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Do you want a rigorous book that remembers where PDEs come from and what they look like? This highly visual introduction to linear PDEs and initial/boundary value problems connects the math to physical reality, all the time providing a rigorous mathematical foundation for all solution methods. Readers are gradually introduced to abstraction – the most powerful tool for solving problems – rather than simply drilled in the practice of imitating solutions to given examples. The book is therefore ideal for students in mathematics and physics who require a more theoretical treatment than given in most introductory texts. Also designed with lecturers in mind, the fully modular presentation is easily adapted to a course of one-hour lectures, and a suggested 12-week syllabus is included to aid planning. Downloadable files for the hundreds of figures, hundreds of challenging exercises, and practice problems that appear in the book are available online, as are solutions. less |
Book DescriptionEditorial Reviews
About the Author
Allan G. Bluman is Professor of Mathematics at Community College of Allegheny County, near Pittsburgh. For the McKeesport and New Kensington Campuses of Pennsylvania State University, he has taught teacher-certification and graduate education statistics courses. Prior to his college teaching, he taught mathematics at a junior high school. Professor Bluman received his B.S. from California State College in California, Penn.; his M.Ed. from the University of Pittsburgh; and, in 1971, his Ed.D., also from the University of Pittsburgh. His major field of study was mathematics education. In addition to Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach, Third Edition, and Elementary Statistics: A Brief Version, the author has published several professional articles and the Modern Math Fun Book (Cuisenaire Publishing Company). He has spoken and presided at national and local mathematics conferences and has served as newsletter editor for the Pennsylvania State Mathematics Association of Two-Year Colleges. He is a member of the American Statistical Association, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, and the Mathematics Council of Western Pennsylvania. Al Bluman is married and has two children. His hobbies include writing, bicycling, and swimming.
This book was a required course material for my introductory statistics class. When I couldn't understand my class notes, I referred to this book. The author explains everything quite clearly, but any way you cut it, statistics is a dry topic.
I didn't want to take statistics, but of course I had to. This book was really helpful for teaching statistics which was great because my professor wasn't. I did almost all of the exercises at the end of each section and chapter, and I ended up with an A in the class. The book has great examples, and I found it cheaper on amazon than at my university bookstore.
I'll admit, I had a very bad professor who taught out of this book. That only highlighted this books flaws. Yes, the problems presented in this book are very easy to follow and solve if you follow the examples. Unfortunately, things like when, why, and how you would use x formula instead of y formula are given only little attention. What (mean - sample x) / (standard error) is conceptually and graphically and how it changes from t to z and why. Things could have been compared and contrasted more to help deepen understanding and avoid confusion. This can be amended by a good professor, and should have been done by mine. If you have a challenging professor and you try to use the binomial theorem on a problem where you don't have replacement, it's nice to know why you shouldn't do that mathematically. It almost felt backwards to me. I finally discovered the best way to use this book is to first read the chapter summary- then the examples- then the chapter intro! Do NOT buy this book for self learning if you intend on using for real life applications unless you plan on using many other resources. |
Welcome to the RHS Mathematics Department!
PROFILE
Mathematics as a Way of Thinking
It is the philosophy of the Mathematics Department of Rogers High School that mathematics is essential to the education of all students and that all students can and must learn mathematics.We in the department feel that it is our responsibility to challenge all students to achieve high standards and to support them in this endeavor.It is therefore our obligation to encourage students at every academic level to recognize high quality work and strive to produce it.
In addition to the acquisition of a body of mathematical knowledge, successful completion of any RHS mathematics course requires the demonstrated ability to:
·Solve problems,
·Think critically,
·Communicate effectively in mathematics
·Connect mathematics with the real world,
·Work effectively in groups, and
·Use technology as a tool.
Although levels will vary from course to course, successful completion of any mathematics course at RHS requires the following:
·Regular and prompt class attendance,
·Consistent and timely completion of daily homework assignments,
·Maintenance of a notebook ,
·Completion of at least one long-term project connecting concepts studied in the classroom to the real world, and
The Mathematics Department has instituted a program in which students may earn the opportunity to retake a test, quiz or PBA for the purpose of improving the grade. Students may earn the right to retake a graded assignment by following the guidelines listed below:
1. Revisions will be allowed only with the approval of the student's mathematics teacher. Teachers have the right to refuse permission if the student has failed to meet his/her responsibilities as a student.
2. The student must obtain a Mathematics Revision Approval Form from his/her mathematics teacher, complete the appropriate section of the form and return it to the teacher for approval.
3. A retake of the test, quiz or PBA will be allowed only after the acknowledged completion of at least two hours of after schooltutoring with an approved tutor. Any RHS mathematics teacher, Community School tutor, recognized RHS tutoring program volunteer, certified mathematics teacher, or individual approved by the RHS Mathematics Department is eligible to provide tutoring. The tutor will complete the appropriate section of the Mathematics Revision Approval Form and the form will be returned to the teacher before scheduling the retake.
4. The retake of the test, quiz or PBA must be completed after schoolwith the student's teacher within two weeks of the original test. All retakes must be completed before the end of a term. No incomplete grades will be given for the purpose of accommodating grade revisions.
5. The revised grade will be at least the mean of the original grade and the retake grade. |
widely acclaimed for its clear, cogent presentation of the theory of partial differential equations, and the incisive application of its principal topics to commonly encountered problems in the physical sciences and engineering. It was developed and tested at Purdue University over a period of five years in classes for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in mathematics, engineering and the physical sciences.The book begins with a short review of calculus and ordinary differential equations, then moves on to explore integral curves and surfaces of vector fields, quasi-linear and linear equations of first order, series solutions and the Cauchy Kovalevsky theorem. It then delves into linear partial differential equations, examines the Laplace, wave and heat equations, and concludes with a brief treatment of hyperbolic systems of equations.Among the most important features of the text are the challenging problems at the end of each section which require a wide variety of responses from students, from providing details of the derivation of an item presented to solving specific problems associated with partial differential equations. Requiring only a modest mathematical background, the text will be indispensable to those who need to use partial differential equations in solving physical problems. It will provide as well the mathematical fundamentals for those who intend to pursue the study of more advanced topics, including modern theory. |
College Math Refresher
Whether you have a Ph.D. in civil engineering or a bachelor's degree in music, chances are you'll have to use math at some point in your adult life. From taxes and cooking to design projects and computer programming, math is — and will remain — an essential skill set. This refresher guide was designed to help you revitalize your rusty math skills for today's world, and can even introduce you to a few new concepts along the way.
Five Mathematical Areas to Familiarize Yourself With
Throughout the history of science and philosophy, the concept of reason has been picked apart by the world's greatest minds. Of all the many investigations made into the concept, mathematics remains one of the best tools we can use to get closer to fully understanding the "laws" which govern reality. Below is a brief overview of several mathematical areas, with brief descriptions and test questions you can use to study.
Pre-Algebra
This area of mathematics is usually studied by middle school students as an introduction to algebra. In some senses, it's the backbone of everyday math. Therefore, refreshing yourself on the core concepts can be quite easy if you have some background with arithmetic, multiplication and division in the form of basic algebraic equations.
Test Your Knowledge!
Solve for "x":
2 + x = 4
(15 – 5) – x = 10
There are a few steps we need to follow in order to "solve for x." The key is to isolate the "x" before the equal sign. For the first question, simply subtract 2 from both sides of the equal sign. Subtracting 2 from 2 equals 0, and 2 from 4 equals 2 (you cannot subtract a number from x). Now your equation should look like 0 + x = 2, which is essentially x = 2. Now try the second question and see how you do!
Calculus
Typically, students study some form of calculus as a junior or senior in high school, or in the first years of college. It certainly is not the easiest area of mathematics! The invention of calculus is often credited to 17th century thinkers Isaac Newton and Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz and is defined as the mathematical study of change. Change, as we all know, can be quite complicated, and the study of calculus definitely follows suit.
Because calculus equations can get rather complicated and unwieldy, there will not be any practice questions for you to take in this article. If you're looking to spark your memory, this basic calculus refresher created by Dr. Ismor Fischer at the University of Wisconsin is a great resource to keep handy.
Geometry
Like calculus, this area of mathematics is something many people tend to just get or struggle their whole lives trying to grasp. It requires a keen sense of spatial intuition, in addition to a robust knowledge of algebra and trigonometry. Invented by the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, geometry is the study of shapes and sizes, as well as distinguishing the various properties of space.
Test Your Knowledge!
What is the supplementary angle to 24?
Find the area of a circle with a radius of 7.
For the first question, you should know that supplementary angles must add up to a total of 180. So solving this question is rather easy, just subtract 24 from 180 and voila! Question number two requires the memorization of a formula (geometry requires that you memorize many different formulas). The formula you need in order to find the area of a circle is: Area = Pi (3.14) x Radius squared.
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is quite similar to geometry, except it's all about triangles. You'd never realize how important triangles are to our world until you study a bit of trigonometry. In addition to naturally proceeding geometry during a student's course of study in mathematics, it also tends to precede the study of calculus. Many of the functions and equations learned in trigonometry are often heavily used in careers that rely upon applied mathematics, such as engineering.
Test Your Knowledge!
Find the Sine of angle A with and adjacent side of 8, an opposite side of 9 and a hypotenuse of 10.
If the question above seems like a bunch of gibberish, don't worry; you're not alone. Without going into too much detail, the Sine is really just a ratio of two sides of a right triangle: the opposite side of angle A and the triangle's hypotenuse (the diagonal side). So, the equation would be: Sin A = opposite / hypotenuse (adjacent side doesn't matter for this formula). See if you can do it!
Applied Math
As the name would imply, the various systems of applied math are considered to be the more practical areas of mathematics. Examples of applied math include statistics, computer science and economics. Typically, areas within applied mathematics fall under the auspices of the liberal sciences, and do not often require the same degree of mathematical knowledge needed by students of the hard sciences.
Test Your Knowledge!
(Probability) If you roll a die once, what is the probability that it will show an even number?
(Economics) Last month, shoppers bought 200 boxes of cereal out of 250 total boxes from the grocery store. This month, 300 shoppers wanted to buy cereal, but only 250 new boxes of cereal arrived. Did the supply or demand increase for cereal this month? Was the demand met?
The first question is pretty easy compared to other probability scenarios. On a normal,
6-sided die, there are 6 possible outcomes: 3 possible even numbers and 3 possible odd numbers. Therefore, there is a 50% (1/2) chance the die will show an even number. The second question is also relatively simple. Since 300 shoppers (100 more than the previous month) wanted to buy cereal, the demand obviously increased. Moreover, 50 boxes were carried over from the previous month, making the total number of boxes available for this month 300. Therefore, the supply also increased and the demand was met.
Resources for Refreshing Your Math Skills
Below is a list of some of the greatest resources you can use to continue your refreshing your knowledge of mathematics:
The Ultimate Math Refresher for the GRE, GMAT, and SAT: This comprehensive study guide is an excellent resource for refreshing your skills in several mathematical areas, such as arithmetic, algebra and geometry. Not only does the book go over these areas in depth, it can help you prepare for the math component of several college and graduate school entrance exams.
Oxford University Mathematics OpenCourseWare: This site, hosted by Oxford University, offers several massively open online courses (MOOCs) across many areas of mathematics that any sort of student can study for free. While many of these courses probably shouldn't be taken by beginners, the courses available, such as Introduction to Pure Mathematics, offer great refresher materials for college or grad school students.
S.O.S. Math: Helpful to both beginning and advanced math enthusiasts, this site is a boon for many of us who need to brush up on our math skills across several popular areas of mathematics. In addition to several areas of math outlined earlier in this guide, S.O.S. Math also provides helpful information about books and other math-related sites you can learn from.
King of Math: This game app for iOS devices provides people with a fun way to refresh their skills across several areas of mathematics. The game starts you off as a farmer who must level up by answering several fast-paced math exercises across areas such as statistics, arithmetic and geometry.
Math Makes the World Go Round
Resources we use to refresh our skills across various areas of mathematics are not only helpful when promoting our ability to think quantitatively, but could prepare you for a real world situation where such knowledge might come in handy. Even though your current major or profession may not require a strong knowledge of math to get by, taking some time to refresh yourself on many of the topics outlined above could end up helping you in more ways than you think. |
Basic Mathematics for College Students
Offering a uniquely modern, balanced approach, Tussy/Gustafson/Koenig's BASIC MATHEMATICS FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS, Fourth Edition, integrates the best ...Show synopsisOffering a uniquely modern, balanced approach, Tussy/Gustafson/Koenig's BASIC MATHEMATICS FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS, Fourth Edition, integrates the best of traditional drill and practice with the best elements of the reform movement. To many developmental math students, mathematics is like a foreign language. They have difficulty translating the words, their meanings, and how they apply to problem solving. Emphasizing the "language of mathematics," the text's fully integrated learning process is designed to expand students' reasoning abilities and teach them how to read, write, and think mathematically. It blends instructional approaches that include vocabulary, practice, and well-defined pedagogy with an emphasis on reasoning, modeling, communication, and technology |
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Starting at $136Mathematics All Around
Mathematics All Around
Mathematics All Around
Mathematics All Around
Mathematics All Around
Mathematics All Around Plus MyMathLab Student Access Kit
Student Solutions Manual for Mathematics All Around
Videos on DVD with Optional Subtitles for Mathematics All AroundPirnot's Mathematics All Around offers the supportive and clear writing style that you need to develop your math skills. By helping to reduce your math anxiety, Pirnot helps you to understand the use of math in the world around you. You appreciate that the author's approach is like the help you would receive during your own instructors' office hours.
The Fifth Edition increases the text's emphasis on developing problem-solving skills with additional support in the text and new problem-solving questions in MyMathLab. Quantitative reasoning is brought to the forefront with new Between the Numbers features and related exercises. Since practice is the key to success in this course, exercise sets are updated and expanded. MyMathLab offers additional exercise coverage plus new question types for problem-solving, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and more.
Author Biography
Tom Pirnot received his bachelor's degree in music from Wilkes College and his PhD in mathematics from The Pennsylvania State University. He taught both mathematics and computer science at Kutztown University for thirty eight years. He has long been an innovator in liberal arts mathematics, writing his first text Mathematics: Tools and Models with Dalton Hunkins in 1977 which introduced topics such as apportionment, graph theory, and modeling to liberal arts students. His current text, Mathematics All Around, is now in its fourth edition. Tom continues to enjoy the loving support and encouragement of his wife Ann, their four children, and three grandchildren. |
2014 Welcome Letter
Please note: You must already be registered to at attend.
Workshop Description
This Pre-AP Mathematics Summer Institute will focus on preparing students in 6th grade through Algebra I for AP Calculus/AP Statistics. Participants will learn the purpose and value of the Advanced Placement program as well as how to incorporate skills, concepts, and rigor into their Pre-AP program. Teachers work together to experience and share ways to uncover the meaning and use of the concepts and basic skills needed for success in middle school Pre. This training will allow teachers to solve meaningful, authentic problems responsive to the needs of all students, including Pre-AP students. The workshop will focus on curriculum and instruction that will facilitate a student's ability to access higher levels of mathematics. Participants will apply the Eight Standards for Mathematical Practice and identify qualities of rich mathematical tasks with a focus on communication and reasoning.
Participants should bring:
A favorite project, lesson or activity to share
A good math joke or comic strip
Favorite websites for teaching math
A TI 73 or TI84 graphing calculator if you have one (Calculators will be provided on site)
A formative or summative assessment
Pencils, highlighters, ruler and paper
A USB drive so that you may save your work
Consultant Bio
Patsy Williford graduated from Arkansas State University in Jonesboro with a BSE in mathematics and a minor in biology. She earned a MSE in Secondary Education from ASU and continued graduate training at the U of A at Fayetteville. Patsy taught mathematics for 41 years in grades 7 -12 in public schools in Arkansas. Most of those years were at FHS in Fayetteville, Arkansas where she served as the department chair. This is the 5th year that she has been a Pre-AP Math consultant for Arkansas AIMS. As an endorsed College Board Pre-AP Math consultant, she presents at one and two day AP and Pre-AP conferences in Arkansas, Texas, and Oklahoma. She is also a National Math and Science Initiative Teacher Trainer (formerly LTF or Laying the Foundation) who provides training for both high school and middle grade teachers. Patsy has been recognized for Excellence in Science and Mathematics Teaching by the State of Arkansas and the Mathematical Association of America.
Please note that registration for AP Summer Institute 2014 has closed. Please send us an email at APSI@utsa.edu if you have any questions or concerns. We are working on the Welcome Letter for enrolled participants, and it will be sent via email soon. |
Linear Algebra Done Right
second edition
Sheldon Axler
This text, published by Springer, is intended for a second course in linear algebra. The novel approach used throughout the book takes great care to motivate concepts and simplify proofs.
For example, the book presents, without having defined determinants, a clean proof that
every linear operator on a finite-dimensional complex vector space (or on an odd-dimensional
real vector space) has an eigenvalue.
Although this text is intended for a second course in linear algebra, there are
no prerequisites other than appropriate mathematical
maturity. Thus the book starts by discussing vector spaces, linear
independence, span, basis, and dimension. Students are introduced to
inner-product spaces in the
first half of the book and shortly thereafter to the finite-dimensional spectral
theorem.
A variety of interesting exercises in each chapter helps students understand and manipulate the objects of linear algebra.
Excerpts from Reviews
Altogether, the text is a didactic masterpiece. Zentralblatt für Mathematik
Axler demotes determinants (usually quite a central technique in the finite dimensional setting, though marginal in infinite dimensions) to a minor role. To so consistently do without determinants constitutes a tour de force in the service of simplicity and clarity; these are also well served by the general precision of Axler's prose... The most original linear algebra book to appear in years, it certainly belongs in every undergraduate library. Choice
The determinant-free proofs are elegant and intuitive. American Mathematical Monthly
Clarity through examples is emphasized... the text is ideal for class exercises... I congratulate the author and the publisher for a well-produced textbook on linear algebra. Mathematical Reviews
Third Edition is Coming!
The third edition of this book will be published in November 2014. This textbook has been thoroughly revised with major improvements throughout the book. The number of exercises has approximately doubled as compared to the previous edition, with additional gentle exercises and also additional exciting challenging exercises. More examples have been added in most sections. New topics covered in the book include product spaces, quotient spaces, and dual spaces. Beautiful new formatting creates pages with an unusually pleasant appearance in both print and electronic versions.
Follow @AxlerLinear on Twitter for updates on this book.
Softcover: $44.95 (although usually available for less at
amazon.com), ISBN 978-0-387-98258-8. Order from amazon.com.
Hardcover: $79.95 (although usually available for less at
amazon.com), ISBN 978-0-387-98259-5. Order from amazon.com. |
Barron's E-Z Precalculus - 10 edition
Summary: An experienced math teacher breaks down precalculus into a series of easy-to-follow lessons designed for self-teaching and rapid learning. The book features a generous number of step-by-step demonstration examples as well as numerous tables, graphs, and graphing-calculator-based approached. Major topics covered include: algebraic methods; functions and their graphs; complex numbers; polynomial and rational functions; exponential and logarithmic functions; trigonometry...show more and polar coordinates; counting and probability; binomial theorem; calculus preview; and much more. Exercises at the end of each chapter reinforce key concepts while helping students monitor their progress. Barron's continues its ongoing project of improving, updating, and giving contemporary new designs to its popular Easy Way books, now re-named Barron's E-Z Series. The new cover designs reflect the books' brand-new page layouts, which feature extensive two-color treatment, a fresh, modern typeface, and many more graphics. In addition to charts, graphs, and diagrams, the graphic features include instructive line illustrations, and where appropriate, amusing cartoons. Barron's E-Z books are self-teaching manuals designed to improve students' grades in many academic and practical subjects. In most cases, the skill level ranges between senior high school and college-101 standards. In addition to their self-teaching value, these books are also widely used as textbooks or textbook supplements in classroom settings. E-Z books review their subjects in detail and feature short quizzes and longer tests to help students gauge their learning progress. All exercises and tests come with answers. Subject heads and key phrases are set in a second color as an easy reference aid. ...show less
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At Imperial College, staff from the Mathematics and Chemistry departments have set up computer-based "Mathematics Laboratories" for first year Chemistry undergraduates. We´ve provided several types of activity in these laboratories, but one of the most important kinds involves students setting up and studying models and simulations of chemical conditions and processes. Dedicated simulation software exists for this sort of thing, much of it offering a lot of presentational sophistication and dynamic interactivity. But actually, all our simulations are implemented entirely in Mathematica; moreover, our presentation style is simple and stark in the extreme. Mathematica works for us as simulation and modelling software because it allows us to be open in our approach to design. All the code that is used to set up and run the simulations is visible to the students, and indeed we require them to engage with it directly. The relationships between the underlying mathematics, the chemistry that is being modelled, and the computer code that implements the model can be explicit rather than hidden. Students can be encouraged to adopt a critical attitude towards mathematical models and to develop their own ideas and approaches. On the other hand, Mathematica´s power and range enable us to set up fairly realistic and uncontrived problems, and to place some mathematical elements of these problems firmly in the background if we choose. I illustrate these strengths of Mathematica for our purposes using the example of a series of assessed problems. These concern the forces between ions (modelled as Newtonian point charges) and the chemical dynamics to which these forces give rise. I show examples of closed and open-ended tasks, and present excerpts of students work on these tasks. |
Math for some students is a fascinating and wonderful subject. For others it is something initially feared and dreaded. This wide range in attitudes and backgrounds in mathematics provides quite a challenge for the department. To handle this challenge, the departmental faculty have tried many different teaching techniques and use a wide array of tools.
It all starts with trying to place students at the appropriate level. The initial placement is based on ACT scores, but the department offers placement tests for those who think their ACT results do not really indicate their level of skill and knowledge.
The Mathematics Department continues to explore ways to increase student success. To meet the needs of students who require a review of algebra before attempting other mathematics courses, the department has recently created two new ALG courses, ALG ALG 115 and ALG 120 for day students, and it is working to provide three new ALG courses for the professional studies program. They are designed to prepare the student for Finite Math, MATH 105. The department hired Mrs. Sandra Davis a couple years ago to help with the new ALG courses. The Math 103 course was designed as a prerequisite for those that will take Precalculus and Calculus. Both the ALG courses and the MATH 103 course use computer tutorials to supplement instruction by the professor. These tutorials allow students to spend more time concentrating on individual weaknesses.
For those students who need preparation for calculus, the department is adding a third track. It is keeping the three hour MATH 117 Precalclulus course for the better prepared students. It is also keeping the six hour MATH 129 Functions and Engineering Calculus for engineering students how need help in preparing for calculus but who need calculus in their first semester to stay on track in the engineering paradigm. For those students who need more help in preparing for calculus, it is adding as a third track a pair of two credit courses, MATH 107 Functions and MATH 110 Trigonometry, that can be taken simultaneously.
Math Center in operation.
Br. Joel Baumeyer continues to serve as Director of the Math Center which offers free assistance in mathematics, physics and computer science to CBU students. Tutors are typically CBU students majoring in mathematics, engineering or the sciences. These tutors take pride in offering their services to their fellow students. Since moving into the new Math Center room in Cooper-Wilson, student visits have increased from about 1,000 per semester to above 3,700 per semester.
Last spring, Dr. Leigh Becker retired, and this spring he was named Professor Emeritus! Dr. Becker continues to publish papers in his field of differential equations. Congratulations to Dr. Becker! (See the Featured Person article earlier in this newsletter.)
Dr. Raena King joined the CBU Mathematics faculty this fall. She had previously taught as an adjunct while working on her Ph.D. This fall she completed her degree! Congratulations to Dr. King!
The Math Department also provides service to the university and community through the Student Section of the Mathematical Association of America which is part of our featured article on Student Groups earlier in this newsletter. In addition, Dr. Andrew Diener, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, is the CBU site director for the West Tennessee section of the Science Olympiad (see News of the Moment section earlier in this newsletter). The Math Department also provides support so that CBU can be a test site for the Tennessee Mathematics Teachers Association high school tests in the spring. |
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Make research entertaining. Find information on just about any topic. Thousands of articles, photos, sound clips, and links to related information from trusted sources(2)-plus political, climatic, and topographical maps of the world-make discovering new information fun!
Equation Solver. Enter a problem into the Equation Solver and get step-by-step help on how to solve it. And with free online access to Hotmath(3), students can quickly find their textbook and select the problem they're solving. They'll instantly receive step-by-step guidance on how to solve the problem and what the correct answer should be. |
Run a Quick Search on "Elementary Number Theory: Second Edition" by Underwood Dudley to Browse Related Products:
Short Desription
Minimal prerequisites make this text ideal for a first course in number theory. Written in a lively, engaging style by the author of popular mathematics books, it features nearly 1,000 imaginative exercises and problems. Solutions to many of the problems are included, and a teacher's guide is available. 1978 edition.
If You Enjoy "Elementary Number Theory: Second Edition (Dover Books on Mathematics) (Paperback)", May We Also Recommend: |
We highlight five pages written in XHTML with links to SVG files that produce animations illustrating calculus concepts such as the sign of the derivative, inflection points, conic sections, area between two curves, and multivariable functions.
In this article, we explain what we mean by an "interactive mathematics text"; we describe its goals, contents, and pedagogical methods; and we explain the thinking that went into in writing our text, Visual Linear Algebra.
Users toss a virtual coin or die to investigate the law of averages. The outcomes of multiple experiments (consisting of 10000 tosses each) can be graphed on the same plot to facilitate visualization of trends. An activity is provided to facilitate thinking about the law of averages with the applet. |
2011PAPERBACK Good 0538737719 Used book with cover wear and frayed corners. This book does contains highlighting and writing. All books directly from Avitar Books, we never use a ...3rd party. Will ship within 24 hours, Monday-FridayContains detailed worked solutions to all odd-numbered exercises in the text; section and chapter summaries of symbols, definitions, and theorems; and study tips and hints. Complex exercises are explored through a question-and-answer format designed to deeper understanding. Challenging and entertaining problems that further explore selected exercises are also included.
Product Details
ISBN-13: 9780538737715
Publisher: Cengage Learning
Publication date: 5/5/2011
Edition description: Solution M
Edition number: 3
Pages: 592
Product dimensions: 8.50 (w) x 10.80 (h) x 1.30 (d)
Meet the Author
David Poole is Professor of Mathematics at Trent University, where he has been a faculty member since 1984. Dr. Poole has won numerous teaching awards: Trent University's Symons Award for Excellence in Teaching (the university's top teaching award), three merit awards for teaching excellence, a 2002 Ontario Confederation of University Faculty Associations Teaching Award (the top university teaching award in the province), a 2003 3M Teaching Fellowship (the top university teaching award in Canada, sponsored by 3M Canada Ltd.), a 2007 Leadership in Faculty Teaching Award from the province of Ontario, and the Canadian Mathematical Society's 2009 Excellence in Teaching Award. From 2002-2007, Dr. Poole was Trent University's Associate Dean (Teaching & Learning). His research interests include discrete mathematics, ring theory, and mathematics education. He received his B.Sc. from Acadia University in 1976 before earning his M.Sc. (1977) and Ph.D. (1984) from McMaster University. When he is not doing mathematics, David Poole enjoys hiking and cooking, and he is an avid film |
Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition)
9780321620934
ISBN:
0321620933
Edition: 8 Pub Date: 2010 Publisher: Prentice Hall
Summary: Angel, Allen R. is the author of Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition), published 2010 under ISBN 9780321620934 and 0321620933. Four hundred forty two Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition) textbooks are available for sale on ValoreBooks.com, two hundred twenty five used from the cheapest price of $4.27, or buy new starting at $59.74the class that required me to use this book was math 101 at Rockland community college. the class was very effective especially with the professor who taught us each topic. it was a very cooperative class.
there is nothing i would change about this book. it offered problems to do and even showed exactly how to do them with examples provided. |
If learners in the classroom are to be excited about mathematics, teachers need to be both well informed and able to see how this can be translated into rich and stimulating classroom strategies. This book achieves these aims. more...
This volume provides information on theory and algorithms for the traveling salesman problem (TSP). The book covers all important areas of study on TSP, including polyhedral theory for symmetric and asymmetric TSP, and branch and bound, and branch and cut algorithms. more...
This title consists of nine survey articles on various advances in algorithmic combinatorics. The articles cover both recent areas of application and exciting new theoretical developments. The book is accessible to Ph.D. students in discrete mathematics or theoretical computer science and is intended for researchers in the field of combinatorics. more...
Since abstract algebra is so important to the study of advanced mathematics, it is critical that students have a firm grasp of its principles and underlying theories before moving on to further study. To accomplish this, they require a concise, accessible, user-friendly textbook that is both challenging and stimulating. A First Graduate Course in Abstract... more...
The aim in this graduate level text is to outline the key mathematical concepts that underpin these important questions in applied mathematics. These concepts involve discrete mathematics (particularly graph theory), optimization, computer science, and several ideas in biology. more...
The leading reference on probabilistic methods in combinatorics-now expanded and updated When it was first published in 1991, The Probabilistic Method became instantly the standard reference on one of the most powerful and widely used tools in combinatorics. Still without competition nearly a decade later, this new edition brings you up to speed on... more...
A unique approach illustrating discrete distribution theory through combinatorial methods This book provides a unique approach by presenting combinatorial methods in tandem with discrete distribution theory. This method, particular to discreteness, allows readers to gain a deeper understanding of theory by using applications to solve problems. The... more... |
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Designed for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in linear or abstract algebra, Advanced Linear Algebra covers theoretical aspects of the subject, along with examples, computations, and proofs. It explores a variety of advanced topics in linear algebra that highlight the rich...
This book is an introduction to a functorial model theory based on infinitary language categories. The author introduces the properties and foundation of these categories before developing a model theory for functors starting with a countable fragment of an infinitary language. He also presents a...
An Inquiry Based Approach
To learn and understand mathematics, students must engage in the process of doing mathematics. Emphasizing active learning, Abstract Algebra: An Inquiry-Based Approach not only teaches abstract algebra but also provides a deeper understanding of what mathematics is, how it is done, and how...
With a substantial amount of new material, the Handbook of Linear Algebra, Second Edition provides comprehensive coverage of linear algebra concepts, applications, and computational software packages in an easy-to-use format. It guides you from the very elementary aspects of the subject to the...
Building on rudimentary knowledge of real analysis, point-set topology, and basic algebra, Basic Algebraic Topology provides plenty of material for a two-semester course in algebraic topology.
The book first introduces the necessary fundamental concepts, such as relative homotopy, fibrations and...
This book introduces the study of algebra induced by combinatorial objects called directed graphs. These graphs are used as tools in the analysis of graph-theoretic problems and in the characterization and solution of analytic problems. The book presents recent research in operator algebra theory...
A Geometry Toolbox, Third Edition
Through many examples and real-world applications, Practical Linear Algebra: A Geometry Toolbox, Third Edition teaches undergraduate-level linear algebra in a comprehensive, geometric, and algorithmic way. Designed for a one-semester linear algebra course at the undergraduate level, the book gives...
An Introduction to Classical Number Theory
Quadratic Irrationals: An Introduction to Classical Number Theory gives a unified treatment of the classical theory of quadratic irrationals. Presenting the material in a modern and elementary algebraic setting, the author focuses on equivalence, continued fractions, quadratic characters, quadratic...
This volume, first published in 2000, presents a classical approach to the foundations and development of the geometry of vector fields, describing vector fields in three-dimensional Euclidean space, triply-orthogonal systems and applications in mechanics. Topics covered include Pfaffian forms,... |
More About
This Textbook
Overview about techniques and enable you to become more proficient at constructing proofs. A summary of key words and phrases at the end of each chapter help you master the material. A reference section, symbolic marginal notes, an appendix, and numerous examples help you develop your problem-solving skills.
Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
"It is written in such a way that our students can succeed at mastering the algebra concepts they need for their secondary mathematics education career, or for advancing to the next modern algebra course, if desired. The book emphasizes the algebra topics we want our students to know. The order of the topics is perfect and the time (pages) devoted to each topic is what we want. There is an abundant number of exercises so that you can make sure your students achieve success, and at the same time, challenge them to advance to a much higher level."-Joan Bell, Northeastern State University
"This book does a nice job in presenting both computations and concepts. There is a blend of each throughout each section, with the mechanical, computational problems tied together by conceptual problems and observations."-Elizabeth Bodine, Cabrini College
Related Subjects
Meet the Author
Linda Gilbert received her Ph.D. from Louisiana Tech University with a specialty in Linear and Abstract Algebras. She has been writing textbooks since 1981 with her husband Jimmie Gilbert, including ELEMENTS OF MODERN ALGEBRA and LINEAR ALGEBRA and MATRIX THEORY (now in its second edition) with Cengage Learning, plus titles in College Algebra, Precalculus, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Trigonometry, and Intermediate Algebra |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
Algorithms for Computer Algebra is the first comprehensive textbook to be published on the topic of computational symbolic mathematics. The book first develops the foundational material from modern algebra that is required for subsequent topics. It Numerous examples are integrated into the text as an aid to understanding the mathematical development. The algorithms developed for each topic are presented in a Pascal-like computer language. An extensive set of exercises is presented at the end of each chapter.
