweavers in
California. the cream-colored rhizome is dyed black
for basketry designs.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
wetlands as primary habitat. The endangered
Aleutian Canada goose, bald eagle, and peregrine
falcon use wetlands as feeding areas and roost sites.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge Family (Cyperaceae). California
bulrush, a perennial herbaceous plant, is
distinguished by long triangular or subterete stems
from 5 to 8 feet tall. The leaves are slender, v-shaped
blades that are sheathed around the long stem. The
flowers are arranged in a spikelet and resemble
orange-brown scales. The inflorescence of California
bulrush is a larger and more open panicle than
hardstem bulrush, with 20 to many spikelets, and it is
consistently a reddish brown color. Bulrushes have
clonal growth, with stout rootstocks and long, thick,
brown rhizomes (underground stems).
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Bulrushes are often dominant emergent
vegetation found in marshes and wetlands throughout
temperate North America. California bulrush, which
often hybridizes with hardstem bulrush, is abundant
in freshwater marshes along the California coast from
San Diego County to Napa County, inland in the
Central Valley, occasional in the Mojave Desert, east
to South Carolina, Florida, temperate South America
and the Hawaiian Islands (Hickman 1993).
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Schoenoplectus species may be planted from bare
rootstock or seedlings from container stalk or directly
seeded into the soil. Germination problems have
been reported in the literature for some
Schoenoplectus (synonym: Scirpus) species.
Consequently, live plant collections of this species
are recommended.
Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. If no more than
0.09 m2 (1 ft2) are removed from a 0.4 m2 (4 ft2)
area, the plants will grow back into the hole in one
good growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during the
growing season. Donor plants that are drought-
stressed tend to have higher re-vegetation success.
Live transplants should be planted as soon as possible
in moist (not flooded or anoxic) soils. Plants should
be transported and stored in a cool location prior to
planting. Plugs may be split into smaller units,
generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm (2.4 x 2.4 in), with
healthy rhizomes and tops. The important factor in
live plant collections is to be sure to include a
growing bud in either plugs or rhizomes. Weeds in
the plugs should be removed by hand. Soil can either
be left on the roots of harvested material or removed.
For ease in transport, soil may be washed gently from
roots. The roots should always remain moist or in
water until planted.
Clip the leaves and stem from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). This allows the plant to allocate more
energy into root production. Plant approximately 1
meter apart. Plants should be planted closer together
if the site has fine soils such as clay or silt, steep
slopes, or prolonged inundation. Don t flood plants
right away, or the seedlings will experience high
mortality. Get the roots started before flooding soils
if possible. Ideally, plants should be planted in late
fall just after the first rains (usually late October to
November). This enables plant root systems to
become established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist. Fertilization is very
helpful for plant growth and reproduction. Many
more seeds are produced with moderate fertilization.
Seed Collections:
• Select seed collection sites where continuous
stands with few intermixed species can easily be
found.
• At each collection location, obtain permission for
seed collection.
Seed is harvested by either taking hand clippers
or cutting the stem off below the seed heads or
stripping the seed heads off the stalk.
from the soil surface.
• Less than 1/2 hour is required to make a decent
collection of 1 to 2 cups of seed. The ease of
collection is affected by water depth.
• Collect and store seeds in brown paper bags or
burlap bags. Dry the seeds in these bags.
• Seeds and seed heads need to be cleaned in a
seed cleaner. Plant cleaned seed in fall. Plant in
clean, weed - free, moist seed bed. Flooded or
ponded soils will significantly increase seedling
mortality.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
Page 3
• Some seed may be lost due to scour or flooding.
Recommended seed density is unknown at this
time.
Seed germination in greenhouse:
• Clean seed - blow out light seed.
• To germinate seeds, plant in greenhouse in 1". x
1". x 2". pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep
soil surface moist at a temperature of 100
degrees F (plus or minus 5 degrees). Seeds
begin to germinate after a couple weeks in warm
temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased re-vegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Hydrology is the most important factor in
determining wetland type, revegetation, success, and
wetland function and value. Changes in water levels
influence species composition, structure, and
distribution of plant communities. Water
management is absolutely critical during plant
establishment, and remains crucial through the life of
the wetland for proper community management.
Heavy grazing will eliminate Schoenoplectus species
as well as other native species.
Muskrats have evolved with wetland ecosystems and
form a valuable component of healthy functioning
wetland communities. Muskrats use emergent
wetland vegetation for hut construction and for food.
An area of open water is created around the huts,
which increase wetland diversity by providing
opportunities for aquatic vegetation to become
established. Muskrats opening up the dense stands of
emergent vegetation also create habitat for other
species. Both beaver and muskrats often improve
wetland habitat.
Traditional Resource Management: The plant must
grow in coarse-textured soil that is free of gravel,
clay and silt for the roots to be of the quality
necessary for basketweaving. Plants are tended by
gathering rhizomes and reducing plant density.
Sustainable harvesting of plants occurs through
limiting harvest in any given area. Fire was also used
to manage tule wetlands. fire eliminated decadent old
stems and restored open water to the wetland. This
stimulates growth of new shoots from rhizomes and
provides a bare soil substrate for seed germination.
Many Native Americans feel the use of herbicides is
inappropriate in traditional gathering sites. Bulrush
is densely rhizomatous with abundant seed
production. In most cases, it will out-compete other
species within the wetland area of the site,
eliminating the need for manual or chemical control
of invasive species.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is available from most nurseries within
the species range that handles wetland plants.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California. 280 pp.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Dahl, T.E. &. C.E. Johnson 1991. Status and trends
of wetlands in the coterminous United States, mid-
1970s to mid-1980s. USDI, Fish and Wildlife
Service, Washington, D.C. 28 pp.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque,
New Mexico. 156 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California. 1399 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Murphy, E.V.A. no date. Indian uses of native
plants. Mendocino County Historical Society. 81 pp.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A
guide to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay
area. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Tiner, R.W. 1984. Wetlands of the United States:
Current status and recent trends. USDI, FWS,
Page 4
National Wetlands Inventory, Washington, D.C. 58
pp.
Timbrook, J.J. 1997. California Indian
Basketweavers. California Indian Basketweavers
Association newsletter.
USDA, NRCS 2003. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>.. Version: 030127.
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Project
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho
' WHERE symbol='scca11';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 27jan03 jsp. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
WOOLGRASS
Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth
Plant Symbol = SCCY
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Iowa, and southward to North Carolina and
Oklahoma. It is also found from Newfoundland to
Minnesota south to Florida and Louisiana (Tiner
1987). For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Woolgrass is found in irregularly flooded tidal fresh
marshes, inland marshes, wet meadows, and swamps.
This species grows best in areas with wet soil
moisture content and is seldom found in more than a
few inches of water (Voss 1972). It prefers peat or
sandy soil types in full to partially sunny locations.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Scirpus cyperinus seeds should
be sown in a cold frame as soon as they are ripe in a
pot standing in three centimeters of water. The seeds
germinate quickly. When they are large enough to
handle, plant them into their permanent positions in
early summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. It is best to pot smaller
divisions and grow them in a cold frame, out-planting
when they are well established in the summer.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='After seed planting, water level over Scirpus
cyperinus seeds should be maintained at one foot for
two weeks. Periodic flooding up to three feet should
occur until the seeds are established.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through wetland plant nurseries. Contact
your local Natural Resources Conservation Service
office for more information. Look in the phone book
under ”United States Government.” The Natural
Resources Conservation Service will be listed under
the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Britton, N.L. &. A. Brown 1970. An illustrated flora
of the northern United States and Canada. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
R. Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetlands Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
cotton grass bulrush, common wool-grass
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Woolgrass stems were woven to make
matting and ropes. The fruiting tops of the plant
were used as a resilient material for stuffing and
making pillows (Moerman 1998). The small rushes
were used in making woven mats and storage bags
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge family (Cyperaceae). Woolgrass
(Scirpus cyperinus) is a tall perennial with slender
culms. This species is an erect grasslike plant that
commonly grows four to five feet (Tiner 1987). The
leaves are smooth, flat, elongated, and up to ½ inch
wide. The flowers occur in dense rounded clusters of
greenish-brown spiklets arising from the top of the
culm. The fruits are yellow-gray to white achenes
surpassed by long red-brown bristles at maturity.
Distribution: Scirpus cyperinus ranges from New
England and New York westward across Ohio to
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Bruggen, T. V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, &. C.R. Bell 1968.
Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Straughbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of
West Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc.,
Morgantown, West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Tiner, R.W. Jr. 1987. A field guide to coastal
wetland plants of the northeastern United States.
The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst,
Massachusetts.
Voss, E.G. 1972. Michigan flora. Cranbrok Institute
of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, and
University of Michigan Herbarium, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sccy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060816 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
SOFTSTEM
BULRUSH
Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani (K.C. Gmel.)
Palla
Plant Symbol = SCTA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
was edible and reputed to serve as a thirst-quencher.
the boiled young roots yield sweet syrup (Steyermark
1963).
Wildlife: Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani provide
food and cover for fish, muskrats, raccoons, and
otters (Guard 1995). The hard-coated fruits are an
important and common food source for ducks, shore
birds, and marsh birds (Ibid.). This species provide
nesting cover for water birds, waterfowl, and marsh
wrens.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Sedge family (Cyperaceae). Soft-stem
bulrush Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani is a tall,
perennial, herbaceous plant that grows up to ten feet
tall. The leaves are highly modified into long sheaths
that closely girdle stem bases (Guard 1995). The
flowers are borne in an open inflorescence of many
stalked, budlike spikelets, covered by reddish brown
scales below the top of the stem (Tiner 1987). The
fruit is a brownish gray achene (Ibid.).
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Soft-stem bulrush occurs in deep or shallow water, or
in muddy or marshy ground around lakes, ponds,
streams, and wooded wetlands (Guard 1995). This
species usually occurs in poorly drained soil. It
grows better in saline conditions than in fresh water,
and it tolerates a wide range of salinity.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Schoenoplectus
tabernaemontani seeds should be sown in a cold
frame as soon as they are ripe in a pot standing in
three centimeters of water. The seeds germinate
quickly. When they are large enough to handle, large
divisions can be planted directly into their permanent
positions in early summer. Place smaller divisions in
pots and grow them in a cold frame, planting them
when they are well established in the summer.
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternativeNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternativeNames='great bulrush, soft-stemmed bulrush, common
bulrush, giant bulrush, bull whip, Scirpus validus
(SCVA)
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans wove the stems of
softstem bulrush into mats (Guard 1995). The dried
beaten rootstocks were used by some Indian tribes as
meal for bread, while the young tip of the rootstock
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani can survive
following periodic draining and flooding of marshes.
However, softstem bulrush stands can be reduced if
prolonged draining and flooding continuously occurs.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Guard, J.B. 1995. Wetland plants of Oregon and
Washington. Lone Pine Publishing, Redmond,
Washington.
Kantrud, H.A., J.B. Miller, &. A.G. Van Der Valk
1989. Vegetation of wetlands of the prairie pothole
region. In: Northern prairie wetlands. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Magee, D.W. 1981. Freshwater wetlands: a guide to
common indicator plants of the northeast. University
of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts.
Munz, P.A. 1965. A California flora. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
' WHERE symbol='scta2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
food” and very likely saw palmetto was one of them.
Evidence for saw palmetto use is widespread in
coastal archaeological sites in southern and central
Florida, being an extremely important food for Florida’s
pre-Columbian peoples ( McGoun 1993 cited in Bennett
and Hicklin 1998). The seeds of these fruits also are
found at sites in northern Florida and in the Lower
Mississippi Valley (Alexander 1984 and Kidder and Fritz
1993 cited in Scarry 2003).
The Choctaw, Koasati, Miccosukee, and Seminole used
and continue to use the split leaf petioles for basketry
(Bennett and Hicklin 1998. Bushnell 1909. Colvin 2006.
Sturtevant 1955:504). Thomas Colvin (2006:80) describes
the sustainable harvest practices of the Choctaw that he
learned from the Johnsons: “The best palmetto (Serrenoa
serrulata) [now Serenoa repens] grows where the marsh
meets the swamp or bayou. When cutting it, I always
leave stalks with one or two green fronds, as well as the
center growing core of the plant, as the Johnsons
[Choctaw] taught me to do, so that the plant will not die.
This can be done twice each year. Palmetto baskets are
made from the cortical layer of the stalks, not from the
fronds.” The Choctaw remove the rigid teeth from the
petioles and split the stalks into five or six straws, peeled
and trimmed them to the proper width, and dried them in
the sun. They might be then dyed black, red, or yellow.
Sifters, pack, heart, and elbow baskets all carry its leaves.
The Seminole pounded corn into a powder, sifted it
through woven palmetto fibers, and then placed it in a
kettle of boiling water to make a porridge called sofkee
(Covington 1993).
Figure 2. Houma Indians on the Lower Bayou Lafourche, Louisiana
standing in from of a house thatched with either saw palmetto (Serenoa
repens) or dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor). Courtesy of the National
Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution. Photo taken in 1907.
Saw Palmetto
Serenoa repens (Bartram) Small
Plant Symbol = SERE2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plants Data
Team, Davis, California and the Mississippi Choctaw
Tribal Field Office Choctaw, Mississippi
Figure 1. (Serenoa repens with fruits.) Photo by Ted Bodner.
Alternate Name Palmetto
Uses
Cultural: Saw palmetto featured prominently in the
material cultures of some Southeastern
tribes. The
Tequesta, Creek, Miccosukee, and Seminole gathered and
ate the berries in late summer or fall (Bennett and Hicklin
1998. Tebeau 1968. Rusby 1906). Romans (1999:145)
said in 1775 in reference to the Creek: “… they dry
peaches and persimmons, chestnuts and the fruit of the
chamaerops [Serenoa repens].” The young, sweet, and
tender shoots are also edible (Small 1926). Naturalist
William Bartram (1996:559), in his travels in the
Southeastern United States in the 1770s, noted that there
were “several species of palms, which furnish them
[tribes] with a great variety of agreeable and nourishing
Page 2
The Seminole used the leaves for bedding in a temporary
camp. The Chitimacha, Choctaw, Houma, Miccosukee,
and Seminole thatched their houses with either saw
palmetto leaves or the leaves of Sabal minor or Sabal
palmetto. (Bushnell 1909. Campisi 2004. Sweeny 1936.
Bennett and Hicklin 1998). The Miccosukee and
Seminole made and continue to make dance fans and
rattles used in ceremonies and toy dolls for children out of
saw palmetto (Bennett and Hicklin 1998. Sturtevant
1955).
Figure 3. Seminole doll made from saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) leaf
sheath fibers, Immokalee, FL. Oct. 1997. Photo by B.C. Bennett.
is used
The plant provided punk for lighting fires and the broad
leaves made a kind of fire fan for fanning fires (Sturtevant
1955). Seminole fish drags, rope, and brushes were made
out of the palm fibers from leaf sheaths, stems, and roots
(Sturtevant 1955:504).
In early Materia Medicas, the berries were used by non-
Indians to treat all diseases of the reproductive glands, as
an aid to digestion, and to combat colds and chronic
bronchitis of lung asthma (Hutchens 1973). Today saw
palmetto
reduce
inflammation and for treatment of prostate disorders such
as prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), an enlarged prostate gland
condition common in older men (Sosnowska and Balslev
2009). Harvesting of fruits from pinelands has heightened
in the last fifteen years and saw palmetto supplements are
widely available in health food stores (Carrington and
Mullahey 2006). Although uncommon, complications
from the use of saw palmetto include intraoperative
hemorrhage,
nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as additive anticoagulant
effects and prolong bleeding time (Integrative Medicine
Service of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
2008).
to promote urination,
gastrointestinal
complaints,
is
Non-Indian settlers split saw palmetto leaves into shreds
and boiled them and dried them in the sun one or two
days and made them into durable mattresses and pillows.
The leaves were also collected, dried, put up in bales and
sold for paper stock in the late 1800s and the strong roots
were made into scrubbing brushes (Hale 1898). African-
Americans made palmetto hats for Southern soldiers
(Porcher 1991).
Saw palmetto is often viewed as an impediment to cattle
grazing and farming (Carrington and Mullahey 2006), but
there are some exceptions. It is an important component
in the winter diet of cattle in south Florida rangelands and
sheep grazing has been used in Florida to control saw
palmetto (Kalmbacher et al. 1984. Marshall et al. 2008).
One study that evaluated saw palmetto for biomass
potential found that the low biomass yields and high
concentrations of extractives and lignin indicate that saw
palmetto does not have the desired characteristics for
biomass energy conversion (Pitman 1992). Saw palmetto
can be planted for watershed protection, erosion control,
and phosphate-mine reclamation (Callahan et al. 1990
cited in Van Deelen 1991).
Wildlife: Ecologically, saw palmetto
labeled a
“keystone species” in southeastern, and particularly
Florida ecosystems (Carrington and Mullahey 2006).
Over 100 animal species use saw palmetto for nesting,
foraging, or for cover (Maehr and Layne 1996). Both the
threatened Florida panther (Felis concolor ssp. coryi) and
the threatened Florida black bear (Ursus americanus ssp.
floridanus) use colonies of saw palmetto as cover. Black
bears have their young in the protective cover of dense
plants (Bennett and Hicklin 1998). Florida burrowing
owls (Athene cunicularia floridana) excavate burrows in
saw palmetto patches (Mrykalo et al. 2007). Located in
the dry prairies of southern Florida with scattered
palmettos, are
the
savannarum
grasshopper
pratensis) and the sedge wren (Cistothorus platensis), that
overwinter
there (Butler et al. 2009). Bachman’s
sparrows (Aimophila aestivalis) use saw palmetto clumps
as shelter to escape from predators (Dean and Vickery
2003). Beach mice (Peromyscus polionotus) use clumps
of palmetto as cover (Extine and Stout 1987). Cotton mice
(Peromyscus gossypinus) and golden mice (Ochrotomys
nuttalli) build spherical nests of saw palmetto fibers
(Frank and Layne 1992). Saw palmetto flowers attract
several hundred species of pollinators (Carrington et al.
2003).
In 1898, Hale (1898:8) commented on the “great fattening
properties of the berries” for wildlife. Saw palmetto fruits
are high in crude fiber, potassium, ash, fats, and sodium
and serve as an energy-rich food for raccoons (Procyon
lotor), gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), rats,
gopher tortoises (Gopherus poloyphemus), opossums
(Didelphis marsupialis), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus), wild
(Meleagris gallopavo),
bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), black bears (Ursus
americanus), feral hogs, and various birds such as
two declining grassland birds,
(Ammodramus
sparrow
turkeys
Page 3
robins
(Turdus migratorius),
tracts greatly enhances
northern
American
(Mimus polyglottos), yellow-rumped
mockingbirds
warblers (Dendroica coronata) and pileated woodpeckers
(Dryocopus pileatus) (Abrahamson and Abrahamson
1989. Hale 1898. Maehr and Layne 1996. Martin et al.
1951). Fish and waterfowl also consume the fleshy fruits
(Hale 1898). In Florida, saw palmetto berries are the
single most important food to black bears (Maehr 2001).
In Okefenokee, for example, black gum (Nyssa sylvatica)
and saw palmetto fruits were the most important foods for
the Florida black bears based on scat analysis. These are
such important foods, they govern bear population
dynamics (cub production) (Dobey et al. 2005). Florida
box turtles (Terrapene carolina bauri) also feed on their
fruits and passage of the seeds through the turtles’
digestive
their germination
percentage and germination rate (Liu et al. 2004). Wasps
(Mischocyttarus mexicanus cubicola) nest on
the
underside of horizontally-oriented leaves of saw palmetto
in Florida (Hermann et al. 1985). Red widow spiders
(Latrodectus bishopi) in Florida scrub build silken retreats
in saw palmetto leaves (Carrel 2001). Mortality of saw
palmetto on restoration sites can be due to animal rooting
of the forming rhizome by feral pigs (Sus scrofa)
(Schmalzer et al. 2002).
Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current
status (e.g., threatened or endangered species, state
noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Description
General: Palm family (Arecaceae). Saw palmetto is a low
shrubby palm with a creeping, horizontal, simple or
branched stem. Long-lived, some of the larger palms are
centuries old (Abrahamson 1995). The leaves are fan-
shaped, up to one meter across, and are divided into 18-30
segments (Radford et al. 1968. Hale 1898). They have
petioles up to 1.5 m in length nearly always with sharp,
rigid recurved teeth (Radford et al. 1968). Fertile ramets
produce between one and five inflorescences with small,
cream-colored and fragrant flowers that have three petals
and six stamens. The edible fruit is a drupe, bluish to
black when ripe between August and October, and
resembling black olives in size and shape (Zona 2000.
Bombardelli and Morazzoni 1997. Hutchens 1973.
Bennett and Hicklin 1998). Like all palms, saw palmetto
has roots that are mycorrhizal, enabling it to grow on
nutrient poor native soil (Fisher and Jayachandran 1999).
Distribution: This palm occurs in Louisiana, Alabama,
Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida (Zona
2000). Both William Bartram and Edwin Hale wrote
about the palmetto scrubs extending unbroken for miles in
the Southeastern United States (Bartram 1996. Hale
1898). For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: The plant is the most common palm in the
United States and grows in a wide variety of habitats
including flatwoods, prairies, scrub, mesic hammocks,
maritime forests, short-hydroperiod swamps and sandy
dunes (Bennett and Hicklin 1998. Zona 2000). Saw
palmetto occurs on a range of sites from xeric to hydric
and a diversity of soils from strongly acidic to alkaline
(McNab and Edwards, Jr. 1980). It is often the dominant
shrub in the understory of Pinus elliottii, P. serotina, and
P. palustris flatwoods (Bennett and Hicklin 1998. Monk
1965). Many of these plant communities have evolved
with frequent lightning and Indian-set fires. For example,
upland Florida shrublands dominated by clonal oaks
intermixed with palmettos and other shrubs have evolved
with fire (Myers 1990. Schmalzer and Hinkle 1992). In
the absence of fire, it is disappearing as slow structural
changes in the vegetation result in diffuse ecotones and
less habitat heterogeneity (Boughton et al. 2006). Fire
return intervals in coastal plain savannas are every two to
eight years, and one to 10 years in xeric sand hills
(Christensen 1981 and Glitzenstein et al. 1995 cited in
Wagner 2003). Flatwoods are dominated by saw palmetto
and slash pines (Pinus elliottii) and typically burn every
2-9 years (Schafer and Mack 2010). In certain plant
communities, such as the dry prairies of Southern Florida,
the absence of frequent fire can favor the domination of
saw palmetto. Without fire every one to three years, saw
palmettos exclude other grass and forb species and
dominate the landscape (Butler et al. 2009).
Figure 4. American Indians in the Southeast, burning the understory of a
pine stand. Saw palmetto is often an understory associate with long leaf
pine and native grasses. Courtesy of the Longleaf Alliance, 2012.
Southeastern Indians set fires in the woods and prairies to
foster the growth of important food plants, keep areas
open to increase visibility and movement, drive game,
increase palatability, accessibility, and nutrition of forage
plants for ungulates, clear areas for farming, and other
purposes (Stewart 2002).
Page 4
Several of the habitats where saw palmetto is found,
Florida scrub, longleaf pine forests, loblolly-shortleaf pine
hardwood forests, and prairies are rare and declining due
to conversion
to agriculture, development, and the
absence or prevention of fire (Noss et al. 1995. Schmalzer
et al. 2002). Agriculture, both Native American and Euro-
American, resulting in cleared fields, may have kept areas
relatively free of saw palmetto on Cumberland Island
National Seashore, Georgia (Bratton and Miller 1994).
Adaptation
Studies show saw palmetto not only thrives in a fire-prone
environment, but is also activated reproductively by fire.
Saw palmetto has waxy, evergreen leaves that are quite
flammable. After fire, the plant resprouts from root
crowns and rhizomes and grows rapidly (Abrahamson
1984. 1999. Van Deelen 1991. Schmalzer and Hinkle
1992). Winter-burned stands recover faster than summer-
burned stands (Abrahamson 1984). However, seedlings
grow slowly, especially on nutrient-poor soils, and they
have a limited ability to recolonize former habitats
(Abrahamson 1995).
Establishment
Ripe fruit can be gathered by hand-picking or cutting the
fruit-bearing panicle (Van Deelen 1991). Saw palmetto
seeds have low and slow germination rates. In one trial,
soaked or imbibed seeds held for one week at 35 degrees
C provided the highest germination when seeds were
subsequently planted in sterile quartz media kept at 30
degrees C in a greenhouse (Carpenter 1987). D.J. Makus
(2008) found that germination of saw palmetto seeds can
be heightened by removal of any fleshy material around
the seeds, washing the seeds, and soaking them in water
for 24 hours before sowing them in a germination
medium. Outplanting the seeds in a lighter textured soil
resulted in improved plant height by 20 percent and a
two-fold increase in fruit yield by the sixth year (Makus
2008).
Management
Because flowering is connected to fire, saw palmetto
stands under conservation protection need
to be
prescription burned to maintain population viabilities
(Abrahamson 1999). Fire not only induces flowering in
appropriately sized individuals, it also influences whether
that stimulus will result in inflorescences via overstory
canopy reduction and enhancement of available light
(Abrahamson 1999). Burning saw palmetto understories
every 3 to 5 years, will maintain fruit production for
white-tailed deer (Fults 1991 cited in Van Deelen 1991).
Additionally, controlled harvesting of the berries for
modern medicine will leave fruits for wildlife populations
that also depend on nutrient-rich palmetto
fruits
(Abrahamson 1999). Managing areas with fire to include
both longer and shorter fire intervals will create a diverse
landscape mosaic, taking into account old palmetto stands
that bears and panthers use as cover for dens (Conway
Duever 2011).
Figure 5. Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) fruits drying at Plantation
Botanicals, Felda, FL. Sept. 1996 Photo by B .C. Bennett.
Control
Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist
or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your
area and how to use it safely. Always read label and
safety instructions for each control method. Trade names
and control measures appear in this document only to
provide specific information. USDA NRCS does not
guarantee or warrant the products and control methods
named, and other products may be equally effective.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and area
of origin)
Commercial sources of saw palmetto seeds are frequently
available (Van Deelen 1991). This plant is available from
native plant nurseries and is widely planted as an
ornamental (Bennett and Hicklin 1998). It grows slowly
though and doesn’t transplant easily (Bennett and Hicklin
1998. Abrahamson 1995). Also check with your local
NRCS Plant Materials Center for possible sources of
existing plant materials.
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Prepared By: M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National
Plants Data Team, and Tim Oakes, USDA NRCS
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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Mark Garland for
excellent editing of this Plant Guide. Iti Fabvssa
provided
Information and photographs provided by Bradley C.
Bennett. Appreciation is expressed to the Shields Library
at UC Davis for use of its vast library collections and
interlibrary loan services to find limited and obscure
library materials in book, report, and microfilm form from
many institutions across the country.
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assistance from USDA, you may file a complaint with
USDA. Information about how to file a discrimination
complaint is available from the Office of the Assistant
Secretary for Civil Rights.
in a program
that receives
information
on
Choctaw
houses.
USDA prohibits discrimination in all its programs and
activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age,
disability, and where applicable, sex (including gender
identity and expression), marital status, familial status,
parental status, religion, sexual orientation, political
beliefs, genetic information, reprisal, or because all or
part of an individual’s income is derived from any public
assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all
programs.)To
file a complaint of discrimination,
complete, sign and mail a program discrimination
complaint form, available at any USDA office location or
online at www.ascr.usda.gov, or write to: USDA
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights
1400
Washington, D.C. 20250-9410
Independence
Avenue,
S.W.
Or call toll free at (866) 632-9992 (voice) to obtain
additional information, the appropriate office or to request
documents. Individuals who are deaf, hard of hearing or
have speech disabilities may contact USDA through the
Federal Relay service at (800) 877-8339 or (800) 845-
6136 (in Spanish). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider, employer and lender.
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means
for communication of program information (e.g., Braille,
large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA s
TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
Published: December 2012
Edited: November 30 , 2012 M.K. A. and T.W.O.
For more information about this and other plants, please
contact your local NRCS field office or Conservation
District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/ and visit the
PLANTS Web site at http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant
Materials Program Web site http://plant-
materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or availability
of other Web sites.
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Page 1
Plant Guide
BUFFALOBERRY
Shepherdia canadensis (L.)
Nutt.
Plant Symbol = SHCA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Oleaster Family (Elaeagnaceae).
Buffaloberry is a native, deciduous, nitrogen-fixing
shrub that ranges in height from three to thirteen feet.
The leaves are opposite, oval, two to six centimeters
long, dark greenish on upper surface with whitish
silvery hairs and rusty brown spots on the
undersurface (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). The
flowers are small, yellowish or brownish, male and
female flowers on separate shrubs. The fruits are
drupelike, red or yellowish, ovoid achenes, that are
fleshy and edible but almost tasteless or bitter
(Viereck &. Little 1972).
Distribution: Buffaloberry is found from
Newfoundland to Alaska, south to Maine, to western
New York, Ohio, and northern Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the PLANTS profile page
for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Shepherdia canadensis occurs in dry to moist open
woods and thickets, from lowlands to middle
elevation forests (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). It
prefers moist to wet soil and is generally found on
rocky, sandy, or gravelly soils and is able to survive
on nutrient poor soils because of its nitrogen fixing
ability. This species prefers partial shade or partial
sun to full sun.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Buffaloberry seeds should be
harvested in the autumn and sown immediately in a
cold frame. The seeds must not be allowed to dry
out. Seeds have a hard seed coat and scarification
with sulfuric acid for twenty to thirty minutes
followed by two to three months of cold stratification
will help the embryo to develop (Dirr &. Heuser
1987). Place the seedlings into individual pots when
they are large enough to handle. If sufficient growth
is made by the summer, it is possible to plant them
out, otherwise grow them in a cold frame for the first
winter and out plant the following spring or early
summer.
© Robert Kowal
Plant Systematics Teaching Collection
University of Wisconsin-Madison
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
soapberry, buffalo-berry, russet buffaloberry, russet
red buffaloberry, Canadian buffalo-berry
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Buffaloberry berries were used to
make “Indian ice cream” which has a bitter taste but
was often sweetened with salal berries, camas bulbs,
or hemlock cambium (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994).
The berries were also eaten fresh or dried.
The Wet’suwet’en used the twigs, leaves, berries, and
juice medicinally for everything from heart attacks to
indigestion. The berries were also chewed by
Wet’suwet’en women to induce childbirth. The
Salish and Kootenai tribes boiled debarked branches
and used the solution as eyewash. A poultice of the
inner bark, softened by hot water and mixed with pin
cherry bark (Prunus pensylvanica) has been used to
make a plaster or bandage for wrapping broken limbs
(Moerman 1998).
Landscaping &. Wildlife: Shepherdia canadensis
plants are grown occasionally for ornamental use.
The berries are browsed by grouse, black bears,
grizzly bears, and snowshoe hares.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Shepherdia canadensis fruit contain low
concentrations of a bitter principle, saponin, which
foams in water. It is very poorly absorbed by the
body and can be broken down by thoroughly cooking
the fruit. Saponin is much more toxic to some
creatures, such as fish, if eaten in large quantities.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Somewhat available from native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. &. A. Brown 1970. An illustrated flora
of the northern United States and Canada. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Dirr, M. A. &. C. W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Fernald, M.L. &. A.C. Kinsey 1958. Edible wild
plants of eastern North America. Harper &. Brothers
Publishers, New York, New York.
Kowal, R. 2002. Shepardia canadensis. IN Plant
Systematics Teaching Collection, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Accessed: 11jan02.
<.http://www.wisc.edu/botit/systematics/contributors.
html>.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Mozingo, H.L. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: a
natural history. University of Nevada Press, Reno,
Nevada.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Stephens, H.A. 1973. Woody plants of the North
Central Plains. The University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service. Agriculture Handbook
No. 14. Washington, D.C.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='shca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CUP PLANT
Silphium perfoliatum L.
Plant Symbol = SIPE2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
paralysis, back and chest pain, and lung hemorrhages
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Composite family (Asteraceae). Cup plant
(Silphium perfoliatum) is a tall perennial native that
grows up to eight feet tall. This species has square
stems and leaves that are mostly opposite, egg-
shaped, toothed, with cuplike bases that hold water
(Kindscher 1987). The flower heads are rich, golden
yellow, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, and closely
grouped at the tips of the stems (Hunter 1984). The
small, tubular disk flowers are in the middle of the
flower and is sterile and does not produce fruits
(Ladd, 1995).
Distribution: Cup plant ranges from Ontario to South
Dakota, south to Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, and
Oklahoma (Steyermark 1963). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Silphium perfoliatum occurs on low ground, in moist
areas, along prairie streams, alluvial thickets,
floodplains, and along the edges of wet woodlands.
This species is found throughout the tall grass region,
but more sporadic northward (Ladd 1995).
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Seeds are best sown as soon as
they are ripe in a greenhouse. If the seeds are
collected in the fall, they should be stratified for
twelve weeks and then sown at 24 to 32ºF for four to
eight weeks, and then moved to 68ºF for germination.
When the plants are large enough to handle, place
them into individual pots and plant them out in the
summer.
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Silphium perfoliatum species should be transplanted
when they are young. This species is much easier
when transplanted young because it is very difficult
to transplant once it is older due to its extensive root
system.
© William S. Justice
Botany Department, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Carpenter’s weed, cup rosinweed, Silphium
perfoliatum L. var. connatum (L.) Cronq. (SIPEC2),
Silphium perfoliatum L. var. perfoliatum (SIPEP)
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Cup plant’s young leaves were cooked
in the spring as an acceptable green (Kindscher
1987). This species was also used as a chewing gum
to help prevent vomiting (Runkel &. Roosa 1989).
The Winnebagos tribe believed that this species has
supernatural powers. They would drink a concoction
derived from the rhizome to purify them before going
on a buffalo hunt. It is used in the treatment of liver
and spleen disorders and has also been used to treat
morning sickness (Moerman 1998). A decoction of
the root has been used as a face wash and to treat
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are occasionally available through native
plant seed sources and nurseries. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sipe2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dension, E. 1998. Missouri wildflowers. 5th ed.
Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City,
Missouri.
Fisher, T.R. 1988. The dicotyledoneae of Ohio part
III: Asteraceae. Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Freeman, C.C. &. E.K. Schofield 1991. Roadside
wildflowers of the southern Great Plains. University
Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1993. The Illustrated book of
wildflowers and shrubs. Stackpole Books,
Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.
Hunter, C.G. 1984. Wildflowers of Arkansas. The
Ozark Society Foundation, Little Rock, Arkansas.
Hylander, C.J. 1954. The MacMillan wildflower
book. The MacMillan Company, New York, New
York.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie: an ethnobotanical guide. University of
Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass prairie wildflowers.
Falcon Press, Helena, Montana.
Moldenke, H.N. 1949. American wildflowers. D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, New York.
Runkel, S.T. &. D.M. Roosa. 1989. Wildflowers of
the tallgrass prairie: the upper Midwest. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CUP PLANT
Silphium perfoliatum L. var.
connatum (L.) Cronq.
Plant Symbol = SIPEC2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© William S. Justice
Botany Department, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Carpenter’s weed, cup rosinweed, Silphium
perfoliatum L. var. connatum (L.) Cronq. (SIPEC2),
Silphium perfoliatum L. var. perfoliatum (SIPEP)
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Cup plant’s young leaves were cooked
in the spring as an acceptable green (Kindscher
1987). This species was also used as a chewing gum
to help prevent vomiting (Runkel &. Roosa 1989).
The Winnebagos tribe believed that this species has
supernatural powers. They would drink a concoction
derived from the rhizome to purify them before going
on a buffalo hunt. It is used in the treatment of liver
and spleen disorders and has also been used to treat
morning sickness (Moerman 1998). A decoction of
the root has been used as a face wash and to treat
paralysis, back and chest pain, and lung hemorrhages
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Composite family (Asteraceae). Cup plant
(Silphium perfoliatum) is a tall perennial native that
grows up to eight feet tall. This species has square
stems and leaves that are mostly opposite, egg-
shaped, toothed, with cuplike bases that hold water
(Kindscher 1987). The flower heads are rich, golden
yellow, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, and closely
grouped at the tips of the stems (Hunter 1984). The
small, tubular disk flowers are in the middle of the
flower and is sterile and does not produce fruits
(Ladd, 1995).
Distribution: Cup plant ranges from Ontario to South
Dakota, south to Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, and
Oklahoma (Steyermark 1963). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Silphium perfoliatum occurs on low ground, in moist
areas, along prairie streams, alluvial thickets,
floodplains, and along the edges of wet woodlands.
This species is found throughout the tall grass region,
but more sporadic northward (Ladd 1995).
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Seeds are best sown as soon as
they are ripe in a greenhouse. If the seeds are
collected in the fall, they should be stratified for
twelve weeks and then sown at 24 to 32ºF for four to
eight weeks, and then moved to 68ºF for germination.
When the plants are large enough to handle, place
them into individual pots and plant them out in the
summer.
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Silphium perfoliatum species should be transplanted
when they are young. This species is much easier
when transplanted young because it is very difficult
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
to transplant once it is older due to its extensive root
system.
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are occasionally available through native
plant seed sources and nurseries. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sipec2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dension, E. 1998. Missouri wildflowers. 5th ed.
Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City,
Missouri.
Fisher, T.R. 1988. The dicotyledoneae of Ohio part
III: Asteraceae. Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Freeman, C.C. &. E.K. Schofield 1991. Roadside
wildflowers of the southern Great Plains. University
Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1993. The Illustrated book of
wildflowers and shrubs. Stackpole Books,
Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.
Hunter, C.G. 1984. Wildflowers of Arkansas. The
Ozark Society Foundation, Little Rock, Arkansas.
Hylander, C.J. 1954. The MacMillan wildflower
book. The MacMillan Company, New York, New
York.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie: an ethnobotanical guide. University of
Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass prairie wildflowers.
Falcon Press, Helena, Montana.
Moldenke, H.N. 1949. American wildflowers. D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, New York.
Runkel, S.T. &. D.M. Roosa. 1989. Wildflowers of
the tallgrass prairie: the upper Midwest. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CUP PLANT
Silphium perfoliatum L. var.
perfoliatum
Plant Symbol = SIPEP
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
morning sickness (Moerman 1998). A decoction of
the root has been used as a face wash and to treat
paralysis, back and chest pain, and lung hemorrhages
(Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Composite family (Asteraceae). Cup plant
(Silphium perfoliatum) is a tall perennial native that
grows up to eight feet tall. This species has square
stems and leaves that are mostly opposite, egg-
shaped, toothed, with cuplike bases that hold water
(Kindscher 1987). The flower heads are rich, golden
yellow, 2.5 centimeters in diameter, and closely
grouped at the tips of the stems (Hunter 1984). The
small, tubular disk flowers are in the middle of the
flower and is sterile and does not produce fruits
(Ladd, 1995).
Distribution: Cup plant ranges from Ontario to South
Dakota, south to Georgia, Mississippi, Missouri, and
Oklahoma (Steyermark 1963). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Silphium perfoliatum occurs on low ground, in moist
areas, along prairie streams, alluvial thickets,
floodplains, and along the edges of wet woodlands.
This species is found throughout the tall grass region,
but more sporadic northward (Ladd 1995).
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Seeds are best sown as soon as
they are ripe in a greenhouse. If the seeds are
collected in the fall, they should be stratified for
twelve weeks and then sown at 24 to 32ºF for four to
eight weeks, and then moved to 68ºF for germination.
When the plants are large enough to handle, place
them into individual pots and plant them out in the
summer.
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Silphium perfoliatum species should be transplanted
when they are young. This species is much easier
when transplanted young because it is very difficult
© William S. Justice
Botany Department, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Carpenter’s weed, cup rosinweed, Silphium
perfoliatum L. var. connatum (L.) Cronq. (SIPEC2),
Silphium perfoliatum L. var. perfoliatum (SIPEP)
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Cup plant’s young leaves were cooked
in the spring as an acceptable green (Kindscher
1987). This species was also used as a chewing gum
to help prevent vomiting (Runkel &. Roosa 1989).
The Winnebagos tribe believed that this species has
supernatural powers. They would drink a concoction
derived from the rhizome to purify them before going
on a buffalo hunt. It is used in the treatment of liver
and spleen disorders and has also been used to treat
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
to transplant once it is older due to its extensive root
system.
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Materials are occasionally available through native
plant seed sources and nurseries. Contact your local
Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly
Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sipep';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Dension, E. 1998. Missouri wildflowers. 5th ed.
Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City,
Missouri.
Fisher, T.R. 1988. The dicotyledoneae of Ohio part
III: Asteraceae. Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Freeman, C.C. &. E.K. Schofield 1991. Roadside
wildflowers of the southern Great Plains. University
Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1993. The Illustrated book of
wildflowers and shrubs. Stackpole Books,
Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.
Hunter, C.G. 1984. Wildflowers of Arkansas. The
Ozark Society Foundation, Little Rock, Arkansas.
Hylander, C.J. 1954. The MacMillan wildflower
book. The MacMillan Company, New York, New
York.
Kindscher, K. 1987. Edible wild plants of the
prairie: an ethnobotanical guide. University of
Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass prairie wildflowers.
Falcon Press, Helena, Montana.
Moldenke, H.N. 1949. American wildflowers. D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, New York.
Runkel, S.T. &. D.M. Roosa. 1989. Wildflowers of
the tallgrass prairie: the upper Midwest. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
ALKALI SACATON
Sporobolu airoides (Torr.)
Torr.
Plant Symbol = SPAI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Grass Family (Poaceae). Alkali sacaton is a
tough perennial two to three and a half feet tall,
growing in large bunches. The culms are erect to
spreading and range in height from 50 to 100
centimeters tall. The blades are elongate, flat, soon
becoming involute, and usually less that four
millimeters wide (Hitchcock 1951).
Distribution: Alkali sacaton ranges from South
Dakota to Washington, south to Missouri, Kansas,
Texas, and Mexico (Steyermark 1963). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Alkali sacaton grows on dry to moist sites with sand
or gravelly soil. This species is often found growing
on alkaline flats, prairies, and sandy plateaus. It is
common along drainage in desert and semi-desert
areas.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Alkali sacaton seeds should be
sown in the spring in a greenhouse. Cover the seeds
with a light layer of the growing media.
