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900 | like assignmentsprintsand function calls compound statements like if tests and while loops must still appear on lines of their own (otherwiseyou could squeeze an entire program onto one linewhich probably would not make you very popular among your coworkers!the other special rule for statements is essentially the inver... |
901 | as mentioned previouslystatements in nested block of code are normally associated by being indented the same amount to the right as one special case herethe body of compound statement can instead appear on the same line as the header in pythonafter the colonif yprint(xthis allows us to code single-line if statementssin... |
902 | while truereply input('enter text:'if reply ='stop'break print(reply upper()this code makes use of few new ideas and some we've already seenthe code leverages the python while looppython' most general looping statement we'll study the while statement in more detail laterbut in shortit consists of the word whilefollowed... |
903 | working in python xthe code works the samebut you must use raw_input instead of input in all of this examplesand you can omit the outer parentheses in print statements (though they don' hurtin factif you study the interact py file in the examples packageyou'll see that it does this automatically--to support compatibili... |
904 | after the loop is exitedenter text: enter text: enter text:stop bye usage notefrom this point on 'll assume that this code is stored in and run from script filevia command lineidle menu optionor any of the other file launching techniques we met in againit' named interact py in the book' examples if you are entering thi... |
905 | tool for coding logic in scripts in its full formit consists of the word if followed by test and an associated block of codeone or more optional elif ("else if"tests and code blocksand an optional else partwith an associated block of code at the bottom to serve as default python runs the block of code associated with t... |
906 | this try statement is another compound statementand follows the same pattern as if and while it' composed of the word tryfollowed by the main block of code (the action we are trying to run)followed by an except part that gives the exception handler code and an else part to be run if no exception is raised in the try pa... |
907 | enter text: enter text: - - enter text:spam bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!badenter text:stop bye python' eval callwhich we used in and to convert data in strings and fileswould work in place of float here tooand would allow input of arbitrary expressions (" * would be legalif curiousinputespecially if we're assuming the ... |
908 | but we'll now print "lowfor numbers less than enter text: low enter text: enter text:spam bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!bad!badenter text:stop bye summary that concludes our quick look at python statement syntax this introduced the general rules for coding statements and blocks of code as you've learnedin python we normally ... |
909 | closing bracketed syntactic pair the statements in nested block are all indented the same number of tabs or spaces you can make statement span many lines by enclosing part of it in parenthesessquare bracketsor curly bracesthe statement ends when python sees line that contains the closing part of the pair the body of co... |
910 | assignmentsexpressionsand prints now that we've had quick introduction to python statement syntaxthis begins our in-depth tour of specific python statements we'll begin with the basicsassignment statementsexpression statementsand print operations we've already seen all of these in actionbut here we'll fill in important... |
911 | errorsit would be much more difficult for you to spot name typos in your code some operations perform assignments implicitly in this section we're concerned with the statementbut assignment occurs in many contexts in python for instancewe'll see later that module importsfunction and class definitionsfor loop variablesa... |
912 | charactersa is assigned ' ' is assigned ' 'and so on extended sequence unpacking in python (only) new form of sequence assignment allows us to be more flexible in how we select portions of sequence to assign the fifth line in table - for examplematches with the first character in the string on the right and with the re... |
913 | solution to the exercises at the end of part ii because python creates temporary tuple that saves the original values of the variables on the right while the statement runsunpacking assignments are also way to swap two variablesvalues without creating temporary variable of your own--the tuple on the right remembers the... |
914 | employ slicing to make this last case workabc string[ ]string[ ]string[ :abc (' '' ''am'index and slice abc list(string[: ][string[ :]abc (' '' ''am'slice and concatenate ab string[: string[ :abc (' '' ''am'samebut simpler (ab) string[: ]string[ :abc (' '' ''am'nested sequences as the last example in this interaction d... |
915 | redblue ( this initializes the three names to the integer codes and respectively (it' python' equivalent of the enumerated data types you may have seen in other languagesto make sense of thisyou need to know that the range built-in function generates list of successive integers (in onlyit requires list around it if you... |