Algorithms for Computer Algebra is suitable for use as a textbook for a course on algebraic algorithms at the third-year, fourth-year, or graduate level. Although the mathematical development uses concepts from modern algebra, the book is self-contained in the sense that a one-term undergraduate course introducing students to rings and fields is the only prerequisite assumed. The book also serves well as a supplementary textbook for a traditional modern algebra course, by presenting concrete applications to motivate the understanding of the theory of rings and fields.
Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
'The Computer Algebra community has been waiting for years for this book to appear. ...the book is a masterpiece and can be recommended to everyone interested in the algorithms for computer algebra, either as a reference for further research or just to give the casual user an idea why things work as good (or as bad) as they do in computer algebra packages. ...the recommendation would be clear: Buy this book! As it stands now my only advice is to stay away from this book, because you might be tempted to buy it anyway (at least I was).'
Computer Algebra Nederland Newsletter, June 1993
Booknews
Begins by developing the foundational material from modern algebra that is required for subsequent topics, Algorithms are presented in a Pascal-like language. Examples and exercises are |
Summary: This manual is organized to follow the sequence of topics in the text, and provides an easy-to-follow, step-by-step guide with worked-out examples to help students fully understand and get the most out of their graphing calculator. Compatible models include the popular TI-83/84 Plus and MathPrint. This manual will be packaged with every textellBackYourBook Aurora, IL
032179088X Item in good condition. Textbooks may not include supplemental items i.e. CDs, access codes etc... All day low prices, buy from us sell to us we do it all!!
$4Seahawk Books Wilmington, NC
2012 Paperback Good
$13.77 |
Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition)
9780321620934
ISBN:
0321620933
Edition: 8 Pub Date: 2010 Publisher: Prentice Hall
Summary: Angel, Allen R. is the author of Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition), published 2010 under ISBN 9780321620934 and 0321620933. Four hundred sixty two Elementary Algebra for College Students (8th Edition) textbooks are available for sale on ValoreBooks.com, two hundred twenty seven used from the cheapest price of $5.50, or buy new starting at $67.75.
Ships From:Woodinville, WAShipping:Standard, ExpeditedComments:Brand new book. STUDENT US EDITION. Never used. Only Two Very Minor Marks On Bottom Side of the B... [more]Brand new book. STUDENT US EDITION. Never used. Only Two Very Minor Marks On Bottom Side of the Book. Nice gift. Best buy. Shipped promptly and packaged carefullythe class that required me to use this book was math 101 at Rockland community college. the class was very effective especially with the professor who taught us each topic. it was a very cooperative class.
there is nothing i would change about this book. it offered problems to do and even showed exactly how to do them with examples provided. |
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About the book:
The geometry of two and three dimensional space has long been studied for its own sake, but its results also underlie modern developments in fields as diverse as linear algebra, quantum physics, and number theory. This text is a careful introduction to Euclidean geometry that emphasizes its connections with other subjects. Glimpses of more advanced topics in pure mathematics are balanced by a straightforward treatment of the geometry needed for mechanics and classical applied mathematics. The exposition is based on vector methods; an introductory chapter relates these methods to the more classical axiomatic approach. The text is suitable for undergraduate courses in geometry and will be useful supplementary reading for students of mechanics and mathematical methods.
Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Clarendon Press, 1993 This Oxford, 1993 Language: english. This text is a careful introduction to geometry. While developing geometry, the book also emphasizes the links between geometry and other branches of pure and applied mathematics. Print On Demand.
Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press Clarendon Press, 1993 *** NEW COPY *** TITLE SHIPPED FROM UK *** Binding paperback The geometry of two and three dimensional space has long been studied for its own sake, but its results also underlie modern developments in fields as diverse as linear algebra, quantum physics, and number theory. This text is a careful. (OOKS, SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL, MATHEMATICS STATISTICS, GENERAL GEOMETRY)
Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 1993 Brand New Book ***** Print on Demand *****. This text is a careful introduction to geometry. While developing geometry for its own sake, the book also emphasizes the links between geometry and other branches of pure and applied mathematics.
Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, United Kingdom, 1993 Brand New Book ***** Print on Demand *****.This 1993 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, 1993 Used - Acceptable, Usually ships in 1-2 business days, THIS IS AN X-LIBRARY BOOK!!! STICKERS AND MARKINGS ACCORDINGLY!!!! The cover has some scuffs and wear around the edges. The cover has curled corners. Small corner bumps. There are some dog-eared corners. This book is mostly clean and tight. Fast Shipping - Safe and Secure Bubble Mailer - From Wisconsin! Satisfaction Guaranteed! Thank you for your purchase from Milwaukee Working. Every purchase you make helps employ the under employed or...
Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford98534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, 1993Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA, 1993Softcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Oxford University Press, 1993 NewSoftcover, ISBN 0198534566 Publisher: Clarendon Press, 1993 Used - Acceptable, Usually ships within 1 - 2 business days, Visibly worn from excessive use but readable copy. May be an ex-library copy and may not include CD and/or Accessories. |
Description
This course is a study of the arithmetic properties of numbers. Topics will included divisibility, prime numbers, congruences, Diophantine equations, number-theoretic functions, primitive roots and indices, and quadratic residues. Three lecture hours per week. |
ALEX Lesson Plans
Title: Fibonacci Poetry
Description:
Students 20: Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence. [W.9-10.1] [MA2013] ALC (9-12) 9: Analyze aesthetics of physical models for line symmetry, rotational symmetry, or the golden ratio. (Alabama)) Title: Fibonacci Poetry Description: StudentsThinkfinity Lesson Plans
Title: Symbolic Analysis
Description:
In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students use iteration, recursion, and algebra to model and analyze a changing fish population. They work to find additional equations and formulas to represent the data.
Standard(s): [S1] BIO (9-12) 5: Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels of organization in the biosphere. 27: Recognize that sequences are functions, sometimes defined recursively, whose domain is a subset of the integers. [F-IF3]
Subject: Mathematics,Science Title: Symbolic Analysis Description: In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students use iteration, recursion, and algebra to model and analyze a changing fish population. They work to find additional equations and formulas to represent the data. Thinkfinity Partner: Illuminations Grade Span: 9,10,11,12
Title: Recursive and Exponential Rules
Description:
In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students determine recursive and exponential rules for various sequences MI1 (9-12) 5: Identify beginnings of algebraic symbolism and structure through the works of European mathematicians Recursive and Exponential Rules Description: In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students determine recursive and exponential rules for various sequences. Thinkfinity Partner: Illuminations Grade Span: 6,7,8,9,10,11,12 Hearing Music, Seeing Waves
Description:
This reproducible pre-activity sheet, from an Illuminations lesson, presents summary questions about the mathematics of music, specifically focused on sine waves and the geometric sequences of notes that are an octave apartT (9-12) 38: Explain how the unit circle in the coordinate plane enables the extension of trigonometric functions to all real numbers, interpreted as radian measures of angles traversed counterclockwise around the unit circle. [F-TF2] [MA2013] ALT (9-12) 40: Choose trigonometric functions to model periodic phenomena with specified amplitude, frequency, and midline.* [F-TF5Title: Vigenere Cipher
Description:
In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students learn about the polyalphabetic Vigenere cipher. They encode and decode text using inverse operations Cipher Description: In this lesson, one of a multi-part unit from Illuminations, students learn about the polyalphabetic Vigenere cipher. They encode and decode text using inverse operations. Thinkfinity Partner: Illuminations Grade Span: 9,10,11,12
Title: Vigenere Grid
Description:
This reproducible transparency, from an Illuminations lesson, depicts a Vigenere Grid, which is used for encoding a message using a polyalphabetic cipher Grid Description: This reproducible transparency, from an Illuminations lesson, depicts a Vigenere Grid, which is used for encoding a message using a polyalphabetic cipher. Thinkfinity Partner: Illuminations Grade Span: 9,10,11,12
Title: Counting Trains - Fibonacci
Description:
In this lesson, students use Cuisenaire Rods to build trains of different lengths and investigate patterns. Students make algebraic connections by writing rules and representing data in tables and graphs.
Standard(s): [MA2013] AL1 (9-12) 27: Recognize that sequences are functions, sometimes defined recursively, whose domain is a subset of the integers. [F-IF3]
ALEX Podcasts
Title: Magic Squares
Overview:
This Standard(s):
[ 29: Relate the domain of a function to its graph and, where applicable, to the quantitative relationship it describes.* [F-IF5]
Magic Squares Overview: This |
books.google.com elementary investigation of the theory of numbers |
How can i learn Linear algebra
Hi, I'm a physics student and I haven't taken any Linear algebra courses before and have only come across it in my Quantum physics classes. I'm a capable mathematician and was wondering if I were to teach my self what would be the best approach, and what text books you would recommend? Also what are the prerequisites?
Those are great video lectures on linear algebra by prof. Gilbert Strang. I'm learning from them myself at the moment, bought the book also.
The content of the lectures is not that abstract, and really good as an introduction..and that's all it is really, an introduction. So if you like a more rigorous approach, I can't give you any advice.
quetzalcoatl9
#3
Jun8-05, 04:51 PM
P: 701
some points you may want to cover would be: linear independence, vector basis, and the definition of a vector space.
having learned these ideas, which are not very hard, linear transformations and determinants would be good, and these things are probably most applicable to physics. |
Find a Lauderhill, FL Algebra 2In integral calculus, the student begins to understand how to find the area under a graph and interpret its meaning in various cases. As the student becomes more familiar with the subject, advanced analysis is taught to deal with differential equations. Differential calculus is just what it sounds like: dealing with differences |
Developmental Mathematics
Course Offerings
Traditional and web-based sections are available for Dev 030 and Dev 031.
DEV 0105 Basic Mathematics (A, SP, SU)
2 credits This term class will introduce students to whole numbers, fractions, and decimals;
study skill activities will build student skills in math study techniques, overcoming
math anxiety, time management, calculator usage, and other topics to assist students
overcome barriers to success in math. The course will also included managed small
group study time and practice designed to improve understanding of math and communication
skills. A scientific calculator is required for the last chapter of the course and
the final exam. Not open to students with credit for DEV 0115 or higher. Lecture: 2 hours Prerequisite: By placement exam Lab fee: $4.00
DEV 0116 Master Math Pre-Algebra (A, SP, SU)
1 credit This student success class will include discipline-based study skill work addressing
math study, overcoming math anxiety, time management, calculator usage and other topics
to assist students overcome barriers to success in math. The course will also include
managed small group study time and practice designed to improve understanding of math
and communication skills. A scientific calculator is required. Concurrent enrollment
in DEV 0115 is required. Lecture: 1 hour Corequisite: DEV 0115 Lab fee: $3.00
DEV 0194 SPT: Dev Math (On Demand)
1-3 credits This course offers special topics in Math at the pre-college level to meet special
needs. Lecture: 1 hour Lab fee: Varies
Did you place into DEV 0115 Pre-Algebra?
This approach gives you a more directed opportunity with individual and group activities.
Re-testing opportunities are available if you earn less than 82% on a test (final
exam excluded).
Register for "L" (LAB) sections on schedule of courses.
Web - W Web-Based
All work for this class will be completed by the student (at home, in an open lab,
etc). Paper and pencil testing must be completed in the Testing Center by the assigned
deadline dates posted on the web site.
Re-testing opportunities are available if you earn less than 82% on a test (final
exam excluded).
Register for "W" (Web) sections on schedule of courses.
Blended - B Web-Based with Minimal In-Class Work
Most work for this class will be completed by the student (at home, in an open lab,
etc). There is a 1-hour in-class required attendance policy. Paper and pencil testing
must be completed in the Testing Center by the assigned deadline dates posted on the
web site.
Re-testing opportunities are available if you earn less than 82% on a test (final
exam excluded). |
Package of two (Volumes 1 and 2) UCSMP Geometry TEACHING RESOURCES paperback books. These books contain Lesson Masters and Resource Masters. These books each have pictures of a city (with geometric shapes) on the front cover. |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
This text forms a bridge between courses in calculus and real analysis. It focuses on the construction of mathematical proofs as well as their final content. Suitable for upper-level undergraduates and graduate students of real analysis, it also provides a vital reference book for advanced courses in mathematics.The four-part treatment begins with an introduction to basic logical structures and techniques of proof, including discussions of the cardinality concept and the algebraic and order structures of the real and rational number systems. Part Two presents in-depth examinations of the completeness of the real number system and its topological structure. Part Three reviews and extends the previous explorations of the real number system, and the final part features a selection of topics in real function theory. Numerous and varied exercises range from articulating the steps omitted from examples and observing mechanical results at work to the completion of partial proofs within |
Hardcover. May include moderately worn cover, writing,...Good. Hardcover. May include moderately worn cover, writing, markings or slight discoloration. SKU: 9780914098898098898 text is detailed and imaginative. For example, there is a proof that the log base, e, is trancendental. This is the sort of thing you don't usually find in elementary texts. Every math student should have a copy.
I feel that this textbook is used far less widely than it should be. As a college freshman with three semesters of calculus under my belt, I found this book to be informative and engaging, even though it started back at square one. As the summary states, this book is really more an introduction to the study of analysis, and as such has few computations, a fact which some find disappointing. I personally feel that this isn't a problem, as the concepts behind the computations are so rigorously and elegantly presented and reinforced that computation follows easily, and indeed there are computations scattered throughout the exercises (though not containing numbers... more general cases of derivatives and integrals, etc.). I found a marked improvement in my mathematical abilities through the use of this text, and it even sparked an interest in mathematics as |
live in an increasingly complex financial world where we must make personal financial decisions almost daily. Our financial well being depends on it. But where do you look for information to develop the ability to make and monitor your financial decisions? Financial mathematics and its applications are not taught in public schools or even colleges except to business finance and accounting majors.
The Mathematics of Personal Finance fills that gap. It is a complete reference for financial mathematics and its applications. Reading this book will teach you how to analyze almost every type of financial situation you will ever encounter during your financial lifetime. With this knowledge you will be able to:
Customer Reviews
Most Helpful Customer Reviews on Amazon.com (beta)
Amazon.com:
4 reviews
11 of 11 people found the following review helpful
A very good basic book on financial mathDec 30 1999
By
A Customer
- Published on Amazon.com
Format: Paperback
This book presents a very good basic and detailed understanding of the time value of money mathematics and also shows how to apply the principles to most real life financial applications that one is likely to experience. To me it was an eye opener to see how financial math can be used to analyze most financial functions such as home mortgages, insurance policies, mutual fund rates of return, and consumer loans, as an aid in making important and informed financial decisions. The book is easy to understand and there are many examples to demonstrate the applications. Also it is a good book for self teaching with many examples to work with answers provided to check results. However, it is necessary to understand basic algebra and to have the ability to follow the examples that are quite comprehensive. The author shows how to use a Hewlett-Packard 12C financial calculator to perform the math. For those who can do this it will be quite rewarding. For example there is a method shown on how to easily save a significant amount of interest on one's home mortgage as well as check the progress of a variable interest rate loan if you have one. The book must be studied and the problems worked to get the full benefit. It cannot be read like a novel.
2 of 2 people found the following review helpful
Excellent reference for the do-it-yourself investorMay 5 2007
By
California reader
- Published on Amazon.com
Format: Paperback
Very thorough explanation of the mathematics of personal finance, for those who can tolerate algebra.
It has a chapter on annuities with an excellent illustration of the mathematics and taxation of annuties. The author commits one error in that he does not correctly define an ordinary annuity and an annuity due. But one can find those definitions on the internet. If you need to understand the mathematics of mortgages and annuities, this is a worthwhile purchase |
EigenstuffDocument Transcript
Harvey Mudd College Math Tutorial: Eigenvalues and EigenvectorsWe review here the basics of computing eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Eigenvalues andeigenvectors play a prominent role in the study of ordinary differential equations and inmany applications in the physical sciences. Expect to see them come up in a variety ofcontexts!DefinitionsLet A be an n × n matrix. The numberλ is an eigenvalue of A if there exists anon-zero vector v such that Av = λv.In this case, vector v is called an eigen-vector of A corresponding to λ.Computing Eigenvalues and EigenvectorsWe can rewrite the condition Av = λv as (A − λI)v = 0. Otherwise, if A − λI has an inverse,where I is the n×n identity matrix. Now, in orderfor a non-zero vector v to satisfy this equation, (A − λI)−1 (A − λI)v = (A − λI)−1 0A − λI must not be invertible. v = 0.That is, the determinant of A − λI must equal 0.We call p(λ) = det(A − λI) the characteristic But we are looking for a non-zero vector v.polynomial of A. The eigenvalues of A are sim-ply the roots of the characteristic polynomial ofA.Example 2 −4 2−λ −4Let A = . Then p(λ) = det −1 −1 −1 −1 − λ = (2 − λ)(−1 − λ) − (−4)(−1) = λ2 − λ − 6 = (λ − 3)(λ + 2). |
Succeeding in Applied Calculus - 2nd edition
ISBN13:978-0495111535 ISBN10: 0495111538 This edition has also been released as: ISBN13: 978-0495220039 ISBN10: 0495220035
Summary: Written for students in need of an algebra refresher, this supplemental book is a convenient source of reference and review for students enrolled in an applied calculus course. It is a quick, easy-to-use resource that provides "just-in-time" algebra review for only those algebra topics that are most essential to the study of applied calculus, as well as most other college level quantitative courses. The author speaks directly to the student, providing numer...show moreous examples to illustrate the concepts and enough exercises to build proficiency. While this book can be used with any applied calculus text on the market, special discounts exist when bundled with a Thomson Brooks/Cole text.
Benefits:
NEW! Refined explanations and exercises appear throughout.
NEW! Section 9 considers the method on problems having real solutions as well as complex ones.
NEW! Section 16 introduces the notion of the tangent line to a circle, and indicates a more general definition as the best linear approximation, which will prove useful to the study of calculus.
A quick reference guide appears on the inside front cover, making it easy for students to find just the amount of review they need and when they need it. For example, if a student has trouble with limits, it tells them which algebra topics to review.
A Pre- and Post-Test appear for every section of the text so students can easily identify exactly what they need to study.
Examples include alternative solutions, and COMMON MISTAKES so students can easily identify where they may have made an error.
The author's approach to deriving formulas facilitates not only a review of algebra, but also the development of the intellectual processes needed to approach the theoretical proof-based aspects of calculus |
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Slide rules to freeware
08/14/2000
Slide rules, nomograms, and logarithm tables were standard productivity tools before the mid-1960s.Mechanical calculators that could handle floating-point decimals became available in the 1960s. Electronic scientific and programmable calculators displaced this technology in the 1970s.In the 1970s and early 1980s, OGJ published numerous engineering programs that would run on programmable calculators. But one laborious task was to accurately key in steps that often numbered over 500-even in reverse Polish notation. Bar code options eventually helped with input.Personal computers began displacing programmable calculators in the 1980s, initially with Basic programs and then with spreadsheets |
Find an Elk Grove Village PrecalculusThis is especially true in the area of economics. Only the simplest differential equations admit solutions given by explicit formulas. Beyond this, numerical methods using computers are called upon to approximately solve differential equations |
Course objectives: The goal of this course is to introduce students to ideas and techniques from discrete mathematics that are widely used in Computer Science. The course aims to present these ideas "in action"; each one will be geared towards a specific significant application. Thus, students will see the purpose of the techniques at the same time as learning about them. |
Algebra - 91 edition
Summary: This introduction to modern algebra emphasizes concrete mathematics and features a strong linear algebra approach. Covers exclusively topics that are of importance to the average mathematician. Focuses on the solution of interesting special cases and applications of theory.
Presents main examples before abstract definitions and covers technical points only where necessary.
Light shelving wear with minimal damage to cover and bindings. Pages show minor use. Help save a tree. Buy all your used books from Green Earth Books. Read. Recycle and Reuse.
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Mathematical Structures for Computer11About the Book
Computing Curricula 2001 (CC2001), a joint undertaking of the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers/Computer Society (IEEE/CS) and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), identifies the essential material for an undergraduate degree in computer science. This Sixth Edition of "Mathematical Structures for Computer Science" covers all the topics in the CC2001 suggested curriculum for a one-semester intensive discrete structures course, and virtually everything suggested for a two-semester version of a discrete structures course. Gersting's text binds together what otherwise appears to be a collection of disjointed topics by emphasizing the following themes: - Importance of logical thinking - Power of mathematical notation - Usefulness of abstractions |
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A book by Edward J. Barbeau
This book is a country walk through the magical world of numbers. Most people will have recognised some of the fascinating patterns exhibited by many numbers; some of these indicate a deep and complex structure which is revealed in this book in a way … see full wiki
Fodder for integer lovers
Integers are the most adorable of all mathematical objects. Simple in concept, yet boundless in mystery. In this volume, the author explores some of the territory marked out by integers taken to integral powers. While most of this territory has been thoroughly explored, like trips to your favorite places, each time yields new joy and insight. The specific topics of the chapters are:
The level of the motivating text is deliberately kept low. Most talented high school math students will be able to follow it with a bit of guidance. Higher order material is reserved for the problems and each section terminates with a large problem set. There are two parts to each set and solutions to all are included, although some are simply a pointer to the proper reference. The level of difficulty is quite broad. Skill sets needed to solve the problems ranges from basic high school algebra up to that of experienced undergraduate math majors. Since they can be used in so many different contexts, material about the integers tends to be scattered throughout the literature. The extensive bibliography included in this book is a welcome road map that can be used to track down the desired specifics. If you are teaching mathematics at any level and looking for problem sets to motivate and challenge the better students, then this book is for you. It is also fun to read if you are an integer aficionado. |
CALCULATOR for Calculus??
I've been using a TI-83 for a long time so I'm really familiar with it.
But since i'll be taking Calculus for 2 years in high school (11,12 grade)
Is it worth getting??? (I mean it's like $150+ or something and what in the world am I gonna do with 2 calculators.)
How much will it help me on the AP exam, in class, SAT/SAT IIs, College classes..etc??
Since part of the AP exam is without a calculator. I want to do well in this class!
But the TI-89 can do some pretty cool things =]
I'm already a couple of months into the class and it's not too bad yet but once we get into harder stuff, maybe a more complex calculator will help?
Replies to: CALCULATOR for Calculus??
The vast majority of my students use a TI-83 or TI-84 model calculator and do perfectly fine on the exam. The exam is also designed not to give preference or change difficulty significantly for one calculator model over another.
College classes, that would depend on the college, but you can always find that out once you get there. Some college professors are still of the "no calculators ever" belief, while others encourage the use of graphing calculators.
I can't imagine that it's harder. Most of the questions that rely on those skills are on the non-calculator section. The kinds of questions that are on the calculator sections usually involve functions that you simply cannot do by hand, or that it would be extremely time-consuming to do by hand (more so than simple factoring).
Although, if the AP teacher is requiring a TI-89, it might be helpful to have one if the teacher is doing demonstrations.
We have a new teacher this year that just recommends it but doesn't require it. She doesn't know how to work it as well as some other teachers though so I'll be messing around with it for awhile myself to learn the basics. (Which I dont mind)
I'm just a couple of months into the class so I guess I'll wait and see how it goes and maybe get one by Thanksgiving/Christmas if necessary. Anything to help my AP/class scores! And since I'll be taking BC next year..it might come in handy I guess.
I'm pretty familiar with the TI-83 since I've been using it since algebra I. But it seems like being able to solve integrals,derivatives on the TI-89 would come in pretty handy and allow you to use your time more efficiently on the AP exam..
The problem is that all the "easy" derivatives and integrals are on the non-calculator section, and all the "hard" ones usually ask you for the value of the derivative at a point or for the result of a definite integral, both of which you can do on the TI-83 without actually calculating the actual derivative or integral.
On the TI-83 or TI-84, the derivative at a point is found using the nDeriv( command (under the [MATH] menu as option [8]). The format is nDeriv(function, variable, x-value).
Similarly, on the TI-83 or TI-84, a definite integral on a given interval can be found using fnInt (in the [MATH] menu as option [9]). The format is fnInt(function, variable, lower limit of integration, upper limit of integration).
Neither of these functions actually differentiates or integrates. In the case of nDeriv, the calculator performs a symmetric instantaneous rate of change function, while in the case of fnInt, the function uses Riemann sums to approximate the area under the curve. |
Math and Statistics Sequences
This chart displays the prerequisites and sequences for commonly required math and statistics courses.
Prerequisites for a particular course are shown above that course. Students' first math courses depend on their
math placement levels and majors. Students should consult with their advisor or catalog/program checklist for
more detailed information. |
Reznikoff is a pretty solid professor. She is in no means out to kill you, but she does expect you to know what you're doing as well. She can go a little fast in her lectures at times, and she's also prone to make arithmetic errors, don't be afraid to correct her though. She values your help.
Very un-well prepared during recitation classes. Frequently stumbled through problems in an un-organized manner (though this may be how most mathematicians do calculations it proves tedious to follow in a recitation class) Also frequently got side tracked, focusing on areas of HW problems that were not necessary to solve the problems. bad teaching!
She was awesome in recetation classes but in lecture she often back-tracked forgeting to mention something, making note taking cumbersome. Obviously lectures went very fast with material (that's colege math)... she often uses methods differnt form the text book so don;t get confused. Overall she's not bad as a teacher just keep up with material!
Moves way too quickly through lecture and doesn't explain examples or problems very well. Lecture is mostly for getting notes, don't attempt to follow her teachings because you won't be able too. The book teaches more than the lectures also |
've worked hard for that math degree. Now what? Sometimes, the choice of careers can seem endless. The most difficult part of a job search is starting it. This is where Great Jobs for Math Majors comes in. Designed to help you put your major to work, this handy guide covers the basics of a job search and provides detailed profiles of careers in math. From the worlds of finance and science to manufacturing and education, you'll explore a variety of job options for math majors and determine the best fit for your personal, professional, and practical needs.
Do you want to be an actuary? Work in the banking industry? Program computers? In this updated edition, you'll find:
Job-search basics such as crafting résumés and writing cover letters
Self-assessment exercises to help determine your professional fit
Investigative tools to help you find the perfect job
Networking tips to get your foot in the door before your résumé is even sent
True tales from practicing professionals about everyday life on the job
Current statistics on earnings, advancement, and the future of the profession
Resources for further information, including journals, professional associations, and online resources
{"currencyCode":"USD","itemData":[{"priceBreaksMAP":null,"buyingPrice":11.21,"ASIN":"0071448594","isPreorder":0},{"priceBreaksMAP":null,"buyingPrice":24.79,"ASIN":"082183455X","isPreorder":0}],"shippingId":"0071448594::MTKeB6%2Fby7X5V%2BH129cGPnD0cVdIkKNhdba2C2xQUFY987uR65Nxj2IJyFOW5oZ6X9kpHzn3Ta%2FIOmMMbwdUVvec%2FtAn0FInS3RrfOxUcl79wFZY%2B0rfsw%3D%3D,082183455X::uvA7mV8AYNpYjBQBZ1Obxo0TnsaVhKndIdKemp2oc7sBzi1b12vlfSIXiVXaYk6GmIAKtyELZ%2FW8hT3uAAWiLjZi3K5OtdPY8BIIQ9QSee recent graduate with a math degree this is the book I have been searching for. This is the only book you should need. It covers the interview, cover letters, resumes, networking and everything else. All other books on this subject limit discussion to education majors and jobs. This book does the same but gives equal treatment to those who seek jobs with math as a primary skill. It has hints for everything you could imagine. Gives lists of job titles and many job discriptions. Also gives some contact information for organizations that will be of help or interest to anyone looking for employment using their math degree. Once again, this is a must buy!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I have been teaching college mathematics for over a quarter century, so I have passed many students out into the wild. With this background, I was somewhat disappointed with the contents of this book. From the title, one would assume that the subject is solely the careers that one can pursue armed with mathematical knowledge. However, the first 95 pages are dedicated to the mechanics of searching for a job, activities such as how to write a resume, how to prepare for an interview and how to conduct a follow up. This is generic and has very little specificity to the math major. The next section describes how to select a graduate school. I suppose this can be considered a job, but once again, the title refers to the career paths available to a math major. On page 110, the authors get around to describing some of the occupations that a math major can function in. My belief is that the authors should have skipped the first two sections and started here. The most likely reader would be someone considering a math major, not about ready to leave school having completed one. This could have been a much better and more focused book.
I felt that this book misses the mark. Most of the information is online, and the book does give many details about each occupation. At points it gets way too technical to be useful. It seems to have two audiences- high schoolers interested in math, and math majors applying for a job. The first group wouldn't be interested in the more technical aspects (resume-writing, for instance), and the second group will find this book to be too basic for their needs (they already know which occupation they want, hence them writing their resume for it). |
Encyclopedia of Mathematics is a comprehensive one-volume encyclopedia designed for high school through early college students. More than 1,000 entries, more than 125 photographs and illustrations, and numerous essays cover the principal areas and issues that characterize this "new" area of science. This valuable resource unites disparate ideas and provides the meaning, history, context, and relevance behind each one. The easy-to-use format makes finding straightforward and natural answers to questions within arithmetic - such as algebra, trigonometry, geometry, probability, combinatorics, numbers, logic, calculus, and statistics - simple. Encyclopedia of Mathematics also gives historical context to mathematical concepts, with entries discussing ancient Arabic, Babylonian, Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, Hindu, and Mayan mathematics, as well as entries providing biographical descriptions of important people in the development of mathematics.
{"currencyCode":"USD","itemData":[{"priceBreaksMAP":null,"buyingPrice":79.14,"ASIN":"0816051240","isPreorder":0},{"priceBreaksMAP":null,"buyingPrice":76.28,"ASIN":"0691118809","isPreorder":0}],"shippingId":"0816051240::%2BXQDF3AOy3No5%2F3OCFkQLGgAxww%2BSCIxmgl7IHcnC71enES0sXqO%2FyUqPy70KGfaSIgvVfcif1VZoKbmpHVl%2FcYPMFUFMc9Uh5i1t%2Fye%2B70%3D,0691118809::OubaeqVCqfM6htLdU6XgeMbz0zHYnYlgkN0lJqWAjx5ZaPYcXpt6D69BGu0ApreBTLPzDfu8ITtrBYYI3SMb8HKKA4VBlyAeqdn5mqxiHearcher, author, and educator Tanton has compiled this encyclopedia to share his enthusiasm for thinking about and doing mathematics. More than 800 alphabetically arranged entries present a wide variety of mathematical definitions, theorems, historical figures, formulas, examples, charts, and pictures. Many cross-references serve to connect concepts or extend a concept further. A mathematical time line listing major accomplishments is available following the entries, along with a list of current mathematics organizations. The bibliography contains print and Web resources, and the index is helpful in locating terms and concepts.
Each entry varies in length depending on the term, concept, or person being described. Six longer essays describe the history of the branches of mathematics. The writing style is straightforward and readable and sometimes contains parenthetical notes that add background or context. If an entry contains a word or words in capital letters, that term or person is also an entry in the encyclopedia.
Most Helpful Customer Reviews
This remarkable book is not just a collection of facts about mathematics, but is a fairly detailed treatment (within the limits imposed by space considerations) of various mathematical terms and topics. It does not restrict itself to simple mathematics and devotes full attention to several advanced concepts, but is always clearly written. I really commend the author for including proofs for some of the more important theorems and results (e.g. proof of the fundamemtal theorem of algebra, derivation of the least-squares method, and many more).
And yes, you *will* learn tons and tons of things from this excellent book. It is a must read for anybody interested in mathematics!
Given these four, there is hardly a topic from among the current 495 math fields of study that isn't at least explained in enough detail to save LOTS of time on link expeditions. At minimum, these give head starts on alphabetized keywords that will quickly fill holes in any research project, class, or syllabus.
Looking for divisibility rules for numbers that you didn't think had divisibility rules? Looking for names of symbols you didn't think had names? Dr. Tanton provides the facts and the explanations along with the stories behind the topics. |
Algebra 2 - Home School Parent Guide / Daily Lessons
Coordinates the Algebra II program in 180 daily lessons that allow the student to work through the text, quiz, and test book smoothly and efficiently. Specifically designed for home schoolers, this item contains a recommended materials list, guide for the parent, progress reports (for record keeping purposes), student guide, and student daily lessons.
PLEASE NOTE:
A Beka does not sell their materials to retail bookstores, preferring instead to sell their products through representatives and through their website. As a result, we can offer only used A Beka, and can't guarantee we'll get it. We offer here the current retail price of the book for your information, but if our page does not say "Buy Used," we do not have a copy. |
Elementary and Intermediate Algebra: Concepts and Applications
The Bittinger Concepts and Applications Program delivers proven pedagogy, guiding you from skills-based math to the concepts-oriented math required ...Show synopsisThe Bittinger Concepts and Applications Program delivers proven pedagogy, guiding you from skills-based math to the concepts-oriented math required for college courses. The new editions supports you with a tightly integrated MyMathLab course, quality applications and exercises, and a new MyMathGuide workbook and video program. Teaching and Learning Experience To provide a better teaching and learning experience for both instructors and students, this program will: *Improve Results: MyMathLab delivers proven results in helping you succeed and provides engaging experiences that personalize learning. *Teach Conceptual Understanding: Proven pedagogy, robust exercise sets, and end-of-chapter material are all geared towards ensuring you grasp the concepts. *Guide Students' Learning: The new Bittinger video program and MyMathGuide work hand in hand to guide you to success.488Good. Looseleaf. May include moderately worn cover, writing,...Good. Looseleaf. May include moderately worn cover, writing, markings or slight discoloration. SKU: 97803218488Fine. Hardcover. Almost new condition. SKU: 9780321848741-2-0-3...Fine. Hardcover. Almost new condition. SKU: 97803218487411901019010 Elementary and Intermediate Algebra: Concepts and Applications
When I got the book it was in almost perfect new condition...