Germination for this species should take place within
two weeks. When seedlings are large enough to
handle, plant them directly into their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. However, smaller divisions
should be placed in individual pots in a cold frame,
planting them when they are well established in the
summer.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Once Sporobolus airoides plants are well established
little maintenance is required. It is best that the
stands of this species is grazed in the spring and
summer when growth is active.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Commonly available through commercial seed
vendors. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
R. Mohlenbrock
USDA,NRCS,Wetland Sciences Institute
@PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
giant sacaton, finetop saltgrass, hairgrass dropseed,
zacaton alcalino
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Hopi Indians use the seeds in
times of famine (Whiting 1939). They were ground
into flour, eaten dry or made into a mush.
Wildlife: Alkali sacaton’s abundant herbage is eaten
by cattle, sheep, and horses (Hitchock 1951). This
species is used as a good forage or grazing grass in
lowland and in alkali regions (Gates 1937).
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. &. A. Brown 1970. An illustrated flora
of the northern United States and Canada. Dover
Publications, New York, New York.
Gates, F.C. 1937. Grasses in Kansas. Kansas State
Printing Plant, Topeka, Kansas.
Hitchcock, A.S. 1951. Manual of the grasses of the
United States. Misc. Publ. No. 200. U.S.
Department of Agricultural, Washington, D.C.
Hitchcock, A.S. 1971. Manual of the grasses of the
United States. Dover Publications, New York, New
York.
Kearney, T.H.. R.H. Peebles. J. T. Howell. &. E.
McClintock 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. University
of California press, Berkeley, California.
Munz, P.A. 1974. A flora of southern California.
University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Whiting, A.F. 1939. Ethnobotany of the Hopi. North
Arizona Society of Science and Art.
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spai';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
AMERICAN BUR-
REED
Sparganium americanum Nutt.
Plant Symbol = SPAM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© George F. Russell
Botany Department, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
Plant Guide
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
BRANCHED BUR-
REED
Sparganium androcladum
(Engelm.) Morong.
Plant Symbol = SPAN
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='span';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NARROWLEAF BUR-
REED
Michx.
Sparganium angustifolium
Plant Symbol = SPAN2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© St. Mary’s College
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='span2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
SIMPLESTEM BUR-
REED
Sparganium erectum L.
Plant Symbol = SPER
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
© Kurt Stuber
from Flora von Deutschland Österreich und der Schweiz
@ Kurt Stuber’s Online Library
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sper';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
SIMPLESTEM BUR-
REED
Sparganium erectum L. ssp.
stoloniferum (Graebn.) Hara
Plant Symbol = SPERS2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
© Kurt Stuber
from Flora von Deutschland Österreich und der Schweiz
@ Kurt Stuber’s Online Library
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spers2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
BROADFRUIT BUR-
REED
Sparganium eurycarpum
Engelm. ex Gray
Plant Symbol = SPEU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='speu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
FLOATING BUR-
REED
Sparganium fluctuans
(Morong) B.L. Robins.
Plant Symbol = SPFL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Gary Fewless
@ Wisconsin State Herbarium
University of Wisconsin
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spfl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
CLUSTERED BUR-
REED
Sparganium glomeratum
(Laestad.) L. Neum.
Plant Symbol = SPGL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
© June M. Dobberpuhl
@ Wisconsin State Herbarium
University of Wisconsin-Madison
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spgl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NORTHERN BUR
-
REED
Sparganium hyperboreum
Buerling ex Laestad.
Plant Symbol = SPHY
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Britton &. Brown 1913
Courtesy of Kentucky Native Plant Society
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sphy';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Bur-reed family (Sparaniaceae).
American bur-reed
Sparganium americanum (SPAM)
branched bur-reed
Sparganium androcladum (SPAN)
narrowleaf bur-reed
Sparganium angustifolium (SPAN2)
simplestem bur-reed
Sparganium erectum (SPER)
broadfruit bur-reed
Sparganium eurycarpum (SPEU)
floating bur-reed
Sparganium fluctuans (SPFL)
clustered bur-reed
Sparganium glomeratum (SPGL)
northern bur-reed
Sparganium hyperboreum (SPHY)
small bur-reed
Sparganium natans (SPNA)
These bur-reed species are native, herbaceous marsh
or pond plants with rootstocks. The leaves are
alternate, stiff and erect or limp and floating, linear,
and internally septate (The Great Plains Flora
Association 1986). The individual flowers are small
and occur in separate male (staminate) or female
(pistillate) globular clusters on the same plant.
(Steyermark 1963).
Distribution: A genus of twenty or more Sparanium
species is widely distributed in temperate and colder
latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, and
in eastern North America (Braun 1967). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This species grows best on wet ground in rich soil. It
prefers full sun but can tolerate some shade.
Sparanium species is mostly found in muddy or
shallow water of swamps and ponds. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Sparanium seeds should be
sown as soon as they are ripe in the greenhouse. This
species should be placed in pots standing in two to
SMALL BUR-REED
Sparganium natans L.
Plant Symbol = SPNA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic..The Klamath Indians dug the tubers
(possibly Sparganium angustifolium, S. erectum,
and/or S. eurycarpum) produced in late autumn from
the creeping rootstocks of some of the species of this
genus, and use them as food (Steyermark 1963). An
infusion of Sparanium erectum can be mixed with
other plant leaves and used in the treatment of chills
(Moerman 1998). A decoction of Sparganium
stoloniferum root was used in the treatment of chest
pains and abdominal pain (Yeung 1985).
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
Yeung, H.C. 1985. Handbook of Chinese herbs and
formulas. Institute of Chinese Medicine, Los
Angeles, California.
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 03jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
three centimeters of water. Place the seedlings into
individual pots when they are large enough to handle
and gradually increase the depth of water with plant
growth. Plant Sparanium sp to their permanent
positions in the summer.
Large divisions can be planted directly into their
permanent positions. While allowing smaller potted
divisions to grow in a cold frame until they are well
established and ready for summer out-planting to
their permanent location..
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seeds of most aquatic plants should be sown as soon
as they are ripe. The seeds lose viability quickly if it
is allowed to dry out. If immediate sowing is
inconvenient, store seeds in moist peat, or substitute
in a plastic bag and keep frost-free (Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='spna';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Braun, L.E. 1967. The monocotyledoneae from cat-
tails to orchids. The Ohio State University Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
Gleason, H. A. &. A. Cronquist 1993. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C. W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. 2nd ed. Oregon State University Press,
Portland, Oregon.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the southeastern flora.
The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J. A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P. D. &. E. L. Core 1977. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
TRAILING
FUZZYBEAN
Strophostyles helvula (L.) Ell.
Plant Symbol = STHE4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Legume Family (Fabaceae). Trailing
fuzzybean is an native, herbaceous annual vine. The
plant has a fuzzy stem from 1-3 m in length. Young
stems are erect and become trailing or twining as they
grow. Leaflets are 2-5.5 cm long and ovate to ovate-
oblong in shape. The leaves can often have three
lobes. The purple-pea flowers are borne at the top of
long, naked stalks. Blooms fade with time to include
shades of green. The flowers are 8-13mm long. The
long, fuzzy pods (4-10 cm long) contain several
pubescent seeds that are black and shiny with
removal of the fuzzy outer coat. The plants bloom
from summer to fall. The seed pods shatter,
dispersing the seeds, when the seeds are ripe.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Trailing fuzzybean can be found along the
banks of rivers, in damp thicket, in open woodlands,
low places between coastal dunes, fields, abandoned
cropland and roadsides.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Trailing fuzzybean is a “pioneer” plant, which is
often found colonizing open sites in either moist or
dry conditions. Although it prefers sandy soils, it can
be found on a wide range of medium to fine-textured
upland soils.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seeds may be planted in April or May. You may
plant trailing fuzzybean in the same manner as any
garden bean.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='
These plant materials are not generally available from
commercial sources. Seed from the “Hopefield
selection,” developed for erosion control, is available
from the USDA-NRCS Jamie L. Whitten Plant
Materials Center, Rt. W Box 215-A, Coffeeville,
Mississippi 38922 (Tel. 601 675-2588). Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
©William S. Justice
@PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Wild bean, sand bean, trailing bean, trailing
wildbean, pink wild bean
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Houma, Choctaw, Iroquois, and
other Native American tribes used trailing fuzzybean
for food as well as various medicinal uses. The
Choctaw would boil and mash the roots for food.
The Houma combined trailing fuzzybean with Cassia
Tora (Indian Coffee) to make a tea for treating
typhoid. The Iroquois treated poison ivy and warts
by rubbing the whole leaves on the affected areas.
Wildlife: Bobwhites, quail and turkeys are among the
birds that feed on the seeds of trailing fuzzybean.
Other: In areas where it is adapted, the trailing fuzzy
bean is used in reseeding mixtures, to prevent
erosion.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Duncan, W.H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York. 278
pp.
Isley, D. 1990. Vascular flora of the Southeastern
United States, Volume 3, Part 2, Leguminosae
(Fabaceae). University of North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 258 pp.
Jamie L. Whitten Plant Material Center 1997.
Planting guide: Strophostyles helvula Hopefield
selections (trailing wildbean) (ID#2273).
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/BCS/PMC/pubs/allpub
s.html. (12 June 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn.
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(13 June 2001)
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference 14(4): 49-75.
Taylor, K.S. and S.F. Hamblin 1963. Handbook of
wild flower cultivation. The Macmillan Company,
New York, New York. 307 pp.
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='sthe4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
SNOWBERRY
Symphoricarpos albus (L.)
Blake
Plant Symbol = SYAL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
of this species was used to clear up afterbirth (Fielder
1975).
Wildlife: Snowberry is an important browse for many
types of livestock and wildlife. It is important for
shelter and food for various birds and small
mammals.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).
Snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) is a shrub or
small tree that grows up to six meters tall. The leaves
are large, opposite, divided into five to seven leaflets,
and toothed or irregularly lobed. The fruits are white,
berry like drupes, and one to one and a half
centimeters in diameter. The flowers are small, white
to creamy, with a strong unpleasant odor. numerous
in a rounded or pyramidal parasol-like cluster (Pojar
&. MacKinnon 1994). blooming from mid May to
July. The fruits are roundish, dull-white berries
about 3/8 inch in diameter, soon becoming blackish,
ripening August or September (Grimm 1993).
Distribution: Snowberry inhabits slopes and valley
bottoms of the foothills of the Coast Ranges, the
Sierra Nevada, and the mountains of southern
California (McMinn 1939). It extends northward to
British Columbia and eastward to Pennsylvania and
the New England states (Ibid.).
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Symphoricarpos albus is found along stream banks,
in swampy thickets, moist clearings and open forests
at sea level to middle elevations (Pojar &. MacKinnon
1994). It tolerates soil types but grows best in heavy
clay soils. Snowberry grows well in sun or shade.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Symphoricarpos albus seeds
are best sown in the fall after maturity. Dormancy of
this species is caused by hard seed coat and immature
embryo, which can be broken by stratification in sand
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Saint Mary s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
White coralberry, common snowberry
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Some southern groups made brooms
out of the branches and the Gitksan hollowed out the
twigs to make pipe-stems (MacKinnon, Pojar, &.
Coupe´ 1992). One or two of the berries were eaten
by the Stl’atl’imx to settle the stomach after too much
fatty food (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). An infusion
of the fruit was used as eyewash for sore eyes and the
berries were rubbed on the skin as treatment for
burns, rashes, and sores (Moerman 1998). A
decoction of the roots and stems was used in the
treatment of the inability to urinate, venereal
diseases, tuberculosis and the fevers associated with
teething sickness (Ibid.). A tea made from the roots
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
and peat for 90 days at 77º, plus 180 days at 41ºF.
When the seedlings are large enough to handle, place
them into individual pots and grow them in the
greenhouse for their first winter. Plant seedlings into
their permanent positions in late spring or early
summer.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Snowberry fruit contains low concentrations of a
bitter principle, saponin, which foams in water. It is
very poorly absorbed by the body and can be broken
down by thoroughly cooking the fruit. Saponin is
much more toxic to some creatures, such as fish, if
eaten in large quantities.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Commonly available through native plant nurseries,
except in the south. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Carter, J.C. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Dirr, M.A. &. M.W. Heuser 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation. Varsity Press,
Athens, Georgia.
Fielder, M. 1975. Plant medicine and folklore.
Winchester Press, New York, New York.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
Canada. 2nd ed. New York Botanical Garden, New
York, New York.
Grimm, W.C. 1993. The illustrated book of
wildflowers and shrubs. Stackpole Books,
Mechanisburb, Pennsylvania.
Guard, J.B. 1995. Wetland plants of Oregon and
Washington. Lone Pine Publishing, Redmond,
Washington.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: higher
plants of California. University of California press,
Berkeley, California.
MacKinnon, A, J. Pojar, &. R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of northern British Columbia. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
McMinn, H.E. 1939. An illustarted manual of
California shrubs. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Pojar, J. &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the
Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Press.
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Jammie Favorite
Formerly, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='syal';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
WHITE PANICLE
ASTER
Symphyotrichum lanceolatum
(Willd.) Nesom ssp.
lanceolatum var. lanceolatum
Plant Symbol = SYLAL4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Aster family (Asteraceae). White panicle
aster is a perennial growing up to two meters tall.
The leaves are alternate, long, narrow, widest near
the middle, and sometimes irregularly toothed along
the edges, ranging up to six inches long (Ladd 1995).
The flower heads are in an open, leafy, conical
cluster at the top of the plant (Ibid.). The flowers are
hermaphrodite (having both male and female organs)
and are pollinated by bees, butterflies, flies, beetles
and moths.
Distribution: White panicle aster ranges from Maine
and south to South Carolina, west Texas and North
Dakota. For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This plant is common throughout the tallgrass region
in wet prairies, low wet depressions and along
streams (Ladd 1995). It requires well-drained soil
and prefers sandy, loamy and clay soils. This species
can grow on nutritionally poor soil but prefers rich
soil. It grows well in a sunny location and can
succeed in partial shade.
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Seeds should be sown fresh in
the fall or spring (Heuser 1997). Pre-chill spring
sown seeds to improve germination (Ibid.). When
the seedlings are large enough to handle, place them
into individual pots and plant them out in the
summer.
Division of this species should be done in the spring
or autumn. Large divisions can be planted into their
permanent positions whereas smaller clumps should
be kept in a cold frame until they are growing well.
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Occasionally available through native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Name
panicled aster, Aster lanceolatus
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The dried and powdered plant was
used as a salve on abrasions (Moerman 1998). A
decoction of the plant was used to dress wounds
(Ibid.). Smoke from the crushed blossoms was
inhaled in the treatment of nosebleeds.
Wildlife: White panicle aster is known for attracting
butterflies and moths to areas where it is found
growing. This is a good bee plant providing nectar in
the autumn. Most species in this genus seem to be
immune to the predications of rabbits (Thomas
1990).
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of the
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Huxley, A. 1992. The new RHS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillan Press, New York, New York.
Ladd, D. 1995. Tallgrass prairie wildflowers: a
falcon field guide. Falcon Press Publishing
Company, Helena, Montana.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Thomas, G.S. 1990. Perennial garden plants. J.M.
Dent &. Sons, London
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Jammie Favorite
formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='sylal4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp: 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NEW ENGLAND
ASTER
Symphyotrichum novae-anglia
(L.) Nesom
Plant Symbol = SYNO2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
erect stems in clumps, stems 0.8 to 2 meters, densely
spreading pubescent, thirty or more nodes below the
branches of the inflorescence (Radford, Ahles &. Bell
1968). The leaves are lanceolate to elliptic
lanceolate, two to nine centimeters long and one to
two centimeters wide. The disc flowers are yellow,
hermaphrodite (having both male and female organs)
and are pollinated by bees, butterflies, flies, beetles
and moths.
Distribution: Aster novae-angliae ranges from
Quebec to Alberta, south to North Carolina,
Alabama, Arkansas, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming
and New Mexico (Steyermark 1963). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='This plant is commonly found in moist prairies,
meadows, roadsides and streams (Dension 1998). It
requires well-drained soil and prefers sandy, loamy
and clay soils. This species can grow on nutritionally
poor soil but prefers rich soil. New England aster
grows well in a sunny location and can succeed in
partial shade.
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Aster novae-angliae seeds
should be sown fresh in the fall or spring (Heuser
1997). Pre-chill spring sown seeds to improve
germination (Ibid.). When the seedlings are large
enough to handle, place them into individual pots and
plant them out in the summer.
Division of this species should be done in the spring
or autumn. Large divisions can be planted into their
permanent positions whereas smaller clumps should
be kept in a cold frame until they are growing well.
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Divisions of Aster novae-angliae species should be
done in the spring every three years to maintain vigor
(Heuser 1997).
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available somewhat through native plant seed
sources. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Sciences Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
Aster novae-anglia
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: A decoction of the plant has been used
in the treatment of weak skin (Moerman 1998). A
poultice has been used in the treatment of pain,
fevers, and diarrhea.
Wildlife: New England aster is known for attracting
butterflies and moths to areas where it is found
growing. This is a good bee plant providing nectar in
the autumn. Most species in this genus seem to be
immune to the predications of rabbits (Thomas
1990).
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Aster family (Asteraceae). New England
aster (Aster novae-angliae) is a perennial with several
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bruggen, T.V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Dension, E. 1998. Missouri wildflowers. Missouri
Department of Conservation, Jrfferson City,
Missouri.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of the
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Huxley, A. 1992. The new RHS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillan Press, New York, New York.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, &. C. Bell 1968. Manual
of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Strausbaugh, P.D. &. E.L. Core 1971. Flora of West
Virginia. 2nd ed. Seneca Books, Inc., Morgantown,
West Virginia.
The Great Plains Flora Association 1986. Flora of
the Great Plains. University Press of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas.
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='syno2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp: 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NEW YORK ASTER
Symphyotrichum novi-belgii
(L.) Nesom var. novi-belgii
Plant Symbol = SYNON
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© Don Kurz
@ PLANTS
hermaphrodite (having both male and female organs)
and are pollinated by bees, butterflies, flies, beetles
and moths.
Distribution: New York aster ranges from
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia south to Georgia,
apparently to Alabama, chiefly near the coast (Tiner
1987). For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='New York aster is found growing in slightly brackish
and tidal fresh marshes, occasionally borders of salt
marshes. inland marshes, shrub marshes, shores and
other moist areas (Tiner 1987). This plant requires
well-drained soil and prefers sandy, loamy and clay
soils. It can grow on nutritionally poor soil, in semi-
shade or no shade but prefers a sunny location.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: New York aster seeds should
be sown fresh in the fall or spring (Heuser 1997).
Pre-chill spring sown seeds to improve germination.
When the seedlings are large enough to handle, place
them into individual pots and plant them out in the
summer. Division of this species should be done in
the spring. Large divisions can be planted into their
permanent positions whereas smaller clumps should
be kept in a cold frame until they are growing well.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Divisions of New York aster should be done in the
spring every three years to maintain vigor (Heuser
1997). Regular spraying is recommended for this
species because it is prone to mildew and attack from
pests.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Available through some native plant seed sources.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of the
vascular plants of northeastern United States and
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Name
Michaelmas daisy, Aster novi-belgii
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Landscape: New York aster is an excellent upright
perennial for a mixed bed or border. This species
provides a color accent, bringing autumn color to the
garden.
Wildlife: New York aster is known for attracting
butterflies and moths to areas where it is found
growing. This is a good bee plant providing nectar in
the autumn. Most species in this genus seem to be
immune to the predictions of rabbits (Thomas 1990).
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Aster family (Asteraceae). New York aster
is an upright, native perennial that grows between
one and a half to five feet tall. The leaves are elliptic
to linear, smooth to scabrous above and glabrous
beneath (Radford, Ahles &. Bell 1968). The disc
flowers are red to yellow. The flowers are
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
adjacent Canada. 2nd ed. The New York Botanical
Garden, Bronx, New York.
Heuser, C.W. 1997. The complete book of plant
propagation. The Taunton Press, Newtown,
Connecticut.
Huxley, A. 1992. The new RHS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillan Press, New York, New York.
Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, &. C. Bell 1968. Manual
of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Thomas, G.S. 1990. Perennial garden plants. J.M.
Dent &. Sons, London
Tiner, R.W., Jr. 1987. A field guide to the coastal
wetland plants of the northeastern United States.
The University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst,
Massachusetts.
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='synon';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
LILAC
Syringa vulgaris L.
Plant Symbol = SYVU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Conservation Trees &. Shrubs for Montana
USDA, NRCS, Montana State Office
centimeters long. The flowers are mostly white, lilac,
or purple, pleasantly fragrant in long terminal
panicles (Copperrider 1995). The fruiting capsules
are one to 1.5 centimeters long, with flat winged
seeds (Bruggen 1976).
Distribution: Common lilac is native of Europe,
introduced and naturalized in the United States,
escapes from cultivation from New York to North
Dakota, south to Georgia and Kansas (Steyermark
1963). For current distribution, please consult the
Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS
Web site.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Lilac is easily grown on most soil types but prefers
neutral to slightly acid soil. This species does not
tolerate poorly drained soils. It performs best in a
warm sunny position.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by Seed: Lilac seeds should be sown in
March, or as soon as they are ripe, in a cold frame.
The seeds should be pre-treated for four weeks of
warm stratification and then three weeks cold
stratification to improve germination. Place the
seedlings into individual pots when they are large
enough to handle. If sufficient growth is made by the
summer it is possible to out-plant otherwise grow
seedlings in a cold frame for the first winter and out-
plant in late spring the next year.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Common lilac should be planted in areas with good
air circulation to reduce problems with powdery
mildew. The first year after planting, Syringa
vulgaris will probably not produce many, if any
blooms. only after it has adapted itself to its new
surroundings will it begin to produce flower clusters
with vigor. Pruning should be done yearly to
maintain desired height and improve form.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Commonly available through commercial nurseries.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Name
common lilac
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Economic: A green dye is obtained from the flowers
and the leaves and a yellow-orange dye is obtained
from the twigs (Grae 1974). An essential oil is
obtained from the flowers and used in perfume
fragrances.
Ethnobotanic: The bark and leaves has been chewed
as a treatment for sore mouth (Moerman 1998).
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the Plants Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Olive Family (Oleaceae). Lilac is an
introduced, perennial, deciduous shrub that grows
between twelve to sixteen feet tall. The leaves are
simple, ovate to broadly ovate, and five to twelve
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bruggen, T.V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs on New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Cooperrider, T.S. 1995. The dicotyledoneae of Ohio
part 2: linaceae through campanulaceae. Ohio State
University Press, Columbus, Ohio.
DeWolf, G.P., Jr. 1987. Taylor’s guide to shrub’s.
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.
Grae, I. 1974. Nature’s colors-dyes from plants.
MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, New
York.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.
Press, B &. D. Hosking. 1993. Photographic field
guide: trees of Britain and Europe. New Holland
Publishers, London.
Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
USDA, NRCS 2000. Conservation trees and shrubs
for Montana. Custer County Soil Conservation
District &. Montana State Office, Bozeman, Montana.
Accessed: 14jan02.
<.www.mt.nrcs.usda.gov/pas/forestry/lilac.html>.
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Jammie Favorite
formerly, USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='syvu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060817 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
NORTHERN WHITE
CEDAR
Thuja occidentalis L.
Plant Symbol = THOC2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
(especially canoes), tanks, novelties, and
woodenware. The timbers were used to make the
ribs in birchbark canoes. ".Cedar leaf oil". is distilled
from boughs and used in medicines and perfumes.
Boughs are also used in floral arrangements.
Ethnobotanic: The essential oil of northern white
cedar is used in cleansers, disinfectants, hair
preparations, insecticides, liniment, room sprays, and
soft soaps. The Ojibwa are said to have made soup
from the inner bark of the young twigs. The twigs
are used by some to make teas for relief of
constipation and headache.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cypress family (Cupressaceae). Native
shrub or tree growing to 15 (-38) meters tall, the
crown narrowly conic to broadly pyramidal, with
spreading, densely crowded branches. branchlets
flattened, in fan-shaped sprays. Bark is gray to
reddish-brown, 6-9 mm thick, fibrous, separated into
flat, connected ridges. Leaves are evergreen, scale-
like and abruptly pointed, 2 mm long, opposite in
alternating pairs (in 4 rows), bright green above and
pale green below, sometimes becoming yellow-
brown in winter, with a spicy fragrance when
crushed. Seed cones are ellipsoid, (6-)9-14 mm long,
brown. seeds ca. 8 per cone, 4-7 mm long, with
lateral wings about as wide as the body. The
common name pertains to its northern distribution,
cedar-like appearance, and white wood.
Variation within the species: ecotypic variation
within the species has been documented but no
naturally occurring variants have been formally
recognized. Significant genetic variation has favored
the artificial selection of many cultivars, which differ
primarily in leaf color and growth habit.
Northern white cedar differs from western red-cedar
(Thuja plicata) in leaf color (dull yellowish-green on
both surfaces), minutely mucronate scales of the seed
cones, and geography.
Distribution: The primary range of northern white-
cedar is in eastern-southeastern Canada (west to
© R.A. Seelig
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Eastern arborvitae,' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='American arborvitae, eastern
white-cedar, swamp-cedar,' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Atlantic red cedar, swamp
cedar' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Conservation: More than 120 named cultivars of
northern white cedar have been named and used as
ornamental trees and shrubs, where the name
“arborvitae” is usually applied. Selections offer
variety in habital form, color, cold hardiness, heat
tolerance. It is often used for hedges and other types
of border or shelter plantings. The species was
introduced into Europe for cultivation in the 16th
century.
Wildlife: Stands of northern white cedar also are
valuable for wildlife habitat, particularly in severe
winters for white-tailed deer, which use it for both
shelter and browse. These trees also provide habitats
for many species of birds.
Industry: The wood’s light weight and resistance to
decay makes it useful for a number of applications.
The principal commercial uses of northern white-
cedar are for rustic fencing and posts. other important
products include cabin logs, lumber, poles, and
shingles. Smaller amounts are used for paneling,
piling, lagging, pails, potato barrels, tubs, ties, boats
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Manitoba) and adjacent states of New England and
the Great Lakes region (west to Minnesota). south of
the main range, it occurs in scattered stands and
southward along the Appalachians into North
Carolina and Tennessee, where it is generally rare or
extirpated. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='It commonly grows in cool, moist, nutrient-rich sites,
on mostly calcareous soils that are neutral or nearly
so -- lakes and river shores, uplands, cliffs, and talus,
at 0-600 (-900) meters elevation. Although it grows
best on well-drained sites, it may be dominant in
swamps. In cultivation, it grows in a wide variety of
soils.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Cones may be produced by northern white-cedars as
young as 6 years old, but seed production in large
quantities begins when the trees are about 30 years
old and is best after 75 years. Good seed crops are
produced at intervals of 2 to 5 years, or more
frequently in local areas.
Seedbeds of moss-covered, decaying logs and stumps
account for more than 70 percent of the northern
white-cedar seedlings in undisturbed areas.
Seedlings can be established on burns, if the burn
was severe enough to expose favorable, mineral soil
seedbeds on uplands or to improve moss seedbeds in
swamps. Best root and shoot development occur in
full light, but drought-caused mortality of northern
white cedar seedlings may be extremely high under
any light condition.
Layering may account for a significant portion of
northern white-cedar reproduction in swamps,
because adventitious roots can be produced from any
branch or stem. It is most common in young stands
and those with leaning trees, where the lower
branches become covered by moss. New trees also
develop vegetatively from uprooted trees where roots
are formed from vertical branches.
Northern white cedar grows relatively slowly in
swamps or on other saturated lowland sites, but it
apparently reaches ages of 400 years and greater in
these habitats. An individual from Ontario has been
dated at more than 1650 years old.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Northern white-cedar forests are stable without major
disturbance such as fire, because the trees are long-
lived and balsam fir is the only important associate
sufficiently shade tolerant to grow in competition. In
stands that have been opened by timber harvesting or
severely browsed by white-tailed deer, succession is
often to balsam fir or swamp hardwoods, especially
black ash. Northern white-cedar responds well to
thinning-release after successful establishment,
although it is shade tolerant and can withstand severe
suppression for several years.
Even-aged management, through shelterwood cutting
or clear cutting is recommended for maximum
benefit to deer. Satisfactory reestablishment after
clearcutting often requires some kind of site
preparation, particularly broadcast burning of slash.
In some areas, however, heavy winter browsing of
seedlings and saplings by deer greatly reduces
reproductive success.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Chambers, K.L. 1993. Thuja. Pp. 410-411, IN:
Flora of North America, north of Mexico. Vol. 2,
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford Univ.
Press, New York. <.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Johnston, W.F. 1990. Thuja occidentalis. Pp. 580-
589, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of
North America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='thoc2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp: 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
Page 3
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WESTERN RED
CEDAR
Thuja plicata Donn ex D. Don
Plant Symbol = THPL
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
Dendrology: Department of Botany
© Iowa State University
cultural boundary of the northwest coast peoples
within its range. Wood served for house planks,
house posts, roof boards, various kinds of boxes, and
canoes. It is easy to split and was often used for
bentwood boxes. Bark was made into skirts, capes,
and complete dresses for women, and roots and limbs
were used for baskets and rope. The inner bark was
used for slow matches to carry the fire from camp to
camp, and also as mats, and baskets. Various
medicines were derived from the tree.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cypress family (Cupressaceae). Native
trees growing to 50 (-75) meters tall, often buttressed
at base, with a conical to irregular crown, old
individuals frequently with many leaders and many
dead spike tops. branches arching, branchlets
pendent, flattened, in fan-shaped sprays. bark gray to
reddish-brown, 10-25 mm thick, fibrous, separated
into flat, connected ridges. Leaves are evergreen,
scale-like and sharply pointed, (1-) 3-6 mm long,
opposite in alternating pairs (in 4 rows), glossy green
above, white-striped on the lower surface, with a
spicy fragrance when crushed. Seed cones are
ellipsoid, 10-14 mm long, brown. seeds 8-14 per
cone, 4-7.5 mm long, with lateral wings about as
wide as the body. The common name pertains to the
western distribution and cedar-like appearance.
Variation within the species: although small inter-
populational differences have been documented,
western red-cedar seems to show less within-species
genetic variation than other northwestern conifers.
Horticultural varieties with color and growth form
differences have been developed (atrovirens,
fastigiata, pendula).
Distribution: The range of western red-cedar is
essentially in two segments: a Coast Range-Cascade
Range segment from southeastern Alaska to
northwestern California and a Rocky Mountain
segment from British Columbia and Alberta to Idaho
and Montana. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Giant arborvitae, western arborvitae, giant red-cedar,
Pacific red-cedar, shinglewood, canoe cedar
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: The wood of western red cedar is primarily
used in roofing for shingles and shakes, because of its
attractive appearance, durability, lightness, and
superior insulation qualities. It is also used in
exterior finishings, utility poles, fence posts, piling,
paper pulp, and various types of containers. The
species is managed for timber in Europe and New
Zealand. Cedar leaf oil is often the basis for
production of perfumes, insecticides, medicinal
preparations, veterinary soaps, shoe polishes, and
deodorants.
Wildlife: The leaves of western red cedar are a major
winter food for big game in the northern Rocky
Mountains, and deer browse it all year along the
coast. Many cultivars are grown for ornament,
including those used for hedges. It is the provincial
tree of British Columbia.
Ethnobotanic: Western red cedar has been called “the
cornerstone of northwest coast Indian culture” and
the large-scale use of its wood and bark delineates the
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='The trees occur on various substrates, commonly on
moist sites (swamps, wet ravines, poorly drained
depressions), but on a variety of landforms, including
rocky slopes, at 0-1500 (-2300) meters elevation.
They usually occur in mixed coniferous forests,
rarely in pure stands. In cultivation, they prefer
moist, acid, well-drained soils but have been grown
in heavy clays of the Midwest.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Cone production begins in open-grown trees of
western red cedar at about 10-20 years of age but
peak production occurs after 70-80 years and may
continue for several centuries. Good seed crops are
produced at intervals of 2-3 years.
In clearcuts and other disturbed areas, seedlings
account for most of the western red-cedar
regeneration, but seedlings in mature stands may be
less abundant than individuals produced by
vegetative reproduction from layering, rooting of
fallen branches, and branch development on fallen
trees. Disturbed mineral soil seems to be a major
requirement for regeneration from seed. Unburned
soil provides better seedbed than scorched soil, but
slash burning may create mineral soil surfaces in cut-
over areas. In mature stands of western red cedar,
rotten wood in contact with the soil provides an
effective seedbed. Partial shade, which lowers
evaporation and soil temperature, is beneficial to
seedling growth.
Western red cedar is often present in pioneer, seral,
and climax stages of forest succession. Vegetative
regeneration may be predominant in ecologically
stable communities, but wide seed distribution allows
it to invade disturbed areas. It is highly shade-
tolerant and is well suited for reforesting high brush-
risk areas near the coast.
Age determination of western red-cedar is
complicated by buttress formation and the associated
complex growth patterns, but ring counts of trees
from Washington and British Columbia indicate that
some trees live at least up to 1460 years.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='In mixed-species and uneven-aged stands, western
red cedars tolerate shady understory conditions and
can maintain slow but acceptable growth rates over
long periods. In timber harvest of these mixed-
species stands, most of these trees are taken by
clearcutting. Because of steep terrain, decay, and
breakage, harvesting costs are high and lumber
recovery is low. Because of its high susceptibility to
windthrow in wet environments and in the moist sites
where growth and yield are highest, western red
cedars should not be left as scattered seed trees.
Even those along clearcut margins may be lost to
wind throw or exposure.
Severe browse damage to western red-cedar
seedlings and saplings by deer, elk, and rodents may
be the most important problem in the establishment
of young stands. In near-coastal sites, western red-
cedar is more severely damaged by fire than any of
its associates.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Chambers, K.L. 1993. Thuja. Pp. 410-411, IN:
Flora of North America, north of Mexico. Vol. 2,
Pteridophytes and gymnosperms. Oxford Univ.
Press, New York, New York.
<.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
Gunther, E. 1945. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. Univ. Washington Publ. Anthropol.
10(1):1-62.
Minore, D. 1990. Thuja plicata. Pp. 590-600, IN:
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 1. Conifers. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Stewart, H. 1984. Cedar: Tree of life to the
Northwest Coast Indians. Douglas &. McIntyre,
Vancouver.
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='thpl';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
Page 3
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
drink or boiled it into syrup. They also ate young
basswood leaves and used the cambium for soups and
breads. Various medicinal uses were made of leaf
and bark extracts, and Iroquois used freshly cut bark
as an emergency bandage for wounds.
Wildlife: Basswood is good browse and buds are
important for birds and deer in winter. Fruits are
eaten by birds and small mammals. The wood
decays easily and produces many cavities (especially
in trees past 120 years of age), which are used by
cavity-nesting animals (wood ducks, pileated
woodpeckers, other birds, and small mammals).
Basswood is a prolific nectar producer and
pollination by honeybees results in a choice grade of
honey.
Restoration: Basswood is planted as a shade tree or
ornamental. For sites of smaller size or with
compacted soils, other Tilia species may be more
suitable. Basswood is said to be a soil-enriching
species, bringing calcium and magnesium up from
deep in the soil profile and depositing it in leaf litter
on the surface.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Basswood family (Tiliaceae). Native, large
deciduous trees, the bark gray and furrowed with flat
ridges. Leaves deciduous, alternate, more or less
unevenly heart-shaped or the base often nearly
truncate, petiolate, the blades 5-12.5 cm wide, thick
and slightly leathery, with shallowly toothed margins,
glabrous on both sides or with some pubescence on
the lower surface. Flowers yellowish-white, 10-14
mm broad, fragrant and nectar-bearing, in drooping,
6-20-flowered clusters hanging on a stalk that
diverges from near the center of an oblong, leaflike
and strongly veined bract 5-10 cm long. Fruits
mostly globose, 8-10 mm broad, hard and dry,
indehiscent. The common name is from “bastwood,”
referring to use of the inner bark, the “bast,” for rope,
baskets, etc.
Variation within the species:
North American basswoods have been separated into
many species (usually three or four) or treated as
BASSWOOD
Tilia americana L.
Plant Symbol = TIAM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J.R. Manhart
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Linn, American linden, white basswood (var.
heterophylla), American basswood
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans and settlers used the
fibrous inner bark (".bast".) as a source of fiber for
rope, mats, fish nets, and baskets. Basswood is still
valued for its soft, light, easily worked wood,
especially for turned items and hand carving. It once
was the material of choice for prosthetic limbs, but
these are now made from synthetics. Other uses have
included boxes, toys, woodenware, drawing boards,' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='veneer, venetian blinds,' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='excelsior, and pulp. ' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Native Americans used fresh basswood sap, which
contains moderate amounts of sugar, as a watery
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
several varieties within only a single species. “Given
the inconstancy of most vegetative and reproductive
characters [of North American basswood], the
ecophenic, ecotypic, and seasonal variation in
vestiture, and also the probability of introgression,”
trichome morphology provides the best evidence for
recognizing the component taxa (see Hardin 1990).
a. Tilia americana var. americana
synonym: Tilia neglecta Spach
b. Tilia americana var. heterophylla (Vent.) Loud.
synonym: Tilia heterophylla Vent.
synonym: Tilia michauxii Nutt.
c. Tilia americana var. caroliniana (P. Mill.) Castigl.
synonym: Tilia caroliniana P. Mill.
synonym: Tilia floridana Small
The varieties of Tilia americana intergrade, but in
their typical forms are separated as follows:
a. Leaves green beneath, sometimes glaucous,
glabrous or sparsely hairy with simple trichomes,
sometimes with a few stellate ones. var. americana
a. Leaves pale or whitish beneath from the close
tomentum of dense, sessile-stellate trichomes,
sometimes glabrate with age but remaining stellate-
pubescent at least along the major veins. (b)
b. Young twigs tomentose or tomentose-hirsute.
clusters of hairs on leaves more than 0.5 mm wide.
b. Young twigs glabrous. clusters of hairs on leaves
less than 0.5 mm wide. var. heterophylla
Trees identified as Tilia neglecta may be variants of
var. americana or they have been suggested to be
introgressants between var. americana and var.
heterophylla. Tilia floridana is often recognized as
separate entity.
Distribution: Tilia americana is native to the
Northern Deciduous and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence
forest regions of North America. It also extends into
grassland areas along river courses in Manitoba and
the mid-western United States, where it forms a
component of riverine gallery forests. In Canada, it
is found from western New Brunswick into southern
and central Québec and Ontario, extending as far
west as north-western Ontario (along the U.S. border)
and southern Manitoba. In the United States, the
species occurs as far south as the mountainous
regions of North Carolina, Tennessee, and northern
Arkansas. The western limit for the species is south-
central Manitoba and North Dakota, and along the
Niobrara River in north-central Nebraska. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
var. caroliniana
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Basswood occurs on rich, mesic sites (coves, lower
slopes, river bottoms), usually on deep, well-drained
soils. It rarely occurs in pure stands but is usually
mixed with other forest species. Var. americana is
codominant in the sugar maple-basswood cover type
and all varieties are a common component of many
other rich forests. Basswood occurs up to 1500
meters elevation in the southern Appalachian
Mountains. Flowering May-June (-July), usually 1-4
weeks after the leaves appear in mid-May. Seeds are
dispersed in October.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed production begins in basswoods about 15 years
old (or as early as 8 years) and continues until the
trees reach at least 100 years. Heavy seed crops are
irregular but good quantities of seed are produced at
1- to 3-year intervals. Germination in the first year or
two is often poor, apparently because of an
impermeable testa, but seeds may remain dormant
and viable in seed banks for up to three years. Few
established seedlings are found where the species
forms a major component of the canopy, apparently
because seedling loss from herbivory by rabbits and
deer.
Seedlings can establish in as little as 25% of full
sunlight, but heavy shade limits subsequent growth
and development. Seedling growth begins slowly,
but established young trees are fairly fast-growing.
The typical life of a basswood is about 100 years but
some are known to live 140-200 years.
Basswood stump sprouts are often very common, and
this may produce trees growing in close clusters.
Stump sprouts arise from the main stem after its
death, fire or logging injury, or aging, or even after
disturbance of the surrounding stand. Almost all
basswoods 10 cm or less d.b.h. will sprout from the
stump, and sprouts have been obtained from
basswoods over 100 years old.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Basswood stump sprouts can be managed for saw
timber. The number of sprouts declines with the age
and size of the cut trees. Since sprouts originating at
or below the ground line are more resistant to butt
rot, stumps should be cut very close to the ground or
burned. Early thinning of sprouts is needed to ensure
good quality and rapid growth.
Over-browsing by high densities of white-tailed deer
can result in basswood seedling height growth
reduction or even complete loss of basswood from
Page 3
the stand. Mice and voles on oldfield sites may often
girdle the stems, and rabbits also feed heavily on
seedlings and small saplings. Seed predators include
mice, squirrels, and chipmunks. Basswood is easily
decayed by fungi, and butt rot is an important factor
in loss of merchantable timber.
Basswood is most common in forests with long fire-
free intervals, because the thin bark and shallow roots
are easily damaged by fire and basal fire wounds
increase susceptibility to butt rot. Prescribed fire is
not recommended for established stands of
hardwoods in which basswood occurs, as too-
frequent fire intervals eliminate basswood or restrict
it to the most mesic sites. In some places, however,
these trees are encroaching onto former grasslands
since fires have been suppressed.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Cultivars of Tilia americana
have been selected for mature shape, fall leaf color,
and rust resistance. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brizicky, G.K. 1965. The genera of Tiliaceae and
Elaeocarpaceae in the southeastern United States. J.
Arnold Arb. 46:286-307.
Crow, T.R. 1990. Tilia americana. Pp. 784-791, IN:
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Hardin, J.W. 1990. Variation patterns and
recognition of varieties of Tilia americana s.l. Syst.
Bot. 15:33-48.
Hickok, L.G. &. J.C. Anway 1972. A morphological
and chemical analysis of geographical variation in
Tilia L. of eastern North America. Brittonia 24:2-8.
Jones, G.N. 1968. Taxonomy of American species of
lindens (Tilia). Illinois Biol. Monogr. No. 39. Univ.
of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Peasley, N. 1996. Critical silvics: American
basswood -- Tilia americana. Stand Interventions
WWW Page.