916 | let' look at an example as we've seensequence assignments normally require exactly as many names in the target on the left as there are items in the subject on the right we get an error if the lengths disagree in both and (unless we manually sliced on the rightas shown in the prior section) :\codec:\python \python seq ... |
917 | [ naturallylike normal sequence assignmentextended sequence unpacking syntax works for any sequence types (reallyagainany iterable)not just lists here it is unpacking characters in string and range (an iterable in ) * 'spamab (' '[' '' '' '] *bc 'spamabc (' '[' '' ']' ' *bc range( abc ( [ ] this is similar in spirit to... |
918 | print(abcd [ secondif there is nothing left to match the starred nameit is assigned an empty listregardless of where it appears in the followingabcand have matched every item in the sequencebut python assigns an empty list instead of treating this as an error caseabcd* seq print(abcde [ab*ecd seq print(abcde [finallyer... |
919 | the new extended unpacking syntax requires noticeably fewer keystrokes*ab seq ab ([ ] restlast ab seq[:- ]seq[- ab ([ ] restlasttraditional because it is not only simpler butarguablymore naturalextended sequence unpacking syntax will likely become widespread in python code over time application to for loops because the... |
920 | abc ('spam''spam''spam'this form is equivalent to (but easier to code thanthese three assignmentsc 'spamb multiple-target assignment and shared references keep in mind that there is just one object hereshared by all three variables (they all wind up pointing to the same object in memorythis behavior is fine for immutab... |
921 | beginning with python the set of additional assignment statement formats listed in table - became available known as augmented assignmentsand borrowed from the languagethese formats are mostly just shorthand they imply the combination of binary expression and an assignment for instancethe following two formats are roug... |
922 | augmented assignments usually run faster the optimal technique is automatically chosen that isfor objects that support in-place changesthe augmented forms automatically perform in-place change operations instead of slower copies the last point here requires bit more explanation for augmented assignmentsinplace operatio... |
923 | [' '' '' '' ' 'spamtypeerrorcan only concatenate list (not "str"to list augmented assignment and shared references this behavior is usually what we wantbut notice that it implies that the +is an inplace change for liststhusit is not exactly like concatenationwhich always makes new object as for all shared reference cas... |
924 | that are currently reserved (and hence off-limits for names of your ownin python table - python reserved words false class finally is return none continue for lambda try true def from nonlocal while and del global not with as elif if or yield assert else import pass break except in raise table - is specific to python i... |
925 | scriptsvariable name constraints extend to your module filenames too for instanceyou can code files called and py and my-code py and run them as top-level scriptsbut you cannot import themtheir names without the pyextension become variables in your code and so must follow all the variable rules just outlined reserved w... |
926 | localized ("mangled"to enclosing classes (see the discussion of pseudoprivate attributes in the name that is just single underscore (_retains the result of the last expression when you are working interactively in addition to these python interpreter conventionsthere are various other conventions that python programmer... |
927 | rigidand subjective than it may need to be--some of its suggestions are not at all universally accepted or followed by python programmers doing real work moreoversome of the most prominent companies using python today have adopted coding standards of their own that differ pep does codify useful rule-of-thumb python kno... |
928 | statementit returns value like any other function call (its return value is nonethe default return value for functions that don' return anything meaningful) print('spam'spam print(xnone print is function call expression in but it is coded as an expression statement also keep in mind that although expressions can appear... |
929 | print operations in pythonprint prints things--it' simply programmer-friendly interface to the standard output stream technicallyprinting converts one or more objects to their textual representationsadds some minor formattingand sends the resulting text to either standard output or another file-like stream in bit more ... |
930 | strictly speakingprinting is not separate statement form in insteadit is simply an instance of the expression statement we studied in the preceding section the print built-in function is normally called on line of its ownbecause it doesn' return any value we care about (technicallyit returns noneas we saw in the preced... |
931 | flushed through the output stream immediately to any waiting recipients normallywhether printed output is buffered in memory or not is determined by filepassing true value to flush forcibly flushes the stream the textual representation of each object to be printed is obtained by passing the object to the str built-in c... |
932 | spam ['eggs'print(xyzend='')print(xyzspam ['eggs']spam ['eggs'print(xyzend=\ 'spam ['eggs'suppress line break two printssame output line custom line end you can also combine keyword arguments to specify both separators and end-of-line strings--they may appear in any order but must appear after all the objects being pri... |