I didn't give it five stars because when I took it out of the box several pages were bent backwards together in what looked like a packing error.
The price was fantastic for a new product |
Product Synopsis
A student-friendly approach to KS3 This coursebook covers topics appropriate for the whole of KS3 Maths and accurately reflects the language and content of the new Programme of Study. This is a complete version of the individual Years 7, 8 and 9 coursebooks and provides full coverage of the KS3 programme of study. *Clear and concise overviews, examples and 'Key Words' boxes help underpin understanding of the key topics * Tasks and exercises challenge and stimulate pupils at all levels and help develop skills * Pages of practice questions for every topic reinforce learning and test understanding |
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Book Description
Popular puzzles such as the Rubik's cube and so-called oval track puzzles give a concrete representation to abstract mathematics. This book and CD show how the theory of permutation groups can be used to solve a range of puzzles. Ideal for students of algebra or anyone with an interest in puzzles.
About the Author
John O. Kiltinen is a native of Marquette,Michigan. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree at Northern MichiganUniversity in 1963 and his Doctor of Philosophy in mathematics at DukeUniversity in 1967. After teaching at the University of Minnesota for four years, he returned in 1971 to his undergraduate alma mater, where he has been a faculty member ever since. He was a visiting professor during1978-79 in Finland, spending half of the year at the University of Joensuu,and half at the Tampere University of Technology. For the first half ofhis year in Finland, he held a Fulbright Lectureship.
This package of book and software presents three fundamental puzzles that can be solved using permutations. The first is called the "Oval Tracks" puzzles and consists of an oval-shaped track that contains numbered disks. There are two fundamental operations that can be performed on the disks:
*) All can be rotated around the track a certain number of positions in either direction. This movement will maintain the fundamental order of the disks. *) A certain set of permutations can be performed on a small number of the disks.
The second category of puzzle is the "slide puzzles." In this case there is a rectangular grid where each cell of the grid contains a single disk. There is an empty cell and the disks are moved one at a time into the unoccupied cell, creating a different unoccupied cell. Variations of this puzzle have cells marked with an X that are rigid and cannot be moved. The third category of puzzles is called the "Hungarian Rings." In this case, the puzzle is constructed from two interlocking rings of disks that are either numbered or colored. The disks share two locations and are separately movable so the only operations are rotating the disks. In all cases, the player is given start and final configurations and the goal is to move from the start to the final state. The software can be used to execute a random rearrangement of the disks at the start of the game. Undo buttons and the ability to create complex macro operations are available. Using the fundamentals of group theory as it is applied to permutation groups, you can solve all of these games. Therefore, after the initial descriptions of the games, there is an introduction to group theory and permutations. The fundamental notation and operations are given, which is a lead in to the construction of more complex macros of the combination of permutations. While the exposition is quite clear, it will be difficult for anyone lacking knowledge of group theory to understand some of the abstract operations. Given that software is used and the large number of possible permutations of the disks, it is not possible for anyone to work through all of the challenges these games can present. Like the best puzzles, you can spend hours working through them, even with the help of the group theory. Hence the fun, as there is always another challenge to be faced and overcome.Read more › |
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Symbolic Computation
Conrad Wolfram
One of the important features of Mathematica is that it can do symbolic, as well as numerical, calculations. This means it can handle algebraic formulas as well as numbers. In this video, Conrad Wolfram gives a brief overview of symbolic computation in Mathematica and explains its advantages. |
Explaining the fundamentals that support the manipulation and display of geographic information, this book focuses on basic mathematical techniques and reviews the characteristics of geographic information. The new edition contains end-of-chapter summaries, thorough revisions to every chapter, …
The notion of proof is central to mathematics yet it is one of the most difficult aspects of the subject to teach and master. In particular, undergraduate mathematics students often experience difficulties in understanding and constructing proofs.
Understanding Mathematical Proof describes the …
Bridging the gap between procedural mathematics that emphasizes calculations and conceptual mathematics that focuses on ideas, Mathematics: A Minimal Introduction presents an undergraduate-level introduction to pure mathematics and basic concepts of logic. The author builds logic and mathematics …
Mathematical card effects offer both beginning and experienced magicians an opportunity to entertain with a minimum of props. Featuring mostly original creations, Mathematical Card Magic: Fifty-Two New Effects presents an entertaining look at new mathematically based card tricks.
Each chapter …
The subject of mathematics is not something distant, strange, and abstract that you can only learn about—and often dislike—in school. It is in everyday situations, such as housekeeping, communications, traffic, and weather reports. Taking you on a trip into the world of mathematics, Do I Count? …
The race is on to construct the first quantum code breaker, as the winner will hold the key to the entire Internet. From international, multibillion-dollar financial transactions to top-secret government communications, all would be vulnerable to the secret-code-breaking ability of the quantum …
Wearing Gauss's Jersey focuses on "Gauss problems," problems that can be very tedious and time consuming when tackled in a traditional, straightforward way but if approached in a more insightful fashion, can yield the solution much more easily and elegantly. The book shows how mathematical problem …
At first glance, mathematics and music seem to be from separate worlds—one from science, one from art. But in fact, the connections between the two go back thousands of years, such as Pythagoras's ideas about how to quantify changes of pitch for musical tones (musical intervals). Mathematics and …
Winner of an Outstanding Academic Title Award from CHOICE Magazine
Most available cryptology books primarily focus on either mathematics or history. Breaking this mold, Secret History: The Story of Cryptology gives a thorough yet accessible treatment of both the mathematics and history of |
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General Education: Mathematics and Quantitative Literacy
Students will have the "ability to understand numerical data and use mathematical methods for analysis and problem-solving" (BOG). Mathematics is the science of numbers and their operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations and abstractions, and of space configurations and their structure, measurement, transformations and generalizations.
Educational Goals:
To apply a variety of appropriate strategies to solve mathematical problems;
To construct mathematical arguments and proofs;
To express ideas precisely using the language of mathematics;
To construct, analyze and interpret mathematical models of physical, social, or other phenomena; and |
Design theory has grown to be a subject of considerable interest in mathematics, not only in itself, but for its connections to other fields such as geometry, group theory, graph theory and coding theory. This textbook, first published in 1985, is intended to be an accessible introduction to the subject for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students which should prepare them for research in design theory and its applications. The first four chapters of the book are designed to be the core of any course in the subject, while the remaining chapters can be utilized in more advanced or longer courses. The authors assume some knowledge of linear algebra for the first half of the book, but for the second half, students need further background in algebra. |
S.O.S. Mathematics - Dept. of Mathematical Sciences, Univ. of Texas at El Paso
Internet courses/tutorials to help students do homework, prepare for a test, or get ready for a class. The material presented here reviews the most important results, techniques and formulas in college and pre-college mathematics. The learning units are presented in worksheet format and require the student's active participation. Subjects covered include Algebra, Trigonometry, Calculus, Differential Equations, Complex Variables, and Matrix Algebra.
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17Calculus
Concepts, examples, videos, and practice problems to help students better understand the concepts of precalculus, single variable calculus, multi-variable calculus, and differential equations. Formerly known as MathZar.
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3-D Drawing and Geometry - Cathi Sanders
A Math Forum Summer 1998 Institute project that uses examples of paintings, architecture, etc. to analyze different types of 3-D drawings, and teaches students how to create them. Careers in 3-D drawing that use these techniques, from architecture to
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About Rainbows - Beverly T. Lynds
A tutorial on the physical nature of the rainbow, with graphics and text references. The traditional rainbow is sunlight spread out into its spectrum of colors and diverted to the eye of the observer by water droplets. The "bow" part of the word describes
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About Rubik's Cube - Dan Knights
See the author's collection of Rubik's cubes, his solution and timing methods, thoughts on solving Rubik's Cube with your eyes closed, and suggestions for lubricating your cube and where to get them.
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Algebra Class - Karin Hutchinson
These free Algebra lessons are written by a Math teacher for students who are having difficulty with Algebra 1. Each lesson is presented with several detailed examples, many practice problems, and an answer key. A perfect solution for students in need
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Algebra.Help - John Traker
Algebra.help is an online resource designed to help people learn algebra. It offers lessons to teach or refresh old skills, calculators that show how to solve problems step-by-step, and interactive worksheets for testing skills. To be notified of updatesAll Star Tutoring
Professional one-on-one tutoring services in New York City's boroughs, including GED test preparation, city-wide exams, and Regents exam preparation.
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Ask Dr. Callahan - Dale Callahan
For the homeschooling parent who needs high school math and science training material: textbooks, videos for the parent and child, teaching guidelines, tests and test grading guides as well as support for the duration of the course. Courses in geometry,
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Authentic Assessment Toolbox - Jon Mueller
A how-to text on creating authentic tasks, rubrics and standards for measuring and improving student learning, including an introduction to the topic with comparison to traditional test-based assessment, why and how best to use it, standards, tasks, rubrics
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The Basic Math Quick Reference Handbook - Pete Mitas
This handbook, written by an experienced math teacher, lets you quickly look up definitions, facts, and problem solving steps. It includes over 700 detailed examples and tips to help someone improve
their mathematical problem solving skills. The web
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Bisection Method Tutorial - Joseph L. Zachary
A tutorial that explores the bisection method for finding the roots of equations. Includes a Java applet that opens in a separate window, for use alongside the tutorial. From a Computer Science course at the University of Utah, and the book IntroductionBrainPOP Math - BrainPOP, LLC
Short animated films that are simple and easy to understand on elementary mathematics, as well as health, science, and technology. Films often accompanied by quizzes.
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Beginning and Intermediate Algebra - 4th edition
Summary: Get Better Results with high quality content, exercise sets, and step-by-step pedagogy! The Miller/O'Neill/Hyde author team continues to offer an enlightened approach grounded in the fundamentals of classroom experience in Beginning and Intermediate Algebra 4e. The text reflects the compassion and insight of its experienced author team with features developed to address the specific needs of developmental level students. Throughout the text, the authors communicate to students the ve...show morery points their instructors are likely to make during lecture, and this helps to reinforce the concepts and provide instruction that leads students to mastery and success. Also included are Problem Recognition Exercises, designed to help students recognize which solution strategies are most appropriate for a given exercise. These types of exercises, along with the number of practice problems and group activities available, permit instructors to choose from a wealth of problems, allowing ample opportunity for students to practice what they learn in lecture to hone their skills59.16 +$3.99 s/h
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The new Second Edition of A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications is a truly accessible introduction to the fundamental principles and applications of complex analysis. Designed for the undergraduate student with a calculus background but no prior experience with complex variables, this text discusses theory of the most relevant mathematical topics in a student-friendly manner. With Zill's clear and straightforward writing style, concepts are introduced through numerous examples and clear illustrations. Students are guided and supported through numerous proofs providing them with a higher level of mathematical insight and maturity. Each chapter contains a separate section on the applications of complex variables, providing students with the opportunity to develop a practical and clear understanding of complex analysis.
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A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications (Jones and Bartlett Publishers Series in Mathematics): Search Results08193_US_7637577215798
Book Description:Jones & Bartlett Learning. Hardcover. Book Condition: New. 0763757721 Brand New. International Edition, Softcover,ISBN VIVA_ELB#10024311526
Book Description:Sudbury, Massachusetts, U.S.A.: Jones & Bartlett Pub, 2008. Soft cover. Book Condition: New. "MUST READ" NEW. International Edition. The book has exactly same content as US but ISBN and Cover are difference from US edition. Very rare case, textbooks come with different exercises at the end of chapter's. Restricted sales disclaimer wordings not for Sales in USA and Canada may be printed on the cover of the book but it is absolutely legally to use in North America. Express Shipping via USPS Priority & Media Mail. Bookseller Inventory # ABE-13160314799
Book Description:Jones & Bartlett Learning. Hardcover. Book Condition: New. 076375777637577 |
found that breaking down difficult concepts using a step by step approach provides students with the understanding and confidence necessary to apply their newfound knowledge to more challenging questions. Because Algebra 2 involves concepts that require knowledge from previous math classes, I ... |
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Mathematics ...
... Excel) give P(X less than A) and using algebra other results can be found whereas ESBPDF Analysis is Probability Analysis Software that handles all the combinations for you. Features include Binomial, Poisson, Hypergeometric, Normal, Exponential, Student t, Chi Squared, F, Beta and Lognormal Distributions; Inverses of Normal, Student t, Chi ...
The Matrix ActiveX Component is a useful tool that can simplify the use of matrix operations for mathematical computations in application development. It provides for matrix operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, inversion, transpose, and computation of determinant, LU and Cholesky decompositions. Advanced edition additionally supports QR and Singular Value (SVD) ...
... calculations. Has a comprehensive help system. Work with algebra. Simplify expressions, differentiate them. Integrate a wide range of expressions, and have the solution explained. Find Taylor series. Factorise polynomials, divide them, find their GCDs. Specialised tools run in their own windows, and can save their data for future reference. One ...
... very intuitive approach. Most equations are supported, including algebraic equations, trigonometric equations, exponential equations, parametric equations. DeadLine solves equations graphically and numerically. It displays the graph of the function and a list of the real roots of the equation. You can evaluate the function and the first two derivatives, find ...
... types are handled as well as most AT algebra (relative positioning). Bitmap families are the only major resource type not handled. This tool should make the transition from the gnu-tools tool chain to PODS quite simple. ...
... ...
... way. The program covers the areas Analysis, Geometry, Algebra, Stochastics,Vector algebra.MathProf helps Junior High School students with problems in Geometry and Algebra. High School and College students, seeking to expand ... |
The subject of this book is the efficient solution of partial differential equations (PDEs) that arise when modelling incompressible fluid flow.The material is organized into four groups of two chapters each, covering the Poisson equation (chapters 1 and 2); the convection-diffusion equation (chapters 3 and 4); the Stokes equations (chapters 5 and 6); and the Navier-Stokes equations (chapters 7 and 8). These equations represent important models within the domain of computational fluid dynamics, but they also arise in many other settings. For each PDE model, there is a chapter concerned with finite element discretization, and a companion chapter concerned
with efficient iterative solution of the algebraic equations obtained from discretization. For each problem and associated solvers there is a description of how to compute along with theoretical analysis which guides the choice of approaches. Illustrative numerical results occur throughout the book, which have been computed with the freely downloadable IFISS software. All numerical results should be reproducible by readers who have access to MATLAB and there is considerable scope fopr experimentation in the 'computational laboratory' provided by the software.
This book provides an excellent introduction to finite elements, iterative linear solvers and scientific computing aimed at graduates in engineering, numerical analysis, applied mathematics and interdisciplinary
scientific computing. Including theoretical problems and practical exercises closely tied with freely downloadable MATLAB software, it is an ideal teaching and learning resource |
On Core Mathematics
On Core Mathematics is a complete program for transitioning to the Common Core State Standards with interactive, real-world applications that help students deepen their understanding of crucial math concepts, while addressing the Common Core Curriculum and the Standards for Mathematical Practice. This program allows students to not just "do the math," but also to "understand and explain their math."
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Basic Mathematics Skills: Revision and Practice
The first part of 'Basic Mathematics Skills: Revision and Practice' concentrates on learning and practising basic skills and the second part looks at ...Show synopsisThe first part of 'Basic Mathematics Skills: Revision and Practice' concentrates on learning and practising basic skills and the second part looks at everyday applications of mathematics which are relevant to students' lives. Coverage matches sub-GCSE numeracy for schools Practice.. Line illustrations 384 p. Revision & Practice.. Line illustrations. Intended for college/higher education practice.. Numerous line illustrations |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
Covering the key principles and concepts in the teaching and learning of mathematics in elementary schools, this text provides trainee and practicing teachers with a quick and easy reference to what they need to know for their course, and in the classroom. The entries are arranged alphabetically, and each contains a brief definition, followed by an explanation and discussion, practical examples, and annotated suggestions for further reading.
Meet the Author
Derek Haylock is an education consultant and writer in the field of mathematics education. He is a Senior Fellow in Education at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, where he worked for over 30 years in primary teacher training and in education research. He is a major author in education, with a large number of published books and chapters in books. His best-selling Mathematics Explained for Primary Teachers (Sage) has been the leader in the field for many years, with a fourth edition published in 2010. Derek's work is characterized by a commitment to explain mathematics in simple and accessible ways and to enable the subject to be taught and learnt with understanding and confidence. He is married, with two grown-up daughters and three grandsons. Outside of mathematics, he is a Free Church elder, plays the trumpet, and is passionate about classical music, cricket, walking (quickly) and cycling (slowly |
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Overview
Written in a clear and concise style, this book offers all the review, drill and practice students need to develop proficiency in algebra. In a lecture-format class, each section of the book can be discussed in a forty-five- to fifty-minute class session. In a self-paced situation, the "Practice Problem" in the margins the student to become actively involved with the material before working the problems in the "Problem Set |
WIRIS cas is an online platform for mathematical calculations designed for education. You can access a powerful calculation toolbar through an HTML page that includes integrals and limits calculation, function graphing in 2D or 3D and symbolic matrices manipulation, among others.
WIRIS cas covers all mathematical topics from primary school to university level (Calculus, Algebra, Geometry, Differential Equations...). More Info »
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WIRIS cas (sometimes refered to as WIRIS) was added by piotrex in
Jul 2012 and the lastest update was made in
Oct 2012. There is a history of activites on
WIRIS cas in our Change Log and Activity Log.
It's possible to update the information on WIRIS casIRIS casage is a free open-source mathematics software system licensed under the GPL. It combines the power of many existing open-source packages into a common Python-based interface. Mission: Creating a viable...
Microsoft Mathematics is a desktop graphing calculator that can help you visualize and see mathematical concepts as you've never seen them before. Microsoft Mathematics includes ink handwriting support to...
wx...
Maple is a general-purpose commercial computer algebra system. Users can enter mathematics in traditional mathematical notation. Custom user interfaces can also be created. There is support for numeric...
GraphCalc is an all-in-one solution to everything from everyday arithmetic to statistical analysis, from betas to Booleans, from cubes to calculus, from decimals to derivatives. GraphCalc combines all the...
SMath Studio - is a math program with 'paper'-like interface and numerous computing features. It has an ability to work with systems, matrices, vectors, complex numbers, infinities and fractions. SMath |
How to Ace the Rest of Calculus : The Streetwise Guide : Including Multi-Variable Calculus - 01 edition
Summary: Do you remember being hopelessly confused in calculus class? Afterwards, you asked your brainy friend over a cup of coffee, "What was going on in that class?" Your friend then explained it all to you in five minutes flat, making it crystal clear. "Oh," you said, "is that all there is to it?" Later, you wished that friend was around to explain all the lectures to you.
The original How to Ace Calculus played the role of that fri...show moreend for a first-semester calculus class. Now meet your new buddy, How to Ace the Rest of Calculus: The Streetwise Guide. Written by three gifted teachers, it provides humorous and highly readable explanations of the key topics of second and third semester calculus--such as sequences and series, polar coordinates and multivariable calculus--without the technical details and fine print that would be found in a formal text.
Funny, irreverent, and flexible, How to Ace the Rest of Calculus shows why learning calculus can be not only a mind-expanding experience but also fantastic fun. ...show less
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...These skills are vital for learning Calculus. Sometimes insufficient knowledge of other mathematical disciplines creates series obstacles for the student's progress in Calculus. During the sessions I try to clarify and eliminate such obstaclesUse manipulatives and calculators. Successful completion of this course prepares students for success in Algebra 1. This course will help you excel in a high school or college level pre-calculus class. |
Standard
rev.11/25/03
MAT 101 - General Mathematics
Course Description
Emphasizes mathematical skills that can be applied to the
solution of occupational and technical problems. Topics include: properties of
numbers, fractions, decimals, percents, ratio and proportion, measurement and
conversion, exponents and radicals, and geometric and technical formulas. Class
includes lectures, applications, and homework to reinforce learning. |
Find a Sun City West AlgebraOften the same concept can be presented analytically, graphically, or through examples drawn from the real world. One can teach anything by breaking it down into an array of simpler concepts and then reassembling the elements into a larger whole. This requires sensitivity. |
To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser.
7th grade (U.S.)
7th grade takes much of what you learned in 6th grade to an entirely new level. In particular, you'll now learn to do everything with negative numbers (we're talking everything--adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, fractions, decimals... everything!). You'll also take your algebraic skills to new heights by tackling two-step equations.
7th grade is also when you start thinking about probability (which is super important for realizing that casinos and lotteries are really just ways of taking money away from people who don't know probability) and dig deeper into the world of data and statistics.
Onward!
(Content was selected for this grade level based on a typical curriculum in the United States.)
If you have the expression "3 + 4 x 5", do you add the 3 to the 4 first or multiply the 4 and 5 first? To clear up confusion here, the math world has defined which operation should get priority over others. This is super important. You won't really be able to do any involved math if you don't get this clear. But don't worry, this tutorial has your back.
Using the combined powers of Chuck Norris and polar bears (which are much less powerful than Mr. Norris) to better understand what expressions represent and how we can manipulate them. Great tutorial if you want to understand that expressions are just a way to express things!
Common Core Standard: 7.EE.A.1
Algebra is the language that aliens will use to communicate with us (that or Esperanto). In this tutorial, we'll learn to express and understand this language (Algebra, not Esperanto) a bit better.
Common Core Standard: 7.EE.A.2 |
This solutions manual accompanies Saxon Math's Algebra 1/2 Student Text. Make grading easy with solutions to all textbook practices, problem sets, and additional topic practices. Early solutions that contain every step, and later solutions omit obvious steps; final answers are given in bold type for accurate, efficient grading. Paperback.
This should be included with the students workbook and teachers manual, tests, answers, etc. all in one package.
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Review 2 for Saxon Algebra ½, Third Edition, Solutions Manual
Overall Rating:
5out of5
This shows the steps to all problems.
Date:September 5, 2011
Mom for Moms
Location:Anderson, IN very helpful to use as I worked with my son on the problems he missed. It is easy to read and follow. A must have with the series.
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Review 3 for Saxon Algebra ½, Third Edition, Solutions Manual
Overall Rating:
5out of5
This is a life-saver in checking homework
Date:February 21, 2011
kevinlele
Location:Monroe, LA
Age:35-44
Gender:female
Quality:
5out of5
Value:
5out of5
Meets Expectations:
5out of5
We purchased this manual to assist with checking our son's homework. Before getting the manual, we had to work the problems in order to check his accuracy. This saves so much time, as we no longer have to work the problems ourselves. It also breaks solutions down into steps, so we can better assist him with finding his errors. |
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The computer program MATLAB is emphasized throughout, and an introduction to MATLAB is provided in an appendix. Rich in examples, illustrations, and exercises of varying difficulty, this text can be used for a one- or two-semester course and is ideal for students in pure and applied mathematics, physics, and engineering.
Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
"Overall, this textbook has an attractive format with lots of figures, programs, and formulas, and it presents, in a very traditional way, a body of material that is fundamental in applied mathematics, science, and engineering. It would make an excellent textbook for courses focused around Fourier analysis and applications to differential equations." —SIAM Review
"The aim of this book is to provide an introduction to a number of methods of applied mathematics, especially those arising from Fourier analysis. Classical problems of [a] mathematical physics nature are discussed throughout the book. Those problems represent the pretext or the basis for the elaboration of mathematical models. The book presents numerical schemes and analytical results as well.... This book is excellent material for students of applied mathematics and engineers, covering the theory of Fourier analysis with interesting applications and numerical examples in MATLAB." —Zentralblatt MATH
"This book is devoted to the application of Fourier analysis. The author mixed in a remarkable way theoretical results and applications illustrating the results. Flexibility of presentation (increasing and decreasing level of rigor, accessibility) is a key feature.
...The book contains extensive examples, presented in an intuitive way with high quality figures (some of them quite spectacular), useful MATLAB codes. MATLAB exercises and routines are well integrated within the text, and a concise introduction into MATLAB is given in an appendix. The emphasis is on the program's numerical and graphical capabilities and its applications, not on its syntax.... Applications are modern and up to date.... Comprehensive references are attached to each chapter.
Intended audience: especially students in pure and applied mathematics, physics and computer science, but also useful to applied mathematicians, engineers and computer scientists interested in applications of Fourier analysis." —Mathematica
"The topics covered are useful both in traditional continuum mechanics and mathematical physics areas, as well as in applied mathematics domains such as control and communications. The book provides in a clear and distinct manner the fundamental concepts and techniques of this area and a wide variety of problems in which these methods are useful. Both the theoretical and the computational aspects are emphasized.
...Davis's book has many novel features being quite different from most other textbooks on applied mathematics. Besides a nice treatment of all these topics...it also contains a very deep treatment of MATLAB implementations of methods and algorithms. Mainly it has a clear and consistent exposition with a strong focus on mathematical fundamentals and useful techniques. It has numerous extensive examples, illustrations, comments, and a very modern graphical presentation of results. A variety of problems of wide-ranging difficulty together with their solutions are presented. Plenty of MATLAB routines and exercises are also provided.
...The book has style. Every theorem and mathematical result has a wonderful appealing comment. While the author does not purposely go out of his way to be rigorous and very technical, he illustrates all these results by numerical examples implemented and solved in the MATLAB environment.
...All in all, I greatly enjoyed reviewing this book, and I recommend it without any hesitation as a textbook for advanced graduate or master's level courses in engineering." —Studies in Informatics and Control |
ISBN: 0395431905 / ISBN-13: 9780395431900
Intermediate Algebra, with Applications
One of a series of developmental maths textbooks, this volume focuses on intermediate algebra. It provides a learning system organized by objectives, ...Show synopsisOne of a series of developmental maths textbooks, this volume focuses on intermediate algebra. It provides a learning system organized by objectives, around which all lessons, exercises, end-of-chapter review tests and ancillaries are arranged. The last objective in every section is, where applicable, devoted to applications, and a specific strategy is suggested for each major application problem, encouraging students to plan problem-solving strategies before addressing the |
Precalculus: A Right Triangle Approach
Beecher, Penna, and Bittinger's Precalculus: A Right Triangle Approach is known for enabling students to "see the math" through its focus on ...Show synopsisBeecher, Penna, and Bittinger's Precalculus: A Right Triangle Approach is known for enabling students to "see the math" through its focus on visualization and early introduction to functions. With the Fourth Edition, the authors continue to innovate by incorporating more ongoing review to help students develop their understanding and study effectively. Mid-chapter Mixed Review exercise sets have been added to give students practice in synthesizing the concepts, and new Study Guide summaries provide built-in tools to help them prepare for tests. MyMathLab has been expanded so that the online content is even more integrated with the text's approach, with the addition of Vocabulary, Synthesis, and Mid-chapter Mixed Review exercises from the text, as well as example-based videos created by the authors7676.
Description:Good. 032172576X Used text in Good condition-may contain some...Good. 032172576X Used text in Good condition-may contain some markings inside the book as well as signs of wear from previous use-may or may not contain supplemental materials-free tracking information with each purchase1725769Description:Good. Looseleaf. May include moderately worn cover, writing,...Good. Looseleaf. May include moderately worn cover, writing, markings or slight discoloration. SKU: 97803217257 |
Saturday, September 22, 2012
6 Essential Questions in Algebra
A year ago, I began this blog with the goal of uncovering some satisfying essential questions in algebra. These were to be questions that addressed the fundamental essence of algebra, while also being able to extend beyond a single discipline... and of course, they needed to be intriguing to both my students and to myself. A few months later I wrote that one of the qualities of a REALLY good math teacher is having a 'second set of objectives that go beyond the mastery of today's content.' A reader challenged me to identify these objectives, which I slyly avoided. But this week, in honor of my one year blogoversary, I present six essential questions or 'higher objectives' for my algebra classes. It's a start. In the spirit of UbD, expositions are voiced in the language of enduring understandings.
How is algebraic thinking different from arithmetic thinking?
It is my hope that my students will understand that algebra is a language of abstraction, where patterns are generalized and symbols are used to represent unknown or variable quantities. Arithmetic involves counting and manipulation of quantities where algebra relies more heavily on reasoning and generalizing the patterns that are observed from arithmetic procedures. It is my ultimate hope that they come to appreciate the power and utility of generalization.
What makes one solution better than another?
I would like my students to understand that numerical accuracy is only one piece of a good solution. The measure of a comprehensive and satisfying solution involves a subtle balance of precision, clarity, thoroughness, efficiency, reproducibility, and elegance (yes, elegance). I want my students to be masters of the well-crafted solution.
How do I know when a result is reasonable?
I want my students to understand that in math, as in life, context is supreme. There is no 'reasonable' or 'unreasonable' without an understanding of context. I hope that they can refine the skills to analyze and dissect problems that are both concrete and abstract, applied and generalized. I want them to develop habits of inquiry, estimation, and refinement. Ultimately, I hope that they will improve their sense of wisdom.
Do I really have to memorize all these rules and definitions?
Students will understand that mathematics is a language of precision. Without explicit foundations (axioms and properties) and precise definitions, reason gives way to chaos. On the other hand, they should understand that many perceived 'rules' in mathematics are simply shorthand ways to recall a train of logical reasoning (like formulas and theorems). It is my hope that they will appreciate precision but also understand the value of reason over recall.
Isn't there an easier way?
Without destroying their fragile spirits, I want my students to appreciate the benefits of struggle. I want them to realize that insight and higher knowledge are gained by approaching a problem from different angles and with multiple methods and representations. I want them to understand that knowledge about how mathematics works is on a higher echelon than the solution to a particular problem. In my ideal classroom, the students will understand how to spark their inner intrigue in order to move themselves beyond answers to seek connections, generalizations, and justifications.
Do I really need to know this stuff?
By sheer repetition and example, my students will know that the practical applications of algebraic thinking are numerous, especially in the rapidly changing fields of science, engineering, and technology. Beyond these undeniably important applications, they will know that confirmed correlations have been made between success in algebra and improved socioeconomic status. But ultimately, I hope that they will understand that the beauty and intrigue of mathematics is vast, and the limit of its power to improve the quality of their lives is unknown. I want them to glimpse infinity.
>Arithmetic involves counting and manipulation of quantities where algebra relies more heavily on reasoning and generalizing the patterns that are observed from arithmetic procedures.
Sheer nonsense. Generalization should start with arithmetic, but because such misconceptions plague teachers, once students start algebra, they too get confused. And so the cycle of weak math understanding is perpetuated.
The company I work for Learn Bop ( is striving to adhere to the common core standards while empowering teachers to have better relationships with their students.
Traditionally technology doesn't permit for solid personalized instruction because its very simply oriented and non-adaptive. From what I infer in your article here beyond simple arithmetic its very difficult to make procedural, non-linear math instruction or abstractions.
I stumbled across your Blog while searching for Algebra 1 Essential Questions. I have been trying to come up with questions similar to these for weeks now. I think more teachers need to go through this exercise. I love the idea of a "second set" of objectives. Uncovering these is a difficult and delightful process. I think it's important for students to see this second set objectives....maybe more important than seeing the first set! This is why we teach math. To inspire students to ask these questions in their every day life and have practice coming up with reasonable, logical answers to them. Thank you! |
The unique feature of this compact student's introduction is that it presents concepts in an order that closely follows a standard mathematics curriculum, rather than structure the book along features of the software. As a result, the book provides a brief introduction to those aspects of the Mathematica software program most useful to students. The second edition of this well loved book is completely rewritten for Mathematica 6 including coverage of the new dynamic interface elements, several hundred exercises and a new chapter on programming. This book can be used in a variety of...
From classical foundations to advanced modern theory, this self-contained and comprehensive guide to probability weaves together mathematical proofs, historical context and richly detailed illustrative applications. A theorem discovery approach is used throughout, setting each proof within its historical setting and is accompanied by a consistent emphasis on elementary methods of proof. Each topic is presented in a modular framework, combining fundamental concepts with worked examples, problems and digressions which, although mathematically rigorous, require no specialised or advanced......
Engineering Mathematics covers the four mathematics papers that are offered to undergraduate students of engineering. With an emphasis on problem-solving techniques and engineering applications, as well as detailed explanations of the mathematical concepts, this book will give the students a complete grasp of the mathematical skills that are needed by engineers.
...
Discrete Mathematics provides an introduction to some of the fundamental concepts in modern mathematics. Abundant examples help explain the principles and practices of discrete mathematics. The book intends to cover material required by readers for whom mathematics is just a tool, as well as provide a strong foundation for mathematics majors. The vital role that discrete mathematics plays in computer science is strongly emphasized as well. The book is useful for students and instructors, and also software professionals.
...
Business Mathematics focuses on transforming learning and teaching math into its simplest form by adopting learning by application approach. The book is refreshingly different in its approach, and endeavors to motivate student to learn the concept and apply them in real-life situations. It is purposely designed for the undergraduate students of management and commerce and covers wide range of syllabuses of different universities offering this course.
...