<.www.unb.ca/web/standint/for3005/tilame.htm>.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Tilia americana. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tilame
/>.
Texas A&.M University 2000. Images of the
Tiliaceae. IN: Vascular plant image gallery.
Bioinformatics Working Group, College Station,
Texas. 21SEP2000.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/imaxxtil.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='tiam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
AMERICAN
BASSWOOD
Tilia americana L. var.
americana
Plant Symbol = TIAMA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
included boxes, toys, woodenware, drawing boards,' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='veneer, venetian blinds,' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='excelsior, and pulp. ' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Native Americans used fresh basswood sap, which
contains moderate amounts of sugar, as a watery
drink or boiled it into syrup. They also ate young
basswood leaves and used the cambium for soups and
breads. Various medicinal uses were made of leaf
and bark extracts, and Iroquois used freshly cut bark
as an emergency bandage for wounds.
Wildlife: Basswood is good browse and buds are
important for birds and deer in winter. Fruits are
eaten by birds and small mammals. The wood
decays easily and produces many cavities (especially
in trees past 120 years of age), which are used by
cavity-nesting animals (wood ducks, pileated
woodpeckers, other birds, and small mammals).
Basswood is a prolific nectar producer and
pollination by honeybees results in a choice grade of
honey.
Restoration: Basswood is planted as a shade tree or
ornamental. For sites of smaller size or with
compacted soils, other Tilia species may be more
suitable. Basswood is said to be a soil-enriching
species, bringing calcium and magnesium up from
deep in the soil profile and depositing it in leaf litter
on the surface.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Basswood family (Tiliaceae). Native, large
deciduous trees, the bark gray and furrowed with flat
ridges. Leaves deciduous, alternate, more or less
unevenly heart-shaped or the base often nearly
truncate, petiolate, the blades 5-12.5 cm wide, thick
and slightly leathery, with shallowly toothed margins,
glabrous on both sides or with some pubescence on
the lower surface. Flowers yellowish-white, 10-14
mm broad, fragrant and nectar-bearing, in drooping,
6-20-flowered clusters hanging on a stalk that
diverges from near the center of an oblong, leaflike
and strongly veined bract 5-10 cm long. Fruits
mostly globose, 8-10 mm broad, hard and dry,
indehiscent. The common name is from “bastwood,”
© J.R. Manhart
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Linn, American linden, white basswood (var.
heterophylla), basswood
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans and settlers used the
fibrous inner bark (".bast".) as a source of fiber for
rope, mats, fish nets, and baskets. Basswood is still
valued for its soft, light, easily worked wood,
especially for turned items and hand carving. It once
was the material of choice for prosthetic limbs, but
these are now made from synthetics. Other uses have
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
referring to use of the inner bark, the “bast,” for rope,
baskets, etc.
Variation within the species:
North American basswoods have been separated into
many species (usually three or four) or treated as
several varieties within only a single species. “Given
the inconstancy of most vegetative and reproductive
characters [of North American basswood], the
ecophenic, ecotypic, and seasonal variation in
vestiture, and also the probability of introgression,”
trichome morphology provides the best evidence for
recognizing the component taxa (see Hardin 1990).
a. Tilia americana var. americana
synonym: Tilia neglecta Spach
b. Tilia americana var. heterophylla (Vent.) Loud.
synonym: Tilia heterophylla Vent.
synonym: Tilia michauxii Nutt.
c. Tilia americana var. caroliniana (P. Mill.) Castigl.
synonym: Tilia caroliniana P. Mill.
synonym: Tilia floridana Small
The varieties of Tilia americana intergrade, but in
their typical forms are separated as follows:
a. Leaves green beneath, sometimes glaucous,
glabrous or sparsely hairy with simple trichomes,
sometimes with a few stellate ones. var. americana
a. Leaves pale or whitish beneath from the close
tomentum of dense, sessile-stellate trichomes,
sometimes glabrate with age but remaining stellate-
pubescent at least along the major veins. (b)
b. Young twigs tomentose or tomentose-hirsute.
clusters of hairs on leaves more than 0.5 mm wide.
b. Young twigs glabrous. clusters of hairs on leaves
less than 0.5 mm wide. var. heterophylla
Trees identified as Tilia neglecta may be variants of
var. americana or they have been suggested to be
introgressants between var. americana and var.
heterophylla. Tilia floridana is often recognized as
separate entity.
Distribution: Tilia americana is native to the
Northern Deciduous and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence
forest regions of North America. It also extends into
grassland areas along river courses in Manitoba and
the mid-western United States, where it forms a
component of riverine gallery forests. In Canada, it
is found from western New Brunswick into southern
and central Québec and Ontario, extending as far
west as north-western Ontario (along the U.S. border)
and southern Manitoba. In the United States, the
species occurs as far south as the mountainous
var. caroliniana
regions of North Carolina, Tennessee, and northern
Arkansas. The western limit for the species is south-
central Manitoba and North Dakota, and along the
Niobrara River in north-central Nebraska. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Basswood occurs on rich, mesic sites (coves, lower
slopes, river bottoms), usually on deep, well-drained
soils. It rarely occurs in pure stands but is usually
mixed with other forest species. Var. americana is
codominant in the sugar maple-basswood cover type
and all varieties are a common component of many
other rich forests. Basswood occurs up to 1500
meters elevation in the southern Appalachian
Mountains. Flowering May-June (-July), usually 1-4
weeks after the leaves appear in mid-May. Seeds are
dispersed in October.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed production begins in basswoods about 15 years
old (or as early as 8 years) and continues until the
trees reach at least 100 years. Heavy seed crops are
irregular but good quantities of seed are produced at
1- to 3-year intervals. Germination in the first year or
two is often poor, apparently because of an
impermeable testa, but seeds may remain dormant
and viable in seed banks for up to three years. Few
established seedlings are found where the species
forms a major component of the canopy, apparently
because seedling loss from herbivory by rabbits and
deer.
Seedlings can establish in as little as 25% of full
sunlight, but heavy shade limits subsequent growth
and development. Seedling growth begins slowly,
but established young trees are fairly fast-growing.
The typical life of a basswood is about 100 years but
some are known to live 140-200 years.
Basswood stump sprouts are often very common, and
this may produce trees growing in close clusters.
Stump sprouts arise from the main stem after its
death, fire or logging injury, or aging, or even after
disturbance of the surrounding stand. Almost all
basswoods 10 cm or less d.b.h. will sprout from the
stump, and sprouts have been obtained from
basswoods over 100 years old.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Basswood stump sprouts can be managed for saw
timber. The number of sprouts declines with the age
and size of the cut trees. Since sprouts originating at
or below the ground line are more resistant to butt
rot, stumps should be cut very close to the ground or
Page 3
burned. Early thinning of sprouts is needed to ensure
good quality and rapid growth.
Over-browsing by high densities of white-tailed deer
can result in basswood seedling height growth
reduction or even complete loss of basswood from
the stand. Mice and voles on oldfield sites may often
girdle the stems, and rabbits also feed heavily on
seedlings and small saplings. Seed predators include
mice, squirrels, and chipmunks. Basswood is easily
decayed by fungi, and butt rot is an important factor
in loss of merchantable timber.
Basswood is most common in forests with long fire-
free intervals, because the thin bark and shallow roots
are easily damaged by fire and basal fire wounds
increase susceptibility to butt rot. Prescribed fire is
not recommended for established stands of
hardwoods in which basswood occurs, as too-
frequent fire intervals eliminate basswood or restrict
it to the most mesic sites. In some places, however,
these trees are encroaching onto former grasslands
since fires have been suppressed.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Cultivars of Tilia americana
have been selected for mature shape, fall leaf color,
and rust resistance. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brizicky, G.K. 1965. The genera of Tiliaceae and
Elaeocarpaceae in the southeastern United States. J.
Arnold Arb. 46:286-307.
Crow, T.R. 1990. Tilia americana. Pp. 784-791, IN:
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Hardin, J.W. 1990. Variation patterns and
recognition of varieties of Tilia americana s.l. Syst.
Bot. 15:33-48.
Hickok, L.G. &. J.C. Anway 1972. A morphological
and chemical analysis of geographical variation in
Tilia L. of eastern North America. Brittonia 24:2-8.
Jones, G.N. 1968. Taxonomy of American species of
lindens (Tilia). Illinois Biol. Monogr. No. 39. Univ.
of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Peasley, N. 1996. Critical silvics: American
basswood -- Tilia americana. Stand Interventions
WWW Page.
<.www.unb.ca/web/standint/for3005/tilame.htm>.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Tilia americana. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tilame
/>.
Texas A&.M University 2000. Images of the
Tiliaceae. IN: Vascular plant image gallery.
Bioinformatics Working Group, College Station,
Texas. 21SEP2000.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/imaxxtil.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='tiama';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page 4
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
CAROLINA
BASSWOOD
Plant Guide
Tilia americana L. var.
caroliniana (P. Mill.) Castigl.
Plant Symbol = TIAMC
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
included boxes, toys, woodenware, drawing boards,' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='veneer, venetian blinds,' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='excelsior, and pulp. ' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Native Americans used fresh basswood sap, which
contains moderate amounts of sugar, as a watery
drink or boiled it into syrup. They also ate young
basswood leaves and used the cambium for soups and
breads. Various medicinal uses were made of leaf
and bark extracts, and Iroquois used freshly cut bark
as an emergency bandage for wounds.
Wildlife: Basswood is good browse and buds are
important for birds and deer in winter. Fruits are
eaten by birds and small mammals. The wood
decays easily and produces many cavities (especially
in trees past 120 years of age), which are used by
cavity-nesting animals (wood ducks, pileated
woodpeckers, other birds, and small mammals).
Basswood is a prolific nectar producer and
pollination by honeybees results in a choice grade of
honey.
Restoration: Basswood is planted as a shade tree or
ornamental. For sites of smaller size or with
compacted soils, other Tilia species may be more
suitable. Basswood is said to be a soil-enriching
species, bringing calcium and magnesium up from
deep in the soil profile and depositing it in leaf litter
on the surface.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Basswood family (Tiliaceae). Native, large
deciduous trees, the bark gray and furrowed with flat
ridges. Leaves deciduous, alternate, more or less
unevenly heart-shaped or the base often nearly
truncate, petiolate, the blades 5-12.5 cm wide, thick
and slightly leathery, with shallowly toothed margins,
glabrous on both sides or with some pubescence on
the lower surface. Flowers yellowish-white, 10-14
mm broad, fragrant and nectar-bearing, in drooping,
6-20-flowered clusters hanging on a stalk that
diverges from near the center of an oblong, leaflike
and strongly veined bract 5-10 cm long. Fruits
mostly globose, 8-10 mm broad, hard and dry,
indehiscent. The common name is from “bastwood,”
© J.R. Manhart
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Linn, American linden, white basswood (var.
heterophylla), American basswood
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans and settlers used the
fibrous inner bark (".bast".) as a source of fiber for
rope, mats, fish nets, and baskets. Basswood is still
valued for its soft, light, easily worked wood,
especially for turned items and hand carving. It once
was the material of choice for prosthetic limbs, but
these are now made from synthetics. Other uses have
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
referring to use of the inner bark, the “bast,” for rope,
baskets, etc.
Variation within the species:
North American basswoods have been separated into
many species (usually three or four) or treated as
several varieties within only a single species. “Given
the inconstancy of most vegetative and reproductive
characters [of North American basswood], the
ecophenic, ecotypic, and seasonal variation in
vestiture, and also the probability of introgression,”
trichome morphology provides the best evidence for
recognizing the component taxa (see Hardin 1990).
a. Tilia americana var. americana
synonym: Tilia neglecta Spach
b. Tilia americana var. heterophylla (Vent.) Loud.
synonym: Tilia heterophylla Vent.
synonym: Tilia michauxii Nutt.
c. Tilia americana var. caroliniana (P. Mill.) Castigl.
synonym: Tilia caroliniana P. Mill.
synonym: Tilia floridana Small
The varieties of Tilia americana intergrade, but in
their typical forms are separated as follows:
a. Leaves green beneath, sometimes glaucous,
glabrous or sparsely hairy with simple trichomes,
sometimes with a few stellate ones. var. americana
a. Leaves pale or whitish beneath from the close
tomentum of dense, sessile-stellate trichomes,
sometimes glabrate with age but remaining stellate-
pubescent at least along the major veins. (b)
b. Young twigs tomentose or tomentose-hirsute.
clusters of hairs on leaves more than 0.5 mm wide.
b. Young twigs glabrous. clusters of hairs on leaves
less than 0.5 mm wide. var. heterophylla
Trees identified as Tilia neglecta may be variants of
var. americana or they have been suggested to be
introgressants between var. americana and var.
heterophylla. Tilia floridana is often recognized as
separate entity.
Distribution: Tilia americana is native to the
Northern Deciduous and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence
forest regions of North America. It also extends into
grassland areas along river courses in Manitoba and
the mid-western United States, where it forms a
component of riverine gallery forests. In Canada, it
is found from western New Brunswick into southern
and central Québec and Ontario, extending as far
west as north-western Ontario (along the U.S. border)
and southern Manitoba. In the United States, the
species occurs as far south as the mountainous
var. caroliniana
regions of North Carolina, Tennessee, and northern
Arkansas. The western limit for the species is south-
central Manitoba and North Dakota, and along the
Niobrara River in north-central Nebraska. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Basswood occurs on rich, mesic sites (coves, lower
slopes, river bottoms), usually on deep, well-drained
soils. It rarely occurs in pure stands but is usually
mixed with other forest species. Var. americana is
codominant in the sugar maple-basswood cover type
and all varieties are a common component of many
other rich forests. Basswood occurs up to 1500
meters elevation in the southern Appalachian
Mountains. Flowering May-June (-July), usually 1-4
weeks after the leaves appear in mid-May. Seeds are
dispersed in October.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed production begins in basswoods about 15 years
old (or as early as 8 years) and continues until the
trees reach at least 100 years. Heavy seed crops are
irregular but good quantities of seed are produced at
1- to 3-year intervals. Germination in the first year or
two is often poor, apparently because of an
impermeable testa, but seeds may remain dormant
and viable in seed banks for up to three years. Few
established seedlings are found where the species
forms a major component of the canopy, apparently
because seedling loss from herbivory by rabbits and
deer.
Seedlings can establish in as little as 25% of full
sunlight, but heavy shade limits subsequent growth
and development. Seedling growth begins slowly,
but established young trees are fairly fast-growing.
The typical life of a basswood is about 100 years but
some are known to live 140-200 years.
Basswood stump sprouts are often very common, and
this may produce trees growing in close clusters.
Stump sprouts arise from the main stem after its
death, fire or logging injury, or aging, or even after
disturbance of the surrounding stand. Almost all
basswoods 10 cm or less d.b.h. will sprout from the
stump, and sprouts have been obtained from
basswoods over 100 years old.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Basswood stump sprouts can be managed for saw
timber. The number of sprouts declines with the age
and size of the cut trees. Since sprouts originating at
or below the ground line are more resistant to butt
rot, stumps should be cut very close to the ground or
Page 3
burned. Early thinning of sprouts is needed to ensure
good quality and rapid growth.
Over-browsing by high densities of white-tailed deer
can result in basswood seedling height growth
reduction or even complete loss of basswood from
the stand. Mice and voles on oldfield sites may often
girdle the stems, and rabbits also feed heavily on
seedlings and small saplings. Seed predators include
mice, squirrels, and chipmunks. Basswood is easily
decayed by fungi, and butt rot is an important factor
in loss of merchantable timber.
Basswood is most common in forests with long fire-
free intervals, because the thin bark and shallow roots
are easily damaged by fire and basal fire wounds
increase susceptibility to butt rot. Prescribed fire is
not recommended for established stands of
hardwoods in which basswood occurs, as too-
frequent fire intervals eliminate basswood or restrict
it to the most mesic sites. In some places, however,
these trees are encroaching onto former grasslands
since fires have been suppressed.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Cultivars of Tilia americana
have been selected for mature shape, fall leaf color,
and rust resistance. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brizicky, G.K. 1965. The genera of Tiliaceae and
Elaeocarpaceae in the southeastern United States. J.
Arnold Arb. 46:286-307.
Crow, T.R. 1990. Tilia americana. Pp. 784-791, IN:
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Hardin, J.W. 1990. Variation patterns and
recognition of varieties of Tilia americana s.l. Syst.
Bot. 15:33-48.
Hickok, L.G. &. J.C. Anway 1972. A morphological
and chemical analysis of geographical variation in
Tilia L. of eastern North America. Brittonia 24:2-8.
Jones, G.N. 1968. Taxonomy of American species of
lindens (Tilia). Illinois Biol. Monogr. No. 39. Univ.
of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Peasley, N. 1996. Critical silvics: American
basswood -- Tilia americana. Stand Interventions
WWW Page.
<.www.unb.ca/web/standint/for3005/tilame.htm>.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Tilia americana. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tilame
/>.
Texas A&.M University 2000. Images of the
Tiliaceae. IN: Vascular plant image gallery.
Bioinformatics Working Group, College Station,
Texas. 21SEP2000.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/imaxxtil.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='tiamc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page 4
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
Native Americans used fresh basswood sap, which
contains moderate amounts of sugar, as a watery
drink or boiled it into syrup. They also ate young
basswood leaves and used the cambium for soups and
breads. Various medicinal uses were made of leaf
and bark extracts, and Iroquois used freshly cut bark
as an emergency bandage for wounds.
Wildlife: Basswood is good browse and buds are
important for birds and deer in winter. Fruits are
eaten by birds and small mammals. The wood
decays easily and produces many cavities (especially
in trees past 120 years of age), which are used by
cavity-nesting animals (wood ducks, pileated
woodpeckers, other birds, and small mammals).
Basswood is a prolific nectar producer and
pollination by honeybees results in a choice grade of
honey.
Restoration: Basswood is planted as a shade tree or
ornamental. For sites of smaller size or with
compacted soils, other Tilia species may be more
suitable. Basswood is said to be a soil-enriching
species, bringing calcium and magnesium up from
deep in the soil profile and depositing it in leaf litter
on the surface.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Basswood family (Tiliaceae). Native, large
deciduous trees, the bark gray and furrowed with flat
ridges. Leaves deciduous, alternate, more or less
unevenly heart-shaped or the base often nearly
truncate, petiolate, the blades 5-12.5 cm wide, thick
and slightly leathery, with shallowly toothed margins,
glabrous on both sides or with some pubescence on
the lower surface. Flowers yellowish-white, 10-14
mm broad, fragrant and nectar-bearing, in drooping,
6-20-flowered clusters hanging on a stalk that
diverges from near the center of an oblong, leaflike
and strongly veined bract 5-10 cm long. Fruits
mostly globose, 8-10 mm broad, hard and dry,
indehiscent. The common name is from “bastwood,”
referring to use of the inner bark, the “bast,” for rope,
baskets, etc.
Variation within the species:
BASSWOOD
Tilia americana L. var.
heterophylla (Vent.) Loud.
Plant Symbol = TIAMH
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
© J.R. Manhart
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Linn, American linden, white basswood (var.
heterophylla), American basswood
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Native Americans and settlers used the
fibrous inner bark (".bast".) as a source of fiber for
rope, mats, fish nets, and baskets. Basswood is still
valued for its soft, light, easily worked wood,
especially for turned items and hand carving. It once
was the material of choice for prosthetic limbs, but
these are now made from synthetics. Other uses have
included boxes, toys, woodenware, drawing boards,' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='veneer, venetian blinds,' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='excelsior, and pulp. ' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
North American basswoods have been separated into
many species (usually three or four) or treated as
several varieties within only a single species. “Given
the inconstancy of most vegetative and reproductive
characters [of North American basswood], the
ecophenic, ecotypic, and seasonal variation in
vestiture, and also the probability of introgression,”
trichome morphology provides the best evidence for
recognizing the component taxa (see Hardin 1990).
a. Tilia americana var. americana
synonym: Tilia neglecta Spach
b. Tilia americana var. heterophylla (Vent.) Loud.
synonym: Tilia heterophylla Vent.
synonym: Tilia michauxii Nutt.
c. Tilia americana var. caroliniana (P. Mill.) Castigl.
synonym: Tilia caroliniana P. Mill.
synonym: Tilia floridana Small
The varieties of Tilia americana intergrade, but in
their typical forms are separated as follows:
a. Leaves green beneath, sometimes glaucous,
glabrous or sparsely hairy with simple trichomes,
sometimes with a few stellate ones. var. americana
a. Leaves pale or whitish beneath from the close
tomentum of dense, sessile-stellate trichomes,
sometimes glabrate with age but remaining stellate-
pubescent at least along the major veins. (b)
b. Young twigs tomentose or tomentose-hirsute.
clusters of hairs on leaves more than 0.5 mm wide.
b. Young twigs glabrous. clusters of hairs on leaves
less than 0.5 mm wide. var. heterophylla
Trees identified as Tilia neglecta may be variants of
var. americana or they have been suggested to be
introgressants between var. americana and var.
heterophylla. Tilia floridana is often recognized as
separate entity.
Distribution: Tilia americana is native to the
Northern Deciduous and Great Lakes - St. Lawrence
forest regions of North America. It also extends into
grassland areas along river courses in Manitoba and
the mid-western United States, where it forms a
component of riverine gallery forests. In Canada, it
is found from western New Brunswick into southern
and central Québec and Ontario, extending as far
west as north-western Ontario (along the U.S. border)
and southern Manitoba. In the United States, the
species occurs as far south as the mountainous
regions of North Carolina, Tennessee, and northern
Arkansas. The western limit for the species is south-
central Manitoba and North Dakota, and along the
Niobrara River in north-central Nebraska. For
var. caroliniana
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Basswood occurs on rich, mesic sites (coves, lower
slopes, river bottoms), usually on deep, well-drained
soils. It rarely occurs in pure stands but is usually
mixed with other forest species. Var. americana is
codominant in the sugar maple-basswood cover type
and all varieties are a common component of many
other rich forests. Basswood occurs up to 1500
meters elevation in the southern Appalachian
Mountains. Flowering May-June (-July), usually 1-4
weeks after the leaves appear in mid-May. Seeds are
dispersed in October.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seed production begins in basswoods about 15 years
old (or as early as 8 years) and continues until the
trees reach at least 100 years. Heavy seed crops are
irregular but good quantities of seed are produced at
1- to 3-year intervals. Germination in the first year or
two is often poor, apparently because of an
impermeable testa, but seeds may remain dormant
and viable in seed banks for up to three years. Few
established seedlings are found where the species
forms a major component of the canopy, apparently
because seedling loss from herbivory by rabbits and
deer.
Seedlings can establish in as little as 25% of full
sunlight, but heavy shade limits subsequent growth
and development. Seedling growth begins slowly,
but established young trees are fairly fast-growing.
The typical life of a basswood is about 100 years but
some are known to live 140-200 years.
Basswood stump sprouts are often very common, and
this may produce trees growing in close clusters.
Stump sprouts arise from the main stem after its
death, fire or logging injury, or aging, or even after
disturbance of the surrounding stand. Almost all
basswoods 10 cm or less d.b.h. will sprout from the
stump, and sprouts have been obtained from
basswoods over 100 years old.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Basswood stump sprouts can be managed for saw
timber. The number of sprouts declines with the age
and size of the cut trees. Since sprouts originating at
or below the ground line are more resistant to butt
rot, stumps should be cut very close to the ground or
burned. Early thinning of sprouts is needed to ensure
good quality and rapid growth.
Page 3
Over-browsing by high densities of white-tailed deer
can result in basswood seedling height growth
reduction or even complete loss of basswood from
the stand. Mice and voles on oldfield sites may often
girdle the stems, and rabbits also feed heavily on
seedlings and small saplings. Seed predators include
mice, squirrels, and chipmunks. Basswood is easily
decayed by fungi, and butt rot is an important factor
in loss of merchantable timber.
Basswood is most common in forests with long fire-
free intervals, because the thin bark and shallow roots
are easily damaged by fire and basal fire wounds
increase susceptibility to butt rot. Prescribed fire is
not recommended for established stands of
hardwoods in which basswood occurs, as too-
frequent fire intervals eliminate basswood or restrict
it to the most mesic sites. In some places, however,
these trees are encroaching onto former grasslands
since fires have been suppressed.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Cultivars of Tilia americana
have been selected for mature shape, fall leaf color,
and rust resistance. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brizicky, G.K. 1965. The genera of Tiliaceae and
Elaeocarpaceae in the southeastern United States. J.
Arnold Arb. 46:286-307.
Crow, T.R. 1990. Tilia americana. Pp. 784-791, IN:
R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala. Silvics of North
America. Volume 2. Hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service Agric. Handbook 654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Hardin, J.W. 1990. Variation patterns and
recognition of varieties of Tilia americana s.l. Syst.
Bot. 15:33-48.
Hickok, L.G. &. J.C. Anway 1972. A morphological
and chemical analysis of geographical variation in
Tilia L. of eastern North America. Brittonia 24:2-8.
Jones, G.N. 1968. Taxonomy of American species of
lindens (Tilia). Illinois Biol. Monogr. No. 39. Univ.
of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
Peasley, N. 1996. Critical silvics: American
basswood -- Tilia americana. Stand Interventions
WWW Page.
<.www.unb.ca/web/standint/for3005/tilame.htm>.
Sullivan, J. 1994. Tilia americana. IN: W.C. Fischer
(compiler). The fire effects information system [Data
base]. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, Intermountain Fire
Sciences Laboratory. Missoula, Montana.
<.http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/tilame
/>.
Texas A&.M University 2000. Images of the
Tiliaceae. IN: Vascular plant image gallery.
Bioinformatics Working Group, College Station,
Texas. 21SEP2000.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/imaxxtil.htm>.
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='tiamh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
were used to lash together the poles that composed
the framework of housing. The dried fibers were
used to remove scum in cooking. The process used
to strip off the outer coating is still used today. It
consists of placing bundles of the green moss into a
shallow pond for six weeks, long enough for the
outer coat to rot away. Dry Spanish moss was used
for fire arrows. The moss was wrapped around the
base of the shaft, lit on fire and then shot from the
bow. The moss was also an ingredient in the clay
that was used to plaster the insides of houses. Fresh
Spanish moss was gathered, soaked in water and
stuffed into dugout canoes to keep them from drying
out and splitting. The Natchez tribe of Louisiana
played a game that used fist-size balls that were
stuffed with Spanish moss. The plant was boiled to
make a tea for chills and fever. There is evidence
that Spanish moss was used over 3,000 years ago to
make fire-tempered pottery. Although the moss
burned away during the firing, the distinctive pattern
of the fibers is still evident in the clay pottery.
Spanish moss is still used today by many Native
American tribes. For example, the Houma and the
Koasati use Spanish moss in the construction and
decoration of small dolls.
Wildlife: Several species of bats including the
Seminole bat roost in clumps of Spanish moss.
Yellow-throated warblers and northern parulas build
their nests inside clumps of living Spanish moss.
Several other species of birds gather the moss for
nesting material. There is at least one species of
spider that only occurs in Spanish moss.
Livestock: The plant is used as fodder for animals.
Other: Spanish moss is used in flower arrangements
and as decorations for handicrafts. It is said to be
excellent mulch for the garden. Spanish moss is
grown commercially for use as packing material and
as a replacement for horsehair in upholstery and
mattress stuffing. Campers, because of red bugs and
chiggers do not recommend the plants for use as
bedding. If you wish to use fresh Spanish moss you
may get rid of these pests by boiling small portions of
the plant in water or heating them in the microwave.
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
SPANISH MOSS
Tillandsia usneoides (L.) L.
Plant Symbol = TIUS
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© J.R. Manhart
@ Texas A&.M University
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Graybeard, long moss, air-plant, Florida moss, con
rape moss, wool crape, old man’s beard,
grandfather’s whiskers
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Various Native American tribes,
including the Houma and the Seminole, have used
Spanish moss for a variety of purposes. When the
outer coating of the plant is cleaned away, tough,
black, curly inner fibers are exposed. These strong
fibers were useful in many ways. The fibers were
woven into a course cloth that was used for bedding,
floor mats and horse blankets. The fibers could be
twisted into cordage that was used as rope. The ropes
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pineapple Family (Bromeliaceae). Spanish
moss is a native, perennial epiphytic herb. It is not
Spanish, nor a moss, but a flowering plant. The
slender, wiry, long, branching stems (reaching 8m or
more) grow as suspended, bluish-gray streamers and
garlands draping among tree branches and sometimes
telephone lines and fences. The plant and is not
parasitic, as is often thought, but attaches itself to
trees for support. The plant has no roots but derives
its nutrients from rainfall, detritus and airborne dust.
The stems and leaves are covered with overlapping
silver-gray scales, which are important for absorbing
water and trapping dust and nutrient particles. It is
thought that these plants may play a critical role in
nutrient cycling. The very narrow, linear, awl-shaped
leaves (2.5 to 8 cm long) are whitish gray.
Numerous, small, solitary blue or pale green flowers
with three petals (6 to 8 mm long) grow in the axils
of the leaves. The flowers, which bloom for a period
of three to four months from spring to fall, form
interesting seeds (2.4 to 3 mm) with hairy sails that
float on the wind and stick to tree branches.
Distribution: Spanish moss is native to the
Southeastern United States and Tropical America.
For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site.
Habitat: Spanish moss grows on trees in areas of high
humidity. It can be found on live oak and pines that
border estuaries, rivers, swamps, and along the
coastal plains of the Southeastern United States.
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Spanish moss may be propagated by seed or by
division. The plants are very easy to grow, as they
need no soil or transplanting, requiring only warmth
and moisture. They are grown in greenhouses or
outside in warm climates. The plants need
temperature of 70 degrees or warmer in the summer
and not less than 60 degrees in the winter. The plants
grow well in full sunlight to partial shade. To
propagate by division, place divided plantlets on bark
slabs in areas with plenty of light and moisture. Mist
plants regularly with lukewarm water. Spanish moss
rarely blooms in cultivation.
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Although Spanish moss does not take nutrients from
the host tree, it should be thinned if it becomes too
thick. This is because it may either shade the tree’s
leaves or, when it is wet it can become very heavy
and the branches may break under its weight.
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Barbour, M.G., &. W.D. Billings, Editors 2000.
North American terrestrial vegetation, Second
Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom. 708 pp.
Brown, R.C. 1994. Florida’s first people: 12,000
years of human history. Pineapple Press, Inc.,
Sarasota, Florida. 262 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Columbia State University 1999. Spanish moss.
[Online]. Available:
http://oxbow.colstate.edu/moss.htm. (20 June 2001).
Duncan, W.H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Floridata.com. L.C. 1999. Plant profile: Tillandsia
usenoides. [Online]. Available:
http://www.floridata.com/ref/t/till_usn.cfm. (20 June
2001).
Greene, W.F. &. H.L. Blomquist 1953. Flowers of
the South: Native and Exotic. University of North
Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. 208 pp.
Kniffen, F.B., H.F. Gregory, &. G.A. Stokes 1994.
The historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana. Louisiana
State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 324
pp.
Lemke, C. 1999. Plant of the week: Tillandsia
usneoides. Department of Botany and Microbiology,
Page 3
Edited: 27sep01. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
University of Okalahoma. [Online]. Available:
http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week056.shtml.
(20 June 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(19 June 2001)
National Oceanic &. Atmospheric Administraton.
Spanish Moss. Ecological characterization of Otter
Island, South Carolina. [Online]. Available:
http://www.csc.noaa.gov/otter/htmls/data/species/mo
ss.htm.
(20 June 2001).
Pacific Island ecosystems at risk (PIER). Invasive
plant species. 2000. [Online]. Available:
http://www.hear.org/pier/tiusn.htm. (20 June 2001).
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp.
Speck, F.G. 1941. A list of plant curatives obtained
from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive
Man Quarterly Bulletin of the Catholic
Anthropological Conference 14(4): 49-75.
Sturtevant, W.C. 1954. The Mikasuki Seminole:
medical beliefs and practices. Doctoral Dissertation,
Yale University. 538 pp.
Wilson, H. 1998. Bromeliaceae-The pineapple
family. IN Wilson, H. Taxonomy of flowering plants.
Texas A&.M University, College Station, TX.
<.http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/Wilson/tfp/zin/b
mlpage.htm>.. Accessed: 27sep01.
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='tius';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WHITE BRODIAEA
Triteleia hyacinthina (Lindl.)
Greene
Plant Symbol = TRHY3
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. The plant is found in grasslands, close-cone
pine forests, foothill woodland, and vernally wet
meadows from zero to 2,000 m. The plant is found in
the Central Valley, central western California, the
Sierra Nevada, northwestern California, and the
Cascade Range, up to Vancouver Island and east to
Idaho.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources to maintain genetic diversity of white
brodiaea and for the best adaptation to local
conditions. Some nurseries may label their corms
and seeds according to geographic source. If planting
flowering-size corms, they can be directly planted
outside. Plant the corms in the fall in full sun. The
less crowded the more the corms will offset. Plant
them 2 to 4 inches apart and 4 inches deep. A well-
drained soil that is light and loose will produce bigger
corms. Water and weed the patch regularly and
protect it from small and large mammals, insects, and
birds. Keep the ground slightly damp. If given too
much water the corms will rot. If it rains fairly
regularly, don t water the area. When the leaves on
the plants have turned yellow and dried up, stop
watering. Allow the corms to summer bake. The
plants should be well established after one year.
If planting seeds of white brodiaea, store the seeds in
a paper bag until autumn. Plant the seeds before
October 1st in a container and care for them for two
years before planting them outside in the ground.
Plant the seeds in six-inch (or bigger) pots because
the corms will pull themselves down to the depth
they require. Plant about 100 seeds per pot. Place
them on top of the soil and sprinkle a little soil over
them and put one-quarter inch gravel on top. Set the
pots in partial shade so they won t dry out so fast.
They can be outside or in a hot house. The seed does
not need to be stratified. Start watering the pots right
away and keep them slightly damp. Fertilize the pots
in late winter and early spring and protect the plants
from birds and other animals. If the pots are outside,
let the rains naturally water the pots and in a drought
year, supplement with hand watering. Stop watering
as soon as the foliage of the plants turns yellow.
Resume watering the next fall, if rains are
insufficient. After the second year, separate the
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
White-flowered grassnut
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Corms were dug with a digging stick
and eaten either raw, roasted, baked in an earth oven,
or boiled by tribes in California including the
Southern Maidu, Northern Maidu, Washoe, Pomo,
Sierra Miwok, Atsugewi, and Northern Paiute.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). The white or
bluish-white hyacinth-like flowers are in an umbel (in
a head) of capitate clusters, each with 10 to 40
flowers. The flowers have green mid-veins. The
basal leaves are linear and grasslike and wither with
flowering. The scape is 3-6 dm tall. This perennial
plant also vegetatively propagates from tan, fibrous-
coated corms.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
plants and transplant them two inches apart in the fall
when the corms are dormant. Then water them.
Grow them for one more year or two more years to
bloom, repeating this cycle and then plant them
outside in the ground in the autumn.
Management
The area of white brodiaea will require regular
weeding and the use of a very weak solution of
fertilizer twice only during the active growth in the
spring. The corms can be kept from overcrowding by
thinning them every three years. This involves
picking off the cormlets and replanting them
elsewhere in the garden.
There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds on the ground. 4) burning
areas. and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and
thinning of the corms, and popping off the cormlets
and replanting them may enhance grass nut numbers
and densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form
of tillage, which will increase the size of the
gathering tract, aerate the soil, lower weed
competition, and prepare the seedbed to increase seed
germination rates. If grass nut populations require
periodic disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes if
reenacted, may help maintain populations.
Populations becoming overcrowded or showing
reduced vigor should be thinned.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is not readily available from commercial
nurseries. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Barrett, S.A. and E.W. Gifford. 1933. Miwok
material culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of
the City of Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc., Fort Bragg, California.
Fowler, C.S. 1986. Subsistence. pp. 64-97. IN:
Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 11 Great
Basin. Warren L. D Azevedo [Ed.]. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C.
Garth, T.R. 1953. Atsugewi ethnography. UCPAR
14(2):129-212.
Keator, G. 1993. Triteleia. pp. 1206-1208. IN: The
Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Powers, S. 1976. Tribes of California. University of
California Press. Berkeley, California. 480 pp.
' WHERE symbol='trhy3';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 17jan01 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
GOLDEN BRODIAEA
Triteleia ixioides (Ait. f.)
Greene
Plant Symbol = TRIX
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
yellow, alternately long and short. The scape is 2-4
dm long. The leaves are few in number and
grasslike. The fruit capsules contain black seeds,
which are ridged longitudinally.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. It is found in coastal coniferous and mixed
forests from 0-3000 m. The plant is found in the
Sierra Nevada, central western California, Cascade
Range foothills, Klamath Ranges, and up to
southwestern Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of golden brodiaea and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source. If planting flowering-size corms,
they can be directly planted outside. Plant the corms
in the fall in full sun. The less crowded the more the
corms will offset. Plant them 2 to 4 inches apart and
4 inches deep. A well-drained soil that is light and
loose will produce bigger corms. Water and weed
the patch regularly and protect it from small and large
mammals, insects, and birds. Keep the ground
slightly damp. If given too much water the corms
will rot. If it rains fairly regularly, don t water the
area. When the leaves on the plants have turned
yellow and dried up, stop watering. Allow the corms
to summer bake. The plants should be well
established after one year.
If planting seeds of golden brodiaea, store the seeds
in a paper bag until autumn. Plant the seeds before
October 1st in a container and care for them for two
years before planting them outside in the ground.
Plant the seeds in six-inch pots because the corms
will pull themselves down to the depth they require.
Plant about 100 seeds per pot. Place them on top of
the soil and sprinkle a little soil over them and put
one-quarter inch gravel on top. Set the pots in partial
shade so they won t dry out so fast. They can be
outside or in a hot house. The seed does not need to
be stratified. Start watering the pots right away and
keep them slightly damp. Fertilize the pots in late
winter and early spring and protect the plants from
birds and other animals. If the pots are outside, let
the rains naturally water the pots and in a drought
year, supplement with hand watering. Stop watering
Gladys L. Smith
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Yellow-blossom grassnut, pretty face
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The corms of this plant were dug with
a digging stick and eaten by the Yokuts and Sierra
Miwok in California.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This perennial
herbaceous plant has straw-colored or golden-yellow
flowers with a conspicuous black-purple vein on the
outside running from the apex to the base of each
petal. The flowers are arranged in umbels and each
umbel contains 16 to 40 flowers. The stamens are
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 2(4):117-376.
Keator, G. 1993. Triteleia. pp. 1206-1208 IN: The
Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Latta, F.F. 1977. Handbook of the Yokuts Indians.
Kern County Museum.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 17jan01 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
as soon as the foliage of the plants turns yellow.
Resume watering the next fall, if rains are
insufficient. After the second year, separate the
plants and transplant them two inches apart in the fall
when the corms are dormant and water them. Grow
them for one more year or two more years to bloom,
repeating this cycle and then plant them outside in the
ground in the autumn.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The area of golden brodiaea will require regular
weeding and the use of a weak solution of fertilizer
twice only during the active growth in the spring.
The corms can be kept from overcrowding by
thinning them every three years. This involves
picking off the cormlets and replanting them
elsewhere in the garden.
There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds on the ground. 4) burning
areas. and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and
thinning of the corms, and popping off the cormlets
and replanting them may enhance grass nut numbers
and densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form
of tillage, which will increase the size of the
gathering tract, aerate the soil, lower weed
competition, and prepare the seedbed to increase seed
germination rates. If grass nut populations require
periodic disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least--populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='This species is not readily available from commercial
nurseries. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trix';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
Plant Guide
ITHURIEL’S SPEAR
Triteleia laxa Benth.
Plant Symbol = TRLA16
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. East Bay Regional Parks Botanic Garden
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalP hotos
gophers eat the corms. The Karuk call this plant
".deer potato". because deer eat the blossoms.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Lily Family (Liliaceae). This perennial
herb has flowers that appear in open, large umbels
with 8 to 48 flowers per umbel. The funnel form-
shaped flowers are narrow at the base and have six
petal-like lobes and range in color from blue to blue-
purple to white. Six stamens are attached to the
perianth wall at two different levels. The ovary is on
a long slender stipe. The plants reproduce both
through black seeds and fibrous-coated corms. The
tan corms have cormlets tightly attached (sessile).
The fruit is a capsule. The two or three basal grass-
like leaves generally whither at flowering.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. The plants are found in open
forest, woodland, and grassland in clay soil in a wide
elevational range from 0 to 1500 m. Ithuriel s spears
are distributed from southwestern Oregon, the
Cascade Range, northwestern California, central
western California, the Sierra Nevada, and the
Transverse Ranges.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='If possible, obtain the seed and corms from local
sources near where they will be planted, to maintain
genetic diversity of Ithuriel s spears and for the best
adaptation to local conditions. Some plant nurseries
may label their corms and seeds according to
geographic source. If planting flowering-size corms,
they can be directly planted outside. Plant the corms
in the fall in full sun or partial shade. The less
crowded the more the corms will offset. Plant them 2
to 4 inches apart and 4 inches deep. A well-drained
soil that is light and loose will produce bigger corms.
Water and weed the patch regularly and protect it
from small and large mammals, insects, and birds.
Keep the ground slightly damp. If given too much
water the corms will rot. If it rains fairly regularly,
don t water the area. When the leaves on the plants
have turned yellow and dried up, stop watering.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Grass nuts, Indian potato, deer potato, highland
potato
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The corms were gathered with a
digging stick and eaten by the Karuk, Pomo, Yuki,
Wailaki, Coast Miwok, Maidu, and many other tribes
in California. The Maidu, Karuk, and other tribes
cooked the corms in an earth oven. The Karuk dug a
pit, lined it with rocks, and built a fire in it. As soon
as the fire had gone out, the ashes were removed and
the cleaned corms were put on a mat of fresh maple
leaves and covered with another mat. Madrone
leaves were laid over this, then hot rocks. The hot
rocks were covered with earth and on this a fire was
built. The bulbs were eaten the next day when the pit
was opened. The corms are still gathered today by
the Kashaya Pomo and individuals of other ethnic
affiliations. The Kashaya boil the ".potatoes". and eat
them. The flowers are showy and have become
valued by some horticulturists and gardeners. The
plant is propagated for cut flowers and bulbs in
Holland. Both small and large mammals including
black bears, mule deer, exotic wild pigs, and pocket
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Allow the corms to summer bake. The plants should
be well established after one year.