933 | table - lists the print statement' forms in python and gives their python print function equivalents for reference notice that the comma is significant in print statements--it separates objects to be printedand trailing comma suppresses the end-of-line character normally added at the end of the printed text (not to be ... |
934 | are roughly as simple to use as ' function the next section uncovers the way that files are specified in prints print stream redirection in both python and xprinting sends text to the standard output stream by default howeverit' often useful to send it elsewhere--to text filefor exampleto save results for later use or ... |
935 | orin xprint xy is equivalent to the longerimport sys sys stdout write(str(xstr( '\ 'which manually performs string conversion with stradds separator and newline with +and calls the output stream' write method which would you rather code(he sayshoping to underscore the programmer-friendly nature of prints obviouslythe l... |
936 | needed: :\codec:\python \python import sys temp sys stdout sys stdout open('log txt'' 'print('spam'print( sys stdout close(sys stdout temp print('back here'back here print(open('log txt'read()spam save for restoring later redirect prints to file prints go to filenot here flush output to disk restore original stream pri... |
937 | print(open('log txt'read() these extended forms of print are also commonly used to print error messages to the standard error streamavailable to your script as the preopened file object sys stderr you can either use its file write methods and format the output manuallyor print with redirection syntaximport sys sys stde... |
938 | perhaps more than you want to make just your print operations version-neutral related tool named to attempts to do the inverseconvert code to run on xsee appendix for more information importing from __future__ alternativelyyou can code print function calls in code to be run by xby enabling the function call variant wit... |
939 | print(''this is line-feed in both and strictly speakingoutputs may in some cases differ in more than just extra enclosing parentheses in if you look closely at the preceding resultsyou'll notice that the strings also print with enclosing quotes in only this is because objects may print differently when nested in anothe... |
940 | destinationsby defining an object with write method that does the required routing you'll see an example of this trick when we study classes in part vi of this bookbut abstractlyit looks like thisclass filefakerdef write(selfstring)do something with printed text in string import sys sys stdout filefaker(print(someobjec... |
941 | if statementpython' main selection tooltherewe'll also revisit python' syntax model in more depth and look at the behavior of boolean expressions before we move onthoughthe end-of-quiz will test your knowledge of what you've learned here test your knowledgequiz name three ways that you can assign three variables to the... |
942 | if tests and syntax rules this presents the python if statementwhich is the main statement used for selecting from alternative actions based on test results because this is our first in-depth look at compound statements--statements that embed other statements--we will also explore the general concepts behind the python... |
943 | statements optional else basic examples to demonstratelet' look at few simple examples of the if statement at work all parts are optionalexcept the initial if test and its associated statements thusin the simplest casethe other parts are omittedif print('true'true notice how the prompt changes to for continuation lines... |
944 | is no switch or case statement in python that selects an action based on variable' value insteadyou usually code multiway branching as series of if/elif testsas in the prior exampleand occasionally by indexing dictionaries or searching lists because dictionaries and lists can be built at runtime dynamicallythey are som... |
945 | bad choice an in membership test in an if statement can have the same default effectchoice 'baconif choice in branchprint(branch[choice]elseprint('bad choice'bad choice and the try statement is general way to handle defaults by catching and handling the exceptions they' otherwise trigger (for more on exceptionssee ' ov... |
946 | introduced python' syntax model in now that we're stepping up to larger statements like ifthis section reviews and expands on the syntax ideas introduced earlier in generalpython has simplestatement-based syntax howeverthere are few properties you need to know aboutstatements execute one after anotheruntil you say othe... |
947 | and ends with either statement that is indented lessor the end of the file as you've seenthere are no variable type declarations in pythonthis fact alone makes for much simpler language syntax than what you may be used to howeverfor most new users the lack of the braces and semicolons used to mark blocks and statements... |
948 | in any columnindentation may consist of any number of spaces and tabsas long as it' the same for all the statements in given single block that ispython doesn' care how you indent your codeit only cares that it' done consistently four spaces or one tab per indentation level are common conventionsbut there is no absolute... |
949 | one rule of thumbalthough you can use spaces or tabs to indentit' usually not good idea to mix the two within block--use one or the other technicallytabs count for enough spaces to move the current column number up to multiple of and your code will work if you mix tabs and spaces consistently howeversuch code can be di... |