Complex Analysis presents a comprehensive and student-friendly introduction to the important concepts of the subject. Its clear, concise writing style and numerous applications make the basics easily accessible to students, and serves as an excellent resource for self-study. Its comprehensive coverage includes Cauchy-Goursat theorem, along with the description of connected domains and its extensions and a separate chapter on analytic functions explaining the concepts of limits, continuity and differentiability.
...
Linear Algebra is designed as a text for postgraduate and undergraduate students of Mathematics. This book explains the basics comprehensively and with clarity. The flowing narrative of the book provides a refreshing approach to the subject. Drawing on decades of experience from teaching and based on extensive discussions with teachers and students, the book simplifies proofs while doing away with needless burdensome textual details.
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Bernard Helffer's graduate-level introduction to the basic tools in spectral analysis is illustrated by numerous examples from the Schrödinger operator theory and various branches of physics: statistical mechanics, superconductivity, fluid mechanics and kinetic theory. The later chapters also introduce non self-adjoint operator theory with an emphasis on the role of the pseudospectra. The author's focus on applications, along with exercises and examples, enables readers to connect theory with practice so that they develop a good understanding of how the abstract spectral theory can be...
The Foundations of Computational Mathematics meetings are a platform for cross-fertilisation between numerical analysis, mathematics and computer science. This volume is a collection of articles based on plenary presentations, given at the 2011 meeting, by some of the world's foremost authorities in computational mathematics. The topics covered reflect the breadth of research within the area as well as the richness of interactions between seemingly unrelated branches of pure and applied mathematics. As a result this volume will be of interest to researchers in the field of computational......
...The authors continue to provide real-world, technical applications that promote intuitive reader learning. Numerous fully worked examples and boxed and numbered formulas give students the essential practice they need to...
Need to learn MATHEMATICA? Problem SOLVED!
Take full advantage of all the powerful capabilities of Mathematica with help from this hands-on guide. Filled with examples and step-by-step explanations, Mathematica Demystified takes you from your very first calculation all the way to plotting complex fractals.
Using an intuitive format, this book explains the fundamentals of Mathematica up front. Learn how to define functions, create 2-D graphs of functions, write basic programs, and use modules. You'll move on to 3-D graphics, calculus, polynomial, linear, and differential equations,...
Mathematica Cookbook helps you master the application's core principles by walking you through real-world problems. Ideal for browsing, this book includes recipes for working with numerics, data structures, algebraic equations, calculus, and statistics. You'll also venture into exotic territory with recipes for data visualization using 2D and 3D graphic tools, image processing, and music.
Although Mathematica 7 is a highly advanced computational platform, the recipes in this book make it accessible to everyone -- whether you're working on high school algebra, simple graphs,..., most chapters also include advanced material, so that the book will be a valuable resource for both beginners and experienced users. - Covers both Mathematica 6 and Mathematica 7 - The book, fully revised and updated, is based on...
For the engineering and scientific professional, A Physicist's Guide to Mathematica, 2e provides an updated reference guide based on the 2007 new 6.0 release, providing an organized and integrated desk reference with step-by-step instructions for the most commonly used features of the software as it applies to research in physics. For professors teaching physics and other science courses using the Mathematica software, A Physicist's Guide to Mathematica, 2e is the only fully compatible (new software release) Mathematica text that engages students by providing complete topic coverage,... |
Product Description
Extra Practice for Primary Mathematics U.S. Edition follows the topical arrangement in the Primary Mathematics U.S. Edition series. The exercises generally provide problems of a similar style and level of difficulty as the course material, but are short and specific. Instructors may assign only those topics in which the students needs more practice; it is recommended for average students needing more practice than found in the workbooks. This series may be used as a source of problems for tests, to re-teach or practice a topic, or to review a specific topic from a previous level. Answers are provided at the back of the books |
learning how to correctly read a math book is an essential skill. How you take notes isn't really the problem, what is important is that you are active while reading the book. Anytime you encounter a proposition, theorem, etc, attempt it yourself first! Sometimes this is difficult, and often you won't get very far before having to peek at the textbooks proof, but just attempting will be beneficial (and perhaps you will eventually be able to figure out things on your own). Do not read a math test without pen and paper by your side. If there is anything you don't understand, stop. Figure out exactly what is meant before moving on. Obviously the more problems you can do, the better. However, don't get tripped up on any one exercise for too long. Give a problem a half an hour to an hour before moving on.
Make sure you can do a handful of problems before moving on to the next chapter and make sure one or two are actually difficult. If you run into problems, ask here, but make sure you make a serious attempt. I said only give the problems half an hour, because often the books will have so many problems solving all may not be feasible immediately, and you can come back to them later. |
Odyssey Algebra
04/01/05
CompassLearning ( has expanded its entire suite of Odyssey products, including Odyssey Algebra for middle schools and secondary education. The browser-based curriculum will help teachers offer a comprehensive approach to math education, while providing a platform that supports a variety of instructional strategies and learning styles. Odyssey Algebra has 13 chapters and 131 objectives to cover in an entire school year. The curriculum's online features include interactive tutorials that are woven throughout the program and aids such as online calculators, graph paper, number lines, protractors, spreadsheets and rulers. The program also provides additional offline materials for students that are designed to extend learning beyond the classroom |
97800787034gebra: Concepts & Applications, is a comprehensive Algebra 1 program that is available in full and two-volume editions. Algebra: Concepts & Applications uses a clean lesson design with many detailed examples and straightforward narration that make Algebra 1 topics inviting and Algebra 1 content understandable.
Volume 1 contains Chapters 1-8 of Algebra: Concepts & Applications plus an initial section called Chapter A. Chapter A includes a pretest, lessons on prerequisite concepts, and a posttest.
Designed for students who are challenged by high school mathematics, the 2007 edition has many new features and support components |
Survey of Mathematics with Applications
9780321501073
ISBN:
0321501071
Pub Date: 2007 Publisher: Pearson
Summary: This best-selling text balances solid mathematical coverage with a comprehensive overview of mathematical concepts as they relate to varied disciplines. The text provides an appreciation of mathematics, highlighting mathematical history, and applications of math to the arts and sciences. It is an ideal book for students who require a general overview of mathematics, especially those majoring in liberal arts, the soci...al sciences, business, nursing and allied health fields. Let us introduce you to the practical, interesting, accessible, and powerful world of mathematics today-the world ofA Survey of Mathematics with Applications,8e.
Angel, Allen R. is the author of Survey of Mathematics with Applications, published 2007 under ISBN 9780321501073 and 0321501071. Five hundred forty seven Survey of Mathematics with Applications textbooks are available for sale on ValoreBooks.com, three hundred forty four used from the cheapest price of $0.01, or buy new starting at $28 |
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Show More theories and systems in a practical and relevant manner. The book is written for students with interest in quantitative reasoning, liberal arts mathematics, mathematics for education, and finite mathematics. This undergraduate textbook is now on its 5th edition, offering new exercises that encourage critical thinking. It features a "Make Sense?' section, where Blitzer introduces new applications and problem solving exercises (all of which have been updated). The writing is concise and does not overwhelm with overly intellectualized explanations. It is useful to learners of different levels, as it covers basic principles of logic, set theory, algebra, number presentation, geometry, statistics, and many more. Additional chapters have also been integrated to discuss application skills in mathematical systems, financial management, and other practical areas such as voting and appointment. Instructors will appreciate the 'Voice Balloons' - a small section that appears in text pages, showing important concepts that instructors might say when explaining problems to students. Thinking Mathematically, Fifth Edition even includes other extra tools, including chapter reviews, tests, study tips, and a collection of practical exercises to help students effectively review and apply what they have learned. Robert Blitzer is known for his unique approach of making math relevant to various academic interests. Aside from Thinking Mathematically, he has also authored a long list of other books, with subjects ranging from algebra to trigonometry, precalculus, and many |
New Signpost Maths for Victoria
Student Book 5
New Signpost Maths for Victoria by Alan McSeveny
Book Description
The title of this book is New Signpost Maths for Victoria and is written by author Alan McSeveny. The book New Signpost Maths for Victoria is published by Pearson Education Australia. The ISBN of this book is 9780733983443 and the format is Paperback. The publisher has not provided a book description for New Signpost Maths for Victoria by Alan McSeveny.
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Crossing the River With Dogs - 2nd edition
Summary: Crossing the River with Dogs: Problem Solving for College Students has been adapted from the popular high school text to provide an accessible and coherent college-level course in mathematical problem solving for adults. Focusing entirely on problem solving and using issues relevant to college students for examples, the authors continue their approach of explaining classic as well as non-traditional strategies through dialogs among fictitious students. This text is appropriate...show more for a problem solving, liberal arts mathematics, mathematics for elementary teachers, or developmental mathematics22470464731
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examine common algebra-related misconceptions and errors of middle school students. In recent years, success in Algebra I is often considered the mathematics gateway to graduation from high school and success |
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About the book:
Developed from the authors introductory combinatorics course, this book focuses on a branch of mathematics which plays a crucial role in computer science. Combinatorial methods provide many analytical tools used for determining the expected performance of computer algorithms. Elementary subjects such as combinations and permutations, and mathematical tools such as generating functions and Pólyas Theory of Counting, are covered, as are analyses of specific problems such as Ramsey Theory, matchings, and Hamiltonian and Eulerian paths.
This introduction will provide students with a solid foundation in the subject.
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"This is a delightful little paperback which presents a day-by-day transcription of a course taught jointly by Pólya and Tarjan at Stanford University. Woods, the teaching assistant for the class, did a very good job of merging class notes into an interesting mini-textbook; he also included the exercises, homework, and tests assigned in the class (a very helpful addition for other instructors in the field). The notes are very well illustrated throughout and Woods and the Birkhäuser publishers produced a very pleasant text.
One can count on [Pólya and Tarjan] for new insights and a fresh outlook. Both instructors taught by presenting a succession of examples rather than by presenting a body of theory&[The book] is very well suited as supplementary material for any introductory class on combinatorics; as such, it is very highly recommended. Finally, for all of us who like the topic and delight in observing skilled professionals at work, this book is entertaining and, yes, instructive, reading."
Mathematical Reviews (Review of the original hardcover edition)
"The mathematical community welcomes this book as a final contribution to honour the teacher G. Pólya."
Zentralblatt MATH (Review of the original hardcover edition)Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhäuser, 1983 Not in stock - our special ordering service will try to obtain this title for you within 1-2 weeks.
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhäuser Boston, 1983 Usually ships within 1 - 2 business days, New condition. Ships from US. Please allow 10-15 business days for delivery. We are happy to answer your inquiries.
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Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhauser, Secaucus, New Jersey, U.S.A., 1983 Used - Good. first edition/first printing book is tight with no markings, all corners are terrible, bumping and cardboard showing
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhauser, Secaucus, New Jersey, U.S.A., 1983 First Edition/First Printing. Hard Cover. Used - Good Good No Jacket. 8vo-over 7¾"-9¾" tall. First edition/first printing book is tight with no markings, all corners are terrible, bumping and cardboard showing. First Edition/First Printing
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhauser, Secaucus, New Jersey, U.S.A., 1983 Used - Near Fine. From a university library, with their namestamp on the edges, otherwise a fine hardcover first edition copy in a slick purple binding, no DJ. (MATHEMATICS)
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhäuser Boston, 1983 Used - Very Good, Usually ships in 1-2 business days, Fine condition better than very good. No underlining or highlighting. NOT an ex-library copy.
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhauser, Secaucus, New Jersey, U.S.A., 1983 Hardcover. Used - Very Good Very Good No Jacket as Issued
Hardcover, ISBN 0817631232 Publisher: Birkhauser, Secaucus, New Jersey, U.S.A., 1983 Used - Very Good (COMPUTER SCIENCE) |
Mathematics
Mathematics has strong interdisciplinary ties to other ISU Departments. If your research is related to one of these disciplines, check the related Resources by Subject page (Engineering, Chemistry, Physics, and Biology).
Reference Books
The following are selected resources for research in mathematics. For more books on this topic, please use the library catalog: Library Catalog.
To find books in other libraries, try using WorldCat, a collective catalog for thousands of libraries in the United States, Canada, and around the world. This catalog should not be used as a substitute for this library's catalog, but as another avenue of searching for books.
Dictionaries
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Mathematics "Authoritative and reliable, this A-Z provides jargon-free definitions for even the most technical mathematical terms. With 3,000 entries ranging from Achilles paradox to zero matrix, it covers all commonly encountered terms and concepts from pure and applied mathematics and statistics, for example, linear algebra, optimisation, nonlinear equations, and differential equations. In addition, there are entries on major mathematicians and on topics of more general interest, such as fractals, game theory, and chaos."
Dictionary of Algebra, Arithmetic, and Trigonometry (Reference Collection: QA 5. D 4983 2001): This brief dictionary contains definitions of concepts, terms, equations, and formulae used in algebra, arithmetic, and trigonometry. Equations and formulas are reprinted in this book.
Dictionary of Analysis, Calculus, and Differential Equations (Reference Collection: QA 5. D 53 2000): Included in this dictionary are short definitions of terms, formulae, and concepts used in calculus, analysis, and differential equations. Equations and formulas are reprinted in this book.
Dictionary of Classical and Theoretical Mathematics (Reference Collection: QA 5. D 4984 2001): This dictionary contains brief definitions and explanations of terms, concepts, equations, and formulas used in classical and theoretical mathematics. Equations and formulas are reprinted in this book.
Dictionary of Statistics "This wide-ranging, jargon-free dictionary contains over 2,000 entries on all aspects of statistics including terms used in computing, mathematics, operational research, and probability, as well as biographical information on over 200 key figures in the field, and coverage of statistical journals and societies. It embraces the whole multi-disciplinary spectrum of this complex subject, and will be invaluable for students and professionals from a wide range of disciplines, including politics, market research, medicine, psychology, pharmaceuticals, and mathematics."
Dictionary of Weights, Measures, and Units "This comprehensive dictionary provides clear definitions of all the units, prefixes, and styling of the Système International (SI), as well as industry-specific and traditional terms currently in use."
Encyclopedias
CRC Concise Encyclopedia of Mathematics (Reference Collection: QA 5. W 45 2003): This encyclopedia contains thousands of articles on the philosophy of mathematics and theoretical mathematics, geometry, calculus, analysis, and more. Equations and formulas are reprinted in this book. Also included with the articles are short lists of references.
Encyclopedia of Mathematics (Reference Collection QA5 .T34 2005): Published by Facts on File this single volume reference book is a comprehensive encyclopedia designed for early college students. It includes more than 1,000 entries, numerous essays, and more than 150 photographs and illustrations.
Handbooks and Formulas
CRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae (Reference Collection: QA 47. M 315 1996): This handbook has collected hundreds of tables and formulas used by branches of mathematics such as algebra, scientific computing, probability and statistics, geometry, and more. Indexed.
Handbook of Mathematics (Reference Collection: QA 40. B 713 1985): This handbook reprints equations, tables, formulas, and rules for a wide variety of branches of mathematics, including calculus, algebra, probability and statistics, and so on. Indexed.
Handbook of Writing for the Mathematical Sciences (Reference Collection: QA 42. H 54 1998): This handbook is designed to help students and researchers understand the rules and conventions of writing mathematics papers for class or for publication. Indexed.
Web Sites
American Mathematical Society: This is the official Web site of the American Mathematical Society. This site offers information on mathematical research, careers in mathematics, meetings and conferences, and more. NOTE: The mathematics database MathSciNet is available through the link in the Core Databases and Indexes section of this page.
INFOMINE: INFOMINE is a special database that searches for Web site and documents that most search engines miss, primarily Web pages and documents on university Web sites. This database is developed and maintained by the Library of the University of California, Riverside.
ipl2: Collected and annotated by librarians, this site contains a searchable database of high quality Web sites. To find a Web site, browse the available topics or use the search box. |
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Course Detail Information
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MAT 099C - Basic Mathematics (CAP)
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0.000 Credit hours
3.000 Lecture hours
Levels: Undergraduate
Schedule Types: Lecture, Tutorial, Workshop
Mathematics Department
Course Attributes: Challenge to Achieve at Pace
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Features and Benefits
NEW - Revised and expanded content - Including new discussions of functions; complex numbers; closure, interior, and boundary; orientation; forms restricted to vector spaces; and expanded discussions of subsets and subspaces of R^n; probability; change of basis matrix, and more, makes text now a little easier and clearer. NEW - Approximately 875 exercises - 270 more exercises that the previous edition, reinforces students understanding of the material. NEW - Approximately 294 examples - 50 more examples that the previous edition, deepens students understanding of concepts and theorems by allowing them to see each step of the process. NEW - 50 more figures and tables than the previous edition, makes text a bit easier. NEW - Student Solutions Manual, gives students detailed solutions to several hundred exercises and provides a source of additional examples. Unified approach to vector calculus, linear algebra, and differential forms, gives students a better understanding of all three areas and shows how they all relate to each other. Unique treatment of differential forms, shows students how differential forms in three dimensions translate into the language of vector calculus. Stresses computationally effective algorithms—Both for computations and for underlying theory, illustrates for students how mathematics is done today. More difficult and longer proofs in the appendix, allows more advanced students to use the book at a higher level and beginning students to focus on statements and becoming at ease with techniques rather than being intimidated by the technical details of proofs. Emphasis on the correspondence between different mathematical languages, including algebra and geometry. Presents material as more intuitive and conceptual. Integrates theory and application. Emphasizes computationally effective algorithms and proves theorems by showing that those algorithms really work. Begins most chapters with a treatment of a linear problem, shows students how the methods apply to "corresponding" non-linear problems. Instant exercises with solutions in footnotes, encourages students to read the text actively.
Most helpful customer reviews
I have used this book to teach gifted high school students about the following topics: the implicit function theorem, manifolds, and differential forms. With the Hubbards' approach, even students without a course in linear algebra actually get it! Not only do they understand the material, but they also become amazingly enthusiastic when they begin to see the unifying effect of understanding differential forms. This is the only text that I have seen that really makes forms clear. It does so by taking the time to carefully, but rigorously, explain them in a "classical" setting. One of the reasons forms are so difficult to grasp is that while some things, such as the exterior derivative and the work form of a function, can be seen as natural objects (when explained well), the connection between these objects and calculating with forms using coordinates is not so easy to make clear. The Hubbards' do make these ideas clear - even when presenting topics as hard as orientation. Unfortunately, most of us had to wait till graduate school to see forms - usually, in a more abstract setting. By then, we probably didn't have time to sit, calculate, and make clear connections. This text makes that later transition, for those in math, much easier. It also makes physics easier. The Hubbards' make that point by showing that the electric field shouldn't really be a field, but a two form. Any book that lets one explain that - and much more - to high school students, which I do, should be a part of every multivariable calculus course. Finally, I should note that this book contains much, much more than manifolds, the implicit function theorem and differential forms. But, even if that were all it contained, it would fully be worth the price. In summary, this book opens the door to new worlds that most students never get to see clearly. What a present to us all.
I've read sections of both the first & second editions and the second has numerous minor changes that make it a much better book. The changes are not major--the content and order are almost identical. However, places where the explanations were unclear or difficult frequently have new diagrams or helpful comments in the margins. A few topics that were too difficult or digressions have been moved to appendices or omitted. It remains a challenging book, intended for honors students, but is now a reasonable alternative to Apostol or a sequel to Spivak.
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Schaum's Outline of Differential GeometryStudents will find all the information covered in the standard textbooks--and more--explained clearly and concisely in this powerful study tool. Unusually detailed, it elucidates all the most difficult-to-grasp concepts that class studies and texts sometimes gloss over. The hundreds of problems with fully explained solutions illuminate important points and teach students sound problem-solving skills. Ideal, also, for independent study.
Vectors.Vector Functions of Real Variable.Concept of Curve.Curvature and Torsion.Theory of Curves.Elementary Topology in Euclidean Spaces.Vector Functions of Vector Variable.Concept of Curve.First and Second Fundamental Forms.Theory of Surfaces.Tensor Analysis.Intrinsic Geometry.Appendix.Existence Theorem for Curves.Existence Theorem for Surfaces. |
Have students work on directions for parametric curves and arc length in class using Mathematica Directions. Hand out take home problems on work and arc length.
Day 48: Wednesday, 4/16
Review for test.
Day 47: Monday, 4/14
Had students do course evaluations.
Did a third type of problem on work. Test will be Thursday. Spent some time talking about what the test will cover.
Day 46: Friday, 4/11
Students worked on problems from Work, as well as continued work on other material in Chapter 6.
Day 45: Thursday, 4/10
Did two complete problems for Work (section 6.6)
Day 44: Wednesday, 4/9
Handed back take home test on power series, and spent some time discussing some key elements of the work.
Had students work together on some problems involving volumes of revolution as well as arc length. Handed out answers to the problems at the end of class.
Day 43: Monday 4/7:
Collected GW 7 on Taylor Polynomials.
Presented section 6.4 - arc length. First talked about parametric equations. Then developed the length of a typical line segment by calling on local linearity, and showing that change in the output variable = derivative * change in input variable. We used this idea with x = f(t) and y = g(t) to create a Riemann Sum for the lengths of the line segments. Set the integral up for problem 15, after showing students how to get the graph for the function on their calculators.
Day 42: Friday, 4/4
Presented section 6.3 - Shells. Emphasized that we would be using shells if we made our typical slice parallel to the axis of revolution. Have to switch our perspective to finding the surface area of a cylindrical shell.... which would be 2*pi*r*h, and then multiply this by the width to get the volume of a typical shell. Emphasized that r and h had to both be given in terms of the same variable. Worked through 2 examples.
Day 41: Thursday, 4/3
Answered some questions for the Taylor Polynomial project.
Continued work on section 6.2. Did an example of using washers.
Day 40: Wednesday, 4/2
Began section 6.2 - volumes of revolution using washers and disks. Emphasized what would lead you to use one of these methods.... having a typical slice be perpendicular to the axis of revolution. If the axis is a boundary for the region, we would use disks. If the axis is not a boundary, we would use washers, where we subtract the area of the inner disk from the area of the outer disk, so that the surface area we are considering is in the form pi(outer radius squared - inner radius squared). Did an example of disks.
Day 39: Monday,3/31
Collected the Take Home Test on Power Series. Began Chapter 6. Discussed the two orientations for our typical rectangle when considering the area between two curves. Set up a particular situation, and worked through the integration.
Day 38: Friday, 3/27
Finished discussion on Taylor Series by looking at a function that does not have an elementary derivative, showing how we could develop the taylor series quickly by using a known pattern, and then discussing how we could use Taylor Polynomials to help us determine the value of a definite integral for the original function.
Day 37: Thursday, 3/26
Gave students time to work on Mathematica - working with material on Taylor Polynomials.
Reviewed key ideas about Taylor Series. Worked with students to develop the Taylor Series for Cos (x) at 3pi/2 by hand.
Handed out information on generating Taylor Polynomials with Mathematica, and talked about why we might want to center the Taylor Polynomial at a particular center (like 3pi/2) if we were interested in approximating a particular function value.
Day 35: Monday, 3/24
Answered questions about Power Series project.
Showed how we could develop the Taylor Series for Cos x by taking the derivative of the Taylor Series for Sin x. Developed the Taylor Series for e^x centered at a = 3.
Day 34: Friday, 3/21
Began work with Taylor Polynomials. Developed the procedure for developing a Taylor Series. Worked through this process for e^x and sin(x). Showed how to develop the summation formula for each of these series.
Day 33: Thursday 3/20
Collected GW 6 if students felt they had done a sufficient job with it. I am going to count this as a quiz...rather than giving the same type of questions as a take home. Students could elect to continue refining their work... and hand the papers in to me tomorrow.
Handed out a yellow sheet that established a process for considering power series convergence using Mathematica. Discussed the results in detail, and then gave students time to work on Mathematica to create the material.
Talked about the endpoints for the power series we worked with on Monday. Completed another example, and handed out a Mathematica worksheet on Power Series to help in exploring the concept of convergence over an interval.
Day 31: Monday 3/17
Handed back GW 5. Spent a little time talking about the answers that I handed out as an example of what I was looking for.
Began section 8.5 - Power Series. Did one complete example, leaving the test of endpoints to the students. We will pick up from there on Wednesday. Students should focus their energy on GW 6.
Day 30: Friday 3/7
Finished section 8.4 by doing a couple of examples. Handed out GW 6. Students should enjoy their break, but also spend some time working on material with series.
Day 29: Thursday 3/6
Started discussing section 8.4. Covered alternating series and did two examples.
Day 28: Wednesday 3/5
Asked students to work on Practice Exercises. I had to be at a mediation session for part of class.
Day 27: Monday, 3/3
Worked more on section 8.3. Discussed the p series, and showed an example using the comparison test.
Day 26: Friday, 2/28
Answered a number of questions from material we had covered earlier.
Told students to look at GW 5 at link from yesterday. I added a new section in that document that shows how to get the first n terms of a series written out. This will be useful in terms of explaining the behavior of some of the series in GW 5. I STRONGLY suggest that students incorporate this into their work.
Began section 8.3, talking about the integral test. Had a lively discussion of why you needed to show your sum was above a known diverging integral to say the series diverged, and below a known converging integral to say the series converged.
Worked in lab on GW 5. Helped students see how to work with summation notation. Worked with them to understand how to look at tables of partial sums and think about discussing what they see.
Day 24: Wednesday, 2/26
Answered questions (LOTS of them!) about what we had covered so far. Worked through one of the practice exercises on a telescoping series.
Day 23: Monday, 2/24
Continued with section 8.2, showing a telescoping series, as well as the harmonic series. Talked about the fact that if a series converges, the terms of the underlying sequence MUST go to 0. However, if the terms of the underlying sequence DO go to 0, the series does not necessarily converge.
Emphasized the notation we had encountered so far, and worked with students to understand the differences.
Day 22: Friday, 2/21
Collected GW 4.
Continued with Chapter 8. Started section 8.2, and distinguished between a sequence and a series. Focused on the notation. Worked with several examples of series, and worked to determine whether they converged or diverged. Again, it is essential that students be reading the book to make sure they are reading and writing the theorems that we incorporate in our discussion in class.
Developed the pattern for a geometric series, and discussed when it converged, and when it diverged.
We will continue with this work next week.
Day 21: Thursday, 2/20
Began Chapter 8. Discussed sequences, noting that students MUST be reading the book to process some of the theorems and definitions. My class approach will be to do as many examples as I can, while integrating the core ideas from the theorems...but students should be writing out the theorems and definitions in their notes. The notation is essential.
Did a number of examples of finding patterns for sequences, and determining whether sequences converged or diverged.
Day 20: Wednesday, 2/19
Test on integration techniques and improper integrals.
Day 19: Friday, 2/14
No class. Snow Day. Students should be studying for test next week, and working on the GW.
Day 18: Thursday, 2/13
No class. Snow Day. Students should be studying for test next week, and working on the GW.
Day 17: Wednesday, 2/12
Handed back quiz. Results were not very good. Will give a test on Wednesday, 2/19 that covers this same material, and includes 3 additional questions: one on partial fractions, one on the concept of improper integrals as well as the proper notation, and one that students have to complete to decide if it diverges or converges.
Handed out GW 4. This assignment should help students understand that some improper integrals that appear in the same form converge while others diverge, and should emphasize which behavior in each manner. (The assignment at the link is the slightly modified assignment from the paper copy handed out in class. Students should address the extra parts in this link.)
Day 16: Monday, 2/10
Worked on several examples where the integrand was boundless. Again, emphasized the notation, and how to make final conclusions.
Day 15: Friday, 2/7
Did another example of an improper integral with one of the limits of integration being boundless.
Gave most of the period for the Quiz.
Day 14: Thursday, 2/6
Started section 5.10: Improper Integrals. Explained the two types of scenarios: One or more limits of integration are boundless, or the integrand is boundless at some one of the limits, or at some point within the interval.
Did an example of a function where one of the limits was boundless. Emphasized the notation.
Day 13: Wednesday, 2/5
Snow day. DCC canceled all classes.
Day 12: Monday, 2/3
Continued work with Partial Fractions, and reviewed some of the key ideas with this technique. Worked out a problem with powers of trig functions that required making use of trig identities. These can be time consuming, and can take a while to figure out a pathway through. It is important for students to understand the historical significance of this type of work, however, Computer Algebra Systems now make it easy to obtain answers quickly.
Downgraded the test on Friday to a quiz that will cover sections 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6.
Day 11: Friday, 1/31
Collected GW 3.
Worked on section 5. 7 - worked on technique involving partial fractions. Got all the way through an example where we have only non repeating linear factors in the denominator. Began a second problem where we have two quadratic factors.
Showed students where vital information in the textbook was for the different cases that could arise. Emphasized that they need to be reading the book!
Announced test on Friday.
Day 10: Thursday, 1/30
Picked up with the example we were working on yesterday, and completed that work.
Showed students how they could use the free form entry option in Mathematica to access Wolfram Alpha, which provides extensive help on solving problems like the one we just did.
Worked on another example, and showed how to check the result just using Mathematica.
Day 9: Wednesday, 1/29
Talked some about GW 3.
Walked students through the presentation in the book developing the formula for integration by parts (Section 5.6). Emphasized the u dv notation, and did 2 examples carefully discussing how to think about the selection of u and dv. Left off in the middle of another example where we had to use integration by parts twice.
Presented the rest of section 5.5 - working with definite integrals. Showed two approaches: 1) Changing the limits of integration by using the u substitution, and 2) Temporarily suspending the definite integral until we come back to an antiderivative in terms of x, and then using the original limits of integration. Did a couple of examples.
Day 7: Friday 1/24
Teacher out. Students should be working on Graded Work 3.
Day 6: Thursday, 1/23
Answered some questions from section 5.4. Collected GW 2.
Presented some of the material from 5.5. Did several examples using u substitution. Will deal with the definite integrals next week.
Presented material from section 5.4 - showing that a function can be defined as an integral, and also showing that the derivative of that function will involve the integrand. Showed the case of having to use the chain rule.
Showed students how to find the "help options" in the link to Mathematica on the MyDCC page. Handed out notes on Automatic Positioning in Mathematica (gold), and showed students how that worked in Mathematica. Handed out new schedule (tan) with a change in my office hours. Handed out How to Save to the Angel Toolbox (gold). Handed out the Success Strategies Grade Sheet (pink) Extras are in the box outside my office door.
Answered some questions on GW 2. Discussed the Evaluation Theorem of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, and what it represented.
Walked students through their blue books, reiterating what I expected to see when I collected them next week. The answers from the yellow sheet on Remembering Some Calculus will count as 6 points. This is where students should start from in terms of creating the answers for the collaborative assignment.
Next week we will begin with the more traditional pattern for class. We are up and running!
Day 3: Thursday 1/16
Students met in groups to work on Graded Work 2 (green). The end goal is to create 1 document that all group members agree says what they want in terms of answering the questions.
Showed students how to go through the 4 steps to create the table of values.
Answered questions as they arose.
Day 2: Wednesday 1/15
Had students say hello to the people they had met on Monday. Get together with a new group, and review answers to the rest of the derivative problems on the yellow sheet from Day 1. I reviewed the answers quickly with the entire class.
Had students fill out Course Information cards. Had students meet some other students in class. Students should have names of the people they met, and some common ground indicated on the second page of their blue books. Had students begin to discuss Review material on Derivatives (yellow).
At end of class, had students write what they should do before next class in their "To Do" list in their Blue Books. Each student should complete the work on the yellow sheet, and be prepared to discuss it with their classmates at the beginning of the next class. |
Maths
A Student's Survival Guide
Contents
I have split the chapters up in the following way so that you can easily find particular topics.
Also, it makes it easy for me to tell you where to go if you need help, and easy for you to
find this help.