If planting seeds of grass nuts, store the seeds in a
paper sack until autumn. Plant the seeds before
October 1st in a container and care for them for two
years before out-planting. Plant the seeds in six-inch
pots because the corms will pull themselves down to
the depth they require. Plant about 100 seeds per pot.
Place them on top of the soil and sprinkle a little soil
over them and put one-quarter inch gravel on top.
Set the pots in partial shade so they won t dry out so
fast. They can be outside or in a hot house. The seed
does not need to be stratified. Start watering the pots
right away and keep them slightly damp. Fertilize
the pots in late winter and early spring and protect the
plants from birds and other animals. If the pots are
outside, let the rains naturally water the pots and in a
drought year, supplement with hand watering. Stop
watering as soon as the foliage of the plants turns
yellow. Resume watering the next fall, if rains are
insufficient. After the second year, separate the
plants and transplant them two inches apart in the fall
when the corms are dormant. Than water them.
Grow them for one more year or two more years to
bloom, repeating this cycle and then out-plant them
in the autumn.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The grass nut area will require regular weeding and
the use of a very weak solution of fertilizer twice
only during the active growth in the spring. The
corms can be kept from overcrowding by thinning
them every three years. This involves picking off the
cormlets and replanting them elsewhere in the
garden.
There are five major types of indigenous
management activities conducted in California that
were designed to ensure future corm production at
traditional gathering sites: 1) conscious breaking off
cormlets from the harvested parent corms and
replanting them. 2) sparing whole plants. 3)
harvesting the corms after plants have gone to seed
and dumping the seeds in the hole. 4) burning areas.
and 5) irrigation. Periodic digging and thinning of
the corms, and popping off the cormlets and
replanting them may enhance grass nut numbers and
densities. Digging corms may in fact be a form of
tillage, which will increase the size of the gathering
tract, aerate the soil, lower weed competition, and
prepare the seedbed to increase seed germination
rates. If grass nut populations require periodic
disturbance to maintain and increase their
populations, then indigenous harvesting regimes if
reenacted, may help maintain populations. At the
very least--populations that become overcrowded and
show reduced vigor should be divided and separated.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This species is available from selected native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Anderson, M.K. 1997. From tillage to table: the
indigenous cultivation of geophytes for food in
California. Journal of Ethnobiology 17(2):149-169.
Anderson, M.K. &. D.L. Rowney 1998. California
geophytes: their ecology, ethnobotany, and
conservation. Fremontia 26(1):12-18.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium, Government
Printing Office 1900-1902. Vol 7:295-422.
Reprinted in 1974 by the Mendocino County
Historical Society Inc. Fort Bragg, California.
Collier, M.E.T. &. S.B. Thalman (editors) 1991.
Interviews with Tom Smith and Maria Copa: Isabel
Kelly s ethnographic notes on the Coast Miwok
Indians of Marin and Southern Sonoma Counties,
California. Miwok Archeological Preserve of Marin
Occasional Papers Number 6.
Duncan, J.W. 1961. Maidu ethnobotany.
Unpublished Master s thesis. Anthropology
Department. California State University,
Sacramento, California.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson, &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo plants. American Indian Monograph
Series Number II. American Indian Studies Center,
University of California, Los Angeles, California.
Keator, G. 1993. Triteleia. pp. 1206-1208 IN: The
Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. J.C.
Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Schenck, S.M. &. E.W. Gifford 1952. Karok
ethnobotany. Anthropological Records 13(6):377-
391.
Page 3
USDA, NRCS 1999. The PLANTS database.
National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
<.http://plants.usda.gov>. Version: 990405.
' WHERE symbol='trla16';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
VINEGARWEED
Trichostema lanceolatum
Benth.
Plant Symbol = TRLA4
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
©William R. Hewlett
California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
to treat inflammation of the throat. The steam from
hot infusions was sniffed into the nasal passages to
treat colds, coughs, headaches, and nose bleeds.
Sitting over a steaming decoction of the leaves
treated uterine trouble.
The raw or boiled leaves were crushed into a poultice
to treat wounds. Ground leaves were rubbed on the
face and chest of persons with colds or any place on
the skin where there was pain (Bocek 1984). Leaf
decoctions were applied to infected sores, smallpox
lesions, and other skin eruptions. Vinegarweed was
steeped in water and used as a bath to prevent
smallpox and ague. Chewed leaves were stuffed in
or around an aching tooth.
The Kawaiisu tribe made a nonmedicinal drink from
the leaves (Zigmond 1981). The aromatic leaves and
stems were crushed and placed in bedding to repel
fleas.
The Salinan was among those California tribes that
used vinegarweed to aid in catching fish. The
fisherman would strategically build dams in rivers
and streams to trap the fish within small ponds.
Then, mashed or powdered plants were thrown into
the water with the fish. After the plants were added,
the fish would become sluggish and easier to catch in
the fishermen’s nets or sieves made of willow.
Numerous reasons have been offered for this reaction
including that the fish were either poisoned
(Moerman 1998), their gills clogged (Murphey
1959), or that the plants affected the oxygen in the
water (Heinzen 1972).
Wildlife: Vinegarweed is an important bee plant
(Jepson 1911).
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Mint family (Lamiaceae). Vinegarweed is
an annual forb or herb native to California and
Oregon. Vinegarweed is named for its pungent
medicinal odor that can be detected over long
distances.
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Blue-curls, camphor weed, romero, yerba del aigre,
stink weed, turpentine weed, wild rosemary
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Vinegarweed is a medicinal herb that
was highly valued by the Salinan, Ohlone, Miwok,
and many other California Indian tribes who continue
to use it today. In the past, the herb was so important
that the Salinan used vinegarweed as “money” in
trade with the Yokuts and other California tribes
(Heinsen 1972).
The strongly aromatic leaves and flowers were used
fresh or dried to make infusions of varying strengths
to treat a myriad of maladies. A decoction or tea
made from the leaves and flowers was taken to treat
colds, stomachaches, headaches, ague, bladder
problems, and malaria. Vinegarweed tea was gargled
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The plants range from 1 to 10 dm with branches
arising from the base. The thin, lance-shaped leaves
are 2 to 7 cm long. The leaves are dotted with glands
that produce the strong somewhat sour odor. The
pale blue to lavender flowers grow from the leaf axils
along one side of the top of the unbranched stems.
The flowers are slender tubes, 5 to 10 mm long, with
five lobes and long arched stamens (13 to 20 mm)
that protrude out of the flower. The seeds are four
tiny nutlets that are joined at the base. The seeds
germinate with the rains, but begin to grow in earnest
only after the rainy season has ended. The plants
bloom from late June or July until November.
Distribution: Vinegarweed occurs from northern
Oregon to the northern Baja along the Pacific Coast
Ranges. It grows in dry, open fields and roadsides
below 1000 meters. For current distribution, please
consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Vinegarweed is found in dry, open areas and
disturbed habitats. Vinegarweed is an early seral
component of coastal sage scrub, chaparral, and oak
woodland communities.
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Vinegarweed is xerophytic and adapted to the dry,
rainless summers of California’s Mediterranean
climate.
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The seeds ripen in the late fall and collected seeds
can be planted immediately or stored. Be sure to
thoroughly dry the seeds before storing. Placing
them in a sunny well-ventilated place can dry the
seeds. To store, place the seeds into an airtight
container and store them in a cool, dark place.
Sow the seeds in the late fall or early spring. Prepare
a seedbed that receives full sun and in an area that is
well drained. Broadcast the seeds and lightly rake
them into the soil. Tamp the soil snuggly over the
seeds. If planting the seeds in the spring, gently
sprinkle the sown bed with water and keep it lightly
moist until the seedlings are established. Once
established, vinegarweed is very drought resistant
and will not tolerate frequent watering.
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
The Salinan and other California tribes used the
closely related perennial shrub, Trichostema lanatum
(wooly blue curls or California rosemary) for many
of the same purposes as vinegarweed. T. lanatum
resembles rosemary (Rosmarinus spp.) and is a
lovely addition to the garden. There are two cultivars
of T. lanatum (“Lion Den” and Salmon Creek”) that
have been developed by the UC Santa Cruz
Arboretum (Rogers 2001). Both cultivars are from
cuttings taken in the Santa Lucia Mountains.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 388 pp.
Bocek, B.R. 1984. Ethnobotany of Costanoan
Indians, California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany, Vol. 38, No. 2. Pp.
240-255.
Heinsen, V. 1972. Mission San Antonio de Padua
Herbs: Medicinal herbs of early days. Third edition.
Lockwood, California. 142pp.
Heizer, R.F. &. A.B. Elsasser 1980. The natural
world of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkeley &. Los Angeles,
California. 271 pp.
Hewlett, W.R. 1999. Trichostema lanceolatum.
California Academy of Sciences. Digital Library
Project, University of California, Berkeley. [Online].
Available: http://www.calflora.org. Accessed [15
December 2001].
Jepson, W. L. 1911. A flora of western middle
California. Second Edition. Cunningham, Curtiss &.
Welch, San Francisco, Califorina. 515 pp.
Lewis, H. 1993. Trichostema, Blue Curls. In: J.D.
Hickman, Editor. The Jepson manual: Higher plants
of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California. Pp. 732-733.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
Page 3
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
[6January2002].
Munz, P.A. &. D.D. Keck 1963. A California flora.
University of California Press, Berkeley &. Los
Angeles, California. 1681 pp.
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society, Fort Bragg,
California. 81 pp.
Rogers, D. 2001. Romero or wooly blue curls. The
Double Cone Quarterly. Vol. IV, No. 2 [Online].
Available:
http://www.ventanawild.org/news/ss01/romero.html
[15December2001].
Wallace, W.J. 1978. Southern ValleyYokuts in
Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 8,
California, R.F. Heizer, Ed. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. Pp448-461.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. 102
pp.
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='trla4';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Plant Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 29jan03 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
VIRGINIA
SPIDERWORT
Tradescantia virginiana L.
Plant Symbol = TRVI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© George F. Russell
Smithsonian Institution, Dept of Botany
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Spiderwort Family (Commelinaceae).
Virginia spiderwort is a native, perennial forb. This
plant was probably named for the delicate spider
web-like filaments that surround the anthers of the
flower or the threadlike secretion that emerges from
the stem upon cutting. The lightly fragrant flowers (2
to 5.4 cm in diameter) grow in terminal clusters. The
flower’s three broadly ovate petals are generally
bright blue but are sometimes purple, violet, rose, and
rarely white. Individual blossoms last for only one or
two days, but new blossoms appear daily throughout
the spring blooming period. The plants grow in erect
clumps that range from 30 to 60 cm in height. The
rounded stalks are either single or branched at the
base. The roots are thick and fleshy. The plant
spreads through underground stems or stolons to
form large colonies. The smooth iris-like leaves are
long (15 to 46 cm) and narrow (2.5 cm wide) with a
prominent midrib.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Virginia spiderwort can be found in moist
prairies, fertile woodlands, open woods, meadows,
hillsides, stony bluffs, stream banks, and along
roadsides.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Virginia spiderwort is a vigorous plant that likes
moist soils but will adapt to drier, average garden
soils. The plants are often seen in old-fashioned
gardens and work well as part of a perennial border.
They are recommended for bogs and naturally wet
sites where the plants can form large clumps when
grown in full sun. The plants will flower in both sun
and shade. Plants may be propagated from seed but
they are more easily started from cuttings or
divisions. For cuttings, take a single-node stem
cutting late in the season, just as the plants begin to
bolt. Place the cutting in moist soil up to the base of
the leaf. To propagate by division, divide the thick
roots in the fall or early in the spring. Be careful to
divide the leaves so that each section includes its own
roots. Established plants will self-sow and stalks that
lay on the ground will readily root from the nodes.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The foliage may be partially clipped back after
blooming to control the size and untidy appearance of
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Common spiderwort, dayflower, flower-of-a-day,
Job’s tears, snake-grass, spider-lily, trinity, trinity-
lily, widow’s-tears
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Cherokee and other Native
American tribes used Virginia spiderwort for various
food and medicinal purposes. The young leaves were
eaten as salad greens or were mixed with other greens
and then either fried or boiled until tender. The plant
was mashed and rubbed onto insect bites to relieve
pain and itching. A paste, made from the mashed
roots, was used as a poultice to treat cancer. A tea
made from the plant was used as a laxative and to
treat stomachaches associated with overeating.
Virginia spiderwort was one of the seven ingredients
in a tea used to treat “female ailments or rupture.” It
was also combined with several other ingredients in a
medicine for kidney trouble.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
the plant. The plants will flower a second time in the
late summer or fall if the stems are removed soon
after the first flowering period. This vigorous grower
can be somewhat controlled by dividing the plants
every two to four years and by regularly removing
the stalks that slump to the ground before they have
the opportunity to take root. Large clumps may be
divided by first lifting the root mass from the soil
with a shovel. Then divide the clump into pieces that
contain four to six shoots each with roots attached.
Immediately plant and water the divisions.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Virginia spiderwort is relatively pest and disease free.
Snails will eat the young shoots.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Coffey, T. 1993. The history &. folklore of North
American wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
MA. 356 pp.
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers in the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York.
322 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Missouri Botanical Garden 2000. Tradenscantia
virginiana. Kemper Center for Home Gardening.
http://www.mobot.org/hort/plantfinder/Code/M/M63.
htm. (18 June 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn.
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(18 June 2001)
Phillips, H.R. 1985. Growing and propagating wild
flowers. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina. 331 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Smith, A.I. 1979. A guide to wildflowers of the Mid-
south. Memphis State University Press, Memphis,
Tennessee. 281 pp
Taylor, K.S. and S.F. Hamblin 1963. Handbook of
wild flower cultivation. The Macmillan Company,
New York, New York. 307 pp.
Tenenbaum, F. 1973. Gardening with wild flowers.
Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, New York. 206
pp.
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='trvi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
Page 3
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
SPRINGBANK
CLOVER
Trifolium wormskioldii Lehm.
Plant Symbol = TRWO
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Plant Guide
and geese are known to be fond of the rhizomes,
which were sometimes used as bait for hunting these
birds. Wild animals, like domestic livestock, relish
the foliage of clovers. The small, hard seeds of
western clovers are important to quail, but other
upland game birds limit their use of clovers almost
entirely to the foliage. Small quantities of clover
seeds are eaten by many species of songbirds.
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Legume Family (Fabaceae). Clovers are
perennial herbs that have palmately compound, bright
green leaves with three leaflets (trifoliate). All
species have the distinctive, round flower heads
composed of many, small, pea-like flowers.
Springbank clover is a native coastal herbaceous
perennial often growing in dense patches from long,
slender white rhizomes, with fibrous roots arising
from their nodes. The stems, up to 80 cm, are erect
to creeping. The reddish purple or magenta flowers
are usually white-tipped, 12-16 mm long, with 2-5
flowers per stalk. The flower heads are 2-3 cm in
diameter, and are held in a saucer-shaped involuvre
with 8-12 bracts. The fruits are tiny pea-like pods
containing 2-6 seeds.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. It is found from British
Columbia, north as far as the Queen Charlotte Islands
(possibly to the southern Alaska panhandle), south to
California and Mexico, and east to the Rocky
Mountains.
Habitat: Springbank clover is found in wet and
periodically inundated places, such as high salt and
brackish marshes, coastal dunes, wet meadows, and
stream banks. It is commonly associated with Pacific
silverweed. It occurs from beaches to mountain
meadows, ridges, generally open, moist, or marchy
places as elevations below 3200 m.
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Springbank clover spreads vigorously from rhizomes.
Plants can easily be divided and replanted.
William &. Wilma Follette
USDA NRCS Western Wetland Flora (1992)
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Cows clover, marsh clover, perennial clover
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotany. The long, fleshy, white rhizomes of
springbank clover were an important food to coastal
peoples of British Columbia, including the Haida, the
Kwakwaka’wakw, the Nuu-chah-nulth (including
Ditidaht), Nuxalk (Bella Coola), the Comox, the
Sechelt, and the Straits Salish, as well as the Makah
of Washington. Springbank clover rhizomes were
commonly harvested and prepared together tith the
long, brown roots of Pacific silverweed (Potentilla
anserinas ssp. pacifica). Both plants were usually
dug in the fall, after the leaves had started to die back
for the winter. The rhizomes were pried out with
long, pointed wooden digging sticks. They were
cleaned and tied in fist-sized bundles using one of the
rhizomes as a tie. Occasionally, they were eaten raw,
but typically, they were cooked in an underground
pit. The rhizomes were often dried for winter use.
Springbank clover rhizomes are seldom eaten today.
Other Uses. The stoloniferous growth form aids in
substrate stabilization and erosion control. Ducks
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
In greenhouse conditions, it is best to dig up and
separate plants in the late fall or winter. This is
the “quiescent” period that follows seed
maturation and leaves are senescent.
Split the plant clump into pieces by hand, then
cut the rhizomes into sections, each with one or
more buds.
For dividing the whole plant, gently loosen the
soil around the plant, taking care to not damage
the roots, then lift the plant gently with a
pitchfork. Shake off as much soil from the roots,
as possible.
- Divide the plant into smaller pieces by hand,
retaining only healthy, vigorous sections, each
with new shoots and rhizome buds.
- Replant the divisions as soon as possible. It is
important that the plants don’t dry out, so if
replanting is delayed a couple of hours, dip the
plants briefly in water and keep them in a sealed
plastic bag in a cool, shady place until you are
ready to plant them.
- Cut back the old top-growth and replant the
divided plant sections to the same depth as
before.
- When replanting, ensure that the roots are well
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
spread out in the planting hole and the individual
is firmly planted. Water newly planted divisions
thoroughly, taking care not to expose the roots
by washing away soil.
Springbank clover plants should be planted in
the full sun in a light, loose soil. Plants should
be planted on 12-18” centers. They will fill in
and make solid stands of clover in one year.
Plants need to be kept moist and need frequent
watering. Lightly fertilize the plants during the
growing season.
Springbank clover tolerates brackish conditions,
so it can be used to restore salt marshes and
wetlands.
Plants may need to be protected from herbivores,
such as rabbits or gophers.
- Wild harvesting should be restricted to salvage
sites with appropriate approvals or permits. Due
to the loss of wetland and salt marsh habitat
throughout the U.S., it is rarely appropriate to
harvest witl plants.
- There is no available information about
propagation of this species from seed.
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
It is necessary to divide the springbank clover patch
every 3 to 4 years, starting a new patch and
increasing plant vigor. Younger plants are more
vigorous and procude more flowers and seeds.
fall).
Turner and Deur (1999) include the following for
traditional resource management:
- Ownership of individual patches and their output
by Chief’s, ensuring long-term care and
enhancement of plant production.
-
- Root feasts as a means of redistributing plant
wealth and meeting ceremonial obligations.
Specialized digging sticks as a harvesting tool to
cultivate and turn over the soil.
- Assumed large concentrations/patches of clover.
- Groups of woman harvesting simultaneously.
- Harvesting at a set time of year (late summer and
- Regular use of same sites over time/generations.
- Care and assiduity in harvest.
- Turning of the soil or sod.
- Extending periods of harvest time.
- Replanting and leaving behind portions of clover
roots to re-grow the following year.
- Weeding root patches. and
-
Individual patches and landscapes were burned
regularly.
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Brickell, C. &. E. McDonald (eds.), 1993. The
American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of
gardening. The definitive practical guide to
gardening techniques, planning, and maintenance.
Darling Kindersten.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414p.
Edwards, G.T. 1979. Indian spaghetti. The Beaver
(Autumn):4-11.
Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publ. in
Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington Press,
Seattle.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, F.T. Davies, Jr. 1990.
Plant propagation principles and practices. Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 647p.
Page 3
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson, &. R.T.
Ogilvie. 1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24. 165p.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson, &.
A.Z. York. 1990. Thompson Ethnobotany:
Knowledge and usage of plants by the Thompson
Indians of British Columbia. Royal British Columbia
Museum Memoirs No. 2, Victoria, B.C.
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan, &. S
Hashisaki. 1994. A citizen’s guide to wetland
restoration. USEPA Region 10. 71p.
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, formerly USDA NRCS National
Plant Data Center, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='trwo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Davis, California
Edited: 070122 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley. 1399p.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist (eds.). 1973. Flora
of the Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual.
University of Washington Press, Seattle. 730p.
Hutchens, A.R. 1991. Indian herbalogy of North
America. Shambhala, Boston &. London.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner. 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology, Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632p.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publication, Inc., New York. 500p.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
200p.
Strike, S.S. 1994. Ethnobotany of the California
Indians. Volume 2. Aboriginal uses of California’s
indigenous plants. Koeltz Scientific Books,
USA/Germany. 156p.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria.
Turner, N.J. &. M.A.M. Bell. 1983. The ethnobotany
of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British
Columbia. Econ. Bot. 27:257-310.
Turner, N.J. &. D.E. Deur. 1999. Cultivating the
clover: Managing plant resources on the Northwest
Coast. Presentation at Society of Ethnobiology
annual meeting, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat. 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
Victoria. 99p.
Turner, &. H.V. Kuhnlein. 1983. Camas (Camassia
ssp.) and riceroot (Fritillaria ssp.): Two Liliaceous
“root” foods of the Northwest Coast Indians.
Ecology of Food and Nutrition 13:199-219.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
EASTERN HEMLOCK
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.
Plant Symbol = TSCA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
to its full shade tolerance), although as a hedge it
must be repeatedly pruned to keep it in size. It has a
naturally open growth habit – if bought with a dense
canopy effect, it may have been repeatedly sheared at
the nursery (or Christmas tree farm).
Numerous cultivars of eastern hemlock have been
developed, including compact shrubs, dwarfs, form
mutants (weeping, fastigiate, prostrate, etc.), color
mutants (variegated), and graceful trees. The wild
type apparently also is common in cultivation.
Eastern hemlock stands are considered important as
shelter and cover for white-tailed deer and other
wildlife species, such as turkey, ruffed grouse, and
others.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Pine family (Pinaceae). Native trees to 30
meters tall, with a broadly conic crown, the branches
often drooping at the ends and “feathery.” twigs
yellow-brown, densely pubescent. Bark brownish,
scaly and fissured. Needles evergreen, flat, mostly
appearing 2-ranked, (5-)15-20(-25) mm long,
narrowed to a petiole-like base and set on peg-like
projections, the lower surface waxy, with 2 broad,
conspicuous stomatal bands (like pale lines), the
upper surface shiny-green to yellow-green, the
margins minutely toothed, especially toward apex.
Seed cones ovoid, 1.5-2.5 cm long, borne near the
branch tips, hanging. The common name pertains to
its distribution in eastern North America.
Variation within the species: various studies have
recorded physiological and morphological variation
within the species, but no major discontinuities have
been found to suggest that named entities should be
recognized.
The geographic distribution of eastern hemlock
completely overlaps that of Carolina hemlock (Tsuga
caroliniana), which differs in its high elevation
habitats, leaves mostly spreading all directions from
the twigs, and more elongate seed cones.
Distribution: Eastern hemlock is a species of the
northeastern and Appalachian regions of North
© R.A. Seelig
Botany Dept., NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Canada hemlock, hemlock spruce
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Industry: Eastern hemlock was early valued for its
bark, an important source of tannin for the leather
industry. Trees were felled and stripped of their bark,
which was then milled for tannin extraction. To
simplify stripping the bark and turning the logs, trees
were often felled into lakes. Many of these logs were
much later extracted from northern lakes and milled.
The wood has been used for light framing, roofing,
boxes and crates, and pulping, but it tends to be
brittle and eastern hemlock is not presently important
as a timber tree. Commercial stands have been
greatly reduced by prior harvesting and lack of
restocking.
Ethnobotanic: American Indians used the cambium
as the base for breads and soups or mixed it with
dried fruit and animal fat for pemmican. Natives and
white settlers also made tea from hemlock leaves,
which have a high vitamin C content.
Conservation: Eastern hemlock can be used as a
specimen, screen, or group planting, and it can be
sheared over time into a formal evergreen hedge,
which is densely leafy all the way to the ground (due
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
America: from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to
southern Quebec and Ontario, south to northern
Georgia and Alabama, west in the lake states to
Minnesota with outliers in southern Michigan,
western Ohio, and southern Indiana. Many disjunct
populations, probably glacial relicts, occur east of the
Appalachians in the middle Atlantic states. For
current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile
page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Eastern hemlock grows from about sea level to 1500
meters. In the more southern parts of its range,
eastern hemlock occurs only where there is drainage
of cool, moist air -- on moist rocky ridges, valleys
and ravines, hillsides, and lakeshores. In the northern
hardwood forest, it is found on a greater variety of
sites, including low rolling hills and glacial ridges.
Eastern hemlock most commonly grows in mixed
stands with species such as white pine, northern red
oak, sugar maple, American beech, yellow birch, and
white ash.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Eastern hemlocks begin to produce cones at about
age 15 in vigorous trees or much later in suppressed
trees. There is a high frequency of cone crops and
individual trees have a long duration of cone
production (excellent cone production has been
reported for trees more than 450 years old), but the
viability of seed usually is low. Seeds are
particularly easily damaged by drying. The best
conditions for germination and seedling
establishment are under a 70-80% crown cover on an
exposed, partially decomposed layer. Otherwise,
regeneration is restricted to rotten logs, stumps, and
mounds that normally have warmer surfaces and
better moister retention than the forest floor.
Eastern hemlock is the most shade tolerant of all tree
species and individuals may remain in the understory
in natural stands for 25-400 years. After a plant
reaches 1-2 meters in height, the root system has
reached a depth not radically afffected by surface
drying, and release from overstory competition may
greatly increase annual growth. In general, eastern
hemlock is a slow-growing tree that may take 250 to
300 years to reach maturity and may live for 900
years or more.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Eastern hemlock generally does not tolerate nutrient-
poor soils, wet soils or poorly drained sites,
prolonged drought, prolonged heat, sun scorch,
windy and exposed sites, aerial pollution, or winter
salt spray. Drought is probably the most serious
damaging agent to the species, especially during the
seedling stage. Damping-off fungi and root rots also
are seriously damaging to young plants.
Containerized plants are best for transplanting –
move into sites that are cool, well-drained, and wind-
protected, in partial sun to partial shade. Good
drainage is essential for transplant success -- the
porosity of the soil should be improved with peat
moss or sand, with the root ball elevated about 2". to
4". above the surrounding soil grade.
A shallow root system makes trees highly susceptible
to wind-throw when exposed through timber cutting
or planted in open sites. Plants should be staked for
the first two or three years following transplant, to
prevent wind-throw. Saplings and small trees are
highly susceptible to damage from fire because of the
thin bark, and root injury often occurs from high
intensity fires because of heavy litter concentration.
The most severe insect pest is the Asian hemlock
woolly adelgid, a phloem-feeding insect that causes
branch dieback and tree decline. Trees typically die
after several years of adelgid infestation.
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Godman, R.M. &. K. Lancaster 1990. Tsuga
canadensis. Pp. 604-612, IN: R.M. Burns and B.H.
Honkala. Silvics of North America. Volume 1.
Conifers. USDA Forest Service Agric. Handbook
654, Washington, D.C.
<.http://willow.ncfes.umn.edu/silvics_manual/Table_
of_contents.htm>.
Taylor, R.J. 1993. Tsuga. Pp. 362-365, IN: Flora of
North America, north of Mexico. Vol. 2,
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford Univ.
Press, New York. <.http://hua.huh.harvard.edu/cgi-
bin/Flora/flora.pl?FLORA_ID=12395>.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
21SEP2000. National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='tsca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
WESTERN
HEMLOCK
Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.)
Sarg.
Plant Symbol = TSHE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
leaves and young shoots have been chewed as an
emergency food to keep one alive when lost in the
woods (Ibid.).
Medicinal: Western hemlock was commonly
employed medicinally by several native North
American Indian tribes who used it to treat a variety
of complaints (Moerman 1998). Hemlock pitch was
applied for a variety of purposes, including poultices
or poultice coverings, linaments rubbed on the chest
for colds and when mixed with deer tallow as a salve
to prevent sunburn (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). A
decoction of the pounded bark has been used in the
treatment of hemorrhages, diaphoretic, and diuretic
(Moerman 1998). The powdered bark can be put in
shoes for foot odor.
Landscaping &. Wildlife: Tsuga heterophylla is
occasionally planted as an ornamental tree in
northern states and in Western Europe (Sargent
1961). Western hemlock stands provide cover and
habitat for many wildlife species and small
mammals. It is also used for nest trees by cavity
nesting birds. This species is browsed by elk and
deer. The seedlings are eaten by snowshoe hares and
rabbits.
Agroforestry: Western hemlock is used in forested
riparian buffers to help reduce stream bank erosion,
protect aquatic environments, enhance wildlife, and
increase biodiversity.
Economic: It is one of the best pulpwood for paper
and paperboard products. The wood is used in house
construction for external walls, structural support and
is suited for interior finish, kitchen cabinets, flooring,
and ceiling.
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) is a
large evergreen tree growing from ninety to two-
hundred feet high. The needles are short stalked, flat,
finely toothed, irregularly spare, and of unequal
length (five to twenty millimeters long). The seed
cones are ovoid, short-stalked, brown, with many thin
papery scales, stalkless, and hanging down at the end
Charles Webber
© California Academy of Sciences
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
West coast hemlock, pacific hemlock, coast hemlock
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Western hemlock bark has high tannin
content and was used as a tanning agent, pigment and
cleansing solution (Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994).
Some Coast Salish people used a red dye made from
hemlock bark to color mountain goat wool and basket
materials and as a facial cosmetic and hair remover
(Ibid.). The wood was heavy, durable, and fairly
easy to carve. Implements such as children’s bows,
spoons, combs, roasting pits, dip-net poles, and edges
were carved from hemlock wood. The Mainland
Comox threaded oolichan and herring boughs for
drying, and used for drying, and used the boughs for
lining steaming pits (Ibid.). Kwakwaka’wakw
dancers wore headdresses, and head-bands of
hemlock boughs, and young women lived in
hemlock-bough huts for four days after their first
menstruation (Ibid.).
Pitch obtained from crevices in the bark, has been
chewed as a gum (Ibid.). Western hemlock leaves
and shoot tips were used to make an herbal tea. The
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
of the twigs. The bark is smooth when young,
reddish-brown, becoming darker, and deeply
furrowed with flat-topped scaly ridges (Farrar 1995).
Distribution: Western hemlock is native in
northwestern California, Oregon, Washington, British
Columbia, Alaska, Idaho, and Montana (McMinn &.
Maino 1963). In California, western hemlock occurs
near the coast in scattered localities from Del Norte
County southward to the vicinity of Elk Creek,
Mendocino County (Ibid.). In Oregon and
Washington, it inhibits the Coast Ranges and
Olympic Mountains, extending eastward to the
Cascades (Ibid.). For current distribution, please
consult the PLANT Profile page for this species on
the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Adaptation
Western hemlock occurs on a variety of soil types.
This species is well adapted to grow on humus and
decaying wood, and is also found on mineral soil
(Pojar &. MacKinnon 1994). This species is very
shade tolerant and thrives in full sun and regenerates
well under a closed canopy. Western hemlock grows
in pure stands or mixed at lower levels with Douglas-
fir, silver and grand firs, giant arborvitae, redwood,
and hardwood and at higher elevations with noble fir,
Alaska cedar, mountain hemlock, western, white, and
lodgepole pines (Preston 1989).
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation from Seed: Seed is best sown in a cold
frame in the autumn or late winter. Dormancy is
variable with some seed lots requiring cold
stratification (Dirr &. Heuser 1987). Stratification
accelerates and improves total germination and,
unless seeds are known not to require pretreatment,
cold stratification at 41ºF from three weeks to three
months is recommended (Ibid.). Young seedlings
should be placed in individual pots, once they are
large enough to handle, and allowed to grow in a cold
frame. During early summer the following year, out
plant seedlings to their permanent locations.
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Seedling transplant well when they are 8 to 36 inches
tall. However, the best survival rate can be achieved
if seedling are transplanted between 8 and 20 inches,
this is usually when they are about five to eight years
old (Huxley 1992). Transplanting larger seedlings
will check badly and hardly put on any growth for
several years. This slow growth predisposes the
seedling to pest, poor root development and wind
throws, and related damage. (Ibid.).
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Readily available from your local nursery. Contact
your local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Britton, N.L. 1908. North American trees. Henry
Holt &. Company, New York, New York.
Dirr, M.A. &. M.W. Heuser 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation. Varsity Press,
Athens. Georgia.
Farrar, J.L. 1995. Trees of the northern United States
and Canada. Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Huxley, A. 1992. The new RAS dictionary of
gardening. MacMillan Press, New York, New York
Lauriault, J. 1989. Identification guide to the trees of
Canada. Fitzhenry &. Whiteside, Ontario, Canada.
MacKinnon, A., J. Pojar, &. R. Coupe´ 1992. Plants
of the northern British Columbia. Lone Pine
Publishing, Canada.
McMinn, H.E. &. E. Maino 1963. An illustrated
manual of Pacific Coast trees. University of
California Press, Berkeley, California.
Moerman, D. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Oregon.
Pojar, J &. A. MacKinnon 1994. Plants of the Pacific
Northwest coast: Washington, Oregon, British
Columbia, and Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Redmond, Washington.
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Sargent, C.S. 1961. Manual of the trees of North
America. Vol. 1. Dover Publications, Inc., New
York, New York.
Viereck, L.A. &. E.L. Little, Jr. 1972. Alaska trees
and shrubs. United States Department of
Agriculture. Agriculture Handbook No. 410.
Washington, D.C.
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana
' WHERE symbol='tshe';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
NARROWLEAF
CATTAIL
Typha angustifolia L.
Plant Symbol = TYAN
Contributed By: USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center &. Idaho Plant Materials Center
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='flags, rushes,
bulrushes, cat o’nine
tails, Cossack
asparagus, reed
mace, baco
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Caution: This
species can be very
invasive in disturbed
wetlands. Please
read about the
environmental
concerns under
Management.
Ethnobotanic: All
parts of the cattail
are edible when
gathered at the
appropriate stage of
growth. The young
shoots are cut from the rhizomes (underground
stems) in the spring when they are about 4 to 16
inches long. The base of the stem where it attaches
to the rhizome can be boiled or roasted like potatoes.
The young flower stalks can be taken out of their
sheaths and can be boiled or steamed just like corn.
Cattail pollen is a fine substitute for flours. It is a
bright yellow or green color, and turns pancakes,
cookies or biscuits a pretty yellow color (which
children love). The rhizomes and lower stems have a
sweet flavor and can be eaten raw, baked, roasted, or
broiled. Cattail rhizomes are fairly high in starch
content. this is usually listed at about 30% to 46%.
The core can be ground into flour. One acre of
cattails would yield about 6,475 pounds of flour
(Harrington 1972). This flour would probably
contain about 80 % carbohydrates and around 6% to
8% protein. Since cattails occur around the world, it
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
Plant Guide
is a potential source of food for the worlds
population.
The Klamath and Modoc peoples of northern
California and southern Oregon made flexible
baskets of twined cattail. Cattails were also twined to
form mats of varying sizes for sleeping, sitting,
working, entertaining, covering doorways, providing
shade, and a myriad of other uses. Lengths of cattail
were plied into rope or other size cordage, and cattail
rope was used in some areas to bind bundles of tule
into tule boats. Air pockets or aerenchyma in the
stems provided the buoyancy for good boat-building
material.
The Cahuilla Indians used the stalks for matting,
bedding material, and ceremonial bundles (Barrows
1967). Some tribes used the leaves and sheath bases
as caulking materials. Apaches used the pollen in
female puberty ceremonies. After dipping the spike
in coal oil, the stalk makes a fine torch. The fluff can
also be used as tinder, insulation, or for lining baby
cradleboards. The down is used for baby beds
(Murphey 1959).
Wildlife: The multitudes of tiny, wind-carried seeds
are too small and too hairy to be attractive to birds
(Hotchkiss and Dozier 1949). In a few exceptions,
the seeds are eaten by several duck species. Cattail
rootstocks are much more valuable as food for
wildlife than are the seeds. Geese and muskrats
prefer the stems and roots. Moose and elk eat fresh
spring shoots. Shelter and nesting cover are provided
for long-billed marsh wrens, redwing blackbirds, and
yellow-headed blackbirds.
Conservation: This plant is used widely for wetland
restoration and constructed wetlands for tertiary
water treatment. Typha species can become invasive
in disturbed habitats.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='Cattails are herbaceous, colonial, rhizomatous,
perennial plants with long, slender, green stalks
topped with brown, fluffy, sausage-shaped flowering
heads. Typha angustifolia plants are 15-30 dm tall.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The spike-like, terminal, cylindric inflorescence has
staminate flowers above and pistillate flowers below.
The naked axis between the staminate and pistillate
flowers is generally 1-8 cm. The spike is medium to
dark brown. The basal leaves are thin with parallel
veins running their long, narrow length. The leaves
are 4-12 mm wide when fresh, 3-8 mm wide when
dry.
Typha angustifolia generally occurs in deeper water
than Typha latifolia. Typha angustifolia has fewer
and larger rhizomes, resulting in a low rate of cloning
but enabling it to grow in deeper water than Typha
latifolia. Typha angustifolia has a higher allocation
to sexual reproduction. Cattails spread both
vegetatively and by seed, particularly under
drawdown conditions.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='Cattails are always found in or near water, in
marshes, ponds, lakes, and depressional areas. They
are obligate wetland indicator plant species. Cattails
tolerate perennial flooding, reduced soil conditions,
and moderate salinity. With influxes of nutrients or
freshwater, cattails are aggressive invaders in both
brackish salt marshes and freshwater wetlands.
Narrow-leaved cattails are found in marshes at
elevations <.2000 m. They grow throughout North
America and Eurasia (Hickman 1993). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Typha species may be planted from bare rootstock or
seedlings from container stalk or directly seeded into
the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are preferred
revegetation methods where there is moving water.
Typha seeds germinate readily and are a cost-
effective means to propagate cattail on moist soils.
Typha species can be invasive in disturbed wetland
situations and become a monoculture.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedCollections='• Select seed collection sites where continuous
stands with few intermixed species can easily be
found and obtain permission for seed collection.
• Seeds can be harvested when they are slightly
immature. It is important to harvest the
staminate stalks before they dry and blow away.
• Harvest by using either hand clippers, cutting the
stem off below the seed heads, or by stripping
the seed heads off of the stalk. Use a seed
cleaner to process the seeds. Dry and store the
seeds in brown paper or burlap bags.
• Plant cleaned seed in fall. Plant in clean, weed-
free, moist seedbed. Flooded or ponded soils
will significantly increase seedling mortality.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
from the soil surface. Some seed may be lost
due to scour or flooding. Recommended seed
density is unknown at this time.
Seed Germination in Greenhouse
• Plant in the greenhouse in 1". x 1". x 2". pots, 1/4".
under the soil surface. Keep soil surface moist.
Greenhouse temperature should be 100° F (plus
or minus 5° F). Seeds will begin to germinate
after a couple weeks in warm temperatures.
• Plants will be ready in 100-120 days to come out
as plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in the soil by November. These
plants are very small. Growing plants to a larger
size will result in increased revegetation success.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_LivePlantCollections TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_LivePlantCollections='• No more than 1/4 of the plants in an area should
be collected. If no more than 0.09 m² (1 ft²) is
removed from a 0.4 m² (4 ft²) area, the plants
will grow back into the hole in one good
growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficient for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during
the growing season.
• Donor plants that are drought-stressed tend to
have higher revegetation success.
• Live transplants should be planted in moist (not
flooded or anoxic) soils as soon as possible.
Plants should be transported and stored in a cool
location prior to planting. Plugs may be split
into smaller units, generally no smaller than 6 x
6 cm (2.4 x 2.4 in), with healthy rhizomes and
tops. The important factor in live plant
collections is to be sure to include a growing bud
in either plugs or rhizomes. Weeds in the plugs
should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots.
The roots should always remain moist or in
water until planted.
• Clip leaves and stem from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more
energy into root production. Plant
approximately 1 meter apart. Plants should be
planted closer together if the site has fine soils
such as clay or silt, steep slopes, or prolonged
inundation.
Ideally, plants should be planted in moist soils in
late fall just after the first rains (usually late
October to November). This enables plant root
systems to become established before heavy
•
Page 3
• Fertilization is very helpful for plant growth and
reproduction. Many more seeds are produced
with moderate fertilization.
flooding and winter dormancy occurs. Survival
is highest when plants are dormant and soils are
moist.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Heavy grazing will eliminate Typha species, as well
as other native species, from riparian corridors.
However, cattails are fairly resistant to moderate
grazing, providing wet soils are not compacted.
Because cattails have relatively little value for ducks,
they are often regarded as undesirable weeds in
places intended primarily for ducks. It has been
found that mowing cattails after the heads are well–
formed, but not mature, then following up with
another mowing about a month later (when new
growth is two or three feet high) will kill at least 75%
of the plants. This will enable other emergent
vegetation with more palatable and nutritious seeds to
become established.
Environmental Concerns: Ecologically, cattails tend
to invade native plant communities when hydrology,
salinity, or fertility change. In this case, they out-
compete native species, often becoming monotypic
stands of dense cattails. Maintaining water flows into
the wetland, reducing nutrient input, and maintaining
salinity in tidal marshes will help maintain desirable
species composition. If cattails begin to invade,
physical removal may be necessary.
Over the past century, we have dramatically
increased the range of this species and have brought
T. angustifolia and T. latifolia together with the
production of the hybrid T. glauca. This taxon is
extremely aggressive and will out-compete either
parent. The methods of control include clipping and
floocing >.12 inches, herbicides, and hydrology
management (Melvin 2000). Please contact your
local agricultural extension specialist or county weed
specialist to learn what works best in your area and
how to use it safely. Always read label and safety
instructions for each control method. Trade names
and control measures appear in this document only to
provide specific information. USDA, NRCS does not
guarantee or warranty the products and control
methods named, and other products may be equally
effective.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Please check the Vendor Database, expected to be
on-line through the PLANTS Web site in 2001 by
clicking on Plant Materials. This species is readily
available for native plant nurseries specializing in
wetland plants.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='CalPhotos 2000. Typha angustifolia.