950 | parentheses allows it to span multiple lines other rules there are few other points to mention with regard to statement delimiters although it is uncommonyou can terminate statement with semicolon--this convention is sometimes used to squeeze more than one simple (noncompoundstatement onto single line alsocomments and ... |
951 | statement ( statements without nested statementson the same lineseparated by semicolons some coders use this form to save program file real estatebut it usually makes for more readable code if you stick to one statement per line for most of your workx print(xmore than one simple statement as we learned in triple-quoted... |
952 | all objects have an inherent boolean true or false value any nonzero number or nonempty object is true zero numbersempty objectsand the special object none are considered false comparisons and equality tests are applied recursively to data structures comparisons and equality tests return true or false (custom versions ... |
953 | [or [or {{in the first line of the preceding exampleboth operands ( and are true ( are nonzero)so python always stops and returns the one on the left--it determines the result because true or anything is always true in the other two teststhe left operand is false (an empty object)so python simply evaluates and returns ... |
954 | like overkill to spread them across four lines at other timeswe may want to nest such construct in larger statement instead of assigning its result to variable for these reasons (andfranklybecause the language has similar tool)python introduced new expression format that allows us to say the same thing in one expressio... |
955 | and later againthoughyou should use even that sparinglyand only if its parts are all fairly simpleotherwiseyou're better off coding the full if statement form to make changes easier in the future your coworkers will be happy you did stillyou may see the and/or version in code written prior to (and in python code writte... |
956 | prompt also watch for related discussion in operator overloading in part viwhen we define new object types with classeswe can specify their boolean nature with either the __bool__ or __len__ methods (__bool__ is named __nonzero__ in the latter of these is tried if the former is absent and designates false by returning ... |
957 | test your knowledgeanswers an if statement with multiple elif clauses is often the most straightforward way to code multiway branchthough not necessarily the most concise or flexible dictionary indexing can often achieve the same resultespecially if the dictionary contains callable functions coded with def statements o... |
958 | while and for loops this concludes our tour of python procedural statements by presenting the language' two main looping constructs--statements that repeat an action over and over the first of thesethe while statementprovides way to code general loops the secondthe for statementis designed for stepping through the item... |
959 | in its most complex formthe while statement consists of header line with test expressiona body of one or more normally indented statementsand an optional else part that is executed if control exits the loop without break statement being encountered python keeps evaluating the test at the top and executing the statement... |
960 | finallynotice that python doesn' have what some languages call "do untilloop statement howeverwe can simulate one with test and break at the bottom of the loop bodyso that the loop' body is always run at least oncewhile trueloop body if exittest()break to fully understand how this structure workswe need to move on to t... |
961 | practice pass simple things firstthe pass statement is no-operation placeholder that is used when the syntax requires statementbut you have nothing useful to say it is often used to code an empty body for compound statement for instanceif you want to code an infinite loop that does nothing each time throughdo it with p... |
962 | ellipsis alternative to none this notation is new in python --and goes well beyond the original intent of in slicing extensions--so time will tell if it becomes widespread enough to challenge pass and none in these roles continue the continue statement causes an immediate jump to the top of loop it also sometimes lets ... |
963 | raw_input in python xand exits when the user enters "stopfor the name requestwhile truename input('enter name:'use raw_input(in if name ='stop'break age input('enter age'print('hello'name'=>'int(age* enter name:bob enter age hello bob = enter name:sue enter age hello sue = enter name:stop notice how this code converts ... |
964 | than are not considered prime by the strict mathematical definition to be really pickythis code also fails for negative numbers and succeeds for floating-point numbers with no decimal digits also note that its code must use /instead of in python because of the migration of to "true division,as described in (we need the... |
965 | with test for an empty after the loop ( if not :although that' true in this examplethe else provides explicit syntax for this coding pattern (it' more obviously search-failure clause here)and such an explicit empty test may not apply in some cases the loop else becomes even more useful when used in conjunction with the... |
966 | the for loop is generic iterator in pythonit can step through the items in any ordered sequence or other iterable object the for statement works on stringsliststuplesand other built-in iterablesas well as new user-defined objects that we'll learn how to create later with classes we met for briefly in and in conjunction... |