Introduction 1
Introduction to the second edition 3
1 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works 5
1.A Handling unknown quantities 5
(a) Where do you start? Self-test 1 5
(b) A mind-reading explained 6
(c) Some basic rules 7
(d) Working out in the right order 9
(e) Using negative numbers 10
(f ) Putting into brackets, or factorising 11
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage 11
(a) Self-test 2 11
(b) Multiplying out two brackets 12
(c) More factorisation: putting things back into brackets 14
1.C Using fractions 16
(a) Equivalent fractions and cancelling down 16
(b) Tidying up more complicated fractions 18
(c) Adding fractions in arithmetic and algebra 20
(d) Repeated factors in adding fractions 22
(e) Subtracting fractions 24
(f ) Multiplying fractions 25
(g) Dividing fractions 26
1.D The three rules for working with powers 26
(a) Handling powers which are whole numbers 26
(b) Some special cases 28
1.E The different kinds of numbers 30
(a) The counting numbers and zero 30
(b) Including negative numbers: the set of integers 30
(c) Including fractions: the set of rational numbers 30
(d) Including everything on the number line: the set of real numbers 31
(e) Complex numbers: a very brief forwards look 33
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples 33
(a) Other number bases: the binary system 33
(b) Prime numbers and factors 35
(c) A useful application – simplifying square roots 36
(d) Simplifying fractions with signs underneath 36
Contents v
2 Graphs and equations 38
2.A Solving simple equations 38
(a) Do you need help with this? Self-test 3 38
(b) Rules for solving simple equations 39
(c) Solving equations involving fractions 40
(d) A practical application – rearranging formulas to fit different situations 43
2.B Introducing graphs 45
(a) Self-test 4 46
(b) A reminder on plotting graphs 46
(c) The midpoint of the straight line joining two points 47
(d) Steepness or gradient 49
(e) Sketching straight lines 50
(f ) Finding equations of straight lines 52
(g) The distance between two points 53
(h) The relation between the gradients of two perpendicular lines 54
(i) Dividing a straight line in a given ratio 54
2.C Relating equations to graphs: simultaneous equations 56
(a) What do simultaneous equations mean? 56
(b) Methods of solving simultaneous equations 57
2.D Quadratic equations and the graphs which show them 60
(a) What do the graphs which show quadratic equations look like? 60
(b) The method of completing the square 63
(c) Sketching the curves which give quadratic equations 64
(d) The 'formula' for quadratic equations 65
(e) Special properties of the roots of quadratic equations 67
(f ) Getting useful information from 'b2 – 4ac' 68
(g) A practical example of using quadratic equations 70
(h) All equations are equal – but are some more equal than others? 72
2.E Further equations – the Remainder and Factor Theorems 76
(a) Cubic expressions and equations 76
(b) Doing long division in algebra 79
(c) Avoiding long division – the Remainder and Factor Theorems 80
(d) Three examples of using these theorems, and a red herring 81
3 Relations and functions 84
3.A Two special kinds of relationship 84
(a) Direct proportion 84
(b) Some physical examples of direct proportion 85
(c) More exotic examples 87
(d) Partial direct proportion – lines not through the origin 89
(e) Inverse proportion 90
(f ) Some examples of mixed variation 92
3.B An introduction to functions 92
(a) What are functions? Some relationships examined 92
(b) y = f(x) – a useful new shorthand 95
(c) When is a relationship a function? 96
(d) Stretching and shifting – new functions from old 96
vi Contents
(e) Two practical examples of shifting and stretching 102
(f ) Finding functions of functions 104
(g) Can we go back the other way? Inverse functions 106
(h) Finding inverses of more complicated functions 109
(i) Sketching the particular case of f(x) = (x + 3)/(x – 2), and its inverse 111
(j) Odd and even functions 115
3.C Exponential and log functions 116
(a) Exponential functions – describing population growth 116
(b) The inverse of a growth function: log functions 118
(c) Finding the logs of some particular numbers 119
(d) The three laws or rules for logs 120
(e) What are 'e' and 'exp'? A brief introduction 122
(f ) Negative exponential functions – describing population decay 124
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms 126
(a) Relationships of the form y = axn 126
(b) Relationships of the form y = anx 129
(c) What can we do if logs are no help? 130
4 Some trigonometry and geometry of triangles and circles 132
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 132
(a) Why use trig ratios? 132
(b) Pythagoras' Theorem 137
(c) General properties of triangles 139
(d) Triangles with particular shapes 139
(e) Congruent triangles – what are they, and when? 140
(f ) Matching ratios given by parallel lines 142
(g) Special cases – the sin, cos and tan of 30°, 45° and 60° 143
(h) Special relations of sin, cos and tan 144
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry 146
(a) The Sine Rule for any triangle 146
(b) Another area formula for triangles 148
(c) The Cosine Rule for any triangle 149
4.C Circles 154
(a) The parts of a circle 154
(b) Special properties of chords and tangents of circles 155
(c) Special properties of angles in circles 156
(d) Finding and working with the equations which give circles 158
(e) Circles and straight lines – the different possibilities 160
(f ) Finding the equations of tangents to circles 163
4.D Using radians 165
(a) Measuring angles in radians 165
(b) Finding the perimeter and area of a sector of a circle 167
(c) Finding the area of a segment of a circle 168
(d) What do we do if the angle is given in degrees? 168
(e) Very small angles in radians – why we like them 169
4.E Tidying up – some thinking points returned to 172
(a) The sum of interior and exterior angles of polygons 172
(b) Can we draw circles round all triangles and quadrilaterals? 173
Contents vii
5 Extending trigonometry to angles of any size 175
5.A Giving meaning to trig functions of any size of angle 175
(a) Extending sin and cos 175
(b) The graph of y = tan x from 0° to 90° 178
(c) Defining the sin, cos and tan of angles of any size 179
(d) How does X move as P moves round its circle? 182
(e) The graph of tan θ for any value of θ 183
(f ) Can we find the angle from its sine? 184
(g) sin–1 x and cos–1 x: what are they? 186
(h) What do the graphs of sin–1 x and cos–1 x look like? 187
(i) Defining the function tan–1 x 189
5.B The trig reciprocal functions 190
(a) What are trig reciprocal functions? 190
(b) The trig reciprocal identities: tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ and cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ 190
(c) Some examples of proving other trig identities 190
(d) What do the graphs of the trig reciprocal functions look like? 193
(e) Drawing other reciprocal graphs 194
5.C Building more trig functions from the simplest ones 196
(a) Stretching, shifting and shrinking trig functions 196
(b) Relating trig functions to how P moves round its circle and SHM 198
(c) New shapes from putting together trig functions 202
(d) Putting together trig functions with different periods 204
5.D Finding rules for combining trig functions 205
(a) How else can we write sin (A + B)? 205
(b) A summary of results for similar combinations 206
(c) Finding tan (A + B) and tan (A – B) 207
(d) The rules for sin 2A, cos 2A and tan 2A 207
(e) How could we find a formula for sin 3A? 208
(f ) Using sin (A + B) to find another way of writing 4 sin t + 3 cos t 208
(g) More examples of the R sin (t ± α) and R cos (t ± α) forms 211
(h) Going back the other way – the Factor Formulas 214
5.E Solving trig equations 215
(a) Laying some useful foundations 215
(b) Finding solutions for equations in cos x 217
(c) Finding solutions for equations in tan x 219
(d) Finding solutions for equations in sin x 221
(e) Solving equations using R sin (x + α) etc. 224
6 Sequences and series 226
6.A Patterns and formulas 226
(a) Finding patterns in sequences of numbers 226
(b) How to describe number patterns mathematically 227
6.B Arithmetic progressions (APs) 230
(a) What are arithmetic progressions? 230
(b) Finding a rule for summing APs 231
(c) The arithmetic mean or 'average' 232
(d) Solving a typical problem 232
(e) A summary of the results for APs 233
viii Contents
6.C Geometric progressions (GPs) 233
(a) What are geometric progressions? 233
(b) Summing geometric progressions 234
(c) The sum to infinity of a GP 235
(d) What do 'convergent' and 'divergent' mean? 236
(e) More examples using GPs; chain letters 237
(f ) A summary of the results for GPs 238
(g) Recurring decimals, and writing them as fractions 241
(h) Compound interest: a faster way of getting rich 243
(i) The geometric mean 245
(j) Comparing arithmetic and geometric means 245
(k) Thinking point: what is the fate of the frog down the well? 245
6.D A compact way of writing sums: the ∑ notation 246
(a) What does ∑ stand for? 246
(b) Unpacking the ∑s 247
(c) Summing by breaking down to simpler series 247
6.E Partial fractions 249
(a) Introducing partial fractions for summing series 249
(b) General rules for using partial fractions 251
(c) The cover-up rule 252
(d) Coping with possible complications 252
6.F The fate of the frog down the well 258
7 Binomial series and proof by induction 261
7.A Binomial series for positive whole numbers 261
(a) Looking for the patterns 261
(b) Permutations or arrangements 263
(c) Combinations or selections 265
(d) How selections give binomial expansions 266
(e) Writing down rules for binomial expansions 267
(f ) Linking Pascal's Triangle to selections 269
(g) Some more binomial examples 271
7.B Some applications of binomial series and selections 272
(a) Tossing coins and throwing dice 272
(b) What do the probabilities we have found mean? 273
(c) When is a game fair? (Or are you fair game?) 274
(d) Lotteries: winning the jackpot . . . or not 274
7.C Binomial expansions when n is not a positive whole number 275
(a) Can we expand (1 + x)n if n is negative or a fraction? If so, when? 275
(b) Working out some expansions 276
(c) Dealing with slightly different situations 277
7.D Mathematical induction 279
(a) Truth from patterns – or false mirages? 279
(b) Proving the Binomial Theorem by induction 283
(c) Two non-series applications of induction 284
Contents ix
8 Differentiation 286
8.A Some problems answered and difficulties solved 287
(a) How can we find a speed from knowing the distance travelled? 287
(b) How does y = xn change as x changes? 292
˙
(c) Different ways of writing differentiation: dx/dt, f (t), x, etc. 293
(d) Some special cases of y = axn 294
(e) Differentiating x = cos t answers another thinking point 295
(f ) Can we always differentiate? If not, why not? 299
8.B Natural growth and decay – the number e 300
(a) Even more money – compound interest and exponential growth 301
(b) What is the equation of this smooth growth curve? 304
(c) Getting numerical results from the natural growth law of x = et 305
(d) Relating ln x to the log of x using other bases 307
(e) What do we get if we differentiate ln t? 308
8.C Differentiating more complicated functions 309
(a) The Chain Rule 309
(b) Writing the Chain Rule as F (x) = f (g(x))g (x) 312
(c) Differentiating functions with angles in degrees or logs to base 10 312
(d) The Product Rule, or 'uv' Rule 313
(e) The Quotient Rule, or 'u/v' Rule 315
8.D The hyperbolic functions of sinh x and cosh x 318
(a) Getting symmetries from ex and e–x 318
(b) Differentiating sinh x and cosh x 321
(c) Using sinh x and cosh x to get other hyperbolic functions 321
(d) Comparing other hyperbolic and trig formulas – Osborn's Rule 322
(e) Finding the inverse function for sinh x 323
(f ) Can we find an inverse function for cosh x? 325
(g) tanh x and its inverse function tanh–1 x 327
(h) What's in a name? Why 'hyperbolic' functions? 330
(i) Differentiating inverse trig and hyperbolic functions 331
8.E Some uses for differentiation 334
(a) Finding the equations of tangents to particular curves 334
(b) Finding turning points and points of inflection 336
(c) General rules for sketching curves 340
(d) Some practical uses of turning points 343
(e) A clever use for tangents – the Newton–Raphson Rule 348
8.F Implicit differentiation 353
(a) How implicit differentiation works, using circles as examples 353
(b) Using implicit differentiation with more complicated relationships 356
(c) Differentiating inverse functions implicitly 358
(d) Differentiating exponential functions like x = 2t 361
(e) A practical application of implicit differentiation 362
8.G Writing functions in an alternative form using series 363
x Contents
9 Integration 370
9.A Doing the opposite of differentiating 370
(a) What could this tell us? 370
(b) A physical interpretation of this process 371
(c) Finding the area under a curve 373
(d) What happens if the area we are finding is below the horizontal axis? 378
(e) What happens if we change the order of the limits? 379
(f ) What is (1/x)dx? 380
9.B Techniques of integration 382
(a) Making use of what we already know 383
(b) Integration by substitution 384
(c) A selection of trig integrals with some hyperbolic cousins 389
(d) Integrals which use inverse trig and hyperbolic functions 391
(e) Using partial fractions in integration 395
(f ) Integration by parts 397
(g) Finding rules for doing integrals like In = sinn x dx 402
(h) Using the t = tan (x/2) substitution 406
9.C Solving some more differential equations 409
(a) Solving equations where we can split up the variables 409
(b) Putting flesh on the bones – some practical uses for differential equations 411
(c) A forwards look at some other kinds of differential equation, including ones which
describe SHM 419
10 Complex numbers 422
10.A A new sort of number 422
(a) Finding the missing roots 422
(b) Finding roots for all quadratic equations 425
(c) Modulus and argument (or mod and arg for short) 426
10.B Doing arithmetic with complex numbers 430
(a) Addition and subtraction 430
(b) Multiplication of complex numbers 431
(c) Dividing complex numbers in mod/arg form 435
(d) What are complex conjugates? 436
(e) Using complex conjugates to simplify fractions 437
10.C How e connects with complex numbers 438
(a) Two for the price of one – equating real and imaginary parts 438
(b) How does e get involved? 440
(c) What is the geometrical meaning of z = e jθ? 441
(d) What is e–jθ and what does it do geometrically? 442
(e) A summary of the sin/cos and sinh/cosh links 443
(f ) De Moivre's Theorem 444
(g) Another example: writing cos 5θ in terms of cos θ 444
(h) More examples of writing trig functions in different forms 446
(i) Solving a differential equation which describes SHM 447
(j) A first look at how we can use complex numbers to describe electric circuits 448
Contents xi
10.D Using complex numbers to solve more equations 450
(a) Finding the n roots of zn = a + bj 450
(b) Solving quadratic equations with complex coefficients 454
(c) Solving cubic and quartic equations with complex roots 455
10.E Finding where z can be if it must fit particular rules 458
(a) Some simple examples of paths or regions where z must lie 458
(b) What do we do if z has been shifted? 460
(c) Using algebra to find where z can be 462
(d) Another example involving a relationship between w and z 466
11 Working with vectors 470
11.A Basic rules for handling vectors 470
(a) What are vectors? 470
(b) Adding vectors and what this can mean physically 471
(c) Using components to describe vectors 476
(d) Vector components in three-dimensional space 478
(e) Finding the magnitude of a three-dimensional vector 479
(f ) Finding unit vectors 480
11.B Multiplying vectors 481
(a) Defining the scalar or dot product of two vectors 481
(b) Working out the dot product of two vectors 482
(c) Defining the vector or cross product of two vectors 486
(d) Working out the cross product of two vectors 489
(e) Can we multiply three vectors together by using dot or cross products? 491
(f ) The vector triple product 491
(g) The scalar triple product and what it means geometrically 492
11.C Finding equations for lines and planes 493
(a) Finding a vector equation for a line 493
(b) Dealing with lines in two dimensions 494
(c) Dealing with lines in three dimensions 497
(d) Finding the Cartesian equation of a line in three dimensions 498
(e) Another form for the vector equation of a line 501
(f ) Finding vector equations for planes 501
(g) Finding equations of planes using normal vectors 503
(h) Finding the perpendicular distance from the origin to a plane 504
(i) The Cartesian form of the equation of a plane 505
(j) Finding where a line intersects a plane 507
(k) Finding the line of intersection of two planes 507
11.D Finding angles and distances involving lines and planes 508
(a) Finding the angle between two lines 508
(b) Finding the angle between two planes 510
(c) Finding the acute angle between a line and a plane 511
(d) Finding the shortest distance from a point to a line 512
(e) Finding the shortest distance from a point to a plane 513
(f ) Finding the shortest distance between two skew lines 516
Answers to the exercises 519
Index 631
xii Contents
Acknowledgements
I would particularly like to thank Rodie and
Tony Sudbery for their very helpful ideas
and comments on large parts of the text. I
am also very grateful to Neil Turok, Eleni
Haritou-Monioudis, John Szymanski, Jeremy
Jones and David Olive for detailed comments
on particular sections, and my father, William
Tutton, for his helpful advice on my
drawings. I would also like to thank the
mathematics department of the University of
Wales, Swansea, for helpful discussions
concerning the needs of incoming students.
The referees also all provided detailed and
useful input which was very helpful in
structuring the book and I thank them for
this.
I would also like to thank Rufus Neal, Harriet
Millward and Mairi Sutherland for their
patient and friendly editorial help and advice,
Phil Treble for his great design, and everyone
else at Cambridge University Press who has
worked on this book.
Finally, I am particularly grateful to my
daughter, Rosalind Olive, both for her helpful
comments and also for her excellent
guinea-pig drawings.
Acknowledgements xiii
xiv Dedication
Introduction
I have written this book mainly for students who will need to apply maths in science or
engineering courses. It is particularly designed to help the foundation or first year of such
a course to run smoothly but it could also be useful to specialist maths students whose
particular choice of A-level or pre-university course has meant that there are some gaps in
the knowledge required as a basis for their University course. Because it starts by laying the
basic groundwork of algebra it will also provide a bridge for students who have not studied
maths for some time.
The book is written in such a way that students can use it to sort out any individual
difficulties for themselves without needing help from their lecturers.
A message to students
I have made this book as much as possible as though I were talking directly to you about the
topics which are in it, sorting out possible difficulties and encouraging your thoughts in
return. I want to build up your knowledge and your courage at the same time so that you are
able to go forward with confidence in your own ability to handle the techniques which you
will need. For this reason, I don't just tell you things, but ask you questions as we go along
to give you a chance to think for yourself how the next stage should go. These questions are
followed by a heavy rule like the one below.
It is very important that you should try to answer these questions yourself, so the rule is
there to warn you not to read on too quickly.
I have also given you many worked examples of how each new piece of mathematical
information is actually used. In particular, I have included some of the off-beat non-standard
examples which I know that students often find difficult.
To make the book work for you, it is vital that you do the questions in the exercises as
they come because this is how you will learn and absorb the principles so that they become
part of your own thinking. As you become more confident and at ease with the methods, you
will find that you enjoy doing the questions, and seeing how the maths slots together to solve
more complicated problems.
Always be prepared to think about a problem and have a go at it – don't be afraid of
getting it wrong. Students very often underrate what they do themselves, and what they can
do. If something doesn't work out, they tend to think that their effort was of no worth but
this is not true. Thinking about questions for yourself is how you learn and understand what
you are doing. It is much better than just following a template which will only work for very
similar problems and then only if you recognise them. If you really understand what you are
doing you will be able to apply these ideas in later work, and this is important for you.
Because you may be working from this book on your own, I have given detailed solutions
to most of the questions in the exercises so that you can sort out for yourself any problems
that you may have had in doing them. (Don't let yourself be tempted just to read through my
solutions – you will do infinitely better if you write your own solutions first. This is the most
A message to students 1
important single piece of advice which I can give you.) Also, if you are stuck and have to
look at my solution, don't just read through the whole of it. Stop reading at the point that
gets you unstuck and see if you can finish the problem yourself.
I have also included what I have called thinking points. These are usually more open-
ended questions designed to lead you forward towards future work.
If possible, talk about problems with other students; you will often find that you can help
each other and that you spark each other's ideas. It is also very sensible to scribble down your
thoughts as you go along, and to use your own colour to highlight important results or
particular parts of drawings. Doing this makes you think about which are the important bits,
and gives you a short-cut when you are revising.
There are some pitfalls which many students regularly fall into. These are marked
!
to warn you to take particular notice of the advice there. You will probably recognise some
old enemies!
It often happens in maths that in order to understand a new topic you must be able to use
earlier work. I have made sure that these foundation topics are included in the book, and I
give references back to them so that you can go there first if you need to. I have linked topics
together so that you can see how one affects another and how they are different windows
onto the same world. The various approaches, visual, geometrical, using the equations of
algebra or the arguments of calculus, all lead to an understanding of how the fundamental
ideas interlock. I also show you wherever possible how the mathematical ideas can be used
to describe the physical world, because I find that many students particularly like to know
this, and indeed it is the main reason why they are learning the maths. (Much of the maths
is very nice in itself, however, and I have tried to show you this.)
I have included in some of the thinking points ideas for simple programs which you could
write to investigate what is happening there. To do this, you would need to know a
programming language and have access to either a computer or programmable calculator. I
have also suggested ways in which you can use a graph-sketching calculator as a fast check
of what happens when you build up graphs from combinations of simple functions.
Although these suggestions are included because I think you would learn from them and
enjoy doing them, it is not necessary to have this equipment to use this book.
Much of the book has grown from the various comments and questions of all the students I
have taught. It is harder to keep this kind of two-way involvement with a printed book but no
longer impossible thanks to the Web. I would be very interested in your comments and
questions and grateful for your help in spotting any mistakes which may have slipped through
my checking. You can contact me via my website and I look forward to putting little additions
on the Web, sparked by your thoughts. My website is at
Finally, I hope that you will find that this book will smooth your way forward and help
you to enjoy all your courses.
2 Introduction
Introduction to the second edition
I have thoroughly revised all the ten chapters in the original edition, both making some
changes due to comments from my readers and also checking for errors. I've also added a
chapter on vectors which continues naturally from the present chapter on complex
numbers.
I wrote the first version of this new chapter as an extension to the book's website (which
is now at building up the pages there gradually. Their
content was influenced by emails from visitors, often with particular problems with which
they hoped for help. I've now extensively rewritten and rearranged this material. Writing in
book form, it was possible to structure the content much more closely than on the Web so
that it's easy to see the connections between the different areas and how results can be
applied to later problems. The new chapter also has, of course, many practice exercises with
complete solutions just as the earlier chapters have.
I'm once again very grateful to Rodie and Tony Sudbery and to David Olive for their
helpful suggestions and comments. I must also thank all the people who emailed me, both
with comments on the original ten chapters, and also with particular needs in using vectors
which I've tried to fulfil here.
I hope that this two-way communication will continue. You can email me from the book's
website if you would like to. Finally, I once again hope that this book will help you and
encourage you with your studies.
Introduction to the second edition 3
1 Basic algebra: some reminders of
how it works
In many areas of science and engineering, information can be made clearer and
more helpful if it is thought of in a mathematical way. Because this is so, algebra is
extremely important since it gives you a powerful and concise way of handling
information to solve problems. This means that you need to be confident and
comfortable with the various techniques for handling expressions and equations.
The chapter is divided up into the following sections.
1.A Handling unknown quantities
(a) Where do you start? Self-test 1, (b) A mind-reading explained,
(c) Some basic rules, (d) Working out in the right order, (e) Using negative numbers,
(f ) Putting into brackets, or factorising
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage
(a) Self-test 2, (b) Multiplying out two brackets,
(c) More factorisation: putting things back into brackets
1.C Using fractions
(a) Equivalent fractions and cancelling down, (b) Tidying up more complicated fractions,
(c) Adding fractions in arithmetic and algebra, (d) Repeated factors in adding fractions,
(e) Subtracting fractions, (f ) Multiplying fractions, (g) Dividing fractions
1.D The three rules for working with powers
(a) Handling powers which are whole numbers, (b) Some special cases
1.E The different kinds of numbers
(a) The counting numbers and zero, (b) Including negative numbers: the set of integers,
(c) Including fractions: the set of rational numbers,
(d) Including everything on the number line: the set of real numbers,
(e) Complex numbers: a very brief forwards look
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples
(a) Other number bases: the binary system, (b) Prime numbers and factors,
(c) A useful application – simplifying square roots,
(d) Simplifying fractions with signs underneath
1.A Handling unknown quantities
1.A.(a) Where do you start? Self-test 1
All the maths in this book which is directly concerned with your courses depends on a
foundation of basic algebra. In case you need some extra help with this, I have included two
revision sections at the beginning of this first chapter. Each of these sections starts with a
short self-test so that you can find out if you need to work through it.
It's important to try these if you are in any doubt about your algebra. You have to build
on a firm base if you are to proceed happily; otherwise it is like climbing a ladder which has
some rungs missing, or, more dangerously, rungs which appear to be in place until you tread
on them.
Basic algebra 5
Self-test 1
Answer each of the following short questions.
(A) Find the value of each of the following expressions if a = 3, b = 1, c = 0 and d = 2.
(1) a 2 (2) b 2 (3) ab + d (4) a(b + d) (5) 2c + 3d
2 2
(6) 2a (7) (2a) (8) 4ab + 3bd (9) a + bc (10) d 3
(B) Find the values of each of the following expressions if x = 2, y = –3, u = 1, v = –2,
w = 4 and z = –1.
(1) 3xy (2) 5vy (3) 2x + 3y + 2v (4) v2 (5) 3z 2
(6) w + vy (7) 2x – 5vw (8) 2y – 3v + 2z – w (9) 2y 2 (10) z 3
(C) Simplify (that is, write in the shortest possible form).
(1) 3p – 2q + p + q (2) 3p 2 + 2pq – q 2 – 7pq (3) 5p – 7q – 2p – 3q + 3pq
(D) Multiply out the following expressions.
(1) 5(2g + 3h) (2) g(3g – 2h) (3) 3k 2 (2k – 5m + 2n) (4) 3k – (2m + 3n – 5k)
(E) Factorise the following expressions.
(1) 3x 2 + 2xy (2) 3pq + 6q 2 (3) 5x 2y – 7xy 2
Here are the answers. (Give yourself one point for each correct answer, which gives a
maximum possible score of 30.)
(A) (1) 9 (2) 1 (3) 5 (4) 9 (5) 6 (6) 18 (7) 36 (8) 18 (9) 3 (10) 8
(B) (1) –18 (2) 30 (3) –9 (4) 4 (5) 3 (6) 10 (7) 44 (8) –6 (9) 18 (10) –1
(C) (1) 4p – q (2) 3p 2 – 5pq – q 2 (3) 3p – 10q + 3pq
(D) (1) 10g + 15h (2) 3g 2 – 2gh (3) 6k 3 – 15k 2m + 6k 2n (4) 8k – 2m – 3n
(E) (1) x(3x + 2y) (2) 3q(p + 2q) (3) xy(5x – 7y)
If you scored anything less than 25 points then I would advise you to work through
Section 1.A. If you made just the odd mistake, and realised what it was when you saw the
answer, then go ahead to Section 1.B. If you are in any doubt, it is best to go through Section
1.A. now; these are your tools and you need to feel happy with them.
1.A.(b) A mind-reading explained
Much of what was tested above can be shown in the handling of the following. Try it for
yourself. (You may have met this apparently mysterious kind of mind-reading before.)
(1) Think of a number between 1 and 10. (A small number is easier to use.)
(2) Add 3 to it.
(3) Double the number you have now.
(4) Add the number you first thought of.
(5) Divide the number you have now by 3.
(6) Take away the number you first thought of.
(7) The number you are thinking of now is . . . 2!
6 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
How can we lay bare the bones of what is happening here, so that we can see how it is
possible for me to know your final answer even though I don't know what number you were
thinking of at the start?
It is easier for me to keep track of what is happening, and so be able to arrange for it to
go the way I want, if I label this number with a letter. So suppose I call it x. Suppose also
that your number was 7 and we can then keep a parallel track of what goes on.
You Me
(1) 7 x
(2) 10 x + 3 (My unknown number plus 3.)
(3) 20 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6 (Each of these show the doubling.)
(4) 27 2x + 6 + x = 3x + 6 (I add in the unknown number.)
3x + 6
(5) 9 3 = x + 2 (The whole of 3x + 6 is divided by 3.)
(6) 2 2 (The x has been taken away.)
Both your 7 and my x have been got rid of as a result of this list of instructions.
My list uses algebra to make the handling of an unknown quantity easier by tagging it
with a letter. It also shows some of the ways in which this handling is done.
1.A.(c) Some basic rules
There are certain rules which need to be followed in handling letters which are standing for
numbers. Here I remind you of these.
Adding
a + b means quantity a added to quantity b.
a + a + b + b + b = 2a + 3b. Here, we have twice the first quantity and three times the
second quantity added together. There is no shorter way of writing 2a + 3b unless we know
what the letters are standing for.
We could equally have said b + a for a + b, and 3b + 2a for 2a + 3b. It doesn't matter
what order we do the adding in.
Multiplying
ab means a b (that is, the two quantities multiplied together) and the letters are usually,
but not always, written in alphabetical order.
In particular, a 1 = a, and a 0 = 0.
5ab would mean 5 a b.
It doesn't matter what order we do the multiplying in, for example 3 5=5 3.
Working out powers
If numbers are multiplied by themselves, we use a special shorthand to show that this is
happening.
a 2 means a a and is called a squared.
a 3 means a a a and is called a cubed.
a n means a multiplied by itself with n lots of a and is called a to the power n.
Little raised numbers, like the 2, 3 and n above, are called powers or indices. Using these
little numbers makes it much easier to keep a track of what is happening when we multiply.
(It was a major breakthrough when they were first used.) You can see why this is in the
following example.
1.A Handling unknown quantities 7
Suppose we have a 2 a 3.
Then a 2 = a a and a 3 = a a a so a 2 a 3 = a a a a a = a 5.
The powers are added. (For example, 22 23 = 4 8 = 32 = 25.)
We can write this as a general rule.
an a m = a n+m
where a stands for any number except 0
and n and m can stand for any numbers.
In this section, n and m will only be standing for positive whole numbers, so we can see
that they would work in the same way as the example above.
To make the rule work, we need to think of a as being the same as a 1. Then, for example,
a a 2 = a 1 a 2 = a 3 which fits with what we know is true, for example 2 22 = 23 or
2 4 = 8.
Also, this rule for adding the powers when multiplying only works if we have powers of
the same number, so 22 23 = 25 and 72 73 = 75 but 22 73 cannot be combined as a
single power.
If we have numbers and different letters, we just deal with each bit separately, so for
example 3a 2b 2ab 3 = 6a 3b 4.
Working out mixtures – using brackets
a + bc means quantity a added to the result of multiplying b and c. The multiplication of b
and c must be done before a is added.
If a = 2 and b = 3 and c = 4 then a + bc = 2 + 3 4 = 2 + 12 = 14.
If we want a and b to be added first, and the result to be multiplied by c, we use a bracket
and write (a + b)c or c(a + b), as the order of the multiplication does not matter. This gives
a result of 5 4 = 4 5 = 20.
A bracket collects together a whole lot of terms so that the same thing can be done to all
of them, like corralling a lot of sheep, and then dipping them. So a(b + c) means ab + ac.
The a multiplies every separate item in the bracket.
Similarly, 2x(x + y + 3xy) = 2x 2 + 2xy + 6x 2y. The brackets show that everything inside
them is to be multiplied by the 2x. It is important to put in brackets if you want the same
thing to happen to a whole collection of stuff, both because it tells you that that is what you
are doing, and also because it tells anyone else reading your working that that is what you
meant. Many mistakes come from left-out brackets.
Here is another example of how you need brackets to show that you want different
results.
If a = 2 then 3a 2 = 3 2 2 = 12 but (3a)2 = 62 = 36. The brackets are necessary to
show that it is the whole of 3a which is to be squared.
exercise 1.a.1 Try these questions yourself now.
(1) Put the following together as much as possible.
(a) 3a + 2b + 5a + 7c – b – 4c (b) 3ab + b + 5a + 2b + 2ba
(c) 7p + 3pq – 2p + 2pq + 8q (d) 5x + 2y – 3x + xy + 3y + 2xy
(2) If a = 2 and b = 1, find
(a) a 3 (b) 5a 2 (c) (5a)2 (d) b 2 (e) 2a 2 + 3b 2
8 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
(3) Multiply the following together.
(a) (2x)(3y) (b) (3x 2 )(5xy) (c) 3(2a + 3b) (d) 2a(3a + 5b)
(e) 2p(3p 2 + 2pq + q 2 ) (f ) 2x 2 (3x + 2xy + y 2 )
1.A.(d) Working out in the right order
If you are replacing letters by numbers, then you must stick to the following rules to work
out the answer from these numbers.
(1) In general, we work from left to right.
(2) Any working inside a bracket must be done first.
(3) When doing the working out, first find any powers, then do any multiplying and
dividing, and finally do any adding and subtracting.
Here are two examples.
example (1) If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4 and d = 6, find 3a(2d + bc) – 4c.
Find the inside of the bracket, which is 2 6 + 3 4 = 12 + 12 = 24.
Multiply this by 3a, giving 6 24 = 144.
Find 4c, which is 4 4 = 16.
Finally, we have 144 – 16 = 128.
example (2) If x = 2, y = 3, z = 4 and w = 6, work out the value of x(2y 2 – z) + 3w 2.
We start by working out the inside of the bracket.
Find y 2 which is 9.
The bracket comes to 2 9 – 4 = 14.
Multiply this by x, getting 28.
w 2 = 62 = 36 so 3w 2 = 108.
Finally, we get 28 + 108 = 136.
exercise 1.a.2 Now try the following yourself.
(1) If a = 2, b = 3, c = 4, d = 5 and e = 0 find the values of:
(a) ab + cd (b) ab 2e (c) ab 2d (d) (abd)2 (e) a(b + cd)
2 3
(f ) ab d + c (g) ab + d – c (h) a(b + d) – c
(2) Multiply out the following, tidying up the answers by putting together as much
as possible.
(a) 3x(2x + 3y) + 4y(x + 7y) (b) 5p 2(2p + 3q) + q 2(3p + 5q) + pq(p + 2q)
Check your answers to these two questions, before going on.
Questions (3) and (4) are very similar to (1) and (2) and will give you some
more practice if you need it.
(3) If a = 3, b = 4, c = 1, d = 5 and e = 0 find the values of:
(a) a 2 (b) 3b 2 (c) (3b)2 (d) c 2 (e) ab + c (f ) bd – ac (g) b(d – ac)
(h) d 2 – b 2 (i) (d – b) (d + b) (j) d 2 + b 2 (k) (d + b) (d + b)
(l) a 2b + c 2d (m) 5e(a 2 – 3b 2 ) (n) a b + d a
1.A Handling unknown quantities 9
(4) Multiply out and collect like terms together if possible:
(a) 3a(2b + 3c) + 2a(b + 5c) (b) 2xy(3x 2 + 2xy + y 2 )
(c) 5p(2p + 3q) + 2q(3p + q) (d) 2c 2 (3c + 2d) + 5d 2 (2c + d)
1.A.(e) Using negative numbers
We shall need to be able to do more complicated things with minus signs than we have met
so far, so here is a reminder about dealing with signed numbers.