<.http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?seq_num
=11010&.one=T>.. Version: 000321. CalFlora, Inc.,
Berkeley, California.
Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Grace, J.B. 1985. Juvenile vs. adult competitive
abilities in plants: size-dependence in cattails
(Typha). Ecology 66(5):1630-1638.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1982. Variations in
growth and reproduction within populations of two
rhizomatous plant species: Typha latifolia and Typha
angustifolia. Oecologia 53:258-263.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1981. Phenotypic and
genotypic components of growth and reproduction in
Typha latifolia: Experimental studies in marshes of
differing successional maturity. Ecology 62(3):699-
801.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Hoag, J. C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual. Higher
plants of California. University of California Press.
1399 pp.
Hotchkiss, N. &. H.L. Dozier. Taxonomy and
distribution of North American cat-tails. Am. Midl.
Nat. 41:237-253.
Keator, G., L. Yamane, &. A. Lewis 1995. In full
view. Three ways of seeing California plants.
Heyday Books, Berkeley, California.
Melvin, N. 2000. Personal communication. USDA,
NRCS, National Wetland Science Institute, Laurel,
Maryland.
Page 4
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A guide
to wild edible plants of the San Francisco bay area.
Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Shay, J.M. &. C.T. Shay 19??. Prairie marshes in
western Canada, with specific reference to the
ecology of five emergent macrophytes. Can. J. Bot.
64:443-454.
USDA, NRCS 2000. The PLANTS database.
Version: 000321. <.http://plants.usda.gov>.. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho
' WHERE symbol='tyan';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Department of Plant Sciences, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised 04dec00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 25may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
The young flower stalks can be taken out of their
sheaths and can be boiled or steamed just like corn.
Cattail pollen is a fine substitute for flours. it is a
bright yellow or green color, and turns pancakes,
cookies or biscuits a pretty yellow color (which
children love). The rhizomes (underground stems)
and lower stems have a sweet flavor and can be eaten
raw, baked, roasted, or broiled. Cattail rhizomes are
fairly high in starch content. this is usually listed at
about 30% to 46%. The core can be ground into
flour. One acre of cattails would yield about 6,475
pounds of flour (Harrington 1972). This flour would
probably contain about 80 % carbohydrates and
around 6% to 8% protein. Since cattail occurs
around the world, it is a potential source of food for
the worlds population.
The Cahuilla Indians used the stalks for matting,
bedding material, and ceremonial bundles (Barrows
1967). Some tribes used the leaves and sheath bases
as caulking materials. Apaches used the pollen in
female puberty ceremonies. After dipping the spike
in coal oil, the stalk makes a fine torch. The fluff can
also be used as tinder, insulation, or for lining baby
cradle boards. The down is used for baby beds
(Murphy 1959).
Lengths of cattail were plied into rope or other size
cordage, and cattail rope was used in some areas to
bind bundles of tule into tule boats. Air pockets or
aerenchyma in the stems provide the buoyancy that
makes tule good boat-building material.
Other Uses: Wildlife, wetland restoration, wastewater
tertiary treatment, edible (young shoots, base of stem,
flower stalks, pollen, rhizomes), baskets, matting,
bedding material, ceremonial bundles, caulking
material, and cordage. The multitudes of tiny, wind-
carried seeds are too small and too hairy to be
attractive to birds (Hotchkiss and Dozier 1949). In a
few exceptions, the seeds are eaten by several duck
species. Cattail rootstocks are much more valuable
as food for wildlife than are the seeds. Geese and
muskrats prefer the stems and roots. Shelter and
nesting cover are provided for long-billed marsh
wrens, redwing blackbirds, and yellow-headed
blackbirds.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
SOUTHERN CATTAIL
Typha domingensis Pers.
Plant Symbol = TYDO
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Idaho Plant Materials Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s
College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Flags, rushes, bulrushes, cat o’nine tails, Cossack
asparagus, reed mace, baco (cattail)
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: All parts of the cattail are edible when
gathered at the appropriate stage of growth. The
young shoots are cut from the rhizomes (underground
stems) in the spring when they are about 4 to 16
inches long. The base of the stem where it attaches
to the rhizome can be boiled or roasted like potatoes.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cattail Family (Typhaceae). Cattails are
herbaceous, rhizomatous perennial plants with long,
slender green stalks topped with brown, fluffy,
sausage-shaped flowering heads. Southern cattail
plants are 15-40 dm tall. The spike-like, terminal,
cylindric inflorescence has staminate flowers above
and pistillate flowers below. The naked axis between
the staminate and pistillate flowers is approximately
1-8 cm wide. The spike is bright yellow-to-orange-
brown. The basal leaves are 6-18 mm wide when
fresh, 5-15 mm wide when dry, and are gland-dotted
on the inside of the leaf near the base. These plants
are rhizomatous and colonial. This species is
distributed across the southern half of the U.S.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Southern cattails are common in the warm
temperate and tropical regions of the world (Hickman
1993). These cattails occur in coastal and valley
marshes at elevations <.1500 m.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Cattails are always found in or near
water, in marshes, ponds, lakes and depressions.
They are obligate wetland indicator plant species.
Cattails tolerate perennial flooding, reduced soil
conditions and moderate salinity. With influxes of
nutrient or freshwater, cattails are aggressive invaders
in both brackish salt marshes and freshwater
wetlands.
Typha species may be planted from bare rootstock or
seedlings from container stalk or directly seeded into
the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are preferred
revegetation methods where there is moving water.
Typha seeds germinate readily and are a cost-
effective means to propagate cattail on moist soils.
Seed Collections: Select seed collection sites where
continuous stands with few intermixed species can
easily be found. At each collection location, please
obtain permission for seed collection.
• Seed is harvested by either taking hand clippers
or cutting the stem off below the seed heads or
stripping the seed heads off the stalk.
• Collect and store seeds in brown paper bags or
burlap bags. Seeds are then dried in these bags.
• Plant cleaned seed in fall.
• Plant in clean, weed - free, moist seed bed.
Flooded or ponded soils will significantly
increase seedling mortality.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
from the soil surface.
• Some seed may be lost due to scour or flooding.
• Recommended seed density is unknown at this
time.
• Seeds can be harvested when they are slightly
immature. It is important to harvest the
staminate stalks before they dry and blow away.
• Seeds and seed heads need to be cleaned in a
seed cleaner.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Seed germination in greenhouse: Clean seed - blow
out light seed.
• To grow seeds, plant in greenhouse in 1". x 1". x
2". pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep soil
surface moist. Greenhouse temperature should
be 100 degrees F (plus or minus 5 degrees).
Seeds begin to germinate after a couple weeks in
warm temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
Live Plant Collections: No more than ¼ of the plants
in an area should be collected. If no more than 0.09
m2 (1 ft2) are removed from a 0.4 m2 (4 ft2) area, the
plants will grow back in one good growing season. A
depth of 15 cm (6 in) is sufficiently deep for digging
plugs. This will leave enough plants and rhizomes to
replenish the stock annually. Donor plants that are
drought-stressed tend to have higher revegetation
success.
Live transplants should be planted in moist (not
flooded or anoxic) soils as soon as possible. Plants
should be transported and stored in a cool location
prior to planting. Plugs may be split into smaller
units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm (2.4 x 2.4
in), with healthy rhizomes and tops. The important
factor in live plant collections is to be sure to include
a growing bud in either plugs or rhizomes. Weeds in
the plugs should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots. The
roots should always remain moist or in water until
planted.
Clip leaves and stems from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches). this allows the plant to allocate more energy
into root production. Plant approximately 1 meter
Page 3
apart. Plants should be planted closer together if the
site has fine soils such as clay or silt, steep slopes, or
prolonged inundation.
Ideally, plants should be planted in moist soils in late
fall just after the first rains (usually late October to
November). This enables plant root systems to
become established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist. Fertilization is very
helpful for plant growth and reproduction. Many
more seeds are produced with moderate fertilization.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Heavy grazing will eliminate Typha species as well
as other native species from riparian corridors.
However, cattails are fairly resistant to moderate
grazing, providing wet soils are not compacted.
Because cattails have relatively little value for ducks,
they are often regarded as undesirable weeds in
places intended primarily for ducks. It has been
found that mowing cattails after the heads are well
formed but not mature and then following up with
another mowing about a month later, when new
growth is two or three feet high, will kill at least 75%
of the plants. This will enable other emergent
vegetation with more palatable and nutritious seeds to
become established.
Ecologically, cattails tend to invade native plant
communities when hydrology, salinity, or fertility
change. In this case they out compete native species,
often becoming monotypic stands of dense cattails.
Maintaining water flows into the wetland, reducing
nutrient input and maintaining salinity in tidal
marshes will help maintain desirable species
composition. If cattails begin to invade, physical
removal may be necessary.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_areaoforigin_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_areaoforigin_='Material from local sources is recommended, though
it is available from most nurseries specializing in
aquatic plants.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Grace, J.B. 1985. Juvenile vs. adult competitive
abilities in plants: size-dependence in cattails
(Typha). Ecology 66(5). 1630-1638.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1982. Variations in
growth and reproduction within populations of two
rhizomatous plant species: Typha latifolia and Typha
angustifolia. Oecologia 53:258-263.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1981. Phenotypic and
genotypic components of growth and reproduction in
Typha latifolia: Experimental studies in marshes of
differing successional maturity. Ecology 62 (3): 699-
801.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Hoag, J.C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho. 6 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993 . The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hotchkiss, N. &. H.L. Dozier 19??. Taxonomy and
distribution of North American cat-tails. Am. Midl.
Nat. 41: 237-253.
Keator, G., L. Yamane &. A. Lewis 1995. In full
view: Three ways of seeing California plants. Heyday
Books, Berkeley, California.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A
guide to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay
area. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Shay, J.M. &. C.T. Shay 1986. Prairie marshes in
western Canada, with specific reference to the
ecology of five emergent macrophytes. Can. J. Bot.
64: 443-454.
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
Interagency Riparian/Wetland Project
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho
' WHERE symbol='tydo';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 05dec00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
Page 4
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
inches long. The raw young shoots taste like
cucumber and can also be made into pickles. When
the young shoots are steamed they taste like cabbage.
The base of the stem where it attaches to the rhizome
can be boiled or roasted like potatoes. The young
flower stalks can be taken out of their sheaths and
can be boiled or steamed just like corn (Roos-Collins
1990. Clarke 1977).
Cattail pollen is a fine substitute for flours. It is a
bright yellow or green color, and turns pancakes,
cookies or biscuits a pretty yellow color (which
children love). The rhizomes (underground stems)
and lower stems have a sweet flavor and can be eaten
raw, baked, roasted, or broiled. Cattail rhizomes are
fairly high in starch content. this is usually listed at
about 30% to 46%. The core can be ground into
flour. One acre of cattails would yield about 6,475
pounds of flour (Harrington 1972). This flour would
probably contain about 80 % carbohydrates and
around 6% to 8% protein. Since cattail occurs
around the world, it is a potential source of food for
the worlds population.
Newly emerging shoots of cattails are edible, with
delicate flavor and crispy asparagus like texture
(Glenn Keator, Linda Yamane, Ann Lewis 1995).
The end of a new stem of cattail is popular for eating
with Washoes (Murphy 1959). When mixed with
tallow, the brown fuzz can be chewed like gum.
The Klamath and Modocs of northern California and
southern Oregon make flexible baskets of twined tule
or cattail. Cattails or tules were also twined to form
mats of varying sizes for sleeping, sitting, working,
entertaining, covering doorways, for shade, and a
myriad of other uses.
The Cahuilla Indians used the stalks for matting,
bedding material, and ceremonial bundles (Barrows
1967). Some tribes used the leaves and sheath bases
as caulking materials. Apaches used the pollen in
female puberty ceremonies. After dipping the spike
in coal oil, the stalk makes a fine torch. The fluff can
also be used as tinder, insulation, or for lining baby
cradleboards. The down is used for baby beds
(Murphey 1959).
Lengths of cattail were plied into rope or other size
cordage, and cattail rope was used in some areas to
bind bundles of tule into tule boats. Air pockets or
BROAD-LEAVED
CATTAIL
Typha latifolia L.
Plant Symbol = TYLA
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Idaho Plant Materials Center
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s
College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Flags, rushes, bulrushes, cat o’nine tails, Cossack
asparagus, reed mace, baco (cattail)
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: All parts of the cattail are edible when
gathered at the appropriate stage of growth. The
young shoots are cut from the rhizomes (underground
stems) in the spring when they are about 4 to 16
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
aerenchyma in the stems provide the buoyancy that
makes tule good boat-building material.
Other Uses: Wildlife, wetland restoration, wastewater
tertiary treatment, edible (young shoots, base of stem,
flower stalks, pollen, rhizomes), and aesthetics. The
multitudes of tiny, wind-carried seeds are too small
and too hairy to be attractive to birds (Hotchkiss and
Dozier 1949). In a few exceptions, the seeds are
eaten by several duck species. Cattail rootstocks are
much more valuable as food for wildlife than are the
seeds. Geese and muskrats prefer the stems and
roots. Moose and elk eat fresh spring shoots. Shelter
and nesting cover are provided for long-billed marsh
wrens, red-wing blackbirds, and yellow-headed
blackbirds.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Cattail Family (Typhaceae). Cattails are
herbaceous, rhizomatous perennial plants with long,
slender green stalks topped with brown, fluffy,
sausage-shaped flowering heads. Typha latifolia
plants are 15-30 dm tall. The spike-like, terminal,
cylindric inflorescence has staminate flowers above
and pistillate flowers below with a naked axis
between the staminate and pistillate flowers. The
spike is green when fresh, becoming brown as it
matures. The basal leaves are thin with parallel veins
running the long, narrow length of the leaf. These
plants are rhizomatous and colonial.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Broad-leaved cattails are common throughout
the United States and temperate and tropical places
worldwide (Hickman 1993). Typha latifolia occurs
in coastal and valley marshes at elevations lower than
2,000 m.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation: Typha latifolia generally occurs in
shallower water than Typha angustifolia. Compared
to T. angustifolia, T. latifolia is exploitative in its
ability to clone rapidly and produce a large leaf
surface area, which may contribute to its superior
competitive ability (Grace and Wetzel 1982). Typha
latifolia has been found to be tolerant of water level
fluctuations and moderate soil salinity. Cattail
spreads both vegetatively and by seed, particularly
under drawdown (Shay et al. 1986).
Cattails are always found in or near water, in
marshes, ponds, lakes and depressions. They are
obligate wetland indicator plant species. Cattails
tolerate perennial flooding, reduced soil conditions
and moderate salinity. With influxes of nutrient or
freshwater, cattails are aggressive invaders in both
brackish salt marshes and freshwater wetlands.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cattails, like many emergent wetland species, tolerate
flood drawdown cycles that occur to varying degrees
in different wetland and riparian systems. Flood and
drought are disturbance factors that vary in
frequency, magnitude, and predictability. Frequency
relates to the number of episodes per unit time while
magnitude of flooding can be expressed in terms of
water volume, velocity, gradient, depth, duration, and
season of inundation. When planting cattails, the
flood-draw-down cycles must be taken into
consideration for successful revegetation.
Planting: Typha species may be planted from bare
rootstock or seedlings from container stalk or directly
seeded into the soil. Bare rootstock or seedlings are
preferred revegetation methods where there is
moving water. Typha seeds germinate readily and
are a cost-effective means to propagate cattail on
moist soils. To ensure a long-term stable ecosystem,
it is recommended that Typha be just one of the
species in the mix for wetland restoration.
Seed Collections: Select seed collection sites where
continuous stands with few intermixed species can
easily be found. At each collection location, obtain
permission for seed collection.
• Seed is harvested by either taking hand clippers
and cutting the stem off below the seed heads or
stripping the seed heads off the stalk.
• Collect and store seeds in brown paper bags or
burlap bags. Seeds are then dried in these bags.
• Seeds can be harvested when they are slightly
immature. It is important to harvest the
staminate stalks before they dry and blow away.
• Seeds and seed heads need to be cleaned in a
seed cleaner. Plant cleaned seed in fall.
• Plant in clean, weed - free, moist seed bed.
Flooded or ponded soils will significantly
increase seedling mortality.
• Broadcast seed and roll in or rake 1/4". to 1/2".
from the soil surface.
• Some seed may be lost due to scour or flooding.
Recommended seed density is unknown at this
time.
Page 3
Seed germination in greenhouse: Clean seed - blow
out light seed.
• To grow seeds, plant in greenhouse in 1". x 1". x
2". pots, 1/4". under the soil surface. Keep soil
surface moist. Greenhouse temperature should
be 100 degrees F (plus or minus 5 degrees).
Seeds begin to germinate after a couple weeks in
warm temperatures.
• Plants are ready in 100 - 120 days to come out as
plugs. By planting seeds in August, plugs are
ready to plant in soil by November. These plants
are very small. growing plants to a larger size
will result in increased revegetation success.
Live Plant Collections: No more than 1/4 of the
plants in an area should be collected. If no more than
0.09 m2 (1 ft2) should be removed from a 0.4 m2 (4
ft2) area, the plants will grow back in the hole in one
good growing season. A depth of 15 cm (6 in) is
sufficiently deep for digging plugs. This will leave
enough plants and rhizomes to grow back during the
growing season. Donor plants, which are drought-
stressed, tend to have higher revegetation success.
Live transplants should be planted in moist (not
flooded or anoxic) soils as soon as possible. Plants
should be transported and stored in a cool location
prior to planting. Plugs may be split into smaller
units, generally no smaller than 6 x 6 cm (2.4 x 2.4
in), with healthy rhizomes and tops. The important
factor in live plant collections is to be sure to include
a growing bud in either plugs or rhizomes. Weeds in
the plugs should be removed by hand. For ease in
transport, soil may be washed gently from roots. The
roots should always remain moist or in water until
planted.
Clip leaves and stems from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in).
this allows the plant to allocate more energy into root
production. Plant approximately 1 meter apart.
Plants should be planted closer together if the site has
fine soils such as clay or silt, steep slopes, or
prolonged inundation.
Ideally, plants should be planted in moist soils in late
fall just after the first rains (usually late October to
November). This enables plant root systems to
become established before heavy flooding and winter
dormancy occurs. Survival is highest when plants are
dormant and soils are moist. Fertilization is very
helpful for plant growth and reproduction. Many
more seeds are produced with moderate fertilization.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Heavy grazing will eliminate Typha species as well
as other native species from riparian corridors.
However, cattails are fairly resistant to moderate
grazing, providing wet soils are not compacted.
Because cattails have relatively little value for ducks,
they are often regarded as undesirable weeds in
places intended primarily for ducks. It has been
found that mowing cattails after the heads are well
formed but not mature and then following up with
another mowing about a month later, when new
growth is two or three feet high, will kill at least 75%
of the plants. This will enable other emergent
vegetation with more palatable and nutritious seeds to
become established.
Ecologically, cattails tend to invade native plant
communities when hydrology, salinity, or fertility
changes. In this case they out compete native
species, often becoming monotypic stands of dense
cattails. Maintaining water flows into the wetland,
reducing nutrient input and maintaining salinity in
tidal marshes will help maintain desirable species
composition. If cattails begin to invade, physical
removal may be necessary.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Local sources are recommended. This species should
be available from any local nursery specializing in
aquatic plants.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Clarke, C.B. 1977. Edible and useful plants of
California. University of California Press. 280 pp.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Grace, J.B. 1985. Juvenile vs. adult competitive
abilities in plants: size-dependence in cattails
(Typha). Ecology 66(5). 1630-1638.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1981. Phenotypic and
genotypic components of growth and reproduction in
Typha latifolia: Experimental studies in marshes of
differing successional maturity. Ecology 62 (3): 699-
801.
Grace, J.B. &. R.G. Wetzel 1982. Variations in
growth and reproduction within populations of two
rhizomatous plant species: Typha latifolia and Typha
angustifolia. Oecologia 53:258-263.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Page 4
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Hoag, J. C. &. M.E. Sellers (April) 1995. Use of
greenhouse propagated wetland plants versus live
transplants to vegetate constructed or created
wetlands. Riparian/Wetland Project Information
Series No. 7. USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center,
Aberdeen, Idaho, 6 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hotchkiss, N. &. H.L. Dozier 19??. Taxonomy and
distribution of North American cattails. Am. Midl.
Nat. 41: 237-253.
Keator, G., L. Yamane, &. A. Lewis 1995. In full
view. Three ways of seeing California plants.
Heyday Books, Berkeley, California.
Murphy, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
University of California Press.
Roos-Collins, M. 1990. The flavors of home. A guide
to wild edible plants of the San Francisco Bay area.
Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. 224 pp.
Shay, J.M. &. C.T. Shay 1986. Prairie marshes in
western Canada, with specific reference to the
ecology of five emergent macrophytes. Can. J. Bot.
64: 443-454.
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
Chris Hoag
Interagency Riparian/Wetlands Project
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Aberdeen,
Idaho
Email: choag@id.nrcs.usda.gov
' WHERE symbol='tyla';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Science Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 04dec00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Contributed By: USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data
Center
SIBERIAN ELM
Ulmus pumila L.
Plant symbol = ULPU
© Noble Foundation
Alternative Names
Chinese elm, dwarf elm, Asiatic elm
Uses
Ethnobotanic: The dried inner bark was grounded
into a powder and used as a thickener in soups or
added to cereal flours when making bread. The
immature fruit was used to produce a sauce and a
wine (Facciola 1990). The hardy, heavy tough wood
was used for agricultural implements and boat
making (Vines 1987).
Agroforestry: Ulmus pumila is used in tree strips for
windbreaks. They are planted and managed to
protect livestock, enhance production, and control
soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with
harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of
winter storms and reduce home heating and cooling
costs.
Status
Considered a noxious weed in New Mexico. Please
consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
Description
General: Elm Family (Ulmaceae). Siberian elm
(Ulmus pumila) is an introduced, fast-growing, small
tree, five to ten meters high. The leaves are alternate,
simple, elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, usually simple
serrate and 2.54 to 8 cm long. The flowers are
greenish, clustered, short pediceled and appear with
or before the leaves from March through April (Vines
1960). The bark is light grayish-brown, irregularly
furrowed, and often streaked with stains caused by
bacterial wetwood. The fruit is a long and broad
samara, appearing from March through April,
composed of a central, dry, compressed nutlet
surrounded by a thin wing. (Ibid.).
Distribution: Siberian elm is a fast-growing tree that
was introduced to the United States in the 1860 s.
Native to northern China, eastern Siberia, Manchuria,
and Korea. It is the hardest of all elms and does well
even in areas with cold winters and long periods of
summer droughts. Because this, elm tolerates a
variety of conditions such as poor soils and low
moisture, it is found in dry regions, along roadsides,
in pastures and grasslands. For current distribution,
please consult the Plant profile page for this species
on the PLANTS Web site.
Adaptation
Ulmus pumila is easily grown in any well-drained
soil type but prefers well-drained fertile soil. This
species prefers full sun and succeeds well in arid
regions. The tree also grows in moist soils along
streams. It invades dry and mesic prairies, including
sand prairies, drought resistant and fairly wind
tolerant.
Establishment
Propagation by Seed: Siberian elm seeds should be
sown as soon as ripe in a cold frame. Excessive
drying and dewinging should be avoided as they
reduce viability (Dirr &. Heuser 1987). Twelve to
twenty seeds are sown per linear feet in drills ten
inches apart and covered ¼ inch with firmed soil.
The seedbeds should be kept moist, but not
particularly shaded. When the seedlings are large
enough to handle, place them into individual pots and
Page 2
Preston, R.J., Jr., 1989. North American trees. 4th
ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Rosendahl, C.O. 1955. Trees &. shrubs of the upper
Midwest. University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis.
Steyermark, J.A. 1963. Flora of Missouri. The Iowa
State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
Vines, R.A. 1960. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines of
the southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
Vines, R.A. 1987. Trees of central Texas.
University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas.
Prepared By
Lincoln M. Moore
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Species Coordinator
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o
Environmental Horticulture Dept., Davis, California
Edited: 19jun02 jsp. 04jun03 ahv
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site <.http://plants.usda.gov>..
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all
its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin,
gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and
marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.)
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication
of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil
Rights, Room 326W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue, SW,
Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA
is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
grow them in the greenhouse for the first winter.
Plant them into their permanent positions in late
spring or early summer of the following year.
Management
Siberian elm has been planted in the Upper Midwest
in shelterbelts and as a shade trees along boulevards
and in parks (Rosendahl 1955). Some of the
plantings have proved successful while others have
not, because the seeds were derived from climatically
different areas of the species geographical range,
which varies in the level of winter hardiness (Ibid.).
Siberian elm seeds with three to eight percent
moisture can be stored at 36 to 40ºF in sealed
containers for eight years (Dirr &. Heuser 1987).
Seedlings should not be allowed to grow in a nursery
bed for more than two years because the plant will
develop a taproot that make lifting harder and
reduces outplanting survival rates.
Weediness
Considered invasive by several sources. Consult the
sources cited on the Invasive portion of the PLANTS
Web site.
Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
Readily available through commercial nurseries.
References
Benson, L. &. R.A. Darrow 1954. The trees and
shrubs of the southwestern desert. The University of
New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Bruggen, T.V. 1976. The vascular plants of South
Dakota. The Iowa State University Press, Ames,
Iowa.
Brown, C.A. 1965. Louisiana trees and shrubs.
Claitor’s Book Store, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Carter, J.L. 1997. Trees and shrubs of New Mexico.
Mimbres Publishing.
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: from seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia.
Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia-a source book of
edible plants. Kampong Publications.
Noble Foundation 1999. Siberian elm. Accessed:
10jan02.
<.http://www.noble.org/imagegallery/woodhtml/Siber
ianElm.html>.
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
SLIPPERY ELM
Ulmus rubra Muhl.
Plant Symbol = ULRU
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Robert Mohlenbrock
USDA, NRCS, Wetland Science Institute
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Red elm
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: This tree was valued for its bark,
which supplied material for the sides of winter
houses and roofs of the Meskwaki. The inner bark
was used for cordage by many tribes. The Menomini
gathered the bark, boiled it, and used it for making
fiber bags and large storage baskets. The Dakota,
Omaha-Ponca, Winnebago, and Pawnee used the
inner bark fiber for making ropes and cords. Slippery
elm was also used extensively as a medicine. The
Iroquois scraped the bark of the tree and used it in
combination with other plants to treat infected and
swollen glands. The inner bark was made into an eye
wash for sore eyes. The Menomini used the inner
bark in a tea and it was taken as a physic. The inner
bark was used by the Menomini and the Meskwaki in
a poultice to heal sores on the body. Meskwaki
women drank a tea of the bark to make childbirth
easier. The tree also was used by the Ojibwe to treat
sore throats. The fresh inner bark was boiled and the
Dakota, Omaha-Ponca, and other tribes drank the
resulting decoction as a laxative. The indigenous
people generously taught some of these uses to early
non-Indian settlers. Today slippery elm is found in
health food stores and is used to relieve sore throats,
Plant Guide
coughs and other bronchial ailments, and used as a
laxative. The wood is used commercially for making
furniture, paneling, and containers.
Wildlife: Birds often nest in the thick elm foliage, and
the seeds and buds are food to songbirds, game birds,
and squirrels. Deer and rabbits browse on the twigs.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Elm Family (Ulmaceae). This graceful,
arching tree reaches 20 m, with twigs that are
scabrous-pubescent. It can live to be 200 years old
and is identified by its ".slippery". inner bark. The
winter-buds are densely covered with red-brown
hairs. The leaves are oblong to obovate, thick and
stiff and 10-20 cm. They are pinnately veined and
not equilateral. The flowers are subsessile in dense
fascicles with 5-9 stamens. They appear before the
leaves in the spring. The fruit is a flat, 1-seeded
samara. It is suborbicular, 1.5-2 cm and pubescent
over the seed.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS web
site. This plant is found in moist woods, in southern
Maine and southern Quebec to eastern North Dakota,
and south to Florida and Texas.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Propagation by seeds: Slippery elm samaras can be
gathered when green and ripe from April to June, by
sweeping them up from the ground soon after they
fall or by knocking the branches with poles and
collecting seeds that fall onto tarps. The seeds should
then be air-dried for several days, but too much
drying can reduce germination. Sow the seeds in
flats as soon as they are mature. Sow them with their
wings, as de-winging them damages them. There are
approximately 90 seeds per gram. Seeds sometimes
show dormancy and if so, need stratification. They
should be stratified at 41° F for 60-90 days in a moist
medium. If storing the seeds before planting, for best
results, store them at low moisture content in sealed
containers at cool temperatures. Seedlings are
susceptible to damping off. In the seedling stage,
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Smith, H.H. 1928. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:2(175-326).
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Discorides Press. Portland,
Oregon.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Horticulture, University of California, Davis,
California
Edited 30nov00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 30may06jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
transplant them into larger containers. The seeds can
also be directly planted in the garden and the tree
grows in a range of soil types, but prefers moist, rich,
bottomland soils. This species can become a weed as
it tends to inhabit unkempt shrub borders, hedges,
fence-rows, and other open ground. It is susceptible
to Dutch elm disease, but not to the degree of
American elm.
Propagation by cuttings: take cuttings in early
summer and root with IBA treatment.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is somewhat available through native
plant nurseries within its range.
' WHERE symbol='ulru';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cooley, J.H., &. J.W. Van Sambeek 1990. Ulmus
rubra Muhl. Slippery elm. pp. 812-816 IN: Silvics of
North America volume 2. hardwoods. USDA, Forest
Service, Agriculture Handbook 654. Washington,
D.C.
Densmore, F. 1974. How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine and crafts. Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, New York.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon.
Dirr, M.A. 1975. Manual of woody landscape
plants: their identification, ornamental
characteristics, culture, propagation and uses. Fifth
Edition. Stipes Publishing L.L.C. Champaign,
Illinois.
Gilmore, M.R. 1977. Uses of plants by the Indians of
the Missouri River region. University of Nebraska
Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Gleason, H.A. &. A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of
vascular plants of Northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Second Edition. The New York
Botanical Garden. Bronx, New York.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press. Syracuse, New York.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press. Portland, Oregon.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini.
Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee 4:1(8-175).
Page: 1, 2
Page 1
CALIFORNIA
LAUREL
Umbellularia californica
(Hook. &. Arn.) Nutt.
Plant Symbol = UMCA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
© R.A. Seelig
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Warning: ' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_TheoilsinCalifornialaurelleavesmay TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_TheoilsinCalifornialaurelleavesmay='produce toxic effects in some people (Stone 1993).
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Balm of heaven, bay, bay laurel, cajeput, California
bay, California olive, cinnamon bush, laurel,
mountain laurel, myrtle, Oregon myrtle, peppernut
tree, pepperwood, sassafras laurel, spicebush, spice-
tree. two varieties are recognized, A. c. var.
californica and A. c. var. fresnensis.
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Cahuilla, Chumash, Pomo,
Miwok, Yuki, and Salinan are among the California
tribes that value California laurel trees for its many
uses.
All parts of the plant, but especially the leaves,
contain an aromatic camphor-like volatile oil that has
cooling, irritant, insecticidal and germicidal qualities
(Chestnut 1902). Laurel leaves were tucked into and
under hats or into headbands made of laurel twigs to
relieve headaches (Barrett &. Gifford 1933). The
Plant Guide
Salinan tribe treated sudden fits and probably
headaches by making a headband of the aromatic
laurel leaves (Heinsen 1972). The Catholic Fathers at
Mission San Antonio de Padua, borrowing from
Salinan medicinal practices, made a hot poultice of
laurel leaves mixed with nutmeg, cinnamon, and
olive oil, which was repeatedly applied to the head of
persons suffering fits until they regained
consciousness. The Kashaya Pomo made a poultice
of laurel leaves that was used to treat rheumatism and
neuralgia (Goodrich et al. 1980). The Pomo and
Yuki tribes of Mendocino County treated headaches
by placing a single leaf in the nostril or bathing the
head with a laurel leaf infusion (Chestnut 1902).
Laurel leaf tea was drunk to treat stomachaches,
colds, sore throats, and to clear up mucus in the lungs
(Chestnut 1902, Goodrich et al. 1980, Timbrook
1990). The leaves were steeped in hot water to make
an infusion that was used to wash sores (Goodrich et
al. 1980). Laurel leaves were steeped in baths for
rheumatic patients. Infusions of the leaves were used
to rid the head of lice. Leaves and branches were
placed around the yard to discourage fleas.
Both the flesh and the inner kernel of the olive-like
fruit were used as food. The fruits were sun dried
until the fleshy outer part had split and loosened from
the pit (Goodrich et al. 1980). The dried flesh was
removed from the seeds ready to eat. Only the
bottom third of the outer dried fruit was eaten as the
upper, thinner part contains a higher concentration of
the acrid oil that is a component of all parts of the
tree (Chestnut 1902). The seeds were roasted until
they were crisp and brown (Goodrich et al. 1980).
The roasting removes much of the pungency and
leaves just a hint of acridity and gives the roasted
nuts a spicy or coffee-like flavor. The parched nuts
are then shelled and either eaten whole or pounded
into a meal. The oily meal is easily pressed into
small cakes that are then sun-dried and stored for use
in the winter. Both the nuts and the cakes were
served with clover, seaweed, buckeye meal, or acorn
meal and mush. The roasted seeds were eaten as an
accompaniment with clover in order to prevent
bloating (Murphey 1959). The seed meal was also
made into a beverage that tasted “like chocolate”
(Kelly 1978).
California laurel was an important ceremonial plant
for the Kashaya Pomo (Goodrich et al. 1980).
Branches were placed around the house to protect
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
households against harm. Chumash hunters burned
laurel leaves to attract and stupefy deer (Timbrook
1990).
Wildlife: Black-tailed deer browse on the leaves and
twigs, which are high in protein (Howard 1992).
Birds, squirrels, and other small mammals eat the
seeds. Wild pigs eat the seeds and the roots. The
trees provide valuable cover for deer, black bear,
wild pigs, game birds, and songbirds.
Conservation: California laurel has been used to
restore wildlife habitat, riparian vegetation, and flood
controls (Howard 1992).
Wood products: California laurel is a high quality
wood that is used for cabinetry, furniture, paneling,
and interior trim.
Other: California laurel leaves are used as a more
robust seasoning substitute for sweet bay leaves
(Laurus nobilis) in cooking.
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values). ' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Description
General: Laurel family (Lauraceae). California
laurel is a perennial, evergreen tree or shrub that is
native to California and southern Oregon. The trees
have many slender erect branches and a dense crown
that can be rounded to pyramidal in shape. The
height is variable depending on conditions and the
plants can grow from 3 to 45 meters tall. The
smallest forms are found under dry conditions and
they reach their greatest size on deep alluvial soils
near rivers.
The greenish to reddish brown bark, which is thin
and smooth on young trees, begins to peel and shed
as the trees mature. The alternately arranged leaves
are oblong to lance-shaped (2.5 to 11 cm long and 1.5
to 3 cm wide). Leaves are glossy dark yellow-green,
thick, and leathery. When crushed, the leaves give
off a strong peppery menthol-like odor, which is the
reason the early European settlers gave the tree the
name pepperwood. The small yellow-green flowers
are borne in clusters of 6 to 10 flowers. The round
olive-like fruits (1 to 2.5cm in diameter) turn from
green to deep brown-purple. Inside the fruit is a
single large seed, which is a white kernel surrounded
by a light brown shell.
Distribution: California laurel is distributed from San
Diego County to Northwestern California and into
southwestern Oregon. In California, it occurs in both
the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: California laurel trees are abundant near
water sources in alluvial flood plains as well as shady
hillsides and canyons below 1600 meters. The trees
occur in oak woodlands, mixed evergreen forest,
redwood forest, and chaparral. In chaparral
communities they grow in canyons, valleys, and
sometimes in high rocky areas were they are able tap
into moisture.
1999 Beatrice F. Howitt
© California Academy of Sciences
@ Calflora
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='California bay can regenerate after fires of light to
moderate intensity (Howard 1992). The trees can
sprout from the root crown and seed germination may
increase following fires.
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='California laurel is a versatile, medium to fast
growing tree that can be used for specimen, hedge,
and container plantings. California laurel tolerates a
wide range of conditions and does well in full sun to
deep shade. The trees grow fastest and tallest in
deep, fertile soils that are well drained, with regular
water availability. California laurel trees can tolerate
dry conditions but are known to dieback during
droughts (Labadie 1978).
California laurel is propagated from fresh seeds.
Seeds can be collected from October to December
(Mirov &. Kraebel 1939). The seeds are mature when
they are dark brown and the fruits are dark purple
(Young 2001). Labadie (1978) suggests lightly
cracking the seeds before planting to increase
germination. Hildreth &. Johnson (1976) recommend
90-120 days of cold stratification for best
Page 3
germination. To do this, mix the seeds with 3 parts
of loose soil or a mixture of equal parts peat moss
and perlite. Lightly moisten the mixture and place it
into a plastic bag that can be tightly sealed. Place the
bag in a refrigerator kept at 30-42°F and examine
them periodically for signs of germination. The
seeds generally take around 93 days to germinate. If
any of the seeds begin to germinate, plant them
immediately keeping in mind that the primary root is
first to emerge from the seed. The seeds may be
planted directly into 4x4x14 inch containers filled
with a standard potting mix of peat moss, fir bark,
perlite and sand (Young 2001). Transplant container
grown seedlings when they are under 1 year old if
possible.
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Young trees can be trained to form a single trunk by
pruning the suckers as they appear (Labadie 1978).
Mature trees can be thinned to reduce the deep
shading that their dense canopies can produce.
Although evergreen, the trees drop an abundance of
leaves, especially in the autumn.
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='California laurel is relatively free of insect pests but
can be affected by aphids, greedy scale, ivy scale,
soft brown scale, thrups, white fly, laurel white fly,
leaf blotch miner, and inconspicuous white fly
(Labadie 1978). Heart rot, caused by the fungus
Ganoderma applanatum can be controlled by cutting
down infected trees to a height of 20cm and allowing
them to stump sprout (Howard 1992).
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
California laurel trees are readily available from
commercial nurseries. There is a variety, U.
californica var. fresnensis, which occurs in Fresno
County, California (Howard 1992). Contact your
local Natural Resources Conservation Service
(formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more
information. Look in the phone book under ”United
States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barrett, S.A. &. E.W. Gifford 1933. Miwok material
culture: Indian life of the Yosemite region. Bulletin
of Milwaukee Public Museum Vol. 2, No. 4.
Yosemite Association, Yosemite National Park,
California. 388 pp.
Brenzel, K.N., Editor 2001. Western garden book.
Sunset Publishing Corp., Menlo Park, California.
768 pp.
Chestnut, V.K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of
Mendocino County, California. Contributions from
the U.S. National Herbarium Vol. VII. Reprinted
1974 by Mendocino County Historical Society. 422
pp.
Emery, D.E. 1988. Seed propagation of native
California plants. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
Santa Barbara, California. 115 pp.
Goodrich, J., C. Lawson &. V.P. Lawson 1980.
Kashaya Pomo Plants. Heyday Books, Berkeley,
California. 171 pp.
Heinsen, V. 1972. Mission San Antonio de Padua
Herbs: Medicinal herbs of early days. Third edition.
Lockwood. California. 142 pp.
Hildreth, W.R. &. S. R. Johnson 1976. Seed
propagation at the Saratoga Horticultural
Foundation. Pacific Horticulture Vol. 37, No. 4. Pp.
49-57.
Howard, J.L. 1992. Umbellularia californica. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
(2002, February). Fire Effects Information System,
[Online]. Available:
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [22 February
2002].
Jepson, W. L. 1911. A flora of western middle
California. Second Edition. Cunningham, Curtiss &.
Welch, San Francisco, California. 515 pp.
Kelly, I. 1978. Coast Miwok in Handbook of North
American Indians, Vol. 8, California, R.F. Heizer,
Ed. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Pp
414-425.
Labadie, E.L. 1978. Native plants for use in the
California landscape. Sierra City Press, Sierra City,
California. 248 pp.
Mirov, N.T. &. C.J. Kraebel. 1939. Collecting and
handling seeds of wild plants. Civilian Conservation
Corps Forestry Publication No. 5. US. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 42 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998 Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Page 4
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(2002).
Murphey, E.V.A. 1959. Indian uses of native plants.
Mendocino County Historical Society, Fort Bragg,
California. 81 pp.
Parsons, M. E. 1966. The wild flowers of California.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York. 425
pp.
Stone, W. J. 1993. Lauraceae: Laurel Family In:
J.D. Hickman, Editor. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California. Pp. 734.
Timbrook, J. 1990 Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians,
California, based on collections by John P.
Harrington. Economic Botany Vol. 44, No. 2. Pp
235-253.
Young, B. 2001. Propagation protocol of container
Umbellularia californica (Hook &. Arn.) Nutt. plants
(Treeband 14). Golden Gate National Parks, San
Francisco, California. IN: Native Plant Network
[Online] Available:
http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org. Moscow (ID):
University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources,
Forest Research Nursery [2 February 2001].
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='umca';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
CASCADE BILBERRY
Vaccinium deliciosum Piper
Plant Symbol = VADE
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Oregon Plant Materials Center
baskets include ".Klikitat baskets". of cedar root
decorated with bear grass and bitter cherry bark.
Each family would harvest and store approximately
four or five pecks (ca. four to five gallons) of dried
berries for winter use (Perkins n.d. (1838-43), Book
1:10). Hunn (1990) estimates that there were 28-42
huckleberry harvest days in a year. This resulted in a
total annual harvest of 63.9-80.2 kg/woman/year
from the Tenino-Wishram area, and 90
kg/woman/year from the Umatilla area. The net
result was a huckleberry harvest yield of 31
kcal/person/day in the Tenino-Wishram area and 42
kcal/person/day for the Umatilla area (Hunn 1981:
130-131). Vaccinium species contain 622 Kcal per
100 gm huckleberries, with 15.3 gm carbohydrate,
0.5 gm fat, 0.7 gm protein and 83.2 gm water (Hunn
1981:130-131).