967 | as mentioned earliera for loop can step across any kind of sequence object in our first examplefor instancewe'll assign the name to each of the three items in list in turnfrom left to rightand the print statement will be executed for each inside the print statement (the loop body)the name refers to the current item in ... |
968 | to the targetand assignment works the same everywheret [( )( )( )for (abin tprint(ab tuple assignment at work herethe first time through the loop is like writing ( , ( , )the second time is like writing ( , ( , )and so on the net effect is to automatically unpack the current tuple on each iteration this form is commonl... |
969 | but tuples in the loop header save us an extra step when iterating through sequences of sequences as suggested in even nested structures may be automatically unpacked this way in for((ab) (( ) abc ( nested sequences work too for ((ab)cin [(( ) )(( ) )]print(abc even this is not special casethough--the for loop simply r... |
970 | ( [ ] for ( *bcin [( )( )]print(abc [ [ in practicethis approach might be used to pick out multiple columns from rows of data represented as nested sequences in python starred names aren' allowedbut you can achieve similar effects by slicing the only difference is that slicing returns type-specific resultwhereas starre... |
971 | if key in itemsprint(key"was found"elseprint(key"not found!"( was found not foundfor all keys let python check for match in generalit' good idea to let python do as much of the work as possible (as in this solutionfor the sake of brevity and performance the next example is similarbut builds list as it goes for later us... |
972 | while truechar file read( if not charbreak print(charread by character empty string means end-of-file for char in open('test txt'read()print(charthe for loop here also processes each characterbut it loads the file into memory all at once (and assumes it fits!to read by lines or blocks insteadyou can use while loop code... |
973 | line iterators also watch for the sidebar "why you will careshell commands and moreon page in this it applies these same file tools to the os popen command-line launcher to read program output there' more on reading files in tooas we'll see theretext and binary files have slightly different semantics in loop coding tec... |
974 | on demandso we need to wrap it in list call to display its results all at once in onlylist(range( ))list(range( ))list(range( )([ ][ ][ ]with one argumentrange generates list of integers from zero up to but not including the argument' value if you pass in two argumentsthe first is taken as the lower bound an optional t... |
975 | this way if you really need to take over the indexing logic explicitlyyou can do it with while loopi while len( )print( [ ]end=' + while loop iteration you can also do manual indexing with forthoughif you use range to generate list of indexes to iterate through it' multistep processbut it' sufficient to generate offset... |
976 | slicing in the seconds 'spamfor in range(len( )) [ : [: print(send='pams amsp mspa spam 'spamfor in range(len( )) [ : [:iprint(xend='spam pams amsp mspa for repeat counts move front item to end for positions rear part front part trace through these one iteration at time if they seem confusing the second creates the sam... |
977 | today if you really mean to skip items in sequencethe extended three-limit form of the slice expressionpresented in provides simpler route to the same goal to visit every second character in sfor exampleslice with stride of 'abcdefghijkfor in [:: ]print(cend=' the result is the samebut substantially easier for you to w... |
978 | way to do the same with simple for in :-style loopbecause such loop iterates through actual itemsnot list positions but what about the equivalent while loopsuch loop requires bit more work on our partand might run more slowly depending on your python (it does on and though less so on --we'll see how to verify this in )... |
979 | print(xy'--' + - - - - herewe step over the result of the zip call--that isthe pairs of items pulled from the two lists notice that this for loop again uses the tuple assignment form we met earlier to unpack each tuple in the zip result the first time throughit' as though we ran the assignment statement (xy( the net ef... |
980 | in normallymap takes function and one or more sequence arguments and collects the results of calling the function with parallel items taken from the sequence(swe'll study map in detail in and but as brief examplethe following maps the built-in ord function across each item in string and collects the results (like zipma... |
981 | vals [ one solution for turning those lists into dictionary would be to zip the lists and step through them in parallel with for looplist(zip(keysvals)[('spam' )('eggs' )('toast' ) {for (kvin zip(keysvals) [kv {'eggs' 'toast' 'spam' it turns outthoughthat in python and later you can skip the for loop altogether and sim... |
982 | named enumerate does the job for us--its net effect is to give loops counter "for free,without sacrificing the simplicity of automatic iterations 'spamfor (offsetitemin enumerate( )print(item'appears at offset'offsets appears at offset appears at offset appears at offset appears at offset the enumerate function returns... |