Ordinary numbers, such as 6, are written as +6 in order to show that they are different
from negative numbers such as –5. If the sign in front of a number is +, then it can
sometimes be left out. (We don't speak of having +2 apples, for example.) A negative sign
can never be left out, in any working combination of numbers.
One way of understanding how signed numbers work is to think of them in terms of
money. Then +2 represents having £2, and –3 represents owing £3, etc.
So using brackets to keep each number and its sign conveniently connected, we have
for example:
(+2) + (+5) = (+7) Ordinary addition.
(–3) + (–7) = (–10) Adding two debts.
(+4) + (–9) = (–5) You still have a debt.
(+3) – (–7) = (+10) Taking away a debt means you gain.
The same idea carries through to multiplication (which can be thought of as repeated
addition, so 3 2 means 3 lots of 2, or adding 2 to itself three times).
Some examples are:
(+2) (–3) = (–6) Doubling a debt!
(–3) (+5) = (–15) Taking away 3 lots of 5.
(–3) (–7) = (+21) Taking away a debt of 7 three times.
The rule for multiplying signed numbers
Two signs which are the same give plus and two different signs give minus.
Here are two examples of this in action.
(1) 3a – 2(b – 2a) + 7b = 3a – 2b + 4a + 7b = 7a + 5b.
(2) 2p – (p + 2q – m).
Here, you can think of the minus sign outside the bracket as meaning –1, so that when
the bracket is multiplied by it, all the signs inside it will change.
We get 2p – p – 2q + m = p – 2q + m.
exercise 1.a.3 Now try the following questions.
Multiply out the following, tidying up the answers as much as possible.
(1) 2x – (x – 2y) + 5y (2) 4(3a – 2b) – 6(2a – b)
(3) 6(2c + d) – 2(3c – d) + 5 (4) 6a – 2(3a – 5b) – (a + 4b)
(5) 3x(2x – 3y + 2z) – 4x(2x + 5y – 3z) (6) 2xy(3x – 4y) – 5xy(2x – y)
(7) 2a 2(3a – 2ab) – 5ab(2a 2 – 4ab) (8) –3p – (p + q) + 2q(p – 3)
10 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
1.A.(f ) Putting into brackets, or factorising
The process described in the previous section can be done in reverse, so, for example,
xy + xz = x(y + z).
This reverse process is called factorisation and x is called a factor of the expression, that
is, something you multiply by to get the whole answer, just as 2, 3, 4, 6 are all factors of
12. We can say 12 = 3 4 = 2 6. Each factor divides into 12 exactly.
Here are three examples showing this process happening.
(1) 3a 2 + 2ab = a(3a + 2b). This is as far as we can go.
(2) 3p 2q + 4pq 2 = pq (3p + 4q) factorising as much as possible.
(3) 4a 2b 3 – 6a 3b 2 = 2a 2b 2(2b – 3a) factorising as far as possible.
! xy + x = x(y + 1) not x(y + 0) because x 1=x but x 0 = 0.
helpful
It is useful to remember that factorisation is just the reverse process to
hint multiplying out. If you are at all doubtful that you have factorised correctly,
you can check by multiplying out your answer that you do get back to what
you started with originally.
Here's an example.
If you factorise 3c 2 + 2cd + c, which of the following gives the right answer?
(1) 3c(c + 2d + 1) (2) c(3c + 2d) (3) c(3c + 2d + 1).
Multiplying out gives (1) 3c 2 + 6cd + 3c (2) 3c 2 + 2cd and (3) 3c 2 + 2cd + c so (3) is
the correct one.
exercise 1.a.4 Factorise the following yourself, taking out as many factors as you can.
(1) 5a + 10b (2) 3a 2 + 2ab (3) 3a 2 – 6ab
(4) 5xy + 8xz (5) 5xy –10xz (6) a 2b + 3ab 2
2 2 2 3 3 2
(7) 4pq – 6p q (8) 3x y + 5x y
2 2 2 2
(9) 4p q + 2pq – 6p q (10) 2a 2b 3 + 3a 3b 2 – 6a 2b 2
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage
1.B.(a) Self-test 2
This section also starts with a self-test. It is sensible to do it even if you think you don't have
any problems with these because it won't take you very long to check that you are in this
happy state. It's a good idea to cover my answers until you've done yours.
(A) Multiply out the following
(1) (2x + 3y) (x + 5y) (2) (3a – 5b)(2a – b) (3) (3x + 2)2
2
(4) (2y – 5) (5) (2p 2 + 3pq)(q 2 – 2pq)
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage 11
Factorise the following.
(B) (1) x 2 + 9x + 14 (2) y 2 + 8y + 12 (3) x 2 + 8x + 16 (4) p 2 + 13p + 22
(C) (1) 2x 2 + 7x + 3 (2) 3a 2 + 16a + 5 (3) 3b 2 + 10b + 7 (4) 5x 2 + 8x + 3
(D) (1) x2 + x – 2 (2) 2a 2 + a – 15 (3) 2x 2 + 5x – 12 (4) p2 – q2
(5) 6y 2 – 19y + 10 (6) 4x 2 – 81y 2 (7) 6x 2 – 19x + 10 (8) 4x 2 – 12x + 9
As in the first test, give yourself one point for each correct answer so that the highest total
score is 21. Again, if you got 16 or less, work through this following section.
If you are in any doubt, it is much better to get it sorted out now, because lots of later
work will depend on it.
These are the answers that you should have.
(A) (1) 2x 2 + 13xy + 15y 2 (2) 6a 2 – 13ab + 5b 2 (3) 9x 2 + 12x + 4
(4) 4y 2 – 20y + 25 (5) 3pq 3 – 4p 3 q – 4p 2q 2
(B) (1) (x + 2) (x + 7) (2) (y + 2) (y + 6) (3) (x + 4)2 (4) (p + 2)(p + 11)
(C) (1) (2x + 1)(x + 3) (2) (3a + 1)(a + 5) (3) (3b + 7)(b + 1) (4) (5x + 3)(x + 1)
(D) (1) (x + 2)(x – 1) (2) (2a – 5)(a + 3) (3) (2x – 3)(x + 4) (4) (p – q)(p + q)
(5) (3y – 2)(2y – 5) (6) (2x – 9y)(2x + 9y) (7) (3x – 2)(2x – 5) (8) (2x – 3)2
1.B.(b) Multiplying out two brackets
To multiply out two brackets, each bit of the first bracket must be multiplied by each bit of
the second bracket, so
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + bd + ad + bc.
The ac + bd + ad + bc can be written in any order.
You could also think of this process, if you like, as
(a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd.
You can see this working numerically by putting a = 1, b = 2, c = 3 and d = 4.
(a + b)(c + d) = (1 + 2)(3 + 4) = 3 7 = 21
and
ac + ad + bc + bd = 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 21.
Also, you can see that the order of doing the multiplying doesn't matter, since
ac + bd + bc + ad = 3 + 8 + 6 + 4 = 21 too.
Figure 1.B.1 shows this process happening with areas. (a + b)(c + d) gives the total area of
the rectangle.
Figure 1.B.1
12 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
Exactly the same system is used to work out (a + b)2. We have
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a 2 + ab + ab + b 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
We can see this working in Figure 1.B.2.
Figure 1.B.2
We can see the two squares and the two same-shaped rectangles.
! Don't forget the middle bit of 2ab.
The diagram shows that (a + b)2 is not the same thing as a 2 + b 2. In a similar way, we have
(a – b)2 = (a – b)(a – b) = a 2 – 2ab + b 2.
What happens if the signs are opposite ways round, so we have (a + b)(a – b)?
We get
(a + b)(a – b) = a 2 – b 2
because the middle bits cancel out.
This result is called the difference of two squares.
You need to be good at spotting examples of this because it is of very great importance
in simplifying and factorising in many different situations.
To help you to get good at this, here are some further examples.
Put back into two brackets (1) x 2 – 9y 2, (2) 49a 2 – 64b 2.
The answers are (1) (x + 3y)(x – 3y) and (2) (7a + 8b)(7a – 8b).
Check these are true by multiplying them back out, and then try the following ones for
yourself.
(1) x2 – y2 (2) 4a 2 – 9b 2 (3) 16p 2 – 9q 2 (4) 16a 2 – 25b 2 (5) 36p 2 – 100q 2
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage 13
These are the answers that you should have.
(1) (x + y)(x – y) (2) (2a + 3b)(2a – 3b) (3) (4p + 3q)(4p – 3q)
(4) (4a + 5b)(4a – 5b) (5) (6p + 10q)(6p – 10q)
In each case, the brackets can equally well be written the other way round since the letters
are standing for numbers.
Here is a more complicated example of multiplication of brackets.
(3x + xy)(xy + y 2 ) = 3x 2y + x 2y 2 + 3xy 2 + xy 3
Again, the basic strategy is the same. Each bit or chunk of the first bracket is multiplied
by each bit or chunk of the second one.
(This can be checked by putting x = 2 and y = 3. Each side should come to 180.)
exercise 1.b.1 Multiply out the following pairs of brackets.
(1) (x + 2)(x + 3) (2) (a + 3)(a – 4) (3) (x – 2)(x – 3)
(4) (p + 3)(2p + 1) (5) (3x – 2)(3x + 2) (6) (2x – 3y)(x + 2y)
(7) (3a – 2b)(2a – 5b) (8) (3x + 4y)2 (9) (3x – 4y)2
(10) (3x + 4y)(3x – 4y) (11) (2p 2 + 3pq)(5p + 3q) (12) (2ab – b 2 )(a 2 – 3ab)
2 2
(13) (a + b)(a – ab + b ) (14) (a – b)(a 2 + ab + b 2 )
(15) Try working through the following steps.
(a) Think of a positive whole number, and write down its square.
(b) Add 1 to your original whole number, and multiply the result by the
original number with 1 taken away from it.
(c) Repeat this process twice more.
(d) Describe in words what seems to be happening.
(e) Must this always happen whatever your starting number is?
Show that it must by taking a starting number of n so that you can see exactly
what must happen every time.
1.B.(c) More factorisation: putting things back into brackets
Again, the reverse process to multiplying out two brackets is called factorisation. Very often
it is important to be able to replace a more complicated expression by two simpler
expressions multiplied together.
We have already done some examples of this, when we were working with the difference
of two squares in the previous section.
What happens, though, if there is a middle bit to be sorted out?
For example, suppose we have x 2 + 7x + 12.
Can we replace this expression by two multiplied brackets?
We would have x 2 + 7x + 12 = (something) (something), and we have to find out what
the somethings must be.
We can see that we will need to have x at the beginning of each of the brackets.
Both signs in the brackets are positive since the left-hand side is all positive, so at the
ends we need two numbers which when multiplied give +12 and which when added give +7.
What two numbers will do this?
+3 and +4 will do what we want, so we can say x 2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3) (x + 4), giving
us an alternative way of writing this expression.
Equally, x 2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 4)(x + 3).
14 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
The order of the brackets is not important because multiplication of numbers gives the
same answer either way on. For example, 2 3 = 3 2 = 6.
In all the questions which follow, your answer will be equally correct if you have your
brackets in the opposite order from mine.
exercise 1.b.2 Try putting the following into brackets yourself.
(1) x 2 + 8x + 7 (2) p 2 + 6p + 5 (3) x 2 + 7x + 6
2
(4) x + 5x + 6 (5) y 2 + 6y + 9 (6) x 2 + 6x + 8
(7) a 2 + 7a + 10 (8) 2
x + 9x + 20 (9) x 2 + 13x + 36
Now, a step further! Suppose we have 2x 2 + 7x + 3 = (something) (something). This time
we need 2x and x at the fronts of the brackets to give the 2x 2. If it is possible to factorise
this with whole numbers then the ends will need 1 and 3 to give 1 3 = 3.
Do we need (2x + 3)(x + 1) or (2x + 1)(x + 3)?
Multiplying out, we see that
(2x + 3)(x + 1) = 2x 2 + 5x + 3 which is wrong,
(2x + 1)(x + 3) = 2x 2 + 7x + 3 so this is the one we need.
exercise 1.b.3 Try factorising these for yourself now.
(1) 3x 2 + 8x + 5 (2) 2y 2 + 15y + 7 (3) 3a 2 + 11a + 6
2
(4) 3x + 19x + 6 (5) 5p 2 + 23p + 12 (6) 5x 2 + 16x + 12
The system is exactly the same if the expression involves minus signs. Here are two
examples showing what can happen.
example (1) Factorise x 2 – 10x + 16.
Here we require two numbers which when multiplied give +16, and
which when put together give –10. Can you see what they will be?
Both the numbers must be negative, and we see that –2 and –8 will
fit the requirements. This gives us x 2 – 10x + 16 = (x – 2)(x – 8) =
(x – 8)(x – 2).
example (2) Factorise x 2 – 3x – 10.
Now we require two numbers which when multiplied give –10 and
which when put together give –3. Can you see what we will need?
This time, to give the –10, they need to be of different signs.
We see that –5 and +2 will do what we want, so we have
x 2 – 3x – 10 = (x – 5)(x + 2) = (x + 2)(x – 5).
Remember that it makes no difference which way round you write
the brackets.
1.B Multiplications and factorising: the next stage 15
exercise 1.b.4 Now try factorising the following yourself.
(1) x 2 – 11x + 24 (2) y 2 – 9y + 18 (3) x 2 – 11x + 18
(4) p 2 + 5p – 24 (5) x 2 + 4x – 12 (6) 2q 2 – 5q – 3
2
(7) 3x – 10x – 8 (8) 2a 2 – 3a – 5 (9) 2x 2 – 5x – 12
2
(10) 3b – 20b + 12 (11) 9x 2 – 25y 2 (12) 16x 4 – 81y 4, a sneaky one!
1.C Using fractions
Very many students find handling fractions in algebra quite difficult, but it is important to
be able to simplify these fractions as far as possible. This is because they often come into
longer pieces of working and, if you do not simplify as you go along, the whole thing will
become hideously complicated. It is only too likely then that you will make mistakes.
This section is designed to save you from this. You will find that if you understand how
arithmetical fractions work then using fractions in algebra will be easy. If you have been
using a calculator to do fractions, it's likely that you will have forgotten how they actually
work, so I've drawn some little pictures of what is happening to help you.
If you think that you can already work well with fractions, try some of each exercise to
be sure that there are no problems before you move on to the next section.
Because we are looking here at what we can and can't do with fractions, we shall need
to use the sign ≠.
The sign ≠ means 'is not equal to'.
1.C.(a) Equivalent fractions and cancelling down
a
means a divided by b.
b
a is called the numerator and b is called the denominator.
In dividing, the order that the letters are written in matters, unlike a b, which is the
same as b a.
16 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
The order also matters with subtraction; a – b is not the same as b – a unless both a and
b are zero. But a + b = b + a always.
2 3
For example, 2 3 = 3 2 and 2 + 3 = 3 + 2, but 3 ≠ 2 and 2 – 3 ≠ 3 – 2.
a+b a b 2+3 2 3 5
Also, = + . For example, = + = .
c c c 7 7 7 7
The whole of a + b is divided by c, and so we can get the same result by splitting this up
into two separate divisions. The line in the fraction is effectively working as a bracket.
a+b (a + b)
In fact, it is safer to write as if it is part of some working.
c c
a
In , the number a is divided by the whole of the number (b + c).
b+c
From this, we see that
!
a a a
≠ + .
b+c b c
You can check this by putting a = 4, b = 2, c = 3, say.
Dividing by c is the same as multiplying by 1/c, so
a+b 1
= (a + b).
c c
For example, if a = 6, b = 4, and c = 2 then
6+4 1
= 2 (6 + 4) = 5.
2
If you find half of 10, it is the same as dividing 10 by 2.
Fractions always keep the same value if they are multiplied or divided top and bottom by
the same number, so
4 8 6 2
= = = , etc.
6 12 9 3
These are shown in the drawings in Figure 1.C.1.
These four equal fractions are said to be equivalent to each other. The process of dividing
the top and bottom of a fraction by the same number is called cancellation or cancelling
down.
Figure 1.C.1
1.C Using fractions 17
!
b ab ab
a = not .
c c ac
2 4 2 4 2 2
For example, 4 = not which is still .
3 3 4 3 3
In words, four lots of two thirds is eight thirds.
This works in exactly the same way with fractions in algebra.
So, for example:
2a 2
= (dividing top and bottom by a)
5a 5
xw x
= (dividing top and bottom by w)
yw y
2a 3b 2a
and 2 2
= (dividing top and bottom by a 2b).
a b b
Check these three results by giving your own values to the letters.
When doing this, it is important to avoid values which would involve you in trying to divide
by zero, because this cannot be done.
You can use a calculator to investigate this by dividing 4, say, by a very small number,
say 0.00001.
Now repeat the process, dividing 4 by an even smaller number.
The closer the number you divide by gets to zero, the larger the answer becomes. In fact,
by choosing a sufficiently small number, you can make the answer as large as you
please.
If you try to divide by zero itself, you get an ERROR message.
exercise 1.c.1 Cancel down the following fractions yourself as far as possible.
9 6 25 24 5x ab
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
12 30 95 64 8x ac
3y 2 8pq 4a 2 3x 2y 3 6p 2q 5ab
(7) (8) (9) (10) 4
(11) 2
(12)
2y 2q 2ab 2xy 5pq b3
1.C.(b) Tidying up more complicated fractions
Sometimes, the process of factorising will be very important in simplifying fractions. Here
are some examples of possible simplifications, and some warnings of what can't be done.
If you have always found this sort of thing difficult, it may help you here to highlight the
matching parts which are cancelling with each other in the same colour.
18 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
xy + xz x(y + z) y+z
(1) = =
xw xw w
dividing top and bottom by x.
ab + ac a(b + c)
(2) = = a
b+c b+c
dividing top and bottom by the whole chunk of (b + c).
ab + c
(3) can't be simplified.
b+c
We can't cancel the (b + c) here because a only multiplies b.
x + xy x(1 + y) 1+y
(4) = =
x2 x2 x
dividing top and bottom by x.
x 2 + 5x + 6 (x + 3)(x + 2) x+3
(5) = =
x 2 – 3x – 10 (x – 5)(x + 2) x–5
dividing top and bottom by (x + 2).
x 2(x 2 + xy)
(6) = x(x 2 + xy)
x
dividing top and bottom by x.
! It is not true that
x(x 2 + xy)
x
= x + y.
This wrong answer comes from cancelling the x twice on the top of the fraction, but only
once underneath.
1 1 1
It is like saying 2 (4)(6) = (2)(3) = 6 but really 2 (4)(6) = 2 (24) = 12.
You can halve either the 4 or the 6 but not both!
! (7)
xy + z
xw
is not the same as
y+z
w
.
We cannot cancel the x here because x is only a factor of part of the top. You can check
this by putting x = 2, y = 3, z = 4, and w = 5. Then
xy + z 10 y+z 7
= = 1 and =
xw 10 w 5
1.C Using fractions 19
delic ate
If we had put x = 1, the difference would not have shown up, since both
7
point answers would have been 5.
This is because multiplying by 1 actually leaves numbers unchanged.
This example shows that checking with numbers is only a check, and never
a proof that something is true.
exercise 1.c.2 Try these questions yourself now.
(1) Which of the following fractions are the same as each other (equivalent)?
2 4 12 10 2 6 ax a a(c + d) a 2x
(a) , , , , , (b) , , ,
3 9 18 15 6 9 bx b b(c + d) abx
ab + ac ab + c b + c x xz xp
(c) , , (d) , ,
ad ad d x + y xz + yz x + yp
(2) Factorise and cancel down the following fractions if possible.
2x + 6y 6a – 9b px – pq
(a) (b) (c)
6x – 8y 4a – 6b p 2 – px
3x + 2y 2xy + 5xz 4xz + 6yz
(d) (e) (f )
6x 6x 2x + 3y
2p – 3q x2 – y2 x 2 + 5x + 6
(g) (h) (i)
2p + 3q (x + y)2 x2 + x – 2
1.C.(c) Adding fractions in arithmetic and algebra
It is particularly easy to add fractions which have the same number underneath.
2 3 5
For example, 7 + 7 = 7. I've drawn this one in Figure 1.C.2 below.
Figure 1.C.2
If the fractions which we want to add don't have the same denominator then we have to
first rewrite them as equivalent fractions which do share the same denominator.
2 3 2 8 3 9
For example, to find + we use = and = .
3 4 3 12 4 12
20 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
The two fractions have both been written as parts of 12. The number 12 is called the
common denominator. It's now very easy to add them, and we have
2 3 8 9 17
+ = + = .
3 4 12 12 12
17 5
The answer of 12 can also be written as 112 , but in general, for scientific and engineering
purposes, it is better to leave such arithmetical fractions in their top-heavy state.
You should be safe now from the most usual mistake made when adding fractions, which
is to add the tops and add the bottoms.
! 1
6
+
3
4
(for example) is not
1+3
6+4
=
4
10
.
We can see that this must be wrong from Figure 1.C.3.
Figure 1.C.3
exercise 1.c.3 Since the process in arithmetic is exactly the same as the process we use to add
fractions in algebra, it is worth practising adding some numerical fractions
yourself without using a calculator, before we move on to this.
Try adding these three.
3 2 2 4 1 2 4
(1) + (2) + (3) + +
4 7 3 5 2 3 5
The letters work in exactly the same way as the numbers. We can say
a c ad bc ad + bc
+ = + =
b d bd bd bd
where a, b, c and d are standing for unknown numbers, and neither b nor d are zero. We have
written both fractions as parts of bd to make it easy to add them.
Indeed, we can say
A C AD BC AD + BC
+ = + =
B D BD BD BD
where A, B, C and D are standing for whole lumps or chunks of letters and numbers.
As an example of this, we will find
x + 2y 3x + 2y
+ .
x–y x + 3y
1.C Using fractions 21
Here, A = x + 2y, B = x – y, C = 3x + 2y and D = x + 3y. So we have:
(x + 2y)(x + 3y) (3x + 2y)(x – y) (x + 2y)(x + 3y) + (3x + 2y)(x – y)
+ =
(x – y)(x + 3y) (x + 3y)(x – y) (x – y)(x + 3y)
x 2 + 5xy + 6y 2 + 3x 2 – xy – 2y 2
=
(x – y)(x + 3y)
4x 2 + 4xy + 4y 2 4(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
= = .
(x – y)(x + 3y) (x – y)(x + 3y)
We don't usually multiply out the brackets on the bottom, because then we might miss a
possible cancellation. (This saves you some work.)
3x – 2 2x – 3
Try combining + into a single fraction, yourself.
x+3 x+1
The working should go as follows:
(3x – 2)(x + 1) (2x – 3)(x + 3) (3x – 2)(x + 1) + (2x – 3)(x + 3)
+ =
(x + 3)(x + 1) (x + 1)(x + 3) (x + 3)(x + 1)
3x 2 + x – 2 + 2x 2 + 3x – 9
=
(x + 3)(x + 1)
5x 2 + 4x – 11
= .
(x + 3)(x + 1)
(Remember that the order in which we multiply the brackets doesn't matter.)
1.C.(d) Repeated factors in adding fractions
Sometimes, the addition is a little easier because there is a repeated factor. Here's a
numerical example of this.
3 5
+ has a repeated factor of 2 underneath.
4 6
So, instead of saying
3 5 18 20 38 19
+ = + = =
4 6 24 24 24 12
we can say more directly
3 5 9 10 19
+ = + = .
4 6 12 12 12
The number 12, which is the smallest number which both 4 and 6 will divide into, is called
the lowest common denominator or l.c.d. for short.
This same simplification applies to fractions in algebra.
22 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
2 3
example (1) +
x(x + 3) x(2x – 1)
There is a repeated factor of x underneath, so we say
2 2(2x – 1)
=
x(x + 3) x(x + 3)(2x – 1)
and
3 3(x + 3)
= .
x(2x – 1) x(2x – 1)(x + 3)
So
2 3 2(2x – 1) + 3(x + 3)
+ =
x(x + 3) x(2x – 1) x(x + 3)(2x – 1)
7x + 7 7(x + 1)
= = .
x(2x – 1)(x + 3) x(2x – 1)(x + 3)
You can follow through this example experimentally, converting it into arithmetical fractions
by putting in some value of your choice for x.
Be careful though! There are three values which you mustn't choose. Can you see what
they are?
1
You can't have x = 0 or x = –3 or x = 2, because each of these values would involve
trying to divide by zero, which is impossible as we saw at the end of Section 1.C.(a).
In this example, it would not have been wrong to put everything over the common
denominator of x(x + 3)x(2x – 1) or x 2 (x + 3)(2x – 1). It would just have taken longer to
work out.
2x 3y
example (2) +
y(3x – 2y) 4x(3x – 2y)
Here, (3x – 2y) is a repeated factor underneath, so the expression is
equal to
(2x)(4x) 3y(y) 8x 2 + 3y 2
+ = .
y(3x – 2y)(4x) 4x(3x – 2y)(y) 4xy(3x – 2y)
Check this example by putting x = 4, y = 2 and z = 5.
You should get
8 6 8(16) + 6(2) 128 + 12 140 35
+ = = = = ,
2(8) 16(8) 32(8) 256 256 64
8(16) + 3(4) 128 + 12 140 35
= = = .
32(8) 256 256 64
1.C Using fractions 23
exercise 1.c.4 Try these for yourself.
2 7 5 3 1 3 5
(1) + (2) + (3) + +
9 15 6 8 3 4 6
3x 5y 2 5 4 3
(4) + (5) + (6) 2 2
+
y(2x – y) x(2x – y) x(3x + 1) x(2x – 1) x –y (x + y)2
1.C.(e) Subtracting fractions
Subtraction works in exactly the same kind of way as addition, so, for example
2 5 2 8 5 3 16 15 1
– = – = – = .
3 8 3 8 8 3 24 24 24
In just the same way,
a c ad cb ad – bc
– = – = ,
b d bd db bd
where a, b, c and d are standing for numbers such as the 2,3,5 and 8 we had in the first
example.
Equally, just as in adding fractions, we can say that
A C AD – BC
– =
B D BD
where A, B, C and D stand for any chunks of letters and numbers.
!
The line in a fraction works in the same way as a bracket. If we are adding
fractions this won't affect what happens, but if we are subtracting them we
have to be careful. For example, suppose we have
4x – 3 2x + 1
– .
2 3
The minus sign in the middle is affecting the whole right-hand chunk. We
can show this most safely by rewriting using brackets. Then we have:
(4x – 3) (2x + 1) 3(4x – 3) 2(2x + 1)
– = –
2 3 3 2 2 3
3(4x – 3) – 2(2x + 1)
=
6
12x – 9 – 4x – 2
=
6
8x – 11
=
6
The safest strategy is always to put the brackets in, because then they will be
there on the occasions when their presence is vital.
24 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
exercise 1.c.5 Try these mixed additions and subtractions yourself.
3x – 5 2x – 3 3a + 5b a – 3b
(1) + (2) –
10 15 4 2
3m – 5n 3m – 7n 2b 3a
(3) – (4) +
6 2 a(2a + b) b(2a + b)
2a 3b 5 2
(5) + (6) –
(a + b)(3a + b) (a – b)(3a + b) x2 – y2 x(x + y)
1.C.(f ) Multiplying fractions
This is very straightforward. (It is much easier than adding!) We simply say
a c ac
= .
b d bd
That is, we multiply the tops, and multiply the bottoms.
2 3 6 1
We can take 3 4 = 12 = 2 as a numerical example of what's happening. If you take
two thirds of three quarters, you get one half. I show this happening in Figure 1.C.4.
Figure 1.C.4
If A, B, C and D are standing for any chunks of letters and numbers,
A C AC
then we can say = .
B D BD
It may then be possible to cancel down, for example
x(b + c) y xy (b + c) 1
= =
y2 x 2(b + c) x 2y 2(b + c) xy
dividing top and bottom by xy(b + c). You should always cancel down the answer like this
if it is possible. The reason for this is that often fractions like this come in as part of the
working out of a larger problem, and it pays to simplify them as much as possible before
going on to the next step, to make that next step as easy as possible for yourself.
1.C Using fractions 25
You can also do the cancelling before you do the multiplying if you want; I show the
working done this way in Figure 1.C.5. Cancellations are usually shown by diagonal lines.
Notice that, when everything on the top cancels, we finish up with 1 not 0.
Figure 1.C.5
1.C.(g) Dividing fractions
The rule for dividing fractions is to turn the second fraction upside down and then
multiply.
a c a d ad
÷ = = .
b d b c bc
We can see that this works by taking the numerical example of one and one half divided
by one half. We get
3 1 3 2 1
÷ = = 3 (that is, there are three halves in 1 2).
2 2 2 1
exercise 1.c.6 Now try these questions, cancelling down your answers where possible.
2 3 2x – 1 x–7
(1) – (2) –
x(2x – 3y) 2x(x + 4y) 3 5
3a 2 ab 2a b2 3x 2x 2
(3) (a) (b) (c)
2b 6c 3b 9a 2 y 2z 5yz 2
3x 2 (2x + 3y) y 2 (x – y) 5pq(p + q) (3p + 2q)
(4) (a) (b)
2y (x – y) x(x + 3y) (3p + 2q) q 2 (5p – q)
(a 2 – b 2 )4 (a 4 – b 4 )
(c) Be cunning!
(a 2 + b 2 ) (a + b)4
1.D The three rules for working with powers
1.D.(a) Handling powers which are whole numbers
It will be useful for us now to spend some time looking in more detail at how numbers
written as powers of other numbers can be combined with each other. (We have already
looked briefly at the rules for multiplying such numbers in Section 1.A.(c).)
We'll use the four numbers 8 = 23, 32 = 25, 9 = 32 and 81 = 34 as examples.
We could combine these numbers in many ways, some of which I have written down here.
(1) 32 8 (2) 9 81 (3) 32 8
(4) 81 9 (5) 8 9 (6) 81 32 (7) 82
26 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
If we rewrite the numbers as powers, we get the following results.
(1) 32 8 = 25 23 = (2 2 2 2 2) (2 2 2) = 25 +3 = 28 = 256.
The answer to the multiplication can be obtained by adding the powers.
(2) Similarly, 9 81 = 32 34 = (3 3) (3 3 3 3) = 32+4 = 36 = 729.
Again, the result can be obtained by adding the powers.
2 2 2 2 2
(3) 32 ÷ 8 = 25 ÷ 23 = = 2 2 = 25–3 = 22 = 4
2 2 2
This time, the answer has been obtained by subtracting the powers.
3 3 3 3
(4) Similarly, 81 ÷ 9 = 34 ÷ 32 = = 3 3 = 32 = 9
3 3
and again the result is obtained by subtracting the powers.
(5) 8 9 = 23 32. This time, the calculation is made no easier by writing the
numbers in this form. As they are powers of different numbers, we cannot use the
same system as we did in (1) and (2).
Returning to the original form, 8 9 = 72.
(6) Similarly, there is no advantage to be gained by writing 81 ÷ 32 as 34 ÷ 25.
81
can be left like this, or written in decimal form as 2.53125.
32
(7) 82 = (2 2 2)2 = (2 2 2) (2 2 2) = 26 and 82 = (23 )2 = 26.
The answer comes from multiplying the two powers.
Any powers which are whole numbers will work in the same kind of way, so we will now
write down the three rules or laws for working with powers.
The three rules for powers
Rule (1) a m a n = a m+n
Example: a 2 a 3 = (a a) (a a a) = a 5.
Rule (2) a m ÷ a n = a m–n
a a a a a
Example: a 5 ÷ a 2 = = a 3.
a a
Rule (3) (a m )n = a mn
Example: (a 2 )3 = (a a) (a a) (a a) = a 6.
We saw from the numerical examples that we must have powers of the same number for
these rules to work. There, we used either 2 or 3, and for the rules above I have used a. The
number a is called the base that we are working with.
1.D The three rules for working with powers 27
1.D.(b) Some special cases
It can be shown that the three rules above are true for any values of m and n, provided that
a ≠ 0, but it is not possible for us to prove this yet. However, by using powers which are
whole numbers we can see how some particular cases will have to go.
a a a
(1) a3 ÷ a2 = = a and, by Rule (2), a 3 ÷ a 2 = a 3–2 = a 1.
a a
So we must have
a 1 = a.
a a a
(2) a3 ÷ a3 = = 1 and, by Rule (2), a 3 ÷ a 3 = a 3–3 = a 0.
a a a
So we must have
a 0 = 1.
a a 1
(3) a2 ÷ a3 = = and, by Rule (2), a 2 ÷ a 3 = a 2–3 = a –1.
a a a a
So we must have
1
a –1 = .
a
1
In fact, more generally, a –n = .
an
(4) a1/2 a1/2 = a 1 by Rule (1), and a 1 = a.
So a1/2 is the number which multiplied by itself gives a.
a1/2 means the square root of a.
Similarly, a1/3 a1/3 a1/3 = a 1 by Rule (1).
So a1/3 means the cube root of a, or 3 a.
n
and a1/n means the nth root of a or a 1/n = a.
Here are four examples.
What are (1) 41/2 (2) 81/3 (3) 272/3 (4) 161/4 ?
28 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
(1) 41/2 means the square root of 4, so it means the number which multiplied by itself
gives 4. There are two numbers which do this. What are they?