In the fall, after the harvest, it was common for the
Sahaptin to burn these areas to create favorable
habitat (Henry Lewis 1973, 1977). Fire creates
sunny openings in the forest and edges that foster the
rapid spread of nutritious herbs and shrubs that favors
the huckleberries (Minore 1972:68).
The leaves and berries are high in vitamin C. The
leaves and finely chopped stems contain quinic acid,
a former therapeutic for gout said to inhibit uric acid
formation but never widely used because of mixed
clinical results. The leaves have been widely used to
lower or modify blood sugar levels. Many herbalists
maintain that bilberry-leaf tea may be useful in
stabilizing blood sugar levels in cases of diabetes,
and medical research has shown that consumption of
the leaf extract decreases blood sugar levels shortly
after administration. Taken on regular basis, bilberry
tea will gradually help alleviate both glycosuria and
hyperglycemia and has a benign but useful effect as
an adjunct treatment to diabetes mellitus. The leaves
are believed also to stimulate appetite, and have
astringent and antiseptic qualities that are useful in
urinary disorders.
Other Uses: Cascade bilberry has a particularly sweet
berry, and is prized for its flavor. The berries are
eaten fresh, baked in pancakes, pies, and muffins,
canned, frozen, or made into jams and jellies. Berries
are usually picked in late July or August. The leaves
can be used fresh or dried to make a tea.
Elk and deer browse the foliage of cascade bilberry.
Flowers attract butterflies and other insects. For
Jeanne Russell Janish
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Blue-leaf huckleberry, little huckleberry, Rainer
bilberry
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Traditionally, Cascade bilberry fruits
were eaten raw and fresh, or were cooked, mashed,
and dried in the sun in cakes. Columbia Plateau
Indians of Washington dried surplus berries slowly
over a fire kept smoldering in a rotten log (Filloon
1952). This method of drying the berries preserves
the bulk of the Vitamin C content in the fruits
(Norton et al. 1984:223). The dried berries are
sometimes mixed with pounded salmon and a good
portion of salmon oil, making a delicious dish.
After the huckleberry feast, the Sahaptin people of
the Columbia plateau traveled to the productive berry
fields higher in the mountains for a series of day,
overnight, or weekend trips. The knowledge of the
location of the berries is part of an Indian family s
inheritance (Hunn 1990). Special berry picking
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
several species of grouse, huckleberries and bilberries
are among the most important summer and early fall
foods. Chipmunks, black bear, mice, scarlet
tanagers, bluebirds, thrushes, and other songbirds eat
berries. Deer and rabbit browse freely on the plants.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Heath Family (Ericaceae). Cascade bilberry
is a low, bushy shrub less that 4-dm tall. The
branches are slightly angled. young branches are
grayish and minutely pubescent, turning purplish
with age. The leaves are obovate, 2-4 cm long, finely
dentate, very glaucous, and rounded at the apex. The
flowers are solitary, pinkish, urn-shaped blossoms in
the axils of the leaves. The dusky blue berries are >. 9
mm in diameter.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Cascade bilberry grows in alpine meadows,
subalpine coniferous woods, and near the coast at
elevations from 600-2000 m. The range of
Vaccinium deliciosum is from southern British
Columbia to northern California, in the Klamath
Range and the northern high Sierra Nevada
Mountains.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Live Plant Collections: Take cuttings from rhizomes
in early spring or late summer and autumn. Dig up
the rhizomes and cut them into lengths of 10 cm or
longer. Place the cuttings in vermiculite at 21° C.
Once the roots are established and meristematic
activity is initiated, the small cuttings may be moved
to individual pots with a peat sand soil mixture (1:1)
potting soil. The soil should be kept fairly moist.
When the plants are of a desired size, they can be
planted in areas with moist soils and partial shade.
Seed Collections: Collect the berries in late summer
or early fall. Clean the seeds by macerating in water,
floating off the pulp, then allow the seeds to dry.
Seeds require no stratification and can be sown on a
moist peat surface. Temperatures of 18° C (for 12
hours) during the day and 13° C (for 12 hours) are
ideal for germination. Seven weeks after
germination, change temperatures to 20° C (for 14
hours) and 14° C (for 10 hours). Fertilize seedlings
10 weeks after germination. After the seedlings are
12 weeks old, transplant to a peat sand (1:1) media in
individual pots (Minore and Smart 1978). The soil
should be kept fairly moist.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.
Traditional Resource Management: Management of
this plant includes the following: 1) occasional
burning to stimulate new growth. pruning the
branches after picking the berries to stimulate new
growth and fruit production the next growing season.
and 3) ownership of cascade bilberry shrubs provides
the basis for careful tending and sustainable yield of
valued resources.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This plant is available from some native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. Stanford Univ. Press, Palo Alto,
California.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Crossley, J.A. 1974. Vaccinium L. blueberry. pp.
840-843 IN: Shopmeyer, C.S. (tech. coord.) 1974.
Seeds of the Woody Plants in the United States.
USDA, Forest Service, Agric. Handbook 450,
Washington, D.C. 883 pp.
Crowley, D.J. 1933. Observations and experiments
with blueberries in western Washington. State
College of Washington. Agricultural Experiment
Station. Bull. 276. 20 pp.
Filloon, R.M. 1952. Huckleberry pilgrimage.
Pacific Discovery 5(3):4-13.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Page 3
Gilkey, H.M. &. L.J. Dennis 1980. Handbook of
northwestern plants. Oregon State University
Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon. 507 pp.
Hickman, J.C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press. 1399 pp.
Hunn, E.S. 1990. Nch i-Wana ".The Big River". Mid-
Columbia Indians and their land. University of
Washington Press, Seattle and London. 378 pp.
Hunn, E.S. 1981. On the relative contribution of men
and women to subsistence among hunter-gatherers of
the Columbia Plateau: A comparison with
ethnographic atlas Summaries. Journal of
Ethnobiology 1:124-34.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library, University of Minnesota
Libraries, and Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261
pp.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Leigh, M. (August) 1997. Grow your own native
landscape: A guide to identifying, propagating, and
landscaping with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Lewis, H. 1973. Patterns of Indian burning in
California: Ecology and ethnohistory.
Anthropological Papers No. 1. Ballena Press,
Ramona, California.
Lewis, H. 1977. Maskuta: The ecology of Indian
fires in northern Alberta. Western Canadian Journal
of Anthropology 7:15-52.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Minore, D. &. A.W. Smart 1978. Frost tolerance in
seedlings of Vaccinium membranaceum, Vaccinium
globulare, and Vaccinium deliciosum. Northwest
Science 52(3):179-185.
Minore, D. 1972. The wild huckleberries of Oregon
and Washington - A dwindling resource. USDA,
Forest Service Research Paper No. 143, Portland,
Oregon.
Moore, Michael. 1979. Medicinal plants of the
mountain west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200
pp.
Norton, H.H., E.S. Hunn, C.S. Martinsen, &. P.B.
Keely 1984. Vegetable food products of the foraging
economies of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology of
Food and Nutrition 14:219-228.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. Binfords &. Mort, Portland, Oregon. 936
pp.
Perkins, H.K.W. no date (1838-1843). ".Diary and
letters.". Edited by Robert T. Boyd. Manuscript,
Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, Washington.
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D. Haase 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
Schopmeyer, C.S. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the
United States. USDA, Forest Service, Agriculture
Handbook No. 450, Washington, D.C. Pages 840-
843.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson and
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, British Columbia.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. Bristish Columbia Provincial
Museum Occasional Paper No. 24, 165 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. British
Columbia Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery
Paper No. 2, 99 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria,
British Columbia.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria,
British Columbia.
Page 4
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan &. S.
Hashisaki 1994. A citizen s guide to wetland
restoration. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 10. 71 pp.' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1987. Collecting,
processing, and germinating seeds of wildland
plants. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Page 135.
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
USDA, NRCS, Oregon Plant Materials Center,
Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='vade';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited 04dec00 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
BLACK
Plant Guide
HUCKLEBERRY
Vaccinium membranaceum
Dougl. ex Torr.
Plant Symbol = VAME
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Oregon Plant Materials Center
in the mountains. They ate huckleberries fresh with
meat. partially dried
them, crushed them and formed them into cakes. or
fully dried them. In British Columbia, the
Kwakwaka wakw cooked them with salmon roe and
the Sechelt smoke-dried them, using black
huckleberry branches as part of the fuel.
A first fruits ceremony or feast is held by many
nations in the Pacific Northwest, including the
Columbia Plateau Indians, the Umatilla, the Yakima,
the Warm Springs, and the Colville Confederated
Tribes. Huckleberry feasts are held in July or
August, coinciding with the first berry harvest. A
thanksgiving ceremony is held at this time, with
gratitude expressed through prayer, dancing, and
celebration. Feasts used to also be given at a girl s
first berry picking or root gathering and at the first
procuring of game by a boy. These generally
occurred when the child was ten years old. At these
feasts, they served food procured by the child along
with other foods. The elders praised and blessed the
work of the child, giving the child the power to
become great and successful later in life.
After the huckleberry feast, the Sahaptin people of
the Columbia Plateau would leave for a seasonal
migration to the mountains to gather berries and to
escape the summer heat. Special baskets, called
".Klikitat baskets". of cedar root decorated with bear
grass and bitter cherry bark, were used for berry
picking. The surplus berries were dried slowly over a
fire that was kept smoldering in a rotten log (Filloon
1952). This method of drying the berries preserves
the bulk of the Vitamin C content in the fruits
(Norton et al. 1984:223).
Each family from the Columbia Plateau area would
gather four or five pecks (ca. four to five gallons) of
dried berries for winter use (Perkins n.d. (1838-43),
Book 1:10). Hunn (1990) estimates that there were
28-42 harvest days in a year. This resulted in a total
annual harvest of 63.9-80.2 kg/woman/year from the
Tenino-Wishram area, and 90 kg/woman/year from
the Umatilla area. The net result was a huckleberry
harvest yield of 31 kcal/person/day in the Tenino-
Wishram area and 42 kcal/person/day for the
Umatilla area (Hunn 1981: 130-131). Vaccinium
species contain 622 Kcal per 100 gm berries, with
15.3 gm carbohydrate, 0.5 gm fat, 0.7 gm protein and
83.2 gm water (Hunn 1981:130-131).
Used with permission of the publishers
© Stanford University
Abrams &. Ferris (1960)
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Thinleaf huckleberry
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The nlaka pamux of British Columbia,
the Okanagan-Colville and Nez Perce of eastern
Washington, the Plateau Indians of the Columbia
River Gorge, the Kootenay of southeastern British
Columbia, and the Flathead people of Montana
(among others) really savored the black huckleberries
(Turner et al. 1990. Hunn 1990. Hart 1976).
Traditionally, black huckleberry fruits were eaten raw
and fresh, or were cooked, mashed, and dried in the
sun as cakes. The Nez Perce boiled the dried berries
before they were eaten. The Stoney (Assiniboin)
sometimes mixed the berries in pemmican.
Okanagan-Colville people used the ripening of black
hawthorn fruits (Crataegus douglasii Lindl.) as an
indicator of when black huckleberries would be ripe
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Huckleberries are used for a lavender or purple
natural dye in the twined corn husk bags made by the
Nez Perce. the cornhusks are dyed with the juice of
the berries. The Nlaka pamux sometimes used the
leaves in smoking mixture (Turner 1990).
Other Uses: Vaccinium membranaceum is the most
highly regarded of the huckleberry species within its
range, especially in British Columbia and
neighboring areas (Turner 1975, 1978). People of all
cultures love these huckleberries. Today, the berries
are eaten fresh, baked in pancakes, pies, and muffins,
canned, frozen, or made into jams and jellies. Berries
are usually picked in late July or August. The leaves
can be used fresh or dried to make a tea.
Huckleberry leaves and finely chopped stems contain
quinic acid, a former therapeutic for gout said to
inhibit uric acid formation but never widely used
because of mixed clinical results (Moore 1979). The
leaves have been widely used to lower or modify
blood sugar levels, particularly in Europe. Taken on
regular basis, huckleberry tea will gradually help
alleviate both glycosuria and hyperglycemia and has
a benign but useful effect as an adjunct treatment to
diabetes mellitus.
Wildlife: Huckleberry fruits are an important food
source for songbirds, gulls, cranes, pigeons, turkeys,
and upland game birds. Many mammals, from black
bears to mice, feed on red huckleberries. Herbivores
graze on the entire plant. it appears to be a favorite
browse of deer. Huckleberries and blueberries form a
major part of the grizzly and black bear s diet in late
summer and fall. Grouse feast on the leaves and
blossoms. The fruits, twigs, and foliage are eaten by
foxes, opossums, raccoons, squirrels, deer, moose,
caribou, elk, pikas, cottontail rabbits, and skunks.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status, and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Huckleberry Family (Ericaceae). Black
huckleberry is an erect, deciduous shrub 0.1-2 m tall.
The leaves, up to 5 cm long, are elliptical with a long
pointed tip and a finely serrated margin. The bell-
shaped flowers are creamy-pink, and are found singly
on the underside of the twigs. The berries are large,
spherical, sweet, and dark purple or black. In some
forms the berries are covered with a waxy bloom.
others have shiny dark berries.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. Black huckleberry is found in
thickets and on Montana slopes in coniferous woods
at elevations from 1000-1800 m. It grows in sandy or
gravelly soils, ranging from moist to dry growing
conditions. Vaccinium membranaceum grows from
British Columbia to Alberta and Ontario, north to the
Mackenzie Delta area, south to California in the
Klamath Range and North Coast Range, and east to
Michigan.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Black huckleberry requires moist and acidic soils to
become established. Vaccinium membranaceum is
very difficult to establish.
Cuttings: Take cuttings from rhizomes in early spring
or late summer and autumn. Dig up the rhizomes and
cut them into lengths of 10 cm or longer. Place the
cuttings in vermiculite at 21 °C. Once the roots are
established and meristematic activity is initiated, the
small cuttings may be moved to individual pots with
a peat:sand soil mixture (1:1) potting soil. The soil
should be kept fairly moist. When plants are the size
desired, plant in soils that are fairly acidic, or add the
peat-sand mixture to the soil before planting. Plants
must be kept well watered to become established.
Plants establish well in partial shade.
Seeds: Collect the berries in the fall and clean by
running them through a blender with dull blades,
straining the pulp with a sieve, and spreading them to
dry on a paper towel. Most authors believe that the
seeds require no stratification or scarification
(Haeussler et al. 1990. Link 1993. Minore and Smart
1978). However, Albright (1996) found poor
germination without stratification and recommends
over-wintering of seeds in flats outside. Seeds
germinate within 16-21 days of sowing. Germination
percentages can be improved by sowing the seed on
moist peat in a growth chamber at 18° C (for 12 hours
a day) and 13° C (for 12 hours a day). Seven weeks
after germination warm the growth chamber to 20 ° C
(for 14 hours a day) and 14° C (for 10 hours a day).
Fertilize the seedlings after they are 10 weeks old and
transplant into a peat-sand soil mixture (1:1) in
individual pots after 12 weeks (Minore and Smart
1978). The soil should be kept fairly moist.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Huckleberry plants grow very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.
Page 3
Traditional Resource Management: Management of
this plant includes the following: 1) occasional
burning to stimulate new growth. 2) pruning the
branches after picking the berries to stimulate new
growth and fruit production the next growing season.
and 3) ownership of black huckleberry shrubs
provides the basis for careful tending and sustainable
yield of valued resources.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is available at some native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Abrams, L &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Albright, M. 1996. Greenhouse Manager. USDI,
National Park Service, Olympic National Park, Port
Angeles, Washington. Personal communication.
Cooke, S. S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Crossley, J.A. 1974. Vaccinium L. blueberry. Pages
840-843, IN: Shopmeyer, C.S. (tech. coord.) Seeds of
the woody plants in the United States. USDA, FS,
Agric. Handbook 450. Washington, D.C. 883 pp.
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference
manual of woody plant propagation: From seed to
tissue culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia. 329
pp.
Filloon, R. M. 1952. Huckleberry pilgrimage.
Pacific Discovery 5(3):4-13.
Gunther, E. 1945 rev. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Haeussler, S., D. Coates, &. J. Mather 1990.
Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A
literature review. British Columbia Ministry of
Forests. 272 pp.
Harbinger, L. J. 1964. The importance of food plants
in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural identity.
Master of Arts in Anthropology. Washington State
University, Pullman, Washington. 73 pp.
Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson manual.
Higher plants of California. University of California
Press, Berkeley, California. 1399 pp.
Hitchcock, C. L. &. A. Cronquist 1973 . Flora of the
Pacific Northwest. An illustrated manual. University
of Washington Press, Seattle and London. 730 pp.
Hunn, E. S. 1990. Nch i-Wana ".The Big River". Mid-
Columbia Indians and their land. University of
Washington Press, Seattle and London. 378 pp.
Hunn, E. S. 1981. On the relative contribution of
men and women to subsistence among hunter-
gatherers of the Columbia Plateau: A comparison
with ethnographic atlas summaries. J. of
Ethnobiology 1:124-34.
Isaacson, R. T. 1993. Anderson horticultural
library s source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kunlein, H.V. a&. N. J. Turner 1991. Traditional
plant foods of Canadian indigenous peoples.
Nutrition, botany, and use. Food and nutrition in
history and Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and
Breach Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Leigh, M.A. 1997. Grow your own native landscape:
A guide to identifying, propagating, and landscaping
with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Link, E. (ed.) 1993. Native plant propagation
techniques for national parks: Interim guide. USDA,
NRCS, Rose Lake Plant Material Center, East
Lansing, Michigan. 240 pp.
Minore, D. &. A.W. Smart 1978. Frost tolerance in
seedlings of Vaccinium membranaceum, Vaccinium
globulare, and Vaccinium deliciosum. Northwest
Science 52(3):179-185.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque,
New Mexico. 200 pp.
Page 4
USDA, NRCS, Oregon Plant Materials Center,
Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 19sep00 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Moser, C. L. 1993. Native American basketry of
Southern California. Riverside Museum Press,
Riverside, California. 155 pp.
Norton, H.H., E.S. Hunn, C.S. Martinsen, &. P.B.
Keely 1984. Vegetable food products of the foraging
economies of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology of
Food and Nutrition 14:219-228.
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D. Haase 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
Stevens, M.L. &. R. Vanbianchi 1993. Restoring
wetlands in Washington. A guidebook for wetland
restoration, planning and implementation.
Washington State Department of Ecology,
Publication #93-17, Olympia, Washington.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990 . Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983 . Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. British Columbia, Provincial
Museum Occasional Paper No. 24, 165 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982 Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. British
Columbia, Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery
Paper No. 2. 99 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior Peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal Peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34. Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
Vanbianchi, R., M.L. Stevens, T. Sullivan &. S.
Hashisaki 1994. A citizen s guide to wetland
restoration. U.S. EPA, Region 10, Seattle,
Washington. 71 pp.' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='vame';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
EVERGREEN
HUCKLEBERRY
Vaccinium ovatum Pursh
Plant Symbol = VAOV2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. Oregon Plant Materials Center
stabilizing blood sugar levels in cases of diabetes,
and medical research has shown that consumption of
the leaf extract decreases blood sugar levels shortly
after administration. Taken on regular basis,
huckleberry tea will gradually help alleviate both
glycosuria and hyperglycemia and appears to have a
beginning, but useful effect as an adjunct treatment to
diabetes mellitus. The leaves are believed also to
stimulate appetite, and have astringent and antiseptic
qualities that are useful in urinary disorders.
Horticulture: Evergreen huckleberry is an excellent
horticultural choice due to its beautiful, glossy,
evergreen foliage and tolerance of a wide range of
light levels. The foliage is often used in flower
arrangements.
Wildlife &. Livestock: The foliage of evergreen
huckleberry is browsed by elk and deer. Flowers
attract butterflies. For several species of grouse,
huckleberries are among the most important summer
and early fall foods. Berries are eaten by chipmunks,
black bear, mice, scarlet tanagers, bluebirds, thrushes,
and other songbirds. Deer and rabbit browse freely
on the plants. Because of their food value to wildlife
and their dense shrubby growth, evergreen
huckleberry is worthy of inclusion in hedgerows.
In some localities goats and deer crop evergreen
huckleberry rather closely, utilizing 30 to 40 % of the
leafage and current twigs. Sheep crop it somewhat
less closely but it enters into their diet to a
considerable extent in late summer and autumn. The
browse rating is fair to poor for sheep, goats, and
deer. poor to useless to cattle. and useless for horses.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Heath Family (Ericaceae). This erect,
evergreen shrub is stout, from 0.5-3 m tall. The
glossy green leaf blades are 2-5 cm, ovate, leathery,
serrate, with glandular hairs on the lower surface.
The umbel-like inflorescence emerges from the leaf
axils. Urn-shaped flowers are bright pink. The
berries are 6-9 mm, purplish-black. Evergreen
huckleberry does not generally root easily.
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
California huckleberry, shot huckleberry,
huckleberry, winter huckleberry, evergreen
huckleberry
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: Tribes in British Columbia and
western Washington use the berries of evergreen
huckleberry. These tribes include the Sechelt,
Comox, Straits, Halkomelem, Lower Nlaka pamux
Salish, Nuu-chah-nulth (Vancouver Island s West
Coast), and the Quinault of Washington. Evergreen
huckleberries were well liked and people often
traveled great distances to obtain them. The berries
ripen late in the year, around October or November.
They are the last fruits to be gathered in the season
round and are said to be even tastier after freezing.
The berries are eaten fresh, usually with oil. The
berries are also sun or smoke dried, partly mashed,
pressed into cake form, and wrapped in leaves or
bark. Today they are made into jam or used in
cooking.
The leaves and berries are high in vitamin C. The
leaves and finely chopped stems contain quinic acid,
a former therapeutic for gout said to inhibit uric acid
formation but never widely used because of mixed
clinical results. The leaves have been widely used to
lower or modify blood sugar levels. Many herbalists
maintain that huckleberry leaf tea may be useful in
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. Evergreen huckleberry grows from the west side
of the Cascades in Washington to the coast of British
Columbia, to the redwood area of California. It is
sporadic south to Santa Barbara, California and in the
coast ranges to the central Sierra Nevada Mountains.' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Adaptation:
Vaccinium
ovatum grows in
edges and
clearings of
coniferous
woods, at
elevations from
3-800 m.
Evergreen
huckleberry can
also be found
near beaches in
the salt spray
zone. This
huckleberry
grows in moist to
slightly dry soils.
It will grow in
full sun to full
shade, although
the plants prefer
some shade.
Propagation: Evergreen huckleberry can be difficult
to propagate or transplant, but it is available in some
nurseries. It can be grown from cuttings, from seed,
or by layering. Huckleberry cuttings should be taken
while the plant is dormant, from November to April.
Their rooting success is fairly sporadic.
Evergreen huckleberry requires excessive drainage
and acidic soils to become established. It does best in
full or partial shade. it may tolerate morning and
winter sun.
Live Plant Collections: Evergreen huckleberry is
propagated by cuttings from fully matured shoots
taken in fall and winter, when the plant is dormant.
Cuttings made from the previous year s growth taken
the third week in April rooted 100% (Vancouver,
B.C.). Application of 0.3 to 0.4% IBA talc to the
freshly cut stem surface and basal heat (21°C. 70° F)
to potted plants will enhance rooting.
Jeanne Russell Janish
Used with permission of the publishers
(cid:139) Stanford University
&. F i (1960)
Ab
Young plants can be salvaged, but they should be
transplanted when they are less than one foot tall.
Frequently, these small plants will turn out to be new
shoots of a mature plant reviving from deer browsing
or logging, and will die from lack of roots.
Seed Collections: Berries should be collected when
they are ripe (from August to September or later).
The blue-black fruit is easily collected by hand
picking or by beating the bush over a large bucket.
Following collection, chill the fruit at 10°C for
several days. Clean seeds by macerating and floating
off the pulp and unsound seed. Clean seeds
carefully. they are minuscule, so you may want to use
pantyhose or cheesecloth to strain the seed from the
pulp.
Seeds dried at 15-21°C for two days can be stored in
a refrigerator for up to 12 years. Fresh seeds not
planted in the fall may germinate better if cold
stratified for 1-3 months. Stored seeds germinates
well when exposed to alternating temperature and
light regimes of 28°C light for 14 hours a day and
13°C dark for 10 hours.
Fresh or stored and cold-stratified seeds can be sown
directly into flats or small pots (a salt shaker can be
used for sowing). Plant in a mixture of sand and peat
moss. Seedlings will begin to emerge in a month and
will continue to emerge for a long period thereafter.
Transplant seedlings into larger pots 6 to 7 weeks
after emergence. Plant outside after the first growing
season. Seedlings are slow growing, and it may take
2-3 years for a nursery-sized plant to develop.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.
Traditional Resource Management: This includes the
following: 1) occasional burning to stimulate new
growth. 2) pruning the branches after picking the
berries to stimulate new growth and fruit production
the next growing season. and 3) ownership of red
huckleberry shrubs provides the basis for careful
tending and sustainable yield of valued resources.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is readily available from native plant
nurseries within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Page 3
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Abrams, L. &. R.S. Ferris 1960. Illustrated flora of
the Pacific states. 4 Vols. Stanford University Press,
Palo Alto, California.
Barton, B.J. 1997. Gardening by mail. A source
book. A Mariner Book. Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston and New York.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414 pp.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Crossley, J.A. 1974. Vaccinium L. blueberry. pp.
840-843 IN: Shopmeyer, C.S. (tech. coord.) 1974.
Seeds of the Woody Plants in the United States.
Agric. Handbook 450. Washington, D.C. USDA,
Forest Service. 883 pp.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of western
Washington. University of Washington Publications
in Anthropology, 10(1). University of Washington
Press, Seattle, Washington.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
The University of New Mexico Press. 156 pp.
Hartmann, H.T., D.E. Kester, &. F.T. Davies, Jr.
1990. Plant propagation principles and practices.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hitchcock, C.L. &. A. Cronquist 1973. Pacific
Northwest flora. University of Washington Press,
Seattle and London. 730 pp.
Isaacson, R.T. 1993. Anderson horticultural library s
source list of plants and seeds. Anderson
Horticultural Library. University of Minnesota
Libraries. Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. 261 pp.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany, and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632 pp.
Leigh, M. (August) 1997. Grow your own native
landscape: A guide to identifying, propagating, and
landscaping with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New
York. 500 pp.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press. 200 pp.
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D. Haase 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
Sampson, A.W. &. B.S. Jespersen 1981. California
range brushlands and browse plants. Division of
Agricultural Sciences, University of California,
Berkeley, California. 162 pp.
Schlick, M.D. 1994. Columbia River basketry. Gift
of the ancestors, gift of the Earth. University of
Washington Press, Seattle and London. 232 pp.
Schopmeyer, C.S. (Tech. Coord.) 1974. Seeds of
woody plants in the United States. Agriculture
Handbook No. 450. USDA, Forest Service,
Washington, D.C.
Stevens, M. &. R. Vanbianchi 1993. Restoring
wetlands in Washington. A guidebook for wetland
restoration, planning and implementation.
Washington State Department of Ecology.
Publication #93-17.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson &.
A.Z. York 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson &. R.T. Ogilvie
1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. British Columbia Provincial
Museum, Occasional Paper No. 24. 165 pp.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
99 pp.
Turner, N.J. 1978. Food plant of British Columbia
Indians. Part II. Interior peoples. British Columbia
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 36, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal Peoples. British Columbia
Page 4
Provincial Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada.
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan &. S.
Hashisaki 1994. A citizen s guide to wetland
restoration. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 10. 71 pp.
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Prepared By
Michelle Stevens
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Dale C. Darris
USDA, NRCS, Plant Materials Center, Corvallis,
Oregon
' WHERE symbol='vaov2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Edited: 17jan01 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
these fruits in their food economy (Waterman 1920).
Small cranberries were gathered wild in England and
Scotland and made into tarts, marmalade, jelly, jam,
and added to puddings and pies (Eastwood 1856).
Many colonists were already familiar with this fruit
in Great Britain before finding it in North America.
The small cranberry helped stock the larder of
English and American ships, fed trappers in remote
regions, and pleased the palates of Meriwether Lewis
and William Clark in their explorations across the
United States (Lewis and Clark 1965). The Chinook,
for example, traded dried cranberries with the
English vessel Ruby in 1795 and at Thanksgiving in
1805 Lewis and Clark dined on venison, ducks,
geese, and small cranberry sauce from fruit brought
by Chinook women (McDonald 1966. Lewis and
Clark 1965). Because the small cranberry can grow in
association with large cranberry (Vaccinium
macrocarpon) in the Great Lakes region, northeastern
USA and southeastern Canada (Boniello 1993. Roger
Latham pers. comm. 2009) it is possible that the
Pilgrims of Plymouth were introduced to both edible
species by the Wampanoag.
The berries are still gathered today in the United
States, Canada, and Europe (Himelrick 2005). The
Makah, Quinault, and Quileute of the Olympic
Peninsula still gather them every fall and non-Indians
from early settler families still gather them (Anderson
2009). Small cranberries are an important source of
phenolic compounds, especially anthocyanins, that
show high anti-oxidant potential (Kahkonen et al.
2001. Kahkonen et al. 1999). They are an excellent
source of flavonols, having higher concentrations
than apples (Himelrick 2005).
There were many indigenous ways to prepare and eat
cranberries. Berries could be eaten fresh, boiled,
baked in a pit, dried or stored for future use, and in
later times they were canned and used for making
jams, jellies, and pies (Gill 1984. Olson 1936). In
western Washington, the berries were usually stored
in boxes or baskets until soft and brown (Gunther
1973). For example, among the Quileute on the
Olympic Peninsula cranberries either sat in storage
until they became soft, or they were crushed and
eaten with grease (Powell and Morganroth 1998).
The Potawatomi and the Menomini of Wisconsin
sweetened the berries with maple sugar (Smith 1933.
Smith 1923). The Menomini dried them in the sun for
winter use and ate dried cranberries and dried sweet
corn together, sweetened with maple sugar (Smith
1923). In the Northeastern United States, pemmican
SMALL CRANBERRY
Vaccinium oxycoccos L.
Plant Symbol = VAOX
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Team, Greensboro, NC
Small cranberries growing in a bog on the western Olympic
Peninsula, Washington. Photograph by Jacilee Wray, 2006.
Alternate Names
Bog cranberry, swamp cranberry, wild cranberry
Uses
Said to have a superior flavor to the cultivated
cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) (Shepard 1855.
Eastwood 1856), large quantities of the tart berries
were gathered in the fall by tribes of the Great Lakes
region such as the Menomini and Potawatomi (Smith
1923. Smith 1933), tribes of the Northeast such as the
Iroquois and Lenape (Stout 1914. Waugh 1916), the
Inuit of Alaska (Trehane 2004), the Chinook of
Oregon, and the Makah, Klallam, Hoh, Quileute,
Quinault, and Chemakum of western Washington
(Gunther 1973. Hedrick 1972. Eells 1996. Archibald
1999). The First Nations of Canada, such as the
Haida, Kwakwaka wakw, and other cultural groups
also relished the berries (Turner 2004. U mista
Cultural Society et al. 1998). Because the berries last
through the winter and preserve well under the snow,
they could also be gathered in spring as was done by
the Dena ina of south-central Alaska and the Woods
Cree of Canada (Kari 1987. Leighton 1985). Even
though they are small, the importance of these berries
to many indigenous cultures should not be
underestimated. The fact that the month of September
is connected with ".the season for cranberries". in the
Makah lunar calendar underscores the importance of
Page 2
was made by pounding cranberries into a mixture of
dried, smoked game meat, animal fat, and seeds
(Kavasch 1995). The Canadian Chippewa combined
dried berries with moose fat or deer tallow (Buttree
1932). The Kwakwaka wakw of western British
Columbia ate the berries fresh to quench thirst or
dried them into cakes. Their favorite way to prepare
them was to boil them and serve them with grease
(U mista Cultural Society et al. 1998) from eulachon
(Thaleichthys pacificus), a small West-coast fish.
Early non-Indian settlers, having learned of their
edibility from the Indians, made cranberry sauces,
bubbling tarts, and nogs from cranberries. The
Indians of western Washington also used the fruit as
a paint (Eells 1996).
Wildlife: The berries are eaten by many kinds of
animals such as Roosevelt elk, black bears, black-
tailed deer, foxes, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, and
hares (Anderson 2009. Jacquemart 1997. Matthews
1992). Birds such as wild geese, Hudsonian godwits,
sharp-tailed grouse, and ring-necked pheasants also
eat small cranberries (Matthews 1992. Haskin 1934).
The small cranberry is a larval food plant for the
listed Makah copper butterfly in western Washington
(Pyle and Pyle 2001). Many birds use small cranberry
ecosystems for foraging and/or nesting including the
rock ptarmigan, willow ptarmigan, common loon,
double-crested cormorant, great blue heron, Canada
goose, killdeer, American wigeon, and many others
(Jacquemart 1997. Czech and Parsons 2002).
Status
Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g., threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
Description
General: A member of the heath family (Ericaceae),
small cranberry is a trailing, vine-like shrub with
delicate stems that often creep over Sphagnum moss.
The plant has alternate small evergreen leaves with
rolled edges that are dark green above, pale beneath,
and pointed at the tip. The pale rose flowers have
petals that are bent backwards. The one to four
flowers appear between May and August and look
like small shooting stars. They form a terminal
cluster and spring from the tips of stems (Gleason
and Cronquist 1991. Pettinger and Costanzo 2002).
The red, sometimes off-white berry is small (3/8 inch
wide), round, and slightly acid, ripening between
August and October (Jacquemart 1997. Clark 1998.
Piper and Beattie 1915. Pojar and MacKinnon 1994.
Pettinger and Costanzo 2002). The plant is similar in
appearance to the cultivated cranberry (Gleason and
Cronquist 1991).
Small cranberry distribution from USDA-NRCS PLANTS
Database.
The small cranberry occurs throughout Alaska and
across Canada to Labrador, Greenland, and
Newfoundland, south through the New England
states, the northern portions of the Great Lake States,
and western Washington and Oregon. It also occurs
in northern Europe and Asia (Matthews 1992.
Gleason and Cronquist 1991). For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: The small cranberry is found in wetlands:
bogs, swamps, and muskegs and along the marshy
shores of ponds and lakes. Many of these wetlands
were created by the melting of glaciers 10,000 to
18,000 year ago (Jones 1936). This species often
occurs where there is no perched water table caused
by a hardpan. The typical habitat of this species is
Sphagnum peat and sometimes sand or hardpan. This
vine is occasionally found in tidal wetlands along
both the western and eastern shores of North America
(Tiner 2009. Gunther 1973). Since the small
cranberry is shade intolerant, relic stands occur in
bogs that have developed a conifer overstory
(Conway 1949. Matthews 1992). It is found in small
swamps in pine barrens in New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
New York and New England.
Adaptation
Small cranberry is one of the first colonizers of
burned bogs and increases in abundance with
repeated fires if the fires are not too severe (Flinn and
Wein 1977. Vogl 1964. Matthews 1992). It also
regenerates vegetatively by re-growing from
rhizomes and by layering (Flinn and Wein 1988.
Matthews 1992).
Establishment
Small cranberry can be propagated by seeds or by
cuttings or by severing sectors of rooted runners
(Trehane 2004). Cuttings should be taken during the
dormant season, and treated with rooting hormone
(Leopold 2005). It needs a sunny location in the
Page 3
garden with wet to moist, acidic and often peaty soils
(Pettinger and Costanzo 2002).
Management
Early non-Indian descriptions of the small cranberry
paint a picture of abundance. Albert Reagan reported
in 1928 for the Bois Fort Ojibwa of Minnesota that:
".Cranberries [both Vaccinium macrocarpon and V.
oxycoccos] are very plentiful in the swampy regions
and are quite an article of food. Many bushels of
them are sold by the Indians each year (Reagan
1928). Part of the coast of Lake Superior was
described as ".flaming red with [Vaccinium
oxycoccos] berries". in 1855 (Eastwood 1856). James
Swan recorded in his diary on October 23, 1859
about the northwest coast of Washington that ".Mr.
Webster shipped on board of the Hartford 23 barrels
of cranberries [Vaccinium oxycoccos] ". (Swan 1859-
1866). These barrels were obtained from the Makah.
Gary Ray, Makah, picking bog cranberries on Ts oo-yuhs Prairie
on the Makah Reservation in late September 2009. Photograph by
M. Kat Anderson, 2009.
Reports of such large quantities suggest the
possibility of Indian stewardship to increase fruit
yields. Lightning is rare within the Pacific
northwestern distribution of small cranberries (Agee
1993. Kay 2007. Vitt et al. 1990), and tribes
maintained them by burning (Anderson 2009.
Latham 2008). The primary role of fire was to keep
open habitats for the small cranberries and other
useful plants. Burning arrested the processes of
succession that would otherwise have allowed the
forest to advance, which would have reduced sunlight
to the fruit-bearing plants, increased competition for
nutrients, and made the plants more difficult to get to
and harvest. Gregory Colfax, Makah, explains this
function of burning in relation to small cranberries:
“My dad [Lloyd Colfax] mentioned that the [Ts’oo-
yuhs] prairie was burned yearly or whenever it was
necessary. When the cranberry bogs would get so
overgrown then the folks knew that it was time to do
it. And so it was generally in autumn I think when it
happened—just at the time when you had your long
spells of light summer weather in September and
October. And it was the perfect time to do it because
you match it to the wind and you match it to
upcoming rains” (pers. comm.).
Indian burning of bogs also had a directly beneficial
effect on individual cranberry plants, maintaining
vigor and stimulating the production of berries.
Without pruning or burning, the vines produce many
runners, and produce less and less fruit. Traditionally
tribes in western Washington, such as the Quinault
and the Makah, burned off bogs periodically not only
to keep them open by eliminating encroaching shrubs
and trees but also to stimulate the plants to produce
more fruit (Anderson 2009). This probably would
have a similar effect to the pruning of the cultivated
cranberry practiced by growers today. They prune
heavily vined cranberries for two reasons: 1) severing
most of the runners removes apical dominance in
many of the vines, promoting new uprights to
produce fruit in the second year after pruning. and 2)
removing top growth allows more sunlight to reach
the vines, encouraging increased flower bud initiation
(Eck 1990). Paul Eck (1990) instructs cranberry
growers to burn or mow overgrown bogs during the
dormant season to bring them back into productive
bearing.
Today conifers and hardwoods are advancing into
bogs (Rigg 1922. Reichle and Doyle 1965. Tiner
1991) where the small cranberries grow and this is
partly due to the cessation of Indian-set fires that kept
them open (Latham 2008. Anderson 2009) and to the
later stages of forest regrowth after clearcutting.
Cultivars, Improved, and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
This plant is available from native plant nurseries.
References
Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest
Forests. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
Anderson, M.K. 2009. The Ozette Prairies of
Olympic National Park: their former indigenous
uses and management. Final report to Olympic
National Park, Port Angeles, Washington.
Archibald, L. 1999. There Was a Day: Stories of the
Pioneers. Printed by Olympic Graphic Arts, Inc.,
Forks, WA.
Boniello, R. 1993. A comparison of some habitat
Page 4
requirements of Vaccinium macrocarpon and
Vaccinium oxycoccos. Unpublished report in the
Research Collections of the Biological Station,
University of Michigan.
Buttree, J.M. 1932. Foods of the Omaha and
Chippewa. The Totem Board 11(11):443-454. The
Woodcraft League of America, Inc. Santa Fe.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Clark, L.J. 1998. Wild Flowers of the Pacific
Northwest. J. Trelawny (ed.). Third Edition.
Madeira Park, BC: Harbour Publishing.
Conway, V.M. 1949. The bogs of central Minnesota.
Ecological Monographs 19(2):173-206.
Czech, H.A. and K.C. Parsons. 2002. Agricultural
wetlands and waterbirds: a review. Waterbirds: The
International Journal of Waterbird Biology
25(2):56-65.
Eastwood, B. 1856. The Cranberry and Its Culture: A
Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the
Cranberry, with a Description of the Best Varieties.
C.M. Saxton &. Co. New York.
Eck, P. 1990. The American Cranberry. Rutgers
University Press, New Brunswick, N.J.
Eells, Rev. M. 1996. The Twana, Chemakum, and
Klallam Indians of Washington Territory. Ye
Galleon Press, Fairfield, WA. Originally published
by the Smithsonian Institution in 1889.
Flinn, M.A. and R.W. Wein. 1977. Depth of
underground plant organs and theoretical survival
during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany 55:2550-
2554.
Gill, S. 1984. Ethnobotany of the Makah People,
Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Makah Language
Program, Neah Bay, Washington and Marion
Ownbey Herbarium Wasington State University,
Pullman, WA.
Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of
Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada. The New York Botanical
Garden. Bronx, N.Y.
Gunther, E.. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington: The Knowledge and Use of
Indigenous Plants by Native Americans. Seattle:
University of Washington Press.
Haskin, L.L. 1934. Wild Flowers of the Pacific
Coast. Metropolitan Press, Publishers. Portland,
Oregon.
Hedrick, U.P. (ed.). 1972. Sturtevant s Edible Plants
of the World. Dover Publications, Inc. New York,
N.Y.
Himelrick, D.G. 2005. Wild berries in Finland. Small
Fruits Review 1(3):83-94.
Jacquemart, A. 1997. Vaccinium oxycoccos L.
(Oxycoccus palustris Pers.) and Vaccinium
Microcarpum (Turez. Ex Rupr.) Schmalh.
(Oxycoccus microcarpus Turez. Ex Rupr.)
Jones, G.N. 1936. A Botanical Survey of the
Olympic Peninsula, Washington. University of
Washington Publications in Biology, Vol. 5.
Seattle, Washington: University of Washington
Kahkonen, M.P., A.I. Hopia, and M. Heinonen. 2001.
Berry phenolics and their antioxidant activity. J.
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Rauha, K. Pihlaja, T. Kujala, and M. Heinonen.
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Kari, P.R. 1987. Tanaina Plantlore Dena ina K et una:
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Kavasch, E.B. 1995. Enduring Harvests: Native
American Foods and Festivals for Every Season.