983 | of currency symbols may apply)import os os popen('dir'read line by line readline(volume in drive has no label \nf os popen('dir'read by sized blocks read( volume in drive has no label \ volume serial nuos popen('dir'readlines()[ read all linesindex volume in drive has no label \nos popen('dir'read()[: read all at onces... |
984 | -based pc we'll see os popen in action again in where we'll deploy it to read the results of constructed command line that times code alternativesand in where it will be used to compare outputs of scripts being tested tools like os popen and os system (and the subprocess module not shown hereallow you to leverage every... |
985 | some of the details regarding their roles as iterables in python were intentionally cut short in the next we continue the iteration story by discussing list comprehensions and the iteration protocol in python--concepts strongly related to for loops therewe'll also give the rest of the picture behind the iterable tools ... |
986 | iterations and comprehensions in the prior we met python' two looping statementswhile and for although they can handle most repetitive tasks programs need to performthe need to iterate over sequences is so common and pervasive that python provides additional tools to make it simpler and more efficient this begins our e... |
987 | in the preceding mentioned that the for loop can work on any sequence type in pythonincluding liststuplesand stringslike thisfor in [ ]print( * end=' in xprint * for in ( )print( * end=' for in 'spam'print( end='ss pp aa mm actuallythe for loop turns out to be even more generic than this--it works on any iterable objec... |
988 | print( * open('script py'read('import sys\nprint(sys path)\nx \nprint( * )\nrecall from that open file objects have method called readlinewhich reads one line of text from file at time--each time we call the readline methodwe advance to the next line at the end of the filean empty string is returnedwhich we can detect ... |
989 | way to read text file line by line today is to not read it at all--insteadallow the for loop to automatically call __next__ to advance to the next line on each iteration the file object' iterator will do the work of automatically loading lines as you go the followingfor examplereads file line by lineprinting the upperc... |
990 | xwe'll see timing techniques later in for measuring the relative speed of alternatives like these version skew notein python xthe iteration method is named next(instead of __next__(for portabilitya next(xbuilt-in function is also available in both python and ( and later)and calls __next__(in and next(in apart from meth... |
991 | as more formal definitionfigure - sketches this full iteration protocolused by every iteration tool in pythonand supported by wide variety of object types it' really based on two objectsused in two distinct steps by iteration toolsthe iterable object you request iteration forwhose __iter__ is run by iter the iterator o... |
992 | __next__( __next__( __next__(error text omitted stopiteration or use next(in xnext(iin either line this initial step is not required for filesbecause file object is its own iterator because they support just one iteration (they can' seek backward to support multiple active scans)files have their own __next__ method and... |
993 | manual iterationwhat for loops usually do while truetrytry statement catches exceptions next(ior call __next__ in except stopiterationbreak print( * end=' to understand this codeyou need to know that try statements run an action and catch exceptions that occur while the action runs (we met exceptions briefly in but wil... |
994 | print(keyd[key] we can' delve into their details herebut other python object types also support the iteration protocol and thus may be used in for loops too for instanceshelves (an access-by-key filesystem for python objectsand the results from os popen ( tool for reading the output of shell commandswhich we met in the... |
995 | is not needed in for contexts where iteration happens automatically (such as within for loopsit is needed for displaying values here in xthoughand may also be required when list-like behavior or multiple scans are required for objects that produce results on demand in or (more on this aheadnow that you have better unde... |
996 | substantially faster the list comprehension isn' exactly the same as the for loop statement version because it makes new list object (which might matter if there are multiple references to the original list)but it' close enough for most applications and is common and convenient enough approach to merit closer look here... |
997 | let' work through another common application of list comprehensions to explore them in more detail recall that the file object has readlines method that loads the file into list of line strings all at oncef open('script py'lines readlines(lines ['import sys\ ''print(sys path)\ '' \ ''print( * )\ 'this worksbut the line... |
998 | ['import sys\ ''print(sys path)\ '' \ ''print( * )\ '[line rstrip(upper(for line in open('script py')['import sys''print(sys path)'' ''print( * )'[line split(for line in open('script py')[['import''sys']['print(sys path)'][' ''='' ']['print( ''**'' )'][line replace(''!'for line in open('script py')['import!sys\ ''print... |
999 | is pif notthe line is omitted from the result list this is fairly big expressionbut it' easy to understand if we translate it to its simple for loop statement equivalent in generalwe can always translate list comprehension to for statement by appending as we go and further indenting each successive partres [for line in... |
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