They are + 2 and –2. So 41/2 = +2 or –2.
We can write this as 41/2 = ±2. (The symbol ± means + or –.)
(2) 81/3 means the cube root of 8 so it means finding a number a so that a a a = 8.
What can a be?
There is only one possible value for a in ordinary numbers, which is +2.
(I say 'ordinary numbers' here because it is possible to extend the number system so that
other possibilities open up. In fact, as we shall see in Chapter 10, we then rather pleasingly
get three cube roots. But for the present, we are only interested in solutions in ordinary
numbers.)
(3) 272/3 = (271/3 )2 by Rule (3). But 271/3 = 3 so (271/3 )2 = 32 = 9.
(4) 161/4 means the fourth root of 16. What are the possibilities here?
There are two possibilities using ordinary numbers.
We have 2 2 2 2 = 16 and –2 –2 –2 –2 = 16 so 161/4 = ±2.
In general we can say that each even root of a positive number has two possible solutions,
and each odd root of either a positive or a negative number has just one solution.
At present, we cannot find any even roots of negative numbers, although in Chapter 10
we will find out how it is possible to extend the number system so that we can have roots
for these numbers too. Have a guess at how many fourth roots of 16 we shall then have.
Yes, it is most satisfyingly four.
exercise 1.d.1 It is very useful to get a feeling for what these powers do, so that you can quickly
recognise alternative ways of writing them, or possible simplifications.
Try these numerical examples without a calculator to help you develop this feel.
Then go through, checking all your answers on your calculator. If you have a
mismatch, try to spot which one has gone wrong. Maybe the answers are the
same but just in a different form? (Your calculator will only give you positive
values for roots; you have to add possible alternative negative answers yourself.)
Make sure that you know how powers work on your calculator; read its little
instruction book if necessary!
(1) 3–1 (2) 161/2 (3) 93/2 (4) 27–1/3 (5) 40 (6) 71
(7) 7–2 (8) 4–1/2 (9) 321/5 (10) 16–3/4 (11) 253/2 (12) 49–1/2
1.D The three rules for working with powers 29
1.E The different kinds of numbers
The number system has been invented and extended as people needed ways to describe ever
more complicated situations and transactions. This procedure took thousands of years, so I
have to compress it somewhat in this brief description.
1.E.(a) The counting numbers and zero
By inventing names, with symbols for those names, it became possible to count how many
distinct objects there were when they were collected together. It was also then possible to
count the totals when collections were combined together, provided enough names or
symbols had been invented.
Having a symbol for zero was a great advance. The oldest written record with a symbol
for zero dates from the ninth century in a Hindu manuscript.
We don't very often have to say that we have none of something. So why is having a
symbol for zero so important?
It makes it possible to put in all the necessary place values in our system for writing
numbers, for example 301. Having a place value system means that once the symbols for 1
to 9 are learnt, a number of any size can be written. This use of the symbol for zero was
ridiculed by some people when it was first adopted. How could it be possible to write a large
number, they said, by using lots of symbols which each individually stand for nothing?
The fact that it took two centuries before this symbol for zero was invented shows what
a subtle development it was.
1.E.(b) Including negative numbers: the set of integers
The first important extension to the system of counting numbers for a collection of objects
is having some arrangement to represent what happens if we want to take away more than
we have, so that we owe.
If we include the negative numbers we can do this.
We now have the number system of integers given by
... –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
The German mathematician Kronecker said of these numbers: 'God made the whole
numbers; everything else is the work of man.'
Also now we have a nice symmetry.
For every number there is another number so that put together they make zero, so each
number has its matching pair. These pairs of numbers are reflections of each other around
zero. What are the pairs of (a) +7, (b) –9, and (c) 0?
(a) +7 has the pair –7. (b) –9 has the pair +9. (c) 0 is its own pair.
Putting together any two numbers in this system gives us another number in the system.
It has a nice completeness about it.
1.E.(c) Including fractions: the set of rational numbers
The next major extension to the number system results from the requirement of being able
to divide quantities up. To do this, we have to include fractions, that is, numbers which
can be written in the form a/b where a and b are integers or whole numbers, excluding
the case when b = 0. These numbers are called the rational numbers. Then the integers
30 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
themselves come from the special case in which b = 1, so they are included in this
description.
We can now divide quantities into smaller amounts, even if the numbers involved mean
that the result of the division is not a whole number (provided of course that the quantity
concerned is physically divisible into non-integer amounts).
We have a second nice symmetry here, this time about 1.
For every number except zero, there is now another number so that multiplied together
2 3
we get 1. For example, 3 has the pair 2.
3 3
What are the pairs of (a) 7, (b) –5 and (c) 1?
3 7 3 5
(a) 7 has the pair 3. (b) –5 has the pair –3. (c) 1 is its own pair.
Putting together any two numbers in this system by multiplying them together gives us
another number in the system, so we have exactly the same sort of completeness that we had
above with adding. The two systems have the same underlying structure of each number
having its own individual partner so that each pair together gives a special number, zero in
the case of adding and 1 in the case of multiplying.
If we put little tiny points for the value of each possible fraction on a number line how
close will these points be together? Will there be any gaps?
1
Suppose we have two fractions F1 and F2 which are very close together, say F1 = 100 and
1
F2 = 101 .
Then, there must be at least one fraction which lies between these two. Can you think of
one?
There are lots of possibilities for this. In particular, we could take (F1 + F2 )/2.
201
This is exactly midway between F1 and F2 . Here, it would be 10100 .
This system of insertion can be infinitely repeated, so we see that there can't be any
spaces between these fractions.
1.E.(d) Including everything on the number line: the set of real numbers
If the fractions are packed infinitely closely together, where is 2?
Is it a fraction? Trying a few possibilities doesn't look very promising, but maybe we just
haven't got the right numbers.
Suppose that it is possible, and we have found a and b so that
a a2
= 2 so = 2
b b2
and therefore
a 2 = 2b 2.
We'll also suppose that any possible cancelling down of the fraction a/b has already been
done, so it is tidied up as much as possible.
What kind of number must 2b 2 be?
It must be even, so a 2 must be even as well.
What happens if you square (a) even numbers (b) odd numbers?
1.E The different kinds of numbers 31
An even number squared gives another even number and an odd number squared gives
an odd number. We can show this by writing even numbers as 2n (with n standing for any
whole number) and odd numbers as 2n + 1.
Then (2n)2 = 4n 2 and (2n + 1)2 = 4n 2 + 4n + 1.
Because of this, we see that the number a must be even. We could call it 2a1 to show
this. Then
a 2 = (2a1 )(2a1 ) = 4a 2 = 2b 2
1 which means that b 2 = 2a 2 .
1
Now, by the same argument as before, b must also be even, so a and b could have been
cancelled down.
But if we cancel them, we can use exactly the same argument to show that they would
cancel down again, and so on for ever.
So there is no fraction which is exactly equal to 2.
This argument is due to the Pythagoreans of Ancient Greece. They were disconcerted and
alarmed by such numbers, which they called 'incommensurable'. There is a story that the
first Pythagorean to show their existence was thrown into the sea for his pains.
1414 1415
In fact, 2 is somewhere between 1000 and 1000 . So although the fractions are packed
infinitely closely, there are still gaps where the numbers like 2, 7, etc. are.
(This is one of the mysteries of maths and is because infinite numbers of things behave
in very peculiar ways.)
These numbers, together with π and similar numbers, are called irrational numbers. The
rational and irrational numbers together are called the set of real numbers.
Here's another example of how infinite quantities of things behave in unexpected
ways.
If we have two collections or sets of objects and we can tally off each object in the first
set with a corresponding object in the second set and vice versa, like knives and forks in
place settings, then the two sets must have an equal number of objects in them.
Or must they?
Figure 1.E.1
Suppose we start with the two lines meeting at O which I have drawn above in Figure
1.E.1, and we then draw parallel lines like AP and BQ so that point A is matched with point
P and point B is matched with point Q. All the points on the two lines can be paired off in
this way, so the two lines must be equal in length. But clearly they are not! We can no longer
say that the sets are equal because now there are an infinite number of objects involved and
the usual rules no longer apply.
32 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
1.E.(e) Complex numbers: a very brief forwards look
Finally, to make the list complete, we will jump ahead of ourselves briefly. We know that
2 2 = 4 and –2 –2 = 4. So the square root of 4 is +2 or –2. But we have no number
for the square root of –4.
In Chapter 10, we shall find out how it is possible to extend the number system even
further so that we can have an answer for –4. In fact, even better, we get two answers, just
like 4 has two answers.
We get this extension by including the so-called imaginary numbers. The real and
imaginary numbers together form the set of complex numbers.
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples
1.F.(a) Other number bases: the binary system
We have to use ten symbols for writing numbers because our counting system is based on
10. Our whole system is therefore called the decimal system, although in ordinary speech
we use 'decimals' for just the fractions written in this system.
However, other bases can be used. One of the most important of these is the system based
on 2, the binary system. This involves counting in place values given by powers of 2 instead
of powers of 10.
So, for example,
324 in the decimal system = 4(100 ) + 2(101 ) + 3(10)2 = 4 + 2(10) + 3(100).
11001 in the binary system = 1(20 ) + 0(21 ) + 0(22 ) + 1(23 ) + 1(24 )
= 1 + 0(2) + 0(4) + 1(8) + 1(16)
= 1 + 8 + 16 = 25 in the decimal system.
Notice that, in each case, we have processed the number from right to left, instead of from
left to right.
In each case, we wrote down the number of units, the number of 'tens', the number of
'hundreds', etc., where the 'ten' or 10 of the binary system is 2, the 'hundred' or 100 of the
binary system is 22 or 4, and so on.
Counting in binary goes 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, etc. instead of the decimal
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc.
The binary system only requires two symbols to write, those for one and zero, which is
why it is so important. The separate digits of numbers written in this system can be
represented by electric current either flowing or not flowing in a circuit, and therefore
numbers can be handled in this form by computers.
exercise 1.f.1 Try converting these three binary numbers into decimal numbers for yourself.
(1) 10111 (2) 1111 (3) 111011
How can we go the other way, and convert decimal numbers into binary numbers?
If we have the number 109, say, we could do it just by splitting it up into powers of two.
109 = 64 + 45 = 64 + 32 + 13 = 64 + 32 + 8 + 5
= 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 26 + 25 + 23 + 22 + 1
= 1101101 in binary or base 2.
(A useful way of showing that this number is in base 2 is to write the 2 as a little
subscript, so we write the number as 11011012 .)
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples 33
This is good for seeing what is happening, but not so good as a standard method of
conversion.
What we have actually done here is to split the number up into progressively higher
powers of 2, which we can do equally well by repeatedly dividing it by 2, recording the
remainder at each stage so we get the smaller powers as they shed off.
I show the working for this below.
Remainder
2 109
2 54 1 The answer is:
2 27 0 10910 is the same as 11011012 .
2 13 1
↑
2 6 1
2 3 0
2 1 1
0 1
exercise 1.f.2 Try converting these three decimal numbers to binary numbers for yourself.
(1) 72 (2) 2431 (3) 3251
thinking
If you have the use of a computer and know a programming language, you
point could write a program to do this, since the process of dividing by 2 is a
repeated loop until the number being divided is itself less than 2. You just have
to record the remainders so that you can display or print out your binary
conversion at the end.
This system works equally well in other number bases.
For example, in base 8, we have a 'ten' of 8 and a 'hundred' of 82, etc.
So 2378 = 7 + 3(81 ) + 2(82 ) = 7 + 24 + 128 = 15910 .
Working the other way round is done by repeated division by 8.
So, for example, to convert 39710 into base 8, you would do the working shown below.
Remainder
8 397
8 49 5
↑
8 6 1
0 6
39710 = 6158 .
Check: 6158 = 5 + 1 8+6 82
= 39710 .
34 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
1.F.(b) Prime numbers and factors
In this section, we look briefly at how the different numbers are built up.
Many numbers can be written as products (i.e. multiplications) of smaller numbers or
factors in quite a few different ways, for example
12 = 2 6 = 2 3 2 = 3 4 = 12 1.
Numbers which have no factors other than themselves and one are called prime
numbers. No smaller number (except for 1) will divide into them exactly. 7, 11 and 19 are
all examples of prime numbers.
Are there any even prime numbers?
Every even number can be divided exactly by 2, so there is just one even prime number,
which is 2 itself.
Every number can be written as a product of its prime factors, so for example
15 = 3 5 and 12 = 22 3.
Mathematicians have shown that every number can only be broken down into a product
of prime factors in one way, so, if we split 126 as 2 32 7, we don't have to worry that
maybe it could also be split so that it has some completely different prime factors.
Is there a pattern for how prime numbers slot into the other numbers? Figure 1.F.1 shows
all the prime numbers between 1 and 50, as shaded squares.
Figure 1.F.1
It doesn't look as though there is a pattern, although we do notice that many of them seem
to come in pairs with just one number in between. We also see that, as we go down through
the numbers, we are getting more and more possible prime factors for the numbers which
we haven't yet reached. Does this mean that after a while we will have collected all the
building blocks that we need to make future numbers, so that there will no longer be any new
prime numbers?
The answer to this question is that we will never have enough building blocks to make
all the possible future numbers. Given any prime number, however large, it is always possible
to find at least one larger one.
We can show that this is true in the following neat way.
We start by taking a numerical example, because it is easier then to explain how the
argument goes.
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples 35
Suppose we think that 23 might be the largest prime number. (I have deliberately chosen
quite a small number here. It is, in fact, easy to find larger prime numbers than 23, but it
will do very nicely to show how the general argument goes.) First, we list all the prime
numbers up to 23. (We don't normally include the number 1 in these – 1 is its own special
unique case of a number.) Doing this gives us 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 and 23 itself.
Next, we use all these prime numbers to write down a new number. This new number is
(2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23) + 1.
What kind of number is this? None of the prime numbers up to 23 will divide into it
exactly, because each of these divisions would leave a remainder of 1. So either it is itself
a prime number, or it has prime factors which are larger than 23.
Either way round, we have shown that there must be at least one prime number which is
larger than 23, and we could use this argument in exactly the same way to show that if we start
with any prime number N, then there must be at least one prime number larger than N.
This very nice ingenious method is due to Euclid, a mathematician from Ancient
Greece.
1.F.(c) A useful application – simplifying square roots
We can often use a number's prime factors to simplify its square root.
For example,
12 = 2 2 3, but 2 2 = 2, so we can say 12 = 2 3.
Here is another example.
72 = 2 2 2 3 3 = 2 22 32 = 2 3 2 = 6 2.
When square roots appear as part of a long calculation, it often makes things much easier
if you rewrite them like this. Using a calculator to find them is often not very helpful in mid-
calculation because it frequently gives you a string of decimals which is very awkward to
handle.
exercise 1.f.3 Try some for yourself now. Simplify these numbers in the same way.
(1) 28 (2) 45 (3) 50 (4) 44 (5) 63 (6) 40
1.F.(d) Simplifying fractions with signs underneath
In Section 1.E.(d), I showed that 2 is irrational. Most square roots are irrational, the
exceptions being numbers such as 2 = 4, 6 = 36, etc. Numbers such as 4 and 36 are
called perfect squares.
If we have a number made up of two separate bits, one of which is rational and one of
which is irrational, like 3 + 5, then the combined number will be irrational.
But the matching pair of numbers of 3 + 5 and 3 – 5 have two rather nice
properties.
We can see the first of these by adding them.
This gives us (3 + 5) + (3 – 5) = 6. (We have lost the irrational part.)
Can you see what other good possibility we have?
Multiplying them together also works very nicely.
We get (3 + 5) (3 – 5) = 9 + 3 5 – 3 5 – 5 = 4.
36 Basic algebra: some reminders of how it works
This is another application of the ubiquitous difference of two squares. (We have also
used ( 5)2 = 5.)
Fractions such as 5/(2 – 3 ) are particularly unwelcome because they involve dividing by
a number which is partly rational and partly irrational. We can get round this problem in the
following way.
5 5(2 + 3)
=
2– 3 (2 – 3) (2 + 3)
multiplying top and bottom of the fraction by 2 + 3. This gives
10 + 5 3 10 + 5 3
= = 10 + 5 3.
(2)2 – ( 3)2 4–3
We have cleverly got the signs on the bottom to cancel out, by multiplying the fraction top
and bottom by (2 + 3). Then we use the fact that ( 3)2 = 3.
3– 2
As another example, we will simplify .
5– 2
The denominator (or underneath number) is particularly unpleasant this time.
Can you see what we could multiply by to get rid of the signs on the bottom? Look
again at the previous example if necessary.
We multiply the top and the bottom by ( 5 + 2) and get:
(3 – 2)( 5 + 2) 3 5 – 2 – 10 + 3 2 3 5 – 2 – 10 + 3 2
= = .
( 5 – 2) ( 5 + 2) 5–2 3
It may help you to recognise references to this process if you know that this process of
removing the s on the bottom is called rationalising the denominator. Numbers like 2
are called surds.
We shall use exactly this process in Chapter 10 to simplify complex numbers.
exercise 1.f.4 Try simplifying these three for yourself.
5 3– 5 3–2 3
(1) (2) (3)
3+ 2 3+ 5 5+3 2
1.F Working with different kinds of number: some examples 37
2 Graphs and equations
In this chapter we look at different ways of solving equations. We shall do this both
by using the algebra from the first chapter and also by seeing what the solutions we
find mean when we look at them graphically.
The chapter is split up into the following sections.
2.A Solving simple equations
(a) Do you need help with this? Self-test 3, (b) Rules for solving simple equations,
(c) Solving equations involving fractions,
(d) A practical application – rearranging formulas to fit different situations
2.B Introducing graphs
(a) Self-test 4, (b) A reminder on plotting graphs,
(c) The midpoint of the straight line joining two points, (d) Steepness or gradient,
(e) Sketching straight lines, (f ) Finding equations of straight lines,
(g) The distance between two points,
(h) The relation between the gradients of two perpendicular lines,
(i) Dividing a straight line in a given ratio
2.C Relating equations to graphs: simultaneous equations
(a) What do simultaneous equations mean?
(b) Methods of solving simultaneous equations
2.D Quadratic equations and the graphs which show them
(a) What do the graphs which show quadratic equations look like?
(b) The method of completing the square,
(c) Sketching the curves which give quadratic equations,
(d) The 'formula' for quadratic equations,
(e) Special properties of the roots of quadratic equations,
(f ) Getting useful information from 'b 2 – 4ac',
(g) A practical example of using quadratic equations,
(h) All equations are equal – but are some more equal than others?
2.E Further equations – the Remainder and Factor Theorems
(a) Cubic expressions and equations, (b) Doing long division in algebra,
(c) Avoiding long division – the Remainder and Factor Theorems,
(d) Three examples of using these theorems, and a red herring
2.A Solving simple equations
2.A.(a) Do you need help with this? Self-test 3
In the first chapter, we revised the various methods for using the rules of algebra to handle
and simplify unknown quantities. We now see how we can use these rules to find
information from different kinds of equation. In case you need to be reminded how to solve
simple equations, I have put in another self-test here. As before, if you are in any doubt about
how much you remember, you should try the test now because it is much easier to go
forward happily if any problems are sorted out at the beginning.
38 Graphs and equations
Self-test 3
Answer each of the following short questions by finding the value which the letter is
standing for in each case.
(1) x + 7 = 4 (2) 3y = 27 (3) 5y = 12
(4) 2p + 3 = 8 (5) 2a + 3 = 5a – 2 (6) 10 – 2b = b + 7
x 3 3x 5
(7) 3(2x – 1) = 2(2x + 3) (8) = (9) =
4 5 8 9
8 1 3 5 3
(10) =2 (11) 2x + = (12) =
x 2 5 y 7
x+1 2y + 3 2y + 1 y+3
(13) =5 (14) =5 (15) =
2 4 3 2
3x 2x x 5
(16) +3=x–5 (17) –3= (18) =3
5 3 2 3a – 2
3 2 2 5
(19) = (20) = .
p+3 p+4 2a + 1 3a – 2
Save your working on this test because I shall do most of these questions as examples, and
you will be able to compare what you did with my solutions. Indeed, you might find as we go
through that you can change some to make them right before you look at my version.
If your present answers are right, give yourself one mark each for questions (1) to (10),
and two marks each for questions (11) to (20), so the test has a possible total of 30 marks.
If you have less than 25 marks, you should work through the next section. Remember that
if you are in any doubt about your handling of these equations, it is best to get the difficulties
sorted out straight away.
The answers to the test are as follows:
12 5 5
(1) x = –3 (2) y = 9 (3) y = 5 (4) p = 2 (5) a = 3
9 12 40
(6) b = 1 (7) x = 2 (8) x = 5 (9) x = 27 (10) x = 4
1 35 17
(11) x = 20 (12) y = 3 (13) x = 9 (14) y = 2 (15) y = 7
11 9
(16) x = 20 (17) x = 18 (18) a = 9 (19) p = –6 (20) a = – 4.
2.A.(b) Rules for solving simple equations
Since the two sides of an equation are equal, in general you are safe if you do the same thing
to each side. For example, the equation is still true if:
we add the same amount to each side;
we subtract the same amount from each side;
we multiply both sides by the same amount;
we divide both sides by the same amount, remembering that we must not try to divide
by zero. (See the end of Section 1.C.(a) for what happens then.)
We can use these rules to simplify equations to the point where it is easy to see the
solution.
2.A Solving simple equations 39
Here is an example:
3x + 17 = x + 7.
Taking 17 from both sides gives
3x = x + 7 – 17,
so 3x = x – 10.
Taking x from both sides gives
2x = –10.
Dividing both sides by 2 gives
x = –5.
We see from this example that adding or subtracting the same amount from each side has the
same effect as shifting bits from one side of the equation to the other provided that we
change the signs from + to – or – to + as we do so.
We can now check the solution we have found by putting it back into the original
equation. If it is correct then the two sides should indeed be equal, so we look at each side
in turn. It is helpful to have a shorthand for this, and I shall use LHS to stand for the left-
hand side and RHS to stand for the right-hand side.
Here, putting x = –5, the LHS = 3 –5 + 17 = 2, and the RHS = –5 + 7 = 2 also.
As further examples, here are the solutions of the first seven questions of Self-test 3.
(1) x + 7 = 4 so x = 4 – 7 = –3.
27
(2) 3y = 27 so y = 3 = 9 (dividing both sides by 3).
12
(3) 5y = 12 so y = 5 (dividing both sides by 5).
5
(4) 2p + 3 = 8 so 2p = 8 –3 = 5 and p = 2.
5
(5) 2a + 3 = 5a – 2 so 3 + 2 = 5a – 2a = 3a and a = 3.
(Notice, it was easier to rearrange here so that we had a positive number of the
unknown amount.)
(6) 10 – 2b = b + 7 so 10 – 7 = b + 2b = 3b and b = 1.
9
(7) 3(2x – 1) = 2(2x + 3) so 6x – 3 = 4x + 6 so 2x = 9 and x = 2.
exercise 2.a.1 Try these for yourself now. The best method is to do what you comfortably can in
your head, without chopping out so many steps that mistakes begin to creep in.
Check that all your answers fit their equations.
(1) x+8=5 (2) 5y = 40 (3) 2y = 7
(4) 7 + 2x = 5 – x (5) 4 + 2b = 5b + 9 (6) 3(x – 3) = 6
(7) 3(y – 2) = 2(y – 1) (8) 2(3a – 1) = 3(4a + 3) (9) 3x – 1 = 2(2x – 1) + 3
(10) 2(p + 2) = 6p – 3(p – 4).
2.A.(c) Solving equations involving fractions
I think that the easiest way to solve this kind of equation is to start by getting rid of the
fractions. We can do this by multiplying both sides of the equation by a number chosen so
that, after cancelling, we have only whole numbers to deal with.
40 Graphs and equations
I shall now use some further questions from Self-test 3 as examples of this.
x 3
(8) =
4 5
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 4 5 = 20, and cancelling, gives
12
5x = 4 3 = 12 so x = .
5
1 3
(11) 2x + =
2 5
Multiplying both sides by 2 5 = 10 gives
1 3 1
10 (2x + 2) = 10 5 so 20x + 5 = 6 so x = 20.
Notice that I used a bracket to make sure that every separate piece of the original equation
got multiplied by 10.
5 3
(12) =
y 7
Multiplying both sides by 7y gives
35
7 5 = 3y so y = .
3
This has the same effect as doing a sort of cross-multiplying of bottoms to tops. It is fine
to use this method so long as you only do it for equations with single fractions each side.
It wouldn't work for (11), for example.
2y + 3
(14) =5
4
Multiplying both sides by 4 gives
17
2y + 3 = 20 so 2y = 17 and y = .
2
2y + 1 y+3
(15) =
3 2
Multiplying both sides by 3 2 = 6 gives
2(2y + 1) = 3(y + 3) so 4y + 2 = 3y + 9 and y = 7.
2x x
(17) –3=
3 2
Multiplying both sides by 3 2 = 6 gives
2x x
6 –3 =6 so 4x – 18 = 3x and x = 18.
3 2
!
It is important to remember that the –3 also gets multiplied by the 6. Again,
I've used a bracket to make clear that this is what I must do.
2.A Solving simple equations 41
5
(18) =3
3a – 2
Multiplying both sides by (3a – 2) and cancelling on the left-hand side gives
11
5 = 3(3a – 2) so 5 = 9a – 6 so 11 = 9a and a= 9.
2 5
(20) =
2a + 1 3a – 2
Multiplying both sides by (2a + 1) (3a – 2), and cancelling, gives
9
2(3a – 2) = 5(2a + 1) so 6a – 4 = 10a + 5 so –9 = 4a and a = – 4.
My last example involves three fractions. Solve
2x + 1 3x – 2 x–1
– = .
3 4 6
What should we multiply by to get rid of the fractions this time?
Did you think of 3 4 6 = 72? This will do, but we could use the more delicate
instrument of 12 since 3, 4 and 6 are all factors of 12.
!
This equation has a tricky bit which often leads to mistakes. Can you see
what it is? It was mentioned as a warning in Section 1.C.(e). Try the next
step yourself before looking at what I've done to see if you can avoid this
pitfall.
3x – 2 2x + 1
The whole of is being subtracted from .
4 3
The line of the fraction is acting in the same way as a bracket, and it is safest to put brackets
round each fraction chunk to keep the working clear and the signs correct.
Then, multiplying through by 12, we have
2x + 1 3x – 2 x–1
12 – 12 = 12 .
3 4 6
Cancelling each fraction in turn, we get
4(2x + 1) – 3(3x – 2) = 2(x – 1) so 8x + 4 – 9x + 6 = 2x – 2
(Leaving out the brackets could mean that you would wrongly have a –6 in this last
equation.)
So 4 + 6 + 2 = –8x + 9x + 2x therefore 12 = 3x and x = 4.
9 10 1 3 1
Checking back, the LHS = 3 – 4 = 2 and the RHS = 6 = 2.
42 Graphs and equations
!
It is important that we can only get rid of fractions by multiplying if we are
dealing with an equation. It will not work if we just have an expression such as
x+4 x+3
+ .
2 5
Here we would have no justification for making this 10 times larger.
The best we can do is to simplify as we did in Section 1.C.(c). Then
x+4 x+3 5(x + 4) 2(x + 3) 5(x + 4) + 2(x + 3) 7x + 26
+ = + = = .
2 5 10 10 10 10
I've put in quite a lot of detail in these examples so that you can see exactly what's
happening. As you get more confident, you'll find you probably don't need to write down
all the steps. This is fine, but it's a good idea to check your answers to make sure that they
do fit the given equations.
exercise 2.a.2 Try these questions for yourself now.
Solve each of the following equations.
5x 2x x x
(1) =2 (2) 5 + x = (3) – =1
3 3 3 4
y 3y – 7 y–2 3m – 5 9 – 2m
(4) – = (5) – =0
3 5 6 4 3
x–1 x–2 p+1 3 2 3
(6) – =1 (7) = (8) =
2 3 p–1 4 y y+1
4 3 2x 3x
(9) = (10) = –1
2x + 3 x–2 x+2 x+5
2x + 1 x+5 3x – 1 x+3 x–1 2x – 1
(11) + = (12) – =
3 2 7 4 5 10
2.A.(d) A practical application – rearranging formulas to fit different situations
We can also use the rules for solving equations to rearrange formulas so that they are in a
more convenient form to use in changed situations.
example (1) The formula
l
T = 2π
g
gives the period T of a pendulum of length l. The period is the length of
time for a complete to-and-fro swing. π is the π of circles, and g stands
for the acceleration due to gravity.
2.A Solving simple equations 43
If we want to find the length of a pendulum which has a given
period, it would be more convenient to have the formula rearranged so
that the length l is given in terms of the other quantities. This is
sometimes called changing the subject of the formula to l. We have
l
T = 2π .
g
Since the two sides of an equation are equal, they must still be equal if
we square both of them. Therefore
l
T 2 = 4π2 .
g
(Notice that everything must be squared, including the 2π.) So now we
have
gT 2
l= (multiplying both sides by g and dividing by 4π2 )
4π2
and this gives us the new formula we wanted.
example (2) For this, I'll take the formula relating the distance u of an object from a lens
of focal length f to the distance v of its image from the lens. This is
1 1 1
+ = .
u v f
Suppose you want to find the distance of the image from the lens for
certain given distances of the object from the lens; you need a formula
for v in terms of u and f.
!
Students sometimes think that they can go through the equation above turning
everything upside down and it will still be true. This is not so!
1 1 1
It is true that + = but 3 + 6 ≠ 2.
3 6 2
Remember, it is only possible to turn both sides of an equation upside
down if there is just one fraction on each side. For example we can say that
2 4 3 6
= so = .
3 6 2 4
What do you think we should do to help us rearrange
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
if we can't turn it all upside down?
44 Graphs and equations
We can get rid of all the fractions by multiplying both sides of the
equation by uvf. Then we have
1 1 1
uvf + = uvf
u v f
so, cancelling down,
vf + uf = uv.
We want a formula for v, so we put everything with a v in it on the
same side of the equation. This gives uf = uv – vf so, factorising,
uf = v(u – f). Now, dividing both sides by (u – f), we have
uf
v=
u–f
which gives us the new formula for v that we wanted.
We shall use exactly these same techniques for shifting stuff around when we find inverse
functions in Section 3.B.(h).
exercise 2.A.3 Try some rearranging of actual formulas for yourself now.
(1) The surface area, S, of a sphere of radius r is given by the formula S = 4πr 2. Its
4
volume, V, is given by V = 3πr 3. Rearrange these two formulas to give (a) the
radius in terms of the surface area, and (b) the radius in terms of the volume.
(2) The volume, V, of a closed cylinder of radius r and height h is given by the
formula V = πr 2h. Its surface area S is given by S = 2πr 2 + 2πrh. Rearrange
these two formulas to give (a) the height in terms of the radius and the
volume, and (b) the radius in terms of the height and the volume, and (c) the
height in terms of the radius and the surface area.
(3) v2 = u 2 + 2as is a formula which relates the final velocity v to the initial
velocity u of a body which travels a distance s with constant acceleration a.
Find (a) a formula for a in terms of u, v and s, and (b) a formula for u in
terms of v, a and s.
(4) If two resistances, R1 and R2 , in an electric circuit are arranged in parallel then
they are equivalent to a single resistance R, with the relation between them
being given by the formula
1 1 1
= + .
R R1 R2
Find a formula which will give the value of R2 in terms of R and R1 , in the form
R2 = . . . Use this formula to find out what resistance should be put in parallel
with a resistance of 3 Ω to give an effective resistance of 2 Ω. (Ω is the symbol
used for ohms, the unit in which resistance is measured.)
2.B Introducing graphs
It can be very helpful when thinking about how equations work if we can show them
graphically, so that we can see what is happening in another way. I shall start by considering
equations which can be shown by straight lines. This section is here in case you need any
reminders on how to handle straight line graphs. I have put in another self-test here, so that
you can see if you need to work through this.
2.B Introducing graphs 45
2.B.(a) Self-test 4
Try answering each of the following questions.
(1) What are the coordinates of the midpoints of the straight lines joining
(a) (2, –1) and (8, 5) (b) (–3, 1) and (2, –8)?
(2) What is the steepness or gradient of the straight lines joining
(a) (2, 5) to (8, 17) (b) (–1, 3) to (8, –6)?
(3) What are the gradients of the following straight lines?
(a) y = 3x + 4 (b) y + 4x = 2 (c) 2y = x – 4 (d) 3y + 4x = 0.
(4) Find the equations of the following straight lines:
(a) with gradient 2 and passing through (1, 3)
(b) with gradient –1 and passing through (2, –1)
2
(c) with gradient 3 and passing through (2,4)
(d) passing through (2, 5) and (8, 10)
(e) passing through (–4, –2) and (–1, 5).
(5) What is the distance between each of the two pairs of points given in the first
question? (Give your answers to two decimal places or d.p.)
(6) Find the equations of the straight lines which pass through (1, 4) and are
perpendicular to (a) y = 2x + 5 (b) 3y + 2x = 1 (c) 4y + x = 0.
(7) What are the coordinates of the point which divides the straight line joining the
points (1, 3) and (6, 18) in the ratio 2 : 3?
