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Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is sceptical of authority and rejects all involuntary, coercive forms of hierarchy. Anarchism calls for the abolition of the state, which it holds to be unnecessary, undesirable, and harmful. As a historically leftwing movement, placed on the farthest left of the po... |
had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism... |
or utopian.
Etymology, terminology, and definition
The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia, meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an "without" and the word arkhos "leader" or "ruler". The suffix ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears i... |
g in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic freemarket philosophy only, and freemarket anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism.
While the term libert... |
generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberals and socialists but more so, while most scholars reject anarchocapitalism as a misunderstanding of anar... |
f authority that anarchistic ideas espoused as a reaction. The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism the discussion on the legitimacy of the state was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has b... |
etic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I.
In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various sec... |
narchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and PierreJoseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become welldefined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurre... |
r disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin famously predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrant... |
far east, travelling to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarchosyndicalism, where it became the most prominent leftwing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence. This strategy became known as propaganda of t... |
ver, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government was stabilised. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, notably leading to the Kronstadt rebellion and Nestor Makhno's struggle in the Free Territory. With the anarchists being crushed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, ... |
ists CNT and FAI once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchistinspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and... |
, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anticapitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarchafeminism... |
lent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered in this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influ... |
currents of the late 19th century and the postclassical currents anarchafeminism, green anarchism, and postanarchism developed thereafter.
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without ne... |
al philosophy reflect antiauthoritarian, antistatist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of leftwing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a s... |
munal democracy, justified authority and decentralisation.
Classical
Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism collectivist, communist and syndicalist. They differ on organisational and economic aspects of thei... |
chists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictators... |
, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarchosyndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically selfmanaged by worke... |
ntemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the antiglobalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of i... |
exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism,... |
methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination a... |
sts during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.
Classical era tactics
During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also em... |
narchopacifists advocate for nonviolence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they h... |
ent era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate f... |
so engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking antifascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.
Evolutionary tactics
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of selfmanaging their lives ... |
ssical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and PierreJoseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.
The decisionmaking process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists ... |
strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and ... |
rving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbol... |
y humanism, divine authority, enlightened selfinterest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology e.g. within anarchoprimitivism, and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.
Gender,... |
Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free... |
well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexualit... |
vate education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was s... |
at became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little c... |
tion serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modernday, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational inst... |
open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collect... |
and the arts
The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neoromanti... |
eter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchi... |
peace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government." Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a... |
e it advocates for noone to archiei, if accepted by the many, then anarchism would turn into the ruling political theory. In this line of criticism also comes the selfcontradiction that anarchism calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly... |
of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief... |
the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.
Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's antiauthoritarianism as inherently counterrevolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes i... |
of anarchist political ideologies
List of books about anarchism
References
Citations
Notes
Sources
Primary sources
Secondary sources
Tertiary sources
Further reading
Criticism of philosophical anarchism.
A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' i.e. philosophical a... |
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents often notice signs during the first three years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some autistic children experience regress... |
ual of Mental Disorders DSM5 combines forms of the condition, including Asperger syndrome and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified PDDNOS into the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder ASD.
Several interventions have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve the ability of autistic people to functi... |
stimated at 12 per 1,000 people. In the developed countries, about 1.5 of children are diagnosed with ASD , up from 0.7 in 2000 in the United States. It is diagnosed four to five times more often in males than females. The number of people diagnosed has increased considerably since the 1990s, which may be partly due to... |
common but are not essential for diagnosis. Individual symptoms of autism occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.
Social development
Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders ASD; s... |
ave the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three to fiveyearold autistic children are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form at... |
quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.
There are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The ... |
tic children are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words echolalia or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD. For example, they may look at a pointin... |
ople speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.
Repetitive behavior
Autistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior ScaleRevised RBSR categorizes as follows.
Stereotyped behaviors Repetitive moveme... |
n theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.
Selfinjury Behaviors such as eyepoking, skinpicking, handbiting and headbanging.
No single repetitive or selfinjurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurre... |
disorders. Differences are greater for underresponsivity for example, walking into things than for overresponsivity for example, distress from loud noises or for sensation seeking for example, rhythmic movements. An estimated 6080 of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, a... |
curring medical conditions in autistic people. These are linked to greater social impairment, irritability, behavior and sleep problems, language impairments and mood changes.
Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with th... |
genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not... |
ve been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1 of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variationsuch as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic ma... |
nancy influences fetal neurodevelopment. Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with ASD, in both term and preterm infants. Maternal inflammatory and autoimmune diseases may damage fetal tissues, aggravating a genetic problem or damaging the nervous system.
Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially... |
pported by a litigationfunded study that has since been shown to have been "an elaborate fraud". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previ... |
a alterations, and food metabolites may cause brain neuroinflammation and dysfunction. A 2016 review concludes that enteric nervous system abnormalities might play a role in neurological disorders such as autism. Neural connections and the immune system are a pathway that may allow diseases originated in the intestine ... |
development.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in... |
action with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale CARS is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders DISCO may also be used.
A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by ta... |
xisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.
Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40 of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the... |
likely than a threeyearold to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhoo... |
f obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.
Classification
Autism is one o... |
language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDDNOS often called the autism spectrum disorders ASD or sometimes the autistic disorders, whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism. In this article, autism refer... |
elp further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior. For more, see Brett Abrahams, geneticist and neuroscienti... |
to meet any of the following milestones "is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the longterm outcome".
No response to name or eyetoeye gaze by 6 months.
No babbling by 12 months.
No gesturing pointing, wavi... |
eening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on MCHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers CHAT, on children aged 1830 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity many falsenegatives but good specificity few false... |
es fewer than 1 of cases of autism, vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.
Management
The main goals when treating autistic children are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with grea... |
l quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire selfcare, ... |
sessivecompulsive disorder. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. The quality of research for early intensive behavioral intervention EIBIa treatment procedure incorporating over thirty hours per week of the structured ... |
entions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.
Early, intensive ABA therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing communication and adaptive functioning in preschool children; it is also wellestablished for improving the intellectual perf... |
he appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.
Medication
Medications may be used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behav... |
have been shown to be effective in reducing repetitive and ritualistic behaviors, while the stimulant medication methylphenidate is beneficial for some children with comorbid inattentiveness or hyperactivity. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adul... |
e that autistic children have for unconventional foods can lead to reduction in bone cortical thickness with this being greater in those on caseinfree diets, as a consequence of the low intake of calcium and vitamin D; however, suboptimal bone development in ASD has also been associated with lack of exercise and gastro... |
e markers. The authors analyzed the prospective trials conducted to date that studied the efficacy of the gluten and caseinfree diet in children with ASD 4 in total. All of them compared gluten and caseinfree diet versus normal diet with a control group 2 doubleblind randomized controlled trials, 1 doubleblind crossove... |
behaviors.
Results of a systematic review on interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults found emerging evidence to support mindfulnessbased interventions for improving mental health. This includes decreasing stress, anxiety, ruminating thoughts, anger, and aggression. There is tentative evidence t... |
s. Many autistic children lack social support, future employment opportunities or selfdetermination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.
Few highquality studies address longterm prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline... |
revalence of 12 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD. A 2016 survey in the United States reported a rate of 25 per 1,000 children for ASD. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prev... |
bility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward psychosocial factors and changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics. It has been established that vaccination is not a risk factor for autism and is not behind any... |
other during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnic... |
weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.
Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11 to 84. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard t... |
oint in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diag... |
The New Latin word autismus English translation autism was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word auts , meaning "self", and used it to mean morbid selfadmiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fa... |
n English when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic s... |
affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.
It took until 1980 for the DSMIII to differentiate aut... |
. Societal and cultural aspects of autism have developed some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.
Society and culture
An autistic culture has emerged, accompanied by the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements. Events include World Autism Awareness Day, ... |
n imitating the behaviors of those without autism, and the recognition of the autistic community as a minority group. Autism rights or neurodiversity advocates believe that the autism spectrum is genetic and should be accepted as a natural expression of the human genome. This perspective is distinct from fringe theorie... |
r rules and procedure in autistic employees. A majority of the economic burden of autism is caused by decreased earnings in the job market. Some studies also find decreased earning among parents who care for autistic children.
References
External links
1910s neologisms
Articles containing video clips
Communication... |
Albedo ; is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation and measured on a scale from 0, corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation, to 1, corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation.
Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosi... |
for a specific wavelength spectral albedo, albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface between 0.3 and 3 m. This spectrum includes visible light 0.40.7 m, which explains why surfaces with a lo... |
ible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas ha... |
d bihemispherical reflectance e.g.,. These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function BRDF, which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo... |
ncrease in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.
Whitesky, blacksky, and bluesky albedo
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle i can be approximated by the pro... |
ng the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location e.g. through melting of reflective ice. That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near t... |
ics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperature... |
d albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snowtemperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight higher insolation cause melting. When the melted area... |
a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snowcovered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from abov... |
errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snowcovered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.
Smallscale effects
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunl... |
of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials both humanmade and natural and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies industrial solar farms, commercial flat rooftops and residential... |
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