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Kay, C.E. 2007. Are lightning fires unnatural? A
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rates in the United States. Pages 16-28 In:
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(eds.). Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee,
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Latham, R. 2008. Information sources for
reconstructing the vegetation of Philadelphia,
lower Bucks, and Delaware Counties,
Pennsylvania, around the time of European
settlement. Unpublished report to the Pennsylvania
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Leighton, A.L. 1985. Wild plant use by the Woods
Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan.
National Museum of Man Mercury Series.
Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 101. A
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Leopold, D.J. 2005. Native Plants of the Northeast: A
Guide for Gardening and Conservation. Timber
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Lewis, M. and W. Clark. 1965. The History of the
Lewis and Clark Expedition. E. Coues (ed.). Vols.
I-- III. Dover Publications, Inc. N.Y., N.Y. Reissue
of the four-volume edition published by Francis P.
Harper in 1893.
Matthews, R.F. 1992. Vaccinium oxycoccos. In: Fire
Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences
Laboratory (Producer).
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis.
McDonald, L. 1966. Coast Country: A History of
Southwest Washington. Portland: Binfords &. Mort,
Publishers.
Olson, R.L. 1936. The Quinault Indians. University
of Washington Press, Seattle.
Pettinger, A. and B. Costanzo. 2002. Native Plants in
the Coastal Garden: A Guide for Gardeners in the
Pacific Northwest. Timber Press. Portland, OR.
Piper, C.V. and R.K. Beattie. 1915. Flora of the
Northwest Coast. Press of the New Era Printing
Page 5
Co., Lancaster, PA.
Powell, J. and C. Morganroth III. 1998. Quileute Use
of Trees &. Plants: A Quileute Ethnobotany.
Prepared for Quileute Natural Resources, LaPush,
Washington.
Pyle, R.M. and T.L. Pyle. 2001. Final Report: Oregon
Silverspot Survey, Ozette Prairies, Olympic
National Park Second Summer s Work.
Pojar, J. and A. MacKinnon (eds.) 1994. Plants of
the Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, Oregon,
British Columbia &. Alaska. Lone Pine Publishing,
Vancouver, British Columbia.
Reagan, A.B. 1928. Plants used by the Bois Fort
Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians of Minnesota. The
Wisconsin Archeologist 7(4): 230-248.
Reichle, D.E. and W.T. Doyle. 1965. Bryophyte
succession in a northern Illinois bog. The
Bryologist 68(4)463-470.
Rigg, G.B. 1922. A bog forest. Ecology 3(3):207-
213.
Shepard, F. 1855. Letter to B. Eastwood, in Eastwood
(1856), The Cranberry and its Culture: A Complete
Manual for the Cultivation of the Cranberry, with a
Description of the Best Varieties. C.M. Saxton &.
Co. New York.
Smith, H.H. 1923. Ethnobotany of the Menomini
Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City
of Milwaukee 4:1(1-174).
_________. 1933. Ethnobotany of the Forest
Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin of the Public
Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1(1-230).
Stout, A.B. 1914. Vegetable foods of the American
Indian. Journal of the New York Botanical Garden
15(171):50-60.
Swan, J.G. 1859-1866. James Gilchrist Swan Papers.
Daily Journals. Accession No. 1703-001. Special
Collections, University of Washington Libraries,
Seattle, Washington.
Tiner, R.W. 1991. The concept of a hydrophyte for
wetland identification. BioScience 41(4):236-247.
_________. 2009. Field Guide to Tidal Wetland
Plants of the Northeastern United States and
Neighboring Canada: Vegetation of Beaches, Tidal
Flats, Rocky Shores, Marshes, Swamps, and
Coastal Ponds. University of Massachusetts Press,
Amherst.
Trehane, J. 2004. Blueberries, Cranberries and Other
Vacciniums. Timber Press, Portland.
Turner, N. J. 2004. Plants of Haida Gwaii. Sononis
Press, Winlaw, B.C.
U mista Cultural Society, J. Pasco, and B.D.
Compton. 1998. The Living World: Plants and
Animals of the Kwakwaka wakw. L. Hunt (ed.).
U mista Cultural Centre, Alert Bay, British
Columbia.
Vitt, D.H., D.G. Horton, N.G. Slack, N. Malmer.
1990. Sphagnum-dominated peatlands of the
hyperoceanic British Columbia coast: patterns in
surface water chemistry and vegetation. Canadian
Journal of Forestry Research 20:696-711.
Vogl, R.J. 1964. The effects of fire on a muskeg in
northern Wisconsin. Journal of Wildlife
Management 28(2):317-329.
Waterman, T.T. 1920. Puget Sound Geography. Vol.
I Files 1-8. Vol. II Files 9-14 and Vol. III Files 15-
25. Copy from microfilm [1864 Wash,. Ethnol.] at
University of California Archives, Museum of
Anthropology Archives, Berkeley.
Waugh, F.W. 1916. Iroquois foods and food
preparation. Canada Department of Mines
Geological Survey Memoir 86. Ottawa,
Government Printing Bureau.
Prepared By: M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS
National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC
Citation
Anderson, M., 2011. Plant Guide for small cranberry
(Vaccinium oxycoccos). USDA-Natural Resources
Conservation Service, National Plant Data Center.
Greensboro, NC 27401.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Doug Goldman and
Roger Latham for editing this Plant Guide and
providing citations.
Published
Edited: 15Feb2011jw
For more information about this and other plants,
please contact your local NRCS field office or
Conservation District at http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/
and visit the PLANTS Web site at
http://plants.usda.gov/ or the Plant Materials Program
Web site http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov.
PLANTS is not responsible for the content or
availability of other Web sites.
USDA IS AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY PROVIDER AND EMPLOYER
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Page 1
Plant Guide
RED HUCKLEBERRY
Vaccinium parvifolium Sm.
Plant Symbol = VAPA
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
into cakes and dried for the winter. The Lower
Chinook and Lummi preferred the berries raw, rather
than drying them. Other first people dried the
berries. Like other fruits, huckleberries were often
eaten with some type of oil or animal/fish grease, and
were often mixed with other berries, such as salal
(Gaultheria shallon). The berries, instead of being
picked individually, are usually brushed or combed
from the twigs. Some people harvested the berries by
clubbing the branches on the hand and letting the ripe
berries fall into a basket.
The Skagit boil the bark for a tea for colds. The
leaves and finely chopped stem contain quinic acid, a
former therapeutic for gout said to inhibit uric acid
formation, but never widely used because of mixed
clinical results. The leaves have been widely used to
lower or modify blood sugar levels, particularly in
Europe. Taken on a regular basis, huckleberry tea
will gradually help alleviate both glycosuria and
hyperglycemia and has a benign, but useful effect as
an adjunct treatment to diabetes mellitus.
Wildlife. Huckleberry fruits are an important food
source for songbirds, gulls, cranes, pigeons, turkeys,
and upland game birds. Many mammals, from black
bears to mice, feed on red huckleberries. Herbivores
graze on the entire plant. It appears to be a favorite
browse of deer. Huckleberries and blueberries form a
major part of the grizzly’s and black bear’s diet in
late summer and fall. Grouse feast on the leaves and
blossoms. The fruit, twigs, and foliage are eaten by
foxes, opossums, raccoons, squirrels, deer, moose,
caribou, elk, pikas, cottontail rabbits, and skunks.
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Heath Family (Ericaceae). Red huckleberry
is a deciduous shrub from 1-4 m tall, with strongly
angled twigs and bright green stems. The 10-25 mm
leaves are elliptic to ovate, thin, and with a sharp
point at the tip. The flowers are greenish to pinkish,
and the blossoms are solitary in the axils of the
lowest leaves of the youngest shoots. The berries are
bright red.
Freya Holm, Evergreen State College, Olympia, Washington
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Red bilberry, red whortleberry
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Red huckleberries are edible and widely used today
for pies, jams, jellies, and are frozen or canned. A
wine can be made from the fruit. Red huckleberries
are quite tart, so some people prefer the blue
huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum). The berries can be
dried, mashed, or pressed for juice. The leaves can
be used fresh or dried to make tea. Red huckleberry
makes an attractive and versatile ornamental.
Sometimes, the branches are used for floral
arrangements.
Red huckleberries are an important fruit and were
used by virtually all groups within the range of the
plant, including the Skallam, Lummi, Makah,
Quileute, Quinault, Skagit, Skokomish, Snohomish,
Swinomish, and tribes throughout western British
Columbia. The berries were eaten fresh or pressed
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. It grows from southeast Alaska
to central California, Oregon, and Washington, It
occurs in the lower Cascades to the coast.
Habitat: Red huckleberry grows on old decaying
stumps or logs in moist coniferous woods, wetlands,
or in the transition zone of wetlands. It is absent or
scarce in dry woods. It is very shade tolerant. Red
huckleberry is one of the most frequent pioneering
species on old stumps in association with western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) seedlings.
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Red huckleberry is best grown from seed or by
layering. It requires excessive drainage and acidic
soils to become established. It does best in full or
partial shade. It may tolerate morning and winter
sun. Red huckleberry sprouts after plants are
damages. Take cuttings from stems in the winter,
during the dormant season. It does not salvage well,
so transplanting may result in high mortality.
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist. For
the Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island, stumps of
old conifers become tended gardens for red
huckleberry and salal berry orchards (Turner and
Efrat 1982).
Traditional resource management of this plant
includes the following: 1) occasional burning to
stimulate new growth. 2) pruning the branches after
picking the berries to stimulate new growth and fruit
production the next growing season. and 3)
ownership of red huckleberry shrubs provides the
basis for careful tending and sustainable yield of
valued resources.
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SeedsandPlantProduction TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SeedsandPlantProduction='Collect fruit when berries are ripe (they should be
bright red). Fruit ripens from July to August and is
easily collected by hand picking or by beating the
bush over a large bucket. Following collection, chill
the fruit to 10 degrees C for several days. Clean the
seeds by macerating and floating off the pulp and
unsound seed. Clean the seeds carefully, since they
are miniscule, so you may want to use cheesecloth to
strain the seed from the pulp.
Seeds dried at 15-21 degrees C for two days can be
stored in a refrigerator for up to 12 years. Fresh seed
not planted in the fall may germinate better if cold
stratified for 1-3 months. Stored seed germinates
well when exposed to alternating temperature and
light regimes of 28 degrees C for 14 hours of day
(light) and at 13 degrees C for 10 hours of dark.
Fresh or stored and cold-stratified seeds can be sown
directly into flats or small pots (a salt shaker can be
used for sowing). Plant in a mixture of sand and peat
moss. Seedlings will begin to emerge in a month and
will continue to emerge for quite some time
thereafter. Transplant seedlings into larger pots 6-7
weeks after emergence. Plant outside after the first
growing season. Water as needed. Seeds are very
slow to sprout and seedlings are small and grow very
slowly. Seeds per kilogram: 5,268,955 – 7,142,860
(Crossley 1974).
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Angier, B. 1974. Field guide to edible wild plants.
Stackpole Books. 256p.
Barton, B.J. 1997 Gardening by mail: A source book.
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York.
Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414p.
Crossley, J.A. 1974. Vaccinium L. blueberry. Pp.
840-843. In: Shopmeyer, C.S (tech. coord.), Seeds of
the Woody Plants in the United States. USDA Forest
Service, Agric. Handbook 450, Washington, D.C.
883p.
Galloway, B. 1982. Upper Sto:lo ethnobotany.
Coqualeetza Education Training Center, Sardis, B.C.
Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publ. in
Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington Press,
Seattle.
Harbinger, L.J. 1964. The importance of food plants
in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural identity.
Thesis, M.A. in Anthropology. Washington State
University, Seattle.
Page 3
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 156p.
Heller, C.A. 1976. Wild edible and poisonous plants
of Alaska. Cooperative Extension Service Bull F-40,
University of Alaska, College.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley. 1399p.
King County Department of Public Works, Surface
Water Management Division. 1994. Northwest native
plants, identification and propagation for
revegetation and restoration projects. King County,
Washington.
‘Ksan, People of. 1980. Gathering what the great
nature provided. Food traditions of the Gitksan.
Douglas &. McIntyre, Vancouver and University of
Washington Press, Seattle.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner. 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology, Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632p.
Leigh, M. (August) 1997. Grow your own native
landscape: A guide to identifying, propagating, and
landscaping with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publication, Inc., New York. 500p.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
200p.
Norton, H.H. 1981. Plant use in Kaigani Haida
culture: Correction of an ethnohistorical oversight.
Econ. Botany 35:434-449.
Randall, W.R., R.F. Keniston, D.N. Bever, &. E.C.
Jensen. 1994. Manual of Oregon trees and shrubs.
Oregon State University Bookstore, Corvallis. 305p.
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D Haase. 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Stevens, M. &. R. Vanbianchi. 1993. Restoring
wetlands in Washington. A guidebook for wetland
restoration, planning and implementation.
Washington State Department of Ecology Publication
93-17.
Turner, N.J., L.C. Thompson, M.T. Thompson, &.
A.Z. York. 1990. Thompson ethnobotany: Knowledge
and usage of plants by the Thompson Indians of
British Columbia. Royal British Columbia Museum
Memoirs No. 3, Victoria.
Turner, N.J., J. Thomas, B.F. Carlson, &. R.T.
Ogilvie. 1983. Ethnobotany of the Nitinaht Indians of
Vancouver Island. B.C. Provincial Museum
Occasional Paper No. 24, Victoria. 165p.
Turner, N.J. &. B.S. Efrat. 1982. Ethnobotany of the
Hesquiat Indians of Vancouver Island. B.C.
Provincial Museum Cultural Recovery Paper No. 2.
Victoria. 99p.
Turner, N.J. 1975. Food plants of British Columbia
Indians. Part I. Coastal peoples. B.C. Provincial
Museum Handbook No. 34, Victoria.
USDA NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS web site.
Accessed 070118. http://plants.usda.gov. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Vanbianchi, R., M. Stevens, T. Sullivan, &. S
Hashisaki. 1994. A citizen’s guide to wetland
restoration. USEPA Region 10. 71p.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young. 1974. Collecting,
processing, and germinating seeds of wildland
plants. Timber Press, Portland.
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, formerly USDA NRCS NPDC,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
And
Dale C. Darris, USDA NRCS Oregon PMC,
Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='vapa';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Davis, California
Edited: 070118 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
Page 4
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
GROUSE
HUCKLEBERRY
Vaccinium scoparium Leib. Ex
Coville
Plant Symbol = VASC
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
Clinton Shock
Oregon State Univ., Malheur Experiment Station
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Littleleaf huckleberry, whortleberry, grouse
whortleberry, red huckleberry
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotany. The small berries are eaten by the
Mlaka’-pamus in British Columbia, and the
Okanagan-Colville and Kootenay people in the
Pacific Northwest. The berries are picked with a
comb and usually eaten fresh. However, berries are
gathered less commonly in modern times due to their
size and the limited number produced. Like the wild
strawberries, the tiny red fruits are sweet and
delicious and well worth the effort. They are also
used by backpackers.
Grouse huckleberry is sometimes used
horticulturally, due to its bright green stems, pretty
pink flowers and red fruits, and tolerance to a wide
range of light levels.
Wildlife. For several species of grouse, these are
among the most important summer and early fall
foods. They are also important to songbirds,
chipmunks, mice, and other mammals. Grouse
huckleberry is not a favorable browse due to its small
size. However, small mammals, such as rabbits,
browse freely on the plants.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Heath Family (Ericaceae). Littleleaf
huckleberry is a small, broom-like, U.S. native,
deciduous shrub <.5 dm tall. The twigs are strongly
angled and green. The leaves are 8-15 mm, ovate,
and serrate. The flowers are solitary, urn-shaped,
pink blossoms in the axils of the lowest leaves and
youngest shoots. The bright red berry is tiny, 3-6
mm in diameter.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site. Grouse huckleberry ranges from
Alaska south to California, northern New Mexico, the
Rocky Mountains, and Alberta. It can be found from
760-2300 m in the Pacific Northwest, from 1800-
2300 m in California, and from 2600-3800 m in
Colorado. This plant is rare in California.
Habitat: Grouse huckleberry grows in rocky
subalpine to alpine woods to open slopes. It grows in
acidic soils in both moist and dry sites, but is most
common in sandy or gravelly loams and is always
found in the understory of lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta) stands.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Grouse huckleberry can be propagated by rhizome
cuttings. Seed collections: The berries ripen from
late July through September. After collection, place
the berries in a plastic bag and keep them at 5 degrees
C from a few days to a few weeks. Clean seed by
macerating and floating the pulp and unsound seed
off the top. Seed should be dried before storing. One
study reported best germination with a cold
stratification with warm night temperatures of 10
degrees C. Seed reportedly does not need
pretreatment to germinate.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Seeds are very slow to sprout and seedlings are small
and grow very slowly. Fresh or stored seeds can be
sown directly into flats or small pots (a salt shaker
can be used for sowing). Plant in a mixture of sand
and peat moss. Seedlings will begin to emerge in a
month and will continue to emerge for a long period
thereafter. Transplant seedlings into larger pots 6 to
7 weeks after emergence. Plant outside after the first
growing season. Water plants, as needed.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='
This plant grows very rapidly in moist, shady
conditions. If summer drought occurs, the plants
should be watered so roots are kept fairly moist.
Traditional Resource Management of this plant
includes the following: 1) occasional burning to
stimulate new growth. 2) pruning the branches after
picking the berries to stimulate new growth and fruit
production the next growing season. and 3)
ownership of huckleberry shrubs provides the basis
for careful tending and sustainable yield of valed
resources.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Cooke, S.S. 1997. A field guide to the common
wetland plants of western Washington and
northwestern Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society and
Washington Native Plant Society. 414p.
Dirr, M.A. &. C.W. Heuser. 1987. The reference
manual of woody propagation: From seed to tissue
culture. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia. 239p.
Crossley, J.A. 1974. Vaccinium L. blueberry. Pp.
840-843. In: Shopmeyer, C.S (tech. coord.), Seeds of
the Woody Plants in the United States. USDA Forest
Service, Agric. Handbook 450, Washington, D.C.
883p.
Gunther, E. 1973. Ethnobotany of Western
Washington. University of Washington Publ. in
Anthropology 10(1). University of Washington Press,
Seattle.
Harbinger, L.J. 1964. The importance of food plants
in the maintenance of Nez Perce cultural identity.
Thesis, M.A. in Anthropology. Washington State
University, Seattle.
Harrington, H.D. 1972. Western edible wild plants.
University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. 156p.
Hickman, J.C. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher
plants of California. University of California Press,
Berkeley. 1399p.
Kunlein, H.V. &. N.J. Turner. 1991. Traditional plant
foods of Canadian indigenous peoples. Nutrition,
botany and use. Food and Nutrition in History and
Anthropology, Volume 8. Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers. 632p.
Leigh, M. (August) 1997. Grow your own native
landscape: A guide to identifying, propagating, and
landscaping with western Washington native plants.
Environmental Protection Agency, The Washington
State Department of Ecology, and Washington State
University Cooperative Extension.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, and A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publication, Inc., New York. 500p.
Moore, M. 1979. Medicinal plants of the mountain
west. Museum of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
200p.
Peck, M.E. 1961. A manual of the higher plants of
Oregon. Binfords &. Mort., Portland, Oregon. 936p.
Romme, W.H. L. Bohland, C. Persichetty, &. T.
Caruso. 1995. Germination ecology of some common
forest herbs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming,
U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research 27(4):407-412.
Rose, R., C.E.C. Chachulski, &. D Haase. 1998.
Propagation of Pacific Northwest native plants.
Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
Tirmenstein, D.A. 1990. Vaccinium scoparium. In
Fischer, W.C. (comp.) The Fire Effects Information
System. Accessed 970312. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory.
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/Shrub/VAC
PAR.
USDA Forest Service. 1988. Range plant handbook.
Dover Publications, Inc., New York. 816p.
USDA NRCS. 2007. The PLANTS web site.
Accessed 070122. http://plants.usda.gov. National
Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Page 3
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young. 1974. Collecting,
processing, and germinating seeds of wildland
plants. Timber Press, Portland.
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Michelle Stevens, formerly USDA NRCS NPDC,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
And
Dale C. Darris, USDA NRCS Oregon PMC,
Corvallis, Oregon
' WHERE symbol='vasc';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson, USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center, Davis, California
Edited: 070122 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
HIGHBUSH
CRANBERRY
Viburnum opulus L. var.
americanum Ait.
Plant Symbol = VIOPA2
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. the Biota of North America Program
or early September, best when picked slightly under-
ripe (and sour), and used in sauces, jellies, and juices.
If picked after a heavy frost, the fruit are softer and
more palatable but they develop a musty, somewhat
objectionable odor during cooking. The species has
never developed into a commercial fruit crop.
Wildlife: The bright red fruits often persist on the
plants throughout the winter, good for ornamental
value but suggesting that they may not be especially
palatable for wildlife. Still, they are known to be
eaten by deer, moose, foxes, raccoons, chipmunks,
squirrels, skunks, mice, rabbits, grouse, pheasants,
robins, cedar waxwings, and other songbirds. They
are not normally eaten by birds until after they have
frozen and thawed several times.
The native (American) plants of this species (= V.
trilobum = V. opulus var. americanum, see below) are
hardier as ornamentals, less susceptible to aphid
attack, and have more intense fall color than the
Eurasian plants, and they produce edible fruit. Fruit
of the European plants tends to be bitter, and
cultivars derived from the European species are
grown strictly as ornamentals.
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae).
Native shrubs to 4 m high, with upright, spreading,
arching branches. Leaves deciduous, opposite, ovate,
5-12 cm long, deeply 3-lobed, coarsely toothed, with
1-6 large glands near the petiole apex, becoming
yellow-red or reddish-purple in the fall. Flowers
white, in flat-topped clusters 7-10 cm broad, with
flowers of two different types, those in the outer ring
sterile, showy, with expanded corollas 1-2 cm broad,
the inner flowers much smaller, fertile, with yellow
anthers. Fruit berry-like (a drupe), globose, bright
red, 8-10 mm in diameter. stone single, strongly
flattened. The common name alludes to the
resemblance in fruit between the highbush cranberry
and the cranberry of commerce (Vaccinium
macrocarpon).
Variation within the species.
Viburnum opulus
© Hugh Wilson
Vascular Plant Image Gallery
Texas A&.M Univ., Bioinformatics Working Group
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
American cranberrybush, cranberry tree, crampbark
tree, guelder-rose, wild gueldes-rose, gueldres-rose,
cherry-wood, rose elder, red elder, marsh elder, water
elder, white elder, gadrise, gaiter tree, gatten, love
rose, May rose, pincushion tree, dog rowan tree,
whitten tree, squaw bush, witch-hobble, witchhopple.
synonyms: Viburnum trilobum Marsh.. Viburnum
opulus ssp. trilobum (Marsh.) Clausen
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The bark of highbush cranberry yields
a powerful antispasmodic (whence the origin of one
its American common names, crampbark). The
water-soluble preparation (containing a bitter
compound called viburnine) has been used for relief
of menstrual and stomach cramps and asthma. The
antispasmodic properties apparently were discovered
independently by European, Native American, and
Asian peoples. The action of this agent from
highbush cranberry closely resembles that of black
haw (Viburnum prunifolium).
Highbush cranberry is used as an ornamental plant
and valued for its edible fruits. The fruit is
commonly gathered from wild stands in late August
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
The North American plants have generally been
recognized as the same species as the closely similar
native of Europe, northern Africa, and northern Asia
– V. opulus L. [var. opulus]. Var. opulus is said to
differ from the American variety in its filiform-
attenuate stipules and petiolar glands mostly short-
pedicellate, round-topped to concave, and mostly
wider than high. Voss (1996) notes that “variation
between vars. opulus and americanum is too great –
and too continuous – to make clear distinctions.”
Variants have not generally been recognized from
within the American segment of the species, but
horticultural selections have been made from plants
of both continents, primarily for leaf color, fruit
color, and growth habit. The best known of these is
the cultivated “snowball bush” (V. opulus var.
roseum), a form developed from Old World plants,
with spherical inflorescences of enlarged, completely
sterile flowers (the ".snowballs".).
The native variety (var. americanum) is known to
hybridize with cultivated or escaped ornamental
forms of var. opulus. This may result in the gradual
degradation or loss of the native genotype.
Distribution: Var. americanum is widely distributed
across north-central North America, from
Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and
Quebec to British Columbia, and in the US from
Maine to Pennsylvania and West Virginia,
northwestward to Washington. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site. The non-
native var. opulus is frequently planted and
sometimes escapes. it is recorded from Ontario and
New Brunswick and various states in the northeastern
quarter of the US – Maine to Virginia and West
Virginia, westward to Wisconsin, Iowa, and
Missouri.
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='Highbush cranberry grows in wet woods, along
streams, and on moist wooded hillsides, requiring
moist but well-drained sites for best development.
Flowering (May-)June-July. fruiting August-
September.
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The seeds are difficult to germinate. in the wild,
seeds don t germinate until the second spring
following the ripening of the fruit.
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Highbush cranberry is easy to grow, adaptable to a
variety of soil and acidity, but it does best in
consistently moist but well-drained soil. A yearly
application of compost or well-rotted manure will
maintain growth and fruit yields The plants are
shade-tolerant, but flowering, fruiting, and foliage
color will be best on plants in full sun. Plants may
require occasional pruning to keep them from
becoming leggy and to encourage the production of
new shoots. prune immediately after flowering.
Highbush cranberry can be propagated through
hardwood and softwood cuttings, layering, crown
division and by seed. Take softwood cuttings in mid-
June through early-July for easiest rooting.
Var. americanum is relatively -free from insect and
disease damage in cultivation although bacterial leaf
spot, powdery mildew, shoot blight, tarnished plant
bugs, stem borers, and thrips will occasionally be a
problem.
Viburnum leaf beetle. The viburnum leaf beetle
(Pyrrhalta viburni), native to Europe and Asia, was
first encountered in North America in 1947, perhaps
arriving earlier from Europe on nursery plants. It
received little notice until 1978, when it caused
severe defoliation of ornamental viburnums in
Ontario and Quebec. It has now reached western
New York and Maine and become a concern in urban
landscapes and nurseries.
The adult and the larva “skeletonize” leaves by
feeding on the leaves between the midrib and larger
veins. Plants which have been defoliated for 2-3
consecutive years may be killed. The preferred host
is Viburnum opulus and its selections. lesser damage
is caused to V. lantana and V. rafinesquianum, V.
dentatum, V. acerifolium, and V. lentago. Other
species, particularly V. rhytidophyllum and V.
carlesii, are relatively unaffected.
The entire life cycle of the viburnum leaf beetle takes
about 8-10 weeks. Larvae hatch in early May and
feed on the viburnum leaves throughout the larval
period, which lasts 4-5 weeks. The larvae pupate in
the soil. The adults (4.5-6.5 mm long, brown) appear
by mid-July and continue eating the leaves, then mate
and lay over-wintering eggs on the twigs. Egg-laying
holes are in a straight line on the underside of the
current season s growth.
Chemical control of the viburnum leaf beetle is best
applied to young larvae, because adults will fly away
or drop to the ground if disturbed. If over-wintering
egg sites are found, affected wood should be pruned
and destroyed before the eggs hatch. Examine upper
and lower leaf surfaces for feeding larvae. Potential
biological control mechanisms are being studied.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are somewhat available from
commercial sources. Native plant cultivars with
superior fruit and processing characteristics are
available (for example: “Andrews,” “Hahs,” “Hogg s
Red,” “Manitou,” “Phillips,” and “Wentworth”). The
processed fruit is very similar to cranberry
(Vaccinium macrocarpon) and red currant (Ribes
rubrum).
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Barton L.V. 1958. Germination and seedling
production of species of Viburnum. Pl. Propag.
8:126-136.
Donoghue, M. 1980. Flowering times in Viburnum.
Arnoldia 40:2-22.
Donoghue, M. 1983. A preliminary analysis of
phylogenetic relationships in Viburnum
(Caprifoliaceae s.l.). Syst. Bot. 8:45-58.
Egolf, D.R. 1962. A cytological study of the genus
Viburnum. J. Arnold Arb. 43:132-172.
Felter, H.W. &. J.U. Lloyd 2000. Viburnum opulus.
In King’s American Dispensatory. Web site.
<.http://metalab.unc.edu/herbmed/eclectic/kings/samb
ucus.html>.
Ferguson, I.K. 1966. The genera of the
Caprifoliaceae in the southeastern United States. J.
Arnold Arbor. 47:33-59.
Finn, C. 1999. Temperate berry crops. Pp. 324–334.
IN: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives on new crops and
new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, Virginia.
<.http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings19
99/v4-324.html#cranberry>.
Friedlander, B.P., Jr. 1999. Voracious viburnum leaf
beetle munches into Ithaca area. Cornell Chronicle.
<.http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicles/6.17.99/lea
f_beetle.html>.
Giersbach J. 1937. Germination and seedling
production of species of Viburnum. Contr. Boyce
Thompson Inst. Pl. Res. 9:79-90.
Hauser, E.J.P. 1965. Characteristics and distribution
of Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae) in Georgia. Bull. Ga.
Acad. Sci. 23:(11 pages).
Hillebrand, G.R. &.D.E. Fairbrothers 1969. A
serological investigation of intrageneric
relationships in Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae). Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 96:556-567.
Jones, T.H. 1983. A revision of the genus Viburnum
sect. Lentago (Caprifoliaceae). Ph.D. diss., North
Carolina State Univ., Raleigh.
Jones, E. &. N.T. Wheelwright 1987. Seasonal
changes in the fruits of Viburnum opulus, a freshly-
fruiting temperate-zone shrub. Canad. J. Bot.
65:2291-2296.
Kessel, C. 2000. Viburnum leaf beetle, Pyrrhalta
viburni (Paykull), in the nursery and landscape.
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural
Affairs, Ontario, Canada. Web site.
<.http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/crops/facts
/vlb.htm>.
Krannitz, P.G. &. M.A. Maun 1991. An experimental
study of floral display size and reproductive success
in Viburnum opulus: importance of grouping. Canad.
J. Bot. 69:394-399.
Krannitz, P.G. &. M.A. Maun 1991. Insect visitors to
guelder rose, Viburnum opulus var. opulus
(Caprifoliaceae) in London, Ontario. Canad. Field-
Naturalist 105:13-17.
Lubbock J. 1891. On the form of the leaf of
Viburnum opulus and V. lantana. J. Linn. Soc. Bot.
28:244-247.
McAtee, W.L. 1956. A review of the Nearctic
Viburnum. Published by the author, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.
Pixler, VA. 1950. The Caprifoliaceae of West
Virginia. Castanea 15:80-91.
St-Pierre, R. 1995. The highbush cranberry - A
multipurpose shrub. Internet publication.
<.http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.ag.us
ask.ca/cofa/departments/hort/hortinfo/fruit/cranbery.h
tml+viburnum+trilobum&.hl=en>.
Voss, E.G. 1996. Viburnum. Pp. 309-315. IN:
Michigan Flora, Part III. Cranbrook Institute of
Science Bull. 61.
Page 4
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Guy Nesom
Formerly BONAP, North Carolina Botanical Garden,
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North
Carolina
' WHERE symbol='viopa2';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 29jan03 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3, 4
Page 1
Plant Guide
FAN PALM
Washingtonia filifera (L.
Linden) H. Wendl.
Plant Symbol = WAFI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
palms. Woodpeckers make their nests in dead palm
trees, and their cavities become home to a myriad of
birds in later years including house finches,
American kestrels, and owls.
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status, such as, state noxious status and
wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Palm family (Arecaceae). This tree has a
thick, robust trunk and achieves a height up to 20 m.
The large tufts of leaves are fan-shaped, fibrous, and
gray green, and their spined petioles are 1-2 m. The
blades are 1-2 m and are divided nearly to the middle.
The many white flowers are small and enclosed by a
spathe. The black fruits are oblong or ovate.
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs__ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs__='
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Establishment
Adaptation: This plant is found below 1200 m in
groves, alkaline spots of seeps, springs, and streams,
on the west and north edge of the Colorado Desert,
Turtle Mountains, the Sonoran Desert, southeastern
Arizona, and northern Baja, California.
Propagation by seed: One can improve seed
germination by collecting seeds from coyote manure.
Apparently germination is very high from seeds
which have passed through the animals digestive
systems. Plant the seeds in the spring in large pots,
one-quarter inch apart in well-drained, friable soil
such as a mixture of sand, loam, and peat moss or
vermiculite and peat moss. Be patient, as the seeds
take from four to fifteen weeks to germinate. At the
first true leaf stage, plant the seedlings into separate
one-gallon containers and hold until out-planting.
Seedlings should be sheltered from winds and major
temperature changes. When planting fan palm in a
permanent location, plant seedlings during the fall, in
areas exposed to full sunlight. Fall plantings must be
watered during the following two summers if rainfall
is low.
Brother Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternative Names
California fan palm
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Use
Ethnobotanic: Palm oases were important habitation
sites for the Cahuilla and other tribes. The fan palm
provided abundant fruit that was relished by the
Cahuilla. It was eaten fresh or dried in the sun and
then stored in ollas for future consumption. The
seeds and flour were pounded into a meal, mixed
with other flours and water to a mush. A beverage
was made by soaking the fruit in water. Additionally,
the leaves were used for clothing, sandals, thatching,
and basketry materials, the fruit stalks for fire drills,
and leafstalks for household utensils. The Cahuilla,
Diegueno, and Luiseno of southern California used
the leaves for matting, stuffing and in rough
ropemaking.
Wildlife: Hooded orioles nest in the tree canopies,
constructing their nests of palm frond fragments. The
paper wasp often builds its nest on the underside of a
palm leaf and the western yellow bat roosts in fan
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The dead leaves that form a skirt should be removed
periodically. Native Americans historically and
prehistorically enhanced palm populations through
firing palm stands and planting seeds. Palm stands
were burned to control infestations of the palm-
boring beetle (Dinapate wrightii), to improve access
to the palms and their fruit by clearing underbrush,
and to increase the production and enhance the
quality of fruit. Furthermore, these fires encouraged
seed production, increasing the density of palms on
favorable sites. Native Americans also acted as
dispersal agents, carrying seeds of palms, which are
small and easy to germinate, from one oasis to the
next, extending the palm s range.
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
Seeds and plants of selected Washingtonia cultivars
are available from many nurseries. It is best to plant
species from your local area, adapted to the specific
site conditions where the plants are to be grown.
Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office
for more information. Look in the phone book under
”United States Government.” The Natural Resources
Conservation Service will be listed under the
subheading “Department of Agriculture.”' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel 1972. Temalpakh: Cahuilla
Indian knowledge and usage of plants. Malki
Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Cornett, J.W. 1989a. Desert palm oasis. Palm
Springs Desert Museum. Companion Press, Santa
Barbara, California.
Cornett, J.W. 1989b. The desert fan palm--Not a
relict. Abstract in C.A. Warren and J.S. Schneider
(eds.) Mojave Desert Quaternary Research Center.
Third Annual Symposium Proceedings, San
Bernardino County Museum Association.
Cornett, J.W. 1987a. Indians and the desert fan
palm. Masterkey 12-17.
Cornett, J.W. 1987b. A giant boring beetle.
Environment Southwest. No. 518:21-25.
Cornett, J.W. 1985. Reading fan palms. Natural
History 94(10):64-73.
Mathewson, M.S. 1985. Threads of life: Cordage
and other fibers of the California tribes.
Unpublished Senior Thesis. Department of
Anthropology, University of California, Santa Cruz,
Santa Cruz, California.
McClenaghan, L.R. &. A.C. Beauchamp 1986. Low
genic differentiation among isolated populations of
the California fan palm (Washingtonia filifera).
Evolution 40(2):315-322.
McClintock, E. 1978. The Washington fan palm.
Fremontia 6:3-5.
McClintock, E. 1993. Arecaceae. Page 1105 IN:
The Jepson Manual: Higher plants of California.
J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.
Nabhan, G.P. 1985. The palm in our hands. Pages
20-34 IN: Gathering the Desert. University of
Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Schmidt, M.G. 1980. Growing California native
plants. University of California Press, Berkeley,
California.
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
Wayne Roderick
Former Director of the East Bay Regional Parks
Botanic Garden, Berkeley, California
' WHERE symbol='wafi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center
c/o Plant Sciences Department, University of
California, Davis, California
Revised: 19jun0200 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
ADAM’S NEEDLE
Yucca filamentosa L.
Plant Symbol = YUFI
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
USDA, NRCS
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Needle palm, bear grass, bear’s thread, Christmas
bells, Confederate flax, curly hair, Eve’s darning
needle, Eve’s thread, grass cactus, our-Lord’s-
candles, silk grass, soap root, soap week, Spanish-
dagger, spoon leaf yucca, thread-and-needle
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Catawba, Cherokee, Nanticoke
and other Native American tribes used Yucca
filamentosa for a variety of purposes including food,
medicine, cordage and even soap. The roots, which
contain saponin, were prepared by boiling and
pounding for use as soap. Roots were beaten into a
salve or poultice that would then be used to treat
Plant Guide
sprains or applied to sores on the skin. The roots
were used to treat gonorrhea and rheumatism. Skin
diseases were treated by rubbing the roots on the skin
and by taking a decoction of the roots. The plant was
used as a sedative to induce sleep. An infusion of the
plant was used to treat diabetes. The flowers were
eaten both raw and cooked. The pounded roots were
thrown into fishing waters to “intoxicate fishers”
allowing for easier catch. The green leaves are easily
split into long strips that can be plied into cord. The
leaves have long, very strong fibers, a type of sisal,
which were twisted into strong thread used as
cordage for binding and to construct baskets, fishing
nets, fishing lines and clothing. The leaves of Yucca
filamentosa contain the strongest fibers native to
North America.
Wildlife: Hummingbirds visit the flowers. Yuccas
are pollinated by small, white Yucca moths
(Tegeticula yucasella and related species) with which
they have a special plant-insect mutualism. At night,
the fragrant flowers attract the female moth that feeds
on the nectar. She then rolls pollen from the flowers
into a ball that is three times the size of her head and
carries the pollen ball to the next flower. There, she
first lays eggs inside the immature ovary and then
deposits the pollen on the flower’s stigma insuring
that seeds will form to feed her progeny. Because the
larvae mature before they are able to consume all of
the seeds (60 to 80% of the seeds remain viable), the
plants are able to reproduce as well.
Other: The flowers are used for corsages.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Agave Family (Agavaceae). Adam’s needle
is an native, evergreen, perennial shrub. The plants
have long, thick underground stems and rarely have
an above ground stem. The grayish green leaves
appear from a rosette at or near the ground. The
leaves are stiff and sword-shaped (30 to 76 cm long
and 2.5 cm wide) with sharp, pointed tips and long,
curly, filamentous threads at the margins. The bell-
shaped flowers (5 to 8 cm wide) are a creamy white
to pale yellow or green with broadly ovate petals (4-5
cm). The flowers, which appear in late spring and
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
summer, hang loosely in clusters from a large, central
spike (1 to 4 m tall) that emerges from the rosette.
The fruits are capsules that contain 120 to 150, small
black seeds that are dispersed by wind.
Distribution: Adam’s needle is native to the
Southeastern United States and Mexico. For current
distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for
this species on the PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: Adam’s needle is adapted to hot, dry regions
in areas that are protected from fire. It occurs in dry,
sandy soils along the coast, rocky and sandy places,
bluffs, thin woods, oldfields and other open areas.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Yucca filamentosa does well in garden plantings as
well as in areas of high heat and light, such as
parking lots. The plants have striking foliage that
adds interest to borders, rock gardens and xeriscapes.
The plants are long-lived and very drought resistant.
The thick, rhizomous roots are storage organs that
allow the plants to thrive in many soils, even in areas
of pure sand. The plants can spread through this
underground root system to form small clumps (1 to
1.5 m wide) with multiple crowns or offshoots. They
can tolerate both cold and moderate wetness, making
the species one of the most hardy of the genus. The
plants may be propagated by dividing the offshoots
from the parent plant. The plants may also be
propagated through root cuttings and seeds, which
sprout readily. Care should be taken in site selection,
as the roots of mature plants can grow large and
extend deep into the ground, making removal
difficult. For more temporary sites, the plants may be
grown in containers. For garden plantings space the
plants about 1meter apart in a sunny, well-drained
location of low to medium fertility. Water the plants
well for the first year as the roots establish. Because
of the sharp, pointed leaves they should not be placed
near playgrounds or other areas where children play.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='The flower stalk should be removed once the flowers
have dropped. Otherwise, these plants are durable
and require very little maintenance.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='In areas of poor drainage, the leaves may be sensitive
to leaf spot or blight.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Banks, W.H. 1953. Ethnobotany of the Cherokee
Indians. Master of Science Thesis, University of
Tennessee, Tennessee. 216 pp. Brown, R.C. 1994.
Florida’s first people: 12,000 years of human history.
Pineapple Press, Inc., Sarasota, Florida. 262 pp.
Chapman, A.W. 1883. Flora of the Southern United
States: Flowering Plants and Ferns. Second Edition.
J. Wilson and Son, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 698
pp.
Coffey, T. 1993. The history &. folklore of North
American wildflowers. Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
MA. 356 pp.
Cullina, W. 2000. The New England Wild Flower
Society guide to growing and propagating
wildflowers in the United States and Canada.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, New York.
322 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr’s hardy trees and shrubs: an
illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland,
Oregon. 493 pp.
Duncan, W.H. &. L.E. Foote 1975. Wildflowers of
the Southeastern United States. University of
Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. 296 pp.
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Halfacre, R.G. &. A.R. Showcroft 1979. Landscape
plants of the Southeast. Sparks Press, Raleigh, North
Carolina. 325 pp.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim &. A.L. Nelson 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Page 3
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(21 June 2001).
Ottensen, C. 1995. The native plant primer.
Harmony Books, New York, New York. 354 pp.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Taylor, K.S. and S.F. Hamblin 1963. Handbook of
wild flower cultivation. The Macmillan Company,
New York, New York. 307 pp.
Whitcomb, C.E. 1983. Know it and grow it, II: A
guide to the identification and use of landscape
plants. Lacebark Publications, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
740 pp.
Whitthoft, J. 1947. An early Cherokee
ethnobotanical note (Communicated by W.N.
Fenton). Journal of the Washington Academy of
Sciences 37(3): 73-75.
Wyman, D 1949. Shrubs and vines for American
gardens. The Macmillan Company, New York, New
York. 442 pp.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='yufi';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
CHAPARRAL YUCCA
Yucca whipplei Torr.
Plant Symbol = YUWH
Contributed By: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center &. UC Davis Arboretum
by many tribes in southern California including the
Tubatulabal, Cahuilla, Luiseno, Diegueno, Kawaiisu,
and Western Shoshone and are still gathered today.
According to the Kawaiisu, traditionally in the early
spring, the apical meristem or ".heart". was removed
with the aid of an oak or a juniper shaft. It was then
roasted in a pit for a lengthy period. While green and
tender the flower stalk that grows out of the apical
meristem was cut or broken off by hand. These
stalks were cut into sections and roasted in fire or in
ashes and coals. It is reputed to have a sweet taste.
The flowers are edible and can be boiled and eaten.
The Diegueno tribe harvested the flowers before they
opened and boiled them twice to remove the
bitterness before eating.
Chaparral yucca was also an important fiber plant.
The Diegueno and Cahuilla used the fibers for
sandals while the Chumash and the Gabrielino used it
for fishing line. Whole or split yucca leaves were
also utilized for rough tying of bundles of firewood,
house frames, and for basketry. To retrieve and
prepare the fibers, the leaves were immersed in water
until the epidermal sheath and the connecting round
tissue rotted away. The leaves may also have been
pounded with a wooden mallet to facilitate the
process. The fibers are then buried in mud to whiten
them, washed and combed.
Wildlife: The seeds and fruits are eaten by the
antelope ground squirrel and hummingbirds consume
the nectar.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status and wetland indicator values.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Agave Family (Agavaceae). This shrub is
simple and acaulescent with no evident trunk. The
leaves are slender, stiff and gray-green. They are 3-8
dm long and radiate from a central base and have
needle-like tips. The plant has a single flower stalk,
which is covered with fragrant, creamy white
flowers. Night-flying moths pollinate the flowers.
The fruit is a capsule containing numerous black
seeds. After fruiting the plant dies. Some plants
reproduce vegetatively through offsets.
Alfred Brousseau
© Brother Eric Vogel, St. Mary’s College
@ CalPhotos
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Hesperoyucca whipplei (Torr.) Baker. our lord’s
candle, Whipple’s yucca
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The apical meristem, young flower
stalks, flowers, and tender immature pods were eaten
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Distribution TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Distribution='For current distribution, please consult the Plant
Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web
site. This plant is found in chaparral, coastal sage
scrub, creosote bush scrub and the desert at
elevations below 2500 m. It grows in southern
California, northwestern Arizona, and Baja,
California.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Seeds: Plant the seeds in the fall in deep, one-gallon
pots in well-drained soil. Lay the seeds on top of the
soil and sprinkle soil over the seeds until they are
covered. Then cover the soil with one quarter-inch of
gravel. Keep the pots damp through the first year.
The plants need sharp drainage and space. Plant the
young seedling the following fall outside. This yucca
needs full sun, excellent drainage, and is intolerant of
frequent summer water. It can endure cold
temperatures to about 10 degrees F.
Cuttings: Cut off yucca leaves at the point of origin
in the spring. Reduce the length of the leaves to six
inches, exposing bare stem tissue. Stick the cuttings
in a pot with well-drained soil and water the soil,
keeping it slightly moist. Place the pot in partial
shade. Plant the seedling outdoors in full sun, in
well-drained soil in the fall. Continue to water the
plant for three years until it gets established.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Management TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Management='Prune back dead or diseased leaves periodically in
the autumn.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_ImprovedandSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
This species is available from native plant nurseries
within its range. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_References='Bean L.J. &. K.S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh:
Cahuilla Indian knowledge and usage of plants.
Malki Museum Press, Morongo Indian Reservation,
Banning, California.
Hedges, K. &. C. Beresford. 1986. Santa Ysabel
ethnobotany. San Diego Museum of Man Ethnic
Technology Notes No. 20. San Diego Museum of
Man, San Diego, California.
Kroeber, A.L. 1909. Notes on Shoshonean dialects
of Southern California. University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology 8(5):235-269.
Martin, A.C., H.S. Zim, &. A.L. Nelson. 1951.
American wildlife and plants: A guide to wildlife food
habits. Dover Publications, New York, New York.
Mathewson, M.S. 1985. Threads of life: Cordage
and other fibers of the California tribes.
Unpublished Senior Thesis. Department of
Anthropology. University of California, Santa Cruz.
McKinney, K.K. &. J.C. Hickman 1993. Yucca.
Page 1210 IN: The Jepson manual: Higher plants of
California. J.C. Hickman (ed.). University of
California Press, Berkeley.
Mielke, J. 1993. Native plants for southwestern
landscapes. University of Texas Press, Austin,
Texas.
Voegelin, E.W. 1938. Tubatulabal ethnography.
Anthropological Records 2(1):1-90.
Zigmond, M.L. 1981. Kawaiisu ethnobotany.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah.
' WHERE symbol='yuwh';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_amp_SpeciesCoordinators='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Science Department, University of California, Davis,
California
Warren Roberts
UC Davis Arboretum, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 07dec00 jsp. 04jun03 ahv. 07jun06 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
Page 3
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
Plant Guide
COMMON
PRICKLYASH
Zanthoxylum americanum P.
Mill.
Plant Symbol = ZAAM
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
and gonorrhea. An ointment, made my mixing the
plant with bear grease, was applied to ulcers and
sores. Infusions of the berries were used to spray on
the chest and throat to treat bronchial diseases, to
wash sores, and to flavor medicines. The bark and
the berries were used to treat hemorrhages, to make
cough syrup, as an expectorant, and to treat
tuberculosis. Children who were weak were washed
with a decoction of the bark to make their legs and
feet strong. The bark was used in different forms to
alleviate toothaches. Smoking the bark treated
toothache. Bark, either beaten or powdered was
packed in and around an aching tooth. Pieces of the
bark were chewed to help breakup a tooth that was to
be remove. The plant was an ingredient in
compounds that were used for kidney trouble, to
strengthen convalescing patients, and to induce
vomiting. An infusion of the bark was, at least once,
placed on a dog’s nose to improve its scenting
capabilities during hunting. The fruits were
administered as diuretics to horses. Young men of
the Omaha tribe used a perfume made from the fruits.
The plant is probably still used today for various
purposes by various Native American tribes.
Wildlife: The fruits are eaten by a variety of birds and
small mammals including bobwhite quails, vireos,
pheasants, cottontails, and eastern chipmunks. Bees
are attracted to the flowers. Giant swallowtail
butterflies lay their eggs on the plants leaves.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Description TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Description='General: Rue Family (Rutaceae). It is an aromatic,
native, perennial tree or shrub that can grow from 1
to 8 meters tall. The branches are dark brown and
armed with 8 to 13 mm-long prickles. When broken,
the twigs have a strong odor reminiscent of crushed
lemon peel. The leaf buds (1mm long) are red and
woolly. The leaves (1 to 30 cm long) are composed
of 5 to 11 ovate, pinnately arranged leaflets (4 to 8
cm long). The dark green and lustrous leaves are
dotted with translucent glands. The lower portion of
the leaf is a lighter pubescent green beneath. The
greenish-yellow flowers (3 to 3.5 mm wide) appear in
the spring before the leaves. The small fruits are
capsules (0.5 to 0.6 cm). Each fruit contains one
©John Kasmer
Northeastern Illinois University
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Alternate Names
Northern prickly ash, toothache tree. this genus is
incorrectly spelled Xanthoxylum in much of the
literature.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Uses TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Uses='Ethnobotanic: The Alabama, Cherokee, Chippewa,
Comanche, Creek, Delaware, Iroquois, Oklahoma,
Menominee, Meskwaki, Ojibwa, Pawnee, and
Potawatomi were among the Native American tribes
that used common pricklyash for many, mostly
medicinal purposes. An infusion of the bark was
used as a wash to treat itching skin and to treat
swollen joints. Infusions of the bark were taken
internally for back pain, cramps, pulmonary
problems, to treat fevers, and as a cold and cough
remedy. Infusions, made from the crushed roots,
were also used to treat fevers. A poultice made from
the inner bark was used to treated rheumatism and
sharp pains. Placing the inner bark in the throat
treated sore throats. The bark was boiled into a
decoction that was taken to induce miscarriages. The
plant was used to treat pain after childbirth. Bark
infusions were taken to treat worms in adults. The
bark of the roots was used to treat colic, rheumatism,
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
seed. The fruit ripens in late summer, turning from
green to reddish brown. When the seeds mature, they
hang exposed from the split capsules.
Distribution: For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
Habitat: This plant occurs along riverbanks and in
moist ravines, thickets, and woods. It is also found in
somewhat drier areas such as upland rocky hillsides,
bluffs, and open woods.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='Common pricklyash is a very hearty tree or small
shrub that does well in poor soils. Although easily
grown, the plants are not generally used for landscape
purposes as ornamentals. Because of the plants small
yet sharp thorns and suckering habit, they can make
an efficient barrier planting. The plants do well in
partial shade to full sun. Seeds, suckers, and root
cuttings may propagate pricklyash. The seeds may
be gathered from the plants when the capsules are
open. Unopened capsules will open upon drying.
The seeds will require scarification to germinate,
unless they are sown in the fall immediately after
collecting them.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PestsandPotentialProblems TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PestsandPotentialProblems='Common pricklyash has no serious insect or disease
problems.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Cultivars, Improved and Selected Materials (and
area of origin)
These plant materials are not readily available from
commercial sources. Contact your local Natural
Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) office for more information.
Look in the phone book under ”United States
Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation
Service will be listed under the subheading
“Department of Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='References
Bailey, L.H. &. E.Z. Bailey 1976. Hortus Third: A
concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United
States and Canada. Simon and Schuster Macmillan
Co., New York, New York. 1290 pp.
Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of woody landscape plants.
Fifth Edition. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, Illinois.
1187 pp.
Dutton, B.E. 1996. Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.bbg.org/research/nymf/encyclopedia/rut/z
an0010.htm. (25 June 2001).
Flint, H.L. 1997. Landscape plants for Eastern
North America. Second Edition. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York. 842 pp.
Hamel, P.B. &. M.U. Chiltoskey 1975. Cherokee
plants and their uses: A 400-year history. Herald
Publishing Company, Sylva, North Carolina. 65 pp.
Herrick, J.W. 1995. Iroquois medical botany.
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, New York. 278
pp.
Kasmer, J. 1998. Biology 498: Zanthoxylum
americanum. Northeastern Illinois University,
Chicago, IL. Accessed: 27sep01.
<.www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498/species.htm>..
Missouri Botanical Garden 2000. Kemper Center for
Home Gardening: Zanthoxylum americanum.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.mobot.org/hort/plantfinder/Code/M/M90.
htm. (25 June 2001).
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Moerman, D.E. 1999. Native American Ethnobotany
Database: Foods, drugs, dyes and fibers of native
North American Peoples. The University of
Michigan-Dearborn. [Online]. Available:
http://www.umd.umich.edu/cgi-bin/herb
(25 June 2001).
Oklahoma Biological Society Survey 1999.
Zanthoxylum americanum P. Mill. [Online].
Available: http://www.biosurvey.ou.edu/shrub/zante-
ame.htm. (25 June 2001).
Sayre, L.E. 1925. The botanical features of the new
United States pharmacopoeia. American Journal of
Pharmacology April 1925: 185-271.
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
Swanson, R.E. 1994. A field guide to the trees and
shrubs of the Southern Appalachians. John Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 399 pp.
Swanton, J.R. 2000. Creek religion and medicine.
University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
684 pp.
Page 3
Taylor, L.A. 1940. Plants used as curatives by
certain Southeastern Tribes. Botanical Museum of
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
88 pp.
Young, J.A. &. C.G. Young 1992. Seeds of woody
plants in North America. Dioscorides Press,
Portland, Oregon. 407 pp.
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='zaam';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator='M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 27sep01 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
Page: 1, 2, 3
Page 1
COONTIE
Zamia pumila L.
Plant Symbol = ZAPU
Contributed by: USDA NRCS National Plant Data
Center
@ PLANTS
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Warning: The roots of coontie are toxic when taken
internally, without sufficient preparation.' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_AlternateNames TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_AlternateNames='Seminole bread, Florida arrowroot, sago cycas,
comptie, contis, comfortroot, wild sago, white-root,
white bread-plant
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Uses
Ethnobotanic: The Seminole, Alabama, and many
other Native American tribes in the southeastern
United States used the fruits and roots of coontie for
food. Some people still prepare it today. The starchy
stems and roots were the main source of flour for the
Seminoles and many indigenous people of central
and southern Florida. These peoples are attributed
with increasing the plant’s distribution. The plant
parts contain central nervous system toxins, which
must be removed before consumption. To make
flour, the roots are first chopped into pieces. They
are then pounded with a mortar and pestle. The pulp
is then washed with water and the starch is allowed to
settle to the bottom. Then the water is drained and
the remaining paste is left to ferment for several days.
At the end of the fermentation process, the starch is
set in the sun to dry. When dry, the powdery,
cornmeal-like flour is then baked into bread.
Plant Guide
Wildlife: Coontie cones reportedly provide food in
exchange for pollination services for two species of
beetles in Florida, Pharaxonotha zamiae and
Rhopalotria slossoni. The seeds are a source of food
for mockingbirds, blue jays, and many other birds as
well as insects and small mammals. Butterfly larvae
feed on the leaflets.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Status TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Status='Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State
Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s
current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species,
state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Description
General: Cycad Family (Zamiaceae). Zamia is one
of only a few primitive or ‘relict’ genera, commonly
called cycads that are living remnants of plants that
were abundant about 325 million years ago. Zamia
pumila is the only species of this genus that grows in
the United States. Coontie is a fern-like evergreen,
perennial shrub (.5 to 1 m in height) with a thick (10
cm in diameter), sometimes branched, trunk that is
either very short (to 15 cm) or submerged. The trunk
is starchy, which is the reason for the name
“Seminole bread”. Dark green fronds grow from the
top of the trunk and have 2 to 13 pairs of stiff,
leathery leaflets that are 4-9 dm long. Leaf-widths
vary among plants. Fronds are from 40 to 80 cm
long. Green to dark reddish brown cones grow atop
stalks, from the center of the top of the trunk. Male
plants bear slender, cylindrical cones that are about
10 cm long and 2-3 cm in diameter. The cone-like
reproductive structures on female plants, called
“megasporophytes,” are 12 to 13 cm long, 5 cm in
diameter. Cones appear in mid-to late summer. The
red to red-orange seeds are 1cm to 2 cm long.
Distribution: Z. pumilia is endemic to central and
southern Florida. Zamia pumila is now rare, not only
because of its very small geographic range, but also
because people dig up plants in the wild to plant in
their gardens. For current distribution, please consult
the Plant Profile page for this species on the
PLANTS Web site.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Adaptation TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Adaptation='These plants grow in dry, sandy pinelands and
hammocks. Although salt tolerant, they rarely occur
in sandy coastal dunes.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='Plant Materials <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/>.
Plant Fact Sheet/Guide Coordination Page <.http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/intranet/pfs.html>.
National Plant Data Center <.http://npdc.usda.gov>.
Page 2
Moerman, D.E. 1998. Native American ethnobotany.
Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. 927 pp.
Rogers, D.J. &. C. Rogers 1991. Woody ornamentals
for Deep South gardens. University of West Florida
Press, Pensacola, Florida. 296 pp.' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_='
Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of Southeastern flora.
University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina. 1554 pp.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_PreparedBy_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_PreparedBy_='Diana L. Immel
Formerly USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center,
c/o Environmental Horticulture Department,
University of California, Davis, California
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_SpeciesCoordinator_ TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_SpeciesCoordinator_='
M. Kat Anderson
USDA, NRCS, National Plant Data Center, c/o Plant
Sciences Department, University of California,
Davis, California
Edited: 21June2001 jsp. 060818 jsp
For more information about this and other plants, please contact
your local NRCS field office or Conservation District, and visit the
PLANTS Web site<.http://plants.usda.gov>. or the Plant Materials
Program Web site <.http://Plant-Materials.nrcs.usda.gov>.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits
discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political
beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all
prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program
information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact
USDA s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To file a complaint of discrimination write USDA, Director, Office
of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and
Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call
202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Read about Civil Rights at the Natural Resources Convervation
Service.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Establishment TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Establishment='The plants will grow from seed, but one must be
patient as the seeds may take several months to
several years to germinate. Plants may be propagated
by division. Coonties can grow in full sun to deep
shade, but require warm weather. They are drought-
tolerant and like well-drained soils. The plants are
salt-tolerant and are therefore excellent for coastal
landscapes. They make lovely additions to the
garden as shrubs or ground covers. Coonties make
beautiful specimen plants and grow well in
containers, either indoors or outdoors.
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and TEXT;
UPDATE usda_plants SET cs_Cultivars_Improved_andSelectedMaterials_and='area of origin)
These plant materials are readily available from
commercial sources. Because this plant is threatened
by harvesting, be sure to inquire whether the plants
were propagated from seed and not taken from the
wild. Contact your local Natural Resources
Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation
Service) office for more information. Look in the
phone book under ”United States Government.” The
Natural Resources Conservation Service will be
listed under the subheading “Department of
Agriculture.”
' WHERE symbol='zapu';
ALTER TABLE usda_plants ADD cs_References TEXT;
|
use openclinic_dbo;
delete from oc_config;
insert into oc_config select * from mysql.oc_config_backup;
delete from oc_config where oc_key='initializeSlaveCounters';
insert into oc_config(oc_key,oc_value) values('initializeSlaveCounters','1'); |
CREATE TABLE [ERP].[DatoLaboralDetalle] (
[ID] INT IDENTITY (1, 1) NOT NULL,
[IdDatoLaboral] INT NULL,
[IdRegimenLaboral] INT NULL,
[IdTipoTrabajador] INT NULL,
[IdPuesto] INT NULL,
[IdTipoSueldo] INT NULL,
[Sueldo] DECIMAL (14, 5) NULL,
[FechaInicio] DATETIME NULL,
[FechaFin] DATETIME NULL,
[IdCategoriaDatoLaboral] INT NULL,
[IdPlanilla] INT NULL,
[IdCategoriaOcupacional] INT NULL,
[FlagJornadaTrabajoMaxima] BIT NULL,
[FlagJornadaAtipica] BIT NULL,
[FlagJornadaTrabajoHorarioNocturno] BIT NULL,
[IdSituacionEspecialTrabajador] INT NULL,
[FlagSindicalizado] BIT NULL,
[IdSituacionTrabajador] INT NULL,
[FlagPersonaDiscapacidad] BIT NULL,
[UsuarioRegistro] VARCHAR (250) NULL,
[FechaRegistro] DATETIME NULL,
[UsuarioModifico] VARCHAR (250) NULL,
[FechaModifico] DATETIME NULL,
[HoraBase] DECIMAL (14, 5) NULL,
[IdEstadoTrabajador] INT NULL,
CONSTRAINT [PK__DatoLabo__3214EC27E18657FE] PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED ([ID] ASC),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdCat__458BB384] FOREIGN KEY ([IdCategoriaDatoLaboral]) REFERENCES [Maestro].[CategoriaDatoLaboral] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdCat__495C4468] FOREIGN KEY ([IdCategoriaOcupacional]) REFERENCES [PLAME].[T24CategoriaOcupacional] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdDat__14DD8F31] FOREIGN KEY ([IdDatoLaboral]) REFERENCES [ERP].[DatoLaboral] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdPla__51F18A69] FOREIGN KEY ([IdPlanilla]) REFERENCES [Maestro].[Planilla] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdPue__79206623] FOREIGN KEY ([IdPuesto]) REFERENCES [Maestro].[Puesto] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdReg__0DE678DF] FOREIGN KEY ([IdRegimenLaboral]) REFERENCES [PLAME].[T33RegimenLaboral] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdSit__4A5068A1] FOREIGN KEY ([IdSituacionEspecialTrabajador]) REFERENCES [PLAME].[T35SituacionEspecialTrabajador] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdSit__4B448CDA] FOREIGN KEY ([IdSituacionTrabajador]) REFERENCES [PLAME].[T15SituacionTrabajador] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdTip__15D1B36A] FOREIGN KEY ([IdTipoTrabajador]) REFERENCES [PLAME].[T8TipoTrabajador] ([ID]),
CONSTRAINT [FK__DatoLabor__IdTip__63F03F13] FOREIGN KEY ([IdTipoSueldo]) REFERENCES [Maestro].[TipoSueldo] ([ID])
);
|
-- Rack position sets should be unique. We want to get rid on duplicate and
-- unused rack position sets. Duplication detected by the hash value.
-- rack positions sets should be unique in the future as well
--ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
-- DROP CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_set_id_fkey;
--ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
-- ADD CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_set_id_fkey
-- FOREIGN KEY (rack_position_set_id)
-- REFERENCES rack_position_set (rack_position_set_id)
-- ON UPDATE RESTRICT ON DELETE RESTRICT;
select assert('(select version from db_version) = 209.0009');
-- get and delete unused rack position sets; at this alter deletion and
-- update conditions for the rack position set member table
CREATE TABLE tmp_unused_sets (
rack_position_set_id INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE
);
INSERT INTO tmp_unused_sets (rack_position_set_id)
SELECT rps.rack_position_set_id
FROM rack_position_set rps LEFT JOIN tagged_rack_position_set trps
ON rps.rack_position_set_id = trps.rack_position_set_id
GROUP BY rps.rack_position_set_id
HAVING COUNT(trps.rack_position_set_id) = 0;
ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
DROP CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_set_id_fkey;
ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
ADD CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_set_id_fkey
FOREIGN KEY (rack_position_set_id)
REFERENCES rack_position_set (rack_position_set_id)
ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE;
ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
DROP CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_id_fkey;
ALTER TABLE rack_position_set_member
ADD CONSTRAINT rack_position_set_member_rack_position_id_fkey
FOREIGN KEY (rack_position_id)
REFERENCES rack_position (rack_position_id)
ON DELETE RESTRICT ON UPDATE RESTRICT;
DELETE FROM rack_position_set
WHERE rack_position_set_id IN (
SELECT rack_position_set_id FROM tmp_unused_sets);
DROP TABLE tmp_unused_sets;
-- creating a temporary table storing the minimum rack_position_set_id
-- for each rack_position_set
CREATE TABLE tmp_rps_hash_values (
hash_value VARCHAR UNIQUE,
new_rack_position_set_id INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE
);
INSERT INTO tmp_rps_hash_values (hash_value, new_rack_position_set_id)
SELECT rps.hash_value, MIN(rps.rack_position_set_id)
FROM rack_position_set rps
GROUP BY rps.hash_value;
-- creating a temporary table storing the old rack_positions_set_id for each
-- minimum rack_position_set_id
CREATE TABLE tmp_rps_old_new (
old_rack_position_set_id INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE,
new_rack_position_set_id INTEGER NOT NULL
REFERENCES tmp_rps_hash_values (new_rack_position_set_id)
);
INSERT INTO tmp_rps_old_new (old_rack_position_set_id, new_rack_position_set_id)
SELECT ass.old_rack_position_set_id, ass.new_rack_position_set_id
FROM (SELECT rps.rack_position_set_id AS old_rack_position_set_id,
tmp.new_rack_position_set_id AS new_rack_position_set_id
FROM rack_position_set rps, tmp_rps_hash_values tmp
WHERE rps.hash_value = tmp.hash_value) as ass;
-- update referencing tagged_rack_position_set table
ALTER TABLE tagged_rack_position_set RENAME COLUMN
rack_position_set_id TO old_rack_position_set_id;
ALTER TABLE tagged_rack_position_set ADD COLUMN
new_rack_position_set_id INTEGER
REFERENCES rack_position_set (rack_position_set_id);
UPDATE tagged_rack_position_set
SET new_rack_position_set_id = (
SELECT tmp.new_rack_position_set_id
FROM tagged_rack_position_set trps INNER JOIN tmp_rps_old_new tmp
ON trps.old_rack_position_set_id = tmp.old_rack_position_set_id
WHERE tagged_rack_position_set.tagged_id = trps.tagged_id);
ALTER TABLE tagged_rack_position_set
DROP COLUMN old_rack_position_set_id;
ALTER TABLE tagged_rack_position_set RENAME COLUMN
new_rack_position_set_id TO rack_position_set_id;
DROP TABLE tmp_rps_old_new;
DROP TABLE tmp_rps_hash_values;
-- delete now unused (duplicate) sets from the rack position set table
CREATE TABLE tmp_unused_sets (
rack_position_set_id INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE
);
INSERT INTO tmp_unused_sets (rack_position_set_id)
SELECT rps.rack_position_set_id
FROM rack_position_set rps LEFT JOIN tagged_rack_position_set trps
ON rps.rack_position_set_id = trps.rack_position_set_id
GROUP BY rps.rack_position_set_id
HAVING COUNT(trps.rack_position_set_id) = 0;
DELETE FROM rack_position_set
WHERE rack_position_set_id IN (
SELECT rack_position_set_id FROM tmp_unused_sets);
DROP TABLE tmp_unused_sets;
-- add unique constraints
ALTER TABLE rack_position_set
ADD CONSTRAINT unique_rack_position_set_hash_value UNIQUE (hash_value);
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW db_version AS SELECT 209.0010 AS version; |
SELEC id, username, (total-point - spend_point) AS POINT
FROM users;
ORDER BY point DESC
LIMIT 50
INTO OUTFILE '/tmp/bbs_points_top50.csv'
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ','
ENCLOSED BY '"'
LINES TERMINATED BY '\n'
; |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 4.7.4
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Hôte : 127.0.0.1
-- Généré le : ven. 22 déc. 2017 à 11:17
-- Version du serveur : 10.1.29-MariaDB
-- Version de PHP : 7.2.0
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
SET AUTOCOMMIT = 0;
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Base de données : `jdr`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Structure de la table `card`
--
CREATE TABLE `card` (
`id` int(11) NOT NULL,
`name` varchar(25) NOT NULL,
`life` int(10) NOT NULL,
`atttack` int(10) NOT NULL,
`defense` int(10) NOT NULL,
`pa` int(5) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;
--
-- Déchargement des données de la table `card`
--
INSERT INTO `card` (`id`, `name`, `life`, `atttack`, `defense`, `pa`) VALUES
(1, 'apero', 150, 20, 3, 3),
(2, 'citimescouillious', 50, 10, 20, 2),
(3, 'roger', 80, 10, 40, 3),
(4, 'didier', 130, 30, 10, 1);
--
-- Index pour les tables déchargées
--
--
-- Index pour la table `card`
--
ALTER TABLE `card`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`id`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT pour les tables déchargées
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT pour la table `card`
--
ALTER TABLE `card`
MODIFY `id` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=5;
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
CREATE TABLE Pub (
PubID serial NOT NULL,
name TEXT NOT NULL,
address TEXT NOT NULL,
location TEXT NOT NULL,
hours numeric NOT NULL,
date_created TIMESTAMP NOT NULL,
PubCatID int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT Pub_pk PRIMARY KEY (PubID)
);
CREATE TABLE Product (
ProductID serial NOT NULL,
country_of_origin TEXT NOT NULL,
name TEXT NOT NULL,
percentage numeric NOT NULL,
quantity numeric NOT NULL,
ProdCatID int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT Product_pk PRIMARY KEY (ProductID)
);
CREATE TABLE PubProducts (
PubProdID serial NOT NULL,
price numeric NOT NULL,
date_created TIMESTAMP NOT NULL,
PubID int NOT NULL,
ProductID int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT PubProducts_pk PRIMARY KEY (PubProdID)
);
CREATE TABLE PubCategories (
PubCatID serial NOT NULL,
CatID int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT PubCategories_pk PRIMARY KEY (PubCatID)
);
CREATE TABLE ProductCategories (
ProdCatID serial NOT NULL,
CatID int NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT ProductCategories_pk PRIMARY KEY (ProdCatID)
);
CREATE TABLE Categories (
CatID serial NOT NULL,
name TEXT NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT Categories_pk PRIMARY KEY (CatID)
);
ALTER TABLE Pub ADD CONSTRAINT Pub_PubCatID FOREIGN KEY (PubCatID) REFERENCES PubCategories(PubCatID);
ALTER TABLE Product ADD CONSTRAINT Product_ProdCatID FOREIGN KEY (ProdCatID) REFERENCES ProductCategories(ProdCatID);
ALTER TABLE PubProducts ADD CONSTRAINT PubProducts_PubID FOREIGN KEY (PubID) REFERENCES Pub(PubID);
ALTER TABLE PubProducts ADD CONSTRAINT PubProducts_ProductID FOREIGN KEY (ProductID) REFERENCES Product(ProductID);
ALTER TABLE PubCategories ADD CONSTRAINT PubCategories_CatID FOREIGN KEY (CatID) REFERENCES Categories(CatID);
ALTER TABLE ProductCategories ADD CONSTRAINT ProductCategories_CatID FOREIGN KEY (CatID) REFERENCES Categories(CatID);
INSERT INTO Categories(name)
VALUES ('BEER'),
('PUBLIC HOUSE'),
('CRAFT BEER'),
('COCKTAIL'),
('SPIRITS'),
('CRAFT PUB'),
('NIGHTCLUB');
INSERT INTO PubCategories(CatID)
VALUES ((select CatID from Categories where name = 'CRAFT PUB')),
((select CatID from Categories where name = 'PUBLIC HOUSE')),
((select CatID from Categories where name = 'NIGHTCLUB'));
INSERT INTO ProductCategories(CatID)
VALUES ((select CatID from Categories where name = 'CRAFT BEER')),
((select CatID from Categories where name = 'BEER')),
((select CatID from Categories where name = 'SPIRITS')),
((select CatID from Categories where name = 'COCKTAIL'));
INSERT INTO Pub(name, address, location, Hours, date_created, PubCatID)
VALUES ('Lagoona Bar', 'Unit 4, Custom House Square, Mayor Street Lower, North Dock, Dublin', '53.3495791,-6.2452662', 11, LOCALTIMESTAMP, (select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'PUBLIC HOUSE'))),
('Drunken Fish', 'The Excise Building, I.F.S.C.,, Mayor Street Lower, International Financial Services Centre, Dublin 1', '53.3492226,-6.2464159', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'PUBLIC HOUSE'))),
('Harbour Master', 'Customs House Dock, IFSC, Dublin 1, D01 W0X8', '53.349762,-6.2512417', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'PUBLIC HOUSE'))),
('Bernard Shaw', '11-12 Richmond St South, Saint Kevins, Dublin 2', '53.3317151,-6.2667638', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'CRAFT PUB'))),
('Dicey Reillys', '21-25 Harcourt St, Saint Kevins, Dublin 2', '53.3358639,-6.2657456', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'NIGHTCLUB'))),
('Against the grain', '11 Wexford St, Dublin 2, DUBLIN 2', '53.3370639,-6.2676721', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'CRAFT PUB'))),
('Chaplins', '1-2 Hawkins St, Dublin 2, D02 K590', '53.3461105,-6.2593373', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'PUBLIC HOUSE'))),
('Howl at the moon', '54-, 74 Merrion Square S, Dublin', '53.3391773,-6.2476444', 7, LOCALTIMESTAMP,(select pubcatid from pubcategories where catid in (select catid from categories where name = 'NIGHTCLUB')));
INSERT INTO Product(name, percentage, country_of_origin, quantity, ProdCatID)
VALUES ('O Brother, The Chancer', 5.4, 'Ireland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'CRAFT BEER'))),
('St Bernardus, ABT', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'CRAFT BEER'))),
('Brewdog, Vagabond', 4.5, 'Scotland', 330, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'CRAFT BEER'))),
('Heineken', 5.4, 'Holland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Stella Artois', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('1664', 5.4, 'Holland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Guinness', 10, 'Ireland', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Paulaner', 5.4, 'Ireland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Carlsberg', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('White Russian', 5.4, 'Ireland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'COCKTAIL'))),
('Strawberry Daqiuri', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'COCKTAIL'))),
('Kopparberg', 5.4, 'Ireland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Erdinger', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER'))),
('Vodka', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'SPIRITS'))),
('Captain Morgans', 5.4, 'Ireland', 500, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'SPIRITS'))),
('Jack Daniels', 10, 'Belgium', 330,(select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'SPIRITS'))),
('Budweiser', 4.5, 'Scotland', 330, (select prodcatid from productcategories where catid in(select catid from categories where name = 'BEER')));
INSERT INTO PubProducts(Price, PubID, ProductID, date_created)
VALUES --Lagoona bar products
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Lagoona Bar'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--harbour master products
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Harbour Master'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--Drunken Fish products
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Drunken Fish'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--Chaplins
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Chaplins'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--Howl at the moon
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Howl at the moon'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--Diceys
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Dicey Reillys'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--Bernard Shaw
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Bernard Shaw'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
--against the grain
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'O Brother, The Chancer'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'St Bernardus, ABT'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Brewdog, Vagabond'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Heineken'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Stella Artois'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = '1664'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Guinness'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Paulaner'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Carlsberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'White Russian'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Strawberry Daqiuri'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Kopparberg'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Erdinger'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Vodka'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Captain Morgans'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(7.50, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Jack Daniels'), LOCALTIMESTAMP),
(8.00, (select PubID from Pub where name = 'Against the grain'),(select ProductId from Product where name = 'Budweiser'), LOCALTIMESTAMP);
--images sample
ALTER TABLE product ADD COLUMN img_url text;
UPDATE PRODUCT
SET img_url = 'C:\Users\lenovo\Downloads\heineken.svg';
--queries
select prod.productid
,prod.name
,prod.percentage
,prod.country_of_origin
,prod.prodcatid
,prod.img_url
,c.name
from product prod
join productcategories pc on prod.prodcatid = pc.prodcatid
join categories c on pc.catid = c.catid
where prod.name = 'Heineken';
--top part of drink page - Heineken example
select prod.productid
,prod.name
,prod.percentage
,prod.country_of_origin
,prod.prodcatid
,prod.img_url
,c.name
from product prod
join productcategories pc on prod.prodcatid = pc.prodcatid
join categories c on pc.catid = c.catid
where prod.productid = 4;
--table on bottom of drink page - Heineken example
select pbprod.price
,pb.name
,c.name
from pubproducts pbprod
join pub pb on pbprod.pubid = pb.pubid
join pubcategories pbc on pb.pubcatid = pbc.pubcatid
join categories c on pbc.catid = c.catid
join product prod on pbprod.productid = prod.productid
where prod.name = 'Heineken';
--table on bottom of drink page - Heineken example
select pbprod.price
,pb.name
,pb.pubid
,c.name
from pubproducts pbprod
join pub pb on pbprod.pubid = pb.pubid
join pubcategories pbc on pb.pubcatid = pbc.pubcatid
join categories c on pbc.catid = c.catid
join product prod on pbprod.productid = prod.productid
where prod.productid = 4; |
DELETE tableA
FROM tableA
INNER JOIN tableB u on (u.qlabel = tableA.entityrole AND u.fieldnum = tableA.fieldnum)
WHERE (LENGTH(tableA.memotext) NOT IN (8,9,10)
OR tableA.memotext NOT LIKE '%/%/%')
AND (u.FldFormat = 'Date') |
Select sotr.name, address, zarp
FROM
sotr INNER JOIN zarp
ON sotr.id = zarp.sotr_id
WHERE sotr.name = 'Федор'; |
USE Haze_Vabpe_db;
INSERT INTO roles (name) VALUES ('admin');
INSERT INTO roles (name) VALUES ('owner');
INSERT INTO roles (name) VALUES ('user');
|
DROP TABLE YKWM_checklog;
CREATE TABLE ykwm_checklog (
plat_date NUMBER(11) NOT NULL ,
plat_trace NUMBER(11) NOT NULL ,
tel_no VARCHAR2(50) NULL ,
branch_no VARCHAR2(50) NULL ,
host_date NUMBER(11) NULL ,
host_traceno VARCHAR2(20) NULL ,
tx_amt NUMBER NULL ,
accountno VARCHAR2(50) NULL
);
COMMENT ON TABLE ykwm_checklog IS '营口热电日终对账核心数据';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.plat_date IS '渠道日期';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.plat_trace IS '渠道流水';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.tel_no IS '柜员号';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.branch_no IS '机构号';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.host_date IS '核心交易日期';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.host_traceno IS '核心流水号';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.tx_amt IS '交易金额';
COMMENT ON COLUMN ykwm_checklog.accountno IS '交易账户';
ALTER TABLE ykwm_checklog ADD PRIMARY KEY (plat_date, plat_trace); |
CREATE PROC [ERP].[Usp_Sel_ConceptoAFPMesPorcentaje_ByIDs] --48, 8, 1
@IdConcepto INT,
@IdAnio INT,
@IdRegimenLaboral INT
AS
BEGIN
SELECT
A.ID AS IdAFP,
A.IdEntidad,
A.Codigo,
A.FlagTope,
CAMP.ID,
CAMP.IdConceptoAFPMes,
CAMP.Porcentaje,
CAM.IdMes
FROM [ERP].[ConceptoAFPMesPorcentaje] CAMP
INNER JOIN [ERP].[ConceptoAFPMes] CAM ON CAMP.IdConceptoAFPMes = CAM.ID
INNER JOIN [ERP].[ConceptoAFP] CA ON CAM.IdConceptoAFP = CA.ID
INNER JOIN [ERP].[AFP] A ON CAMP.IdAFP = A.ID
WHERE
A.Flag = 1 AND
CA.IdConcepto = @IdConcepto AND
CA.IdAnio = @IdAnio AND
CA.IdRegimenLaboral = @IdRegimenLaboral
END
|
select ItemID
from items
ORDER by Currently Desc limit 1;
|
select user_id
, occurred_at
, EXTRACT('year' from occurred_at) as occurred_year
, EXTRACT('month' from occurred_at) as occurred_month
, EXTRACT('day' from occurred_at) as occurred_day
, CASE WHEN EXTRACT('dow' from occurred_at) in (0,6) THEN 'Weekend' ELSE 'Weekday' END as occurred_weekday
, INITCAP(REPLACE(event_type, '_', ' ')) as event_type
, INITCAP(REPLACE(event_name, '_', ' ')) as event_name
, INITCAP(retention_events.device) as device
, system_tags.manufacturer as device_manufacturer
, system_tags.os as device_os
, system_tags.device_form_factor
, retention_events.location as location_country
, all_country_data2.region as location_region
, all_country_data2.sub_region as location_sub_region
from modeanalytics.retention_events
left join modeanalytics.system_tags on system_tags.device=retention_events.device
left join modeanalytics.all_country_data2 on all_country_data2.name = retention_events.location |
use mysql;
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS securitycontroller;
DELETE FROM user WHERE User="controller";
|
SELECT *
FROM TB_ProductoCategoriaFundo;
|
SELECT
AVG(SUBSTR(price, 2)) average_price,
(CASE WHEN strftime('%m', c.Date) in ('12', '01', '02') THEN 'winter'
WHEN strftime('%m', c.Date) in ('03', '04', '05') THEN 'spring'
WHEN strftime('%m', c.Date) in ('06', '07', '08') THEN 'summer'
ELSE 'fall' END) as season
FROM
calendar c
GROUP BY 2
ORDER BY average_price
|
DELETE FROM CourseCategories;
DELETE FROM Course;
DELETE FROM ProjectCategories;
DELETE FROM StudentProjectApplications;
DELETE FROM Project;
DELETE FROM ApplyStatus;
DELETE FROM Designation;
DELETE FROM Category;
DELETE FROM Student;
DELETE FROM User;
DELETE FROM Major;
DELETE FROM Department;
DELETE FROM Year; |
-- phpMyAdmin SQL Dump
-- version 5.1.0
-- https://www.phpmyadmin.net/
--
-- Host: 127.0.0.1
-- Waktu pembuatan: 13 Jul 2021 pada 10.43
-- Versi server: 10.4.18-MariaDB
-- Versi PHP: 7.3.27
SET SQL_MODE = "NO_AUTO_VALUE_ON_ZERO";
START TRANSACTION;
SET time_zone = "+00:00";
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@@CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@@CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET @OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION=@@COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
/*!40101 SET NAMES utf8mb4 */;
--
-- Database: `stockbarang`
--
-- --------------------------------------------------------
--
-- Struktur dari tabel `keluar`
--
CREATE TABLE `keluar` (
`idkeluar` int(11) NOT NULL,
`idbarang` int(11) NOT NULL,
`tanggal` timestamp NOT NULL DEFAULT current_timestamp(),
`penerima` varchar(30) NOT NULL,
`qty` int(11) NOT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4;
--
-- Dumping data untuk tabel `keluar`
--
INSERT INTO `keluar` (`idkeluar`, `idbarang`, `tanggal`, `penerima`, `qty`) VALUES
(6, 6, '2021-07-08 00:05:56', 'Joko', 15),
(7, 5, '2021-07-08 00:15:31', 'Yanto', 15),
(8, 10, '2021-07-08 12:38:05', 'Ahmad', 5);
--
-- Indexes for dumped tables
--
--
-- Indeks untuk tabel `keluar`
--
ALTER TABLE `keluar`
ADD PRIMARY KEY (`idkeluar`);
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT untuk tabel yang dibuang
--
--
-- AUTO_INCREMENT untuk tabel `keluar`
--
ALTER TABLE `keluar`
MODIFY `idkeluar` int(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT, AUTO_INCREMENT=9;
COMMIT;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_CLIENT */;
/*!40101 SET CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS=@OLD_CHARACTER_SET_RESULTS */;
/*!40101 SET COLLATION_CONNECTION=@OLD_COLLATION_CONNECTION */;
|
-- ----------------------------
-- Records of ums_role
-- ----------------------------
INSERT INTO `ums_role` VALUES ('1', '商品管理员', '商品管理员', '0', '2018-09-30 15:46:11', '1', '0');
INSERT INTO `ums_role` VALUES ('2', '商品分类管理员', '商品分类管理员', '0', '2018-09-30 15:53:45', '1', '0');
INSERT INTO `ums_role` VALUES ('3', '商品类型管理员', '商品类型管理员', '0', '2018-09-30 15:53:56', '1', '0');
INSERT INTO `ums_role` VALUES ('4', '品牌管理员', '品牌管理员', '0', '2018-09-30 15:54:12', '1', '0');
|
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