Here are the answers which you should have.
Give yourself one mark for each correct part of (1), (2) and (3), and two marks for each
correct part of (4), (5), (6) and (7).
1 7
(1) (a) (5, 2) (b) (– 2, – 2)
(2) (a) 2 (b) –1
1 4
(3) (a) 3 (b) –4 (c) 2 (d) – 3
(4) (a) y = 2x + 1 (b) y + x = 1 (c) 3y = 2x + 8 (d) 6y = 5x + 20 (e) 3y = 7x + 22
(5) (a) 72 = 8.49 to 2 d.p. (b) 106 = 10.30 to 2 d.p.
(6) (a) 2y + x = 9 (b) 2y = 3x + 5 (c) y = 4x (7) (3, 9)
As with the other self-tests, if you have less than 25 marks you should certainly work
through this next section. Each particular point is dealt with here in the same order as the test
questions, so it is also possible to go directly to any particular area where you need help.
2.B.(b) A reminder on plotting graphs
Here is a brief reminder of how graph plotting works. Suppose we have the equation y = 2x + 3.
Then, for each value of x that we might choose, there will be a corresponding value of y. The
values of y depend on the values of x, and we call y the dependent variable and x the
independent variable. We could show some of these pairs of values in a table, as below.
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y –1 5 9
Fill in the three missing y values yourself.
46 Graphs and equations
You should have 1, 3 and 7.
We can write these pairs of values grouped together as (–2, –1), (–1, 1), (0, 3), (1, 5),
(2, 7) and (3, 9). The independent value always comes first, and belongs to the variable
which is plotted from side to side on a piece of graph paper, using the horizontal axis.
The dependent variable is plotted from top to bottom, using the vertical axis. Because it
matters what order we write these pairs of numbers in, they are often called ordered
pairs.
To plot them, we mark out a piece of graph paper with suitable scales to include all of
the points which we are interested in.
The point (0, 0) where the axes cross is called the origin.
If the point P is (2, 7) then the numbers 2 and 7 are called the coordinates of P. 2 is its
x-coordinate and 7 is its y-coordinate.
The scales do not have to be equal. Here, it was more convenient to make the scale on
the y-axis smaller, and we get a graph which looks like the one in Figure 2.B.1.
Figure 2.B.1
It is important always to label the axes of your graphs with the letters of the variables you
are using, so here I have labelled them x and y.
I have joined the points with a straight line. I've done this because I am thinking that for
every value of x there is a corresponding value of y, and all these points together make the
3 3
line. (For example, if x = 2, then y = 6 and ( 2, 6) is also a point on the line.)
When you plot a graph accurately on graph paper, you should use a well-sharpened
pencil to mark each point with a small cross as accurately as you can. Then, if it is a straight
line, draw this through the points in pencil. Of course, for any particular straight line, you
only need to find two points, but it is always safer to work out three because this allows you
to check your arithmetic if they turn out not to be in line.
2.B.(c) The midpoint of the straight line joining two points
To show this, I shall draw two diagrams for you. Figure 2.B.2(a) shows the special case of
(1)(a) from the Self-test, and Figure 2.B.2(b) shows two general points which I shall call
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
2.B Introducing graphs 47
Figure 2.B.2
If you find this at all difficult, I think it will help you to get a feeling of exactly what is
going on if you use different colours on the two differently dashed lines. It may also help you
to understand how everything fits in if you write in the measurements for the separate bits
yourself.
The midpoint in each case is found by taking the half-way or average value of the x values
at either end of the line, and then doing the same for the y values.
The midpoint in (a) is
8 + 2 5 + (–1)
, which is (5, 2).
2 2
The midpoint in (b) is
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
, .
2 2
We can now use this to find the midpoint of the line joining (–3, 1) and (2, –8). (This was
question (1)(b).) We let (–3, 1) be (x1 , y1 ) and (2, –8) be (x2 , y2 ), which gives us the
midpoint as
–3 + 2 1 + (–8) –1 –7
, or , .
2 2 2 2
It would have worked equally well if we had taken (x1 , y1 ) as (2, –8) and (x2 , y2 ) as (–3, 1).
(Try it and see.)
(If you have any problems with putting together the positive and negative numbers, you
should go back to Section 1.A.(e) in the first chapter. It will also help you if you make your
own drawings of the pairs of points and their midpoints. Then you can actually see how the
numbers are combining together to work.)
The midpoint of the line joining (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
, .
2 2
48 Graphs and equations
exercise 2.b.1 Find the coordinates of the midpoints of the straight lines joining these pairs of
points.
(1) (–3, 2) and (1, –6)
(2) (–2, –1) and (3, 4)
(3) (–1, –5) and (–4, –6)
2.B.(d) Steepness or gradient
Straight lines have the same steepness or gradient all the way along. This gradient can be
measured by the distance moved vertically in the y direction for a unit distance moved from
left to right in the x direction. If the line goes uphill from left to right so that this vertical
distance is being measured in the positive direction up the y-axis, then the gradient is
positive. If the line goes downhill from left to right then the vertical distance and the gradient
are negative. We could think of the gradient as telling us the rate of change of y as x
changes.
Figure 2.B.3(a) shows the line joining (2, 5) and (8, 17) (question 2(a) from Self-test(4)),
and Figure 2.B.3(b) shows the line joining the two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
Figure 2.B.3
The gradient in (a) is given by The gradient in (b) is given by
distance up 12 distance up y2 – y 1
= =2 =
distance along 6 distance along x2 – x 1
The gradient of a straight line is often written as the single letter m. Using this, we can now
write down the following formula:
The gradient, m, of the straight line joining (x1 , y1 ) to (x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 – y 1
m= .
x2 – x1
2.B Introducing graphs 49
The m gives us the measure of how y is changing relative to x. We have already seen that
the line y = 2x + 3 has a gradient of 2, with y increasing twice as fast as x. Similarly, the line
y = mx + c has a gradient of m. Rewriting the equation of any straight line in this form
enables us to read off its gradient. For example, in question (3) of Self-test 4, the line (a),
y = 3x + 4, has a gradient of 3.
Line (b), y + 4x = 2, can be rewritten as y = –4x + 2 so m, the gradient, is –4.
1 1
Line (c), 2y = x – 4, can be rewritten as y = 2 x – 2 so m = 2.
4 –4
Line (d), 3y + 4x = 0, can be rewritten as y = – 3 x so m = 3 .
exercise 2.b.2 Find the gradients of the following straight lines.
(1) y = 3 – 5x
(2) 2y = 3x + 7
(3) 3y + x = 1
(4) 4y – 5x = 2
2.B.(e) Sketching straight lines
We said in the previous section that if the equation of a straight line is written in the form
y = mx + c them m is its gradient. What does the value of c tell us?
If we put x = 0 we get y = c so the point (0, c) is where the line cuts the y-axis (its y
intercept). For example, the line y = 2x + 3 cuts the y-axis at (0, 3).
If we know the values of m and c, we can use these to draw a sketch of the line. Figure
2.B.4 shows three examples with sketches of (a) y = 3x + 1 so m = 3 and c = 1,
3
(b) y + x = 2 so y = –x + 2 and m = –1 and c = 2, (c) 4y = 3x + 4 so y = 4 x + 1
3
and m = 4 and c = 1.
Figure 2.B.4
exercise 2.b.3 Each of the following sketches in Figure 2.B.5 fits one of the lines whose
equations are given below. Pair each equation up with its correct sketch.
50 Graphs and equations
Figure 2.B.5
(1) y = x (2) y + 4x = 4 (3) 4y = x + 4 (4) y = x – 2
1
(5) y = 2x (6) y = x + 2 (7) y = 2x (8) y + 2x = –2
s pec i a l
How can we write the equations of the lines shown in the four sketches in
cases Figure 2.B.6?
Figure 2.B.6
The first sketch shows a line every point of which has a y-coordinate of 2, so it can be
written as y = 2. (The value of x can be anything you like, since you can choose any point
on this line.) Similarly, the second sketch shows y = –3. What do the third and fourth
sketches show?
The third sketch shows x = 3 and the fourth sketch shows x = –2.
The lines in the first two sketches are flat, so their gradient, m, is zero.
We can't write down the gradient for the last two lines because they are infinitely steep
and we can't divide by zero.
2.B Introducing graphs 51
2.B.(f ) Finding equations of straight lines
How much do you need to know to distinguish a particular straight line from all the other
possible straight lines?
You would either have to know two points which lie on it, or one point on it and its
gradient. It is useful to be able to write down the equation of a straight line from either of
these two starting positions.
Figure 2.B.7 shows a straight line with gradient m passing through two known points which
I have called (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). We take (x, y) to be any general point on this line.
Figure 2.B.7
We have
y2 – y1 y – y1
= = m.
x2 – x1 x – x1
Two useful forms for the equation of a straight line come from this.
Form (1) y – y1 = m(x – x1 )
y – y1 x – x1
Form (2) =
y2 – y1 x2 – x1
Form (2) comes from rearranging
y2 – y1 y – y1
=
x2 – x1 x – x1
in the same way that we can rearrange
8 6 6 9
= as = .
12 9 8 12
1
example (1) Find the equation of the line with gradient 2 which passes through (3, 2).
1
Substituting in form (1) gives y – 2 = 2 (x – 3) so 2y = x + 1.
52 Graphs and equations
example (2) Find the equation of the line passing through (3, 2) and (9, 5).
Substituting in form (2) gives
y–2 x–3
= so 6(y – 2) = 3(x – 3) and 2y = x + 1.
5–2 9–3
Notice that this is the same line as we got from the first example. The reason for this is that
I have chosen the points (3, 2) and (9, 5) because they fit nicely on Figure 2.B.7 above. If
you have found any difficulty with the general rules in the two boxes above, you can feed
these numbers in and mark the different numerical distances on the diagram to help you.
For completeness, I also include the equation of a straight line written in the form
y = mx + c which we have already used in Section 2.B.(d). This gives us
Form (3) y = mx + c.
1 1 1
Writing the numerical example of 2y = x + 1 in the form y = 2 x + 2, we have m = 2 and
1
c = 2.
exercise 2.b.4 Have another go at question (4) from Self-test 4 if you couldn't do it earlier. You
should be able to do it now.
2.B.(g) The distance between two points
Suppose we need to find the distance D between the two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) as I have
shown in Figure 2.B.8(a).
Figure 2.B.8
We use Pythagoras' Theorem which says that:
The distance between the two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by
D 2 = (y2 – y1 )2 + (x2 – x1 )2
so D= (y2 – y1 )2 + (x2 – x1 )2 .
2.B Introducing graphs 53
In the numerical example of Figure 2.B.8(b), this will give us
D= (4 – 1)2 + (6 – 2)2 = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5.
(Pythagoras' Theorem is shown to be true in Section 4.A.(b).)
exercise 2.b.5 Try question (5) of Self-test 4 again if you couldn't do it earlier.
2.B.(h) The relation between the gradients of two perpendicular lines
If we know the gradient of a line, surely it must be possible to write down the gradient of
1
a line perpendicular to it. Suppose we start with the line y = 2 x. What is the gradient of any
line perpendicular to this?
We can see the way in which we can find the answer to this question by looking at Figure
1
2.B.9 below. Figure 2.B.9(a) shows the special case of line (1) being y = 2 x and Figure
2.B.9(b) shows the general case of line (1) having a gradient of p/q = m1 , say. (I have only
shown where the two lines cross each other in the two diagrams.)
Figure 2.B.9
In diagram (a), line (2) has a gradient of –2/1 = –2. (The minus sign is because the 2 is
being measured downwards.) In diagram (b), line (2) has a gradient m2 of –q/p.
We see that the gradients of the two perpendicular lines multiplied together give
1
–2 = p/q –q/p = –1.
2
If two lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then m1 m2 = –1.
exercise 2.b.6 Do question (6) from Self-test 4 again if you couldn't do it earlier.
2.B.(i) Dividing a straight line in a given ratio
In Section 2.B.(c) we found that the midpoint of the line joining (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
, .
2 2
54 Graphs and equations
We now look at how to find the coordinates of a point which divides a line in any
proportion or ratio.
Figure 2.B.10(a) shows the special case of question (7) of Self-test 4, where we are
looking for the point which divides the straight line joining the points (1, 3) and (6, 18) in
the ratio 2 : 3.
Figure 2.B.10(b) shows the point (x, y) which divides the straight line joining (x1 , y1 ) to
(x2 , y2 ) in the ratio p : q. We shall use this to find a general formula.
Figure 2.B.10
2
In (a), the point P is 5 of the way along line AB so each of its x- and y-coordinates is given
2
by moving on from A by 5 of the total change from A to B.
2 2
So we could say that P is given by (1 + 5 (6 – 1), 3 + 5 (18 – 3)) which is (3, 9).
Similarly, we can see in (b) that P is given by
p p
x1 + (x2 – x1 ), y1 + (y2 – y1 ) .
p+q p+q
This looks rather clumsy. Perhaps we can make it nicer if we put the whole of each
coordinate over (p + q). Then we get
p x1 (p + q) + p(x2 – x1 )
x1 + (x2 – x1 ) =
p+q p+q
x 1 q + x2 p
=
p+q
and, similarly, the y coordinate of P is
y1 q + y 2 p
.
p+q
This gives us a much neater form for the coordinates of P.
2.B Introducing graphs 55
The point P which divides (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in the ratio p : q is given by
x1 q + x2 p y1 q + y2 p
, .
p+q p+q
Putting p = q in this formula gives us the same formula for the midpoint that we quoted
at the beginning of this section. (Try it yourself, putting p = q = 1, and also p = q = 3,
say.)
When p and q are different from each other, they adjust the position of the point P by
separately multiplying x1 and x2 , and y1 and y2 .
!
Notice that p and q flip over so that it is q which multiplies x1 and p which
multiplies x2 .
example (1) If we use this formula to give the answer to question (7) of Self-test 4,
shown in Figure 2.B.10(a), we get
1 3+6 2 3 3 + 18 2
P is given by , = (3, 9).
2+3 2+3
exercise 2.b.7 Find the coordinates of the points which divide
(1) the line joining (–1, 2) and (5, 14) in the ratio 2 : 1,
(2) the line joining (–2, –3) and (6, 9) in the ratio 1 : 3.
2.C Relating equations to graphs: simultaneous equations
2.C.(a) What do simultaneous equations mean?
We now have two ways in which we can look at equations. We can find ways of solving them
using algebra and we can also see what the meaning of these solutions is graphically.
We will use this double approach first on pairs of equations like the following:
2x + 3y = 5 (1)
x – 2y = 6 (2)
These are two equations which are true together, so that we have two pieces of information
about the two unknowns, x and y.
Such pairs of equations are called simultaneous equations.
We could show these as two straight lines on a graph sketch. (See Figure 2.C.1.). To draw
2 5 1
this sketch, I have rearranged 2x + 3y = 5 as y = – 3 x + 3 and x – 2y = 6 as y = 2 x – 3.
Then we can see that there is just one possible pair of values for x and y which fit both
equations. These are the coordinates of the point where the two lines cross each other (here
this is at about (4, –1)).
56 Graphs and equations
Figure 2.C.1
Does this mean that any two equations which give straight lines on a graph will have a
solution which can be shown in this way? What might happen which would make this
impossible?
If the two lines have the same gradient so that they are parallel there will be no
solutions which will fit both. (For example, there is no solution which fits 2x + 3y = 1
and 2x + 3y = 5.)
What happens if we have the two equations x – 2y = 6 and 2x – 4y = 12?
We only actually have one piece of information here since the second equation is just the
first one multiplied by 2, and so we have the same line drawn on top of itself. Every point
on this line fits both equations and we therefore have an infinite number of possible
answers.
What happens if we have a third equation which we want to be true at the same time as
the original pair?
Geometrically, it is easy to see what happens. Either its line passes through the same
crossing point as the other two, in which case it agrees with them or is consistent with them,
but doesn't add any new information. Or its line does not pass through this crossing point
at all. In this case, it is inconsistent with the other two equations, and the three equations
cannot be simultaneously true.
2.C.(b) Methods of solving simultaneous equations
Although the graph method makes it easy to see what is happening, it can be very difficult
to read off an accurate answer. A far simpler way to find this answer is to use algebra. There
are various methods which can be used, and the best choice depends on the actual equations
and comes with practice. I will show you two different ways of solving the pair of equations
which were shown in Figure 2.C.1 above.
2.C Relating equations to graphs 57
M ETHOD (A) Substitution.
From equation (2), we have x = 2y + 6.
We are looking for values of x and y so that both the equations are true
together, so we can replace the 'x' in equation (1) by 2y + 6. We then have
2(2y + 6) + 3y = 5
so 4y + 12 + 3y = 5
so 7y = –7
and y = –1.
Now, substituting –1 for y in equation (2) we have
x+2=6 so x = 4.
Checking in equation (1), LHS = 8 – 3 = 5 = RHS.
I am again using the shorthand LHS for the left-hand side of an
equation, and RHS for its right-hand side.
M ETHOD (B) Elimination. Returning to the beginning, multiply equation (1) by 2
and equation (2) by 3. Then we have
4x + 6y = 10 (3)
3x – 6y = 18 (4)
Adding equations (3) and (4) gives 7x = 28 so x = 4 and, by
substitution, y = –1 as before.
Method (B) could also have been done by multiplying equation (2) by –2. Then
2x + 3y = 5 (3a)
–2x + 4y = –12 (4a)
and adding equations (3a) and (4a) gives 7y = –7 and y = –1 as before.
Alternatively, you could multiply equation (2) by +2 and subtract. This gives
2x + 3y = 5 (3b)
2x – 4y = 12 (4b)
Subtracting equation (4b) from (3b) gives 7y = –7 and y = –1.
helpful
It is easier to make mistakes when subtracting negative quantities, so it is
hint usually better to choose your numbers so that you can get rid of one of the
letters by adding.
It is likely, if a real-life situation is being modelled, that we would have to solve more
equations in more variables. If there is the same number of equations as there are variables,
and provided we don't have a situation similar to the two equations being either parallel or
just the same equation, as described above, then we can usually solve them by successive
58 Graphs and equations
elimination until just one variable is left. Once this is known, the other variables can be
found in turn by substituting back into the equations. Such sets of equations, and their more
complicated cousins in which the number of variables does not tally with the number of
equations, can be dealt with more systematically by using matrix methods.
Try solving these two pairs of simultaneous equations yourself before continuing.
x y
Qu(1) 3x – 2y = 21 (1) Qu(2) – + 1 = 0 (1)
3 2
2x + 5y = –5 (2) 6x + y + 8 = 0 (2)
These are possible routes to solutions.
For Qu(1), multiply equation (1) by 2 and equation (2) by –3. This gives
6x – 4y = 42 (3)
–6x – 15y = 15 (4)
Equation (3) added to (4) gives –19y = 57 so y = –3.
Putting y = –3 in equation (1) gives 3x + 6 = 21 so x = 5.
Now check in equation (2). LHS = 10 – 15 = –5 = RHS.
In Qu(2), we start by getting rid of the fractions in equation (1) by multiplying by 6. Then
we multiply equation (2) by 3. This gives us
2x – 3y + 6 = 0 (3)
18x + 3y + 24 = 0 (4)
3
Adding equations (3) and (4) gives 20x + 30 = 0 so 20x = –30 and x = – 2 .
Putting this value in (2) gives –9 + y + 8 = 0 so y = 1.
1 1
Checking in (1) gives LHS = – 2 – 2 + 1 = 0 = RHS.
Sometimes we can use these techniques in situations which at first sight don't look very
promising. Here is an example.
6 2 1
– = (1)
x y 2
4 3
– =0 (2)
x y
Our usual method is to get rid of fractions first. To do this, we would have to multiply
equation (1) by 2xy and equation (2) by xy. Then we would have:
12y – 4x = xy (3)
4y – 3x = 0 (4)
which looks rather unpleasant.
2.C Relating equations to graphs 59
But if we put
1 1
X= and Y =
x y
the original equations become
1
6X – 2Y = 2 (3)
4X – 3Y = 0 (4)
Then multiplying equation (3) by 2 and equation (4) by –3 gives
12X – 4Y = 1 (5)
–12X + 9Y = 0 (6)
1
Adding these two equations gives 5Y = 1 so Y = 5 and y = 5. Now (2) becomes
4 3 4 3 20
– =0 so = so 20 = 3x and x = .
x 5 x 5 3
18 2 1
Checking in (1) gives LHS = 20 – 5 = 2 = RHS.
exercise 2.c.1 Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
5a – 2b = 68 (1) 5p – 2q = 9 (1)
(1) (2)
3a + b = 10 (2) 2p + 5q = –8 (2)
x 5 3 4
–y=– (1) + =0 (1)
8 2 x y
(3) (4)
y 2 2
3x + = 13 (2) – =7 (2)
3 x y
2.D Quadratic equations and the graphs which show them
Because quadratic equations have many applications, I have emphasised the particular
aspects of them here which will help you later on. For this reason, I haven't started this
section with a self-test. You will be able to check through quite quickly to see what is here,
doing some of the exercises to be sure you understand. As usual, I am starting from scratch
just in case some of you do need this basic help.
2.D.(a) What do the graphs which show quadratic equations look like?
So far, we have only looked at graphs of straight lines. These all have equations of the form
y = mx + c where, as we have seen, m tells us the relative change in the y values for a given
change in the x values, and c tells us where the line cuts the y-axis.
What effect will it have if we include an x 2 term as well?
60 Graphs and equations
We will look at y = x 2 – x – 6 as a first example and we start by making a table of some
values below.
y = x2 – x – 6
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y 6 0 –4 –6 0
(Fill in the three missing ones yourself.)
You should have –6, –4 and 6.
If we plot these pairs of values we will get the graph I show in Figure 2.D.1.
Figure 2.D.1
Clearly, this is not a straight line. Because of the x 2, the y values no longer change evenly
in proportion to the x values.
If we join the points smoothly, we get a curve. (We can justify doing this because working
out intermediate values gives us more points which lie on the same curve.) This curve that
we get is called a parabola.
Factorising as we did in Section 1.B.(c), we can also say that
x 2 – x – 6 = (x – 3)(x + 2).
Now, if y = 0 then x 2 – x – 6 = (x – 3)(x + 2) = 0.
x 2 – x – 6 = 0 is an example of a quadratic equation.
We can see from the graph that y = 0 when x = 3 or x = –2. We also see that each of these
values for x makes one of the brackets (x – 3) and (x + 2) equal to zero.
If two numbers multiplied together give zero, then one of them must itself be zero. (There
is no other number which behaves like this; we saw in Section 1.E.(c) that there are infinitely
many pairs of numbers which multiply together to give the number 1, and the same is true
for any other number but zero. Zero drops any number it multiplies into a black hole of
zero.)
We now use this special property of zero to find solutions for quadratic equations like
2
x – x – 6 = 0 directly by algebra, without having to draw a graph.
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 61
For example, suppose we have the equation x 2 – x + 12 = 0.
Factorising, we get
x 2 – x + 12 = (x – 4)(x + 3) = 0.
Therefore, either x – 4 = 0 giving x = 4, or x + 3 = 0 giving x = –3.
!
Notice that the signs of the solutions for x are the opposite of the signs in the
corresponding brackets.
(If you need help with factorising, go back to Section 1.B.(c) in Chapter 1.)
exercise 2.d.1 Try solving these for yourself.
(1) x 2 + 9x + 14 = 0 (2) x 2 + 4x – 12 = 0 (3) x 2 – 11x + 18 = 0
2
(4) x – x – 20 = 0 (5) 2x 2 + 13x + 6 = 0 (6) 3x 2 – 7x – 6 = 0
Sometimes, with an equation involving x 2, it is easy to write down the answers without
factorising. For example, the equation x 2 = 16 can be solved simply by taking the square root
of both sides.
If x 2 = 16 then x = ±4. (The sign ± means 'plus or minus'.)
!
Don't forget the –4 which comes because (–4)2 = 16 as well as (+4)2. Notice,
too, that you only need the ± one side; putting it both sides will just give you
the same pair of answers twice over.
So that you can see that we get the same answers, I will also show you how to solve this
equation by factorising.
We would say x 2 – 16 = 0 so (x – 4)(x + 4) = 0 so x = ±4. This factorising is another
example of the difference of two squares.
Now I shall take the slightly more complicated equation of (x + 2)2 = 16 as a second
example.
Again, we square-root both sides. This gives us the following working:
(x + 2)2 = 16 so x + 2 = ±4 so x = 2 or x = –6.
This is quicker than the working needed for factorising which goes
(x + 2)2 = 16 so x 2 + 4x + 4 = 16 so x 2 + 4x – 12 = 0
so (x – 2)(x + 6) = 0 so x = 2 or x = –6.
exercise 2.d.2 Solve the following equations yourself.
16
(1) x 2 = 9 (2) x 2 = 25 (3) (x – 3)2 = 4
(4) (2x – 3)2 = 25 (5) (3x – 2)2 = 36
62 Graphs and equations
2.D.(b) The method of completing the square
There is another way of finding the solutions for quadratic equations which is called
completing the square. This method may seem clumsy at first, but it is worth persevering
with it because it has other very useful applications. In particular, we shall use it to handle
the equations of circles in Section 4.C.(d), Section 8.F.(a) and Section 10.E.(c). We shall
also use it in Section 9.B.(d) to help us with integration, and in Section 2.D.(d) to show
how we get the 'formula' for quadratic equations. Finally, we shall need it in the next
section to help us to sketch graphs, so altogether we see that it will be worth the effort
we put into it.
The following example shows how it works.
Suppose we have the equation x 2 + 6x – 16 = 0. Then either we can say
x 2 + 6x – 16 = (x + 8)(x – 2) = 0 so x = –8 or x = 2,
which is the method that we have been using so far, or we can rearrange the equation so that
it looks like the equation (x + 2)2 = 16 which we solved in the previous section.
We do this as follows. We have
x 2 + 6x – 16 = 0 so x 2 + 6x = 16.
Now we say that x 2 + 6x could have come from (x + 3)2 except that (x + 3)2 gives us an
extra term of 9 since (x + 3)2 = x 2 + 6x + 9.
So, taking account of this, we can replace x 2 + 6x by (x + 3)2 – 9. We have written
x 2 + 6x by completing a square and then taking off the extra +9 which this has given
us.
The equation now becomes
(x + 3)2 – 9 = 16 so (x + 3)2 = 25.
Square-rooting both sides, as we did in the last section, we have x + 3 = ±5 so x = 2 or
x = –8.
Here is a second example in which I have shown the working more briefly.
I will solve the equation x 2 – 2x – 3 = 0 by completing the square.
x 2 – 2x – 3 = 0 so x 2 – 2x = 3 but x 2 – 2x = (x – 1)2 – 1
Therefore we have
(x – 1)2 – 1 = 3 so (x – 1)2 = 4.
Square-rooting both sides gives us
x – 1 = ±2 so x = 3 or x = –1.
We see from this and the previous example that all we have to do to get the correct bracket
for completing the square is to halve the coefficient of x. In the first example, we halved 6
to get 3, and in the second we halved –2 to get –1.
We must also remember to take off the extra bit which we have added on by squaring the
bracket. These were 32 = 9 in the first example, and 12 = 1 in the second.
exercise 2.d.3 Now try solving these three quadratic equations yourself by completing the
square.
(1) x 2 + 4x = 21 (2) x 2 – 6x + 8 = 0 (3) x 2 – 3x – 10 = 0
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 63
2.D.(c) Sketching the curves which give quadratic equations
The method of completing the square gives us a neat way of sketching the curves connected
with quadratic equations. We shall now look at how this is done by taking y = x 2 – 2x – 3
as an example.
We can rewrite x 2 – 2x – 3 as
(x – 1)2 – 1 – 3 or (x – 1)2 – 4.
Using this rewritten form of y = (x – 1)2 – 4, what is the smallest possible value which y can
take, and what value of x makes this happen?
Since we can't get a negative result when we square a number, the smallest possible value
of (x – 1)2 is zero, and this happens when x = 1. So the smallest possible value of y is –4
and the lowest point on the curve of y = x 2 – 2x – 3 has the coordinates (1, –4).
As the values taken by x move further and further away either side from x = 1, the value
of y becomes increasingly large since the value of x 2 becomes increasingly large. (It very
soon swamps out the effect of the –2x – 3.) If you are unsure about this behaviour of y, test
it for yourself using your calculator by choosing pairs of values of x symmetrically placed
either side of x = 1. The further away you go, the larger the value of y becomes.
We can also use two other pieces of information to help us to draw the sketch of
y = x 2 – 2x – 3.
The first is the value of the y-intercept, that is, the place where the curve crosses the
y-axis. For this curve, this is (0, –3), since y = –3 when x = 0.
The second is the values of x for which y = 0. These are called the roots of the equation
y = 0. Here, putting
y = (x – 1)2 – 4 = 0
gives
(x – 1)2 = 4
so x – 1 = ±2 giving x = 3 or x = –1.
We can now draw a sketch of the parabola y = x 2 – 2x – 3 using all the information which
we have found above. I show this in Figure 2.D.2.
Figure 2.D.2
64 Graphs and equations
!
The roots are the values of x which are the solutions of the equation
x 2 – 2x – 3 = 0. It is very important to remember to write this as an
equation by including the '= 0'. The expression x 2 – 2x – 3 on its own can
have infinitely many values, some of which are shown by the y values in the
graph sketch of y = x 2 – 2x – 3 shown above.
Notice that all the important information is clearly labelled on the graph.
What will happen if we have to sketch a graph which starts off with –x 2?
For instance, what happens if we sketch y = –x 2 + 2x + 3 (the same as the one which we have
just done, but with all the signs changed? Try doing this for yourself before reading on.)
The whole curve is simply turned upside down, because each positive value for y is
changed to the corresponding negative value, and vice versa.
The roots of x = –1 and x = 3 are still the same, but now the highest point is given by
(1, +4), and the y-intercept is (0, 3).
If you weren't able to sketch it before reading this, sketch it on top of my graph of
y = x 2 – 2x – 3 now.
Whenever we have an equation for y which starts with a negative quantity of x 2, we will
get an upside-down or inverted U-shaped curve like this one. (The negative changes the
smiley parabola into a sad parabola.)
exercise 2.d.4 Try using the same techniques to sketch the following two pairs of graphs.
(1) (a) y = x 2 – 4x + 3 (b) y = –x 2 + 4x – 3
(2) (a) y = x 2 + 2x – 8 (b) y = –x 2 – 2x + 8
(The general rules for sketching curves like this are given at the end of Section
2.D.(f ) as they also involve results which come from the formula for solving
quadratic equations.)
2.D.(d) The 'formula' for quadratic equations
So far, all the quadratic equations we have looked at have turned out to have roots which are
either whole numbers or fractions. Surely this will not always be true? The square roots of
most numbers cannot be written as exact fractions or whole numbers. (In Section 1.E.(d) we
showed that 2 can't be written in this way.)
Also, how can we tell if the curve of a particular equation never actually crosses the
x-axis without drawing it?
It will be much easier for us to answer these questions if we can find a general rule for
solving quadratic equations. Then we shall be able to see exactly what makes particular
problems arise.
We start with ax 2 + bx + c = 0 with a, b and c standing for numbers and a ≠ 0.
We want to find a formula from this which will give us a rule for finding the possible
values of x if we know the values of the numbers a, b and c.
First, we divide through by a as it is easier then to complete the square. Then we have
b c b c
x2 + x+ =0 so x 2 + x=– .
a a a a
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 65
Now we complete the square, halving the coefficient of x, and taking off the square of this
amount just like we did in the numerical examples in Section 2.D.(b). This gives us
b 2 b 2 c b 2 b 2 c
x+ – =– so x+ = –
2a 2a a 2a 2a a
b 2 b2 c b 2 b 2 – 4ac
so x+ = – so x+ = .
2a 4a 2 a 2a 4a 2
Now, taking the square root of both sides, we get
b b 2 – 4ac ± b 2 – 4ac
x+ =± =
2a 4a 2 2a
b b 2 – 4ac
so x=– ± .
2a 2a
Finally, we get
–b ± b 2 – 4ac
x= .
2a
This is the so-called 'formula' for solving quadratic equations.
If you have seen this before, you may have realised that the right-hand side of the above
working was growing more and more familiar.
All we have to do to make use of it is to substitute the values of a, b and c from the
particular equation that we want to solve.
For example, to solve 2x 2 – 5x + 1 = 0 we put a = 2, b = –5 and c = 1. Then
+5 ± 25 – 4(2)(1) 5± 17
x= = = 2.28 or 0.22 to 2 d.p.
4 4
Because 17 is irrational, that is, it has no exact square root, it would not have been possible
to factorise this equation in any simple way.
Even equations which can be solved by factorising are often more easily dealt with by
using the formula, if the factorisation is at all difficult.
For example, the equation 12x 2 + 19x – 18 = 0 will factorise into brackets with whole
number coefficients. We know that this is possible from working out the value of 'b 2 – 4ac'.
Here b = 19, a = 12 and c = –18, so b 2 – 4ac = 1225 = (35)2. (The number 1225 is called
a perfect square because it has an exact square root.)
In fact, 12x 2 + 19x – 18 = (4x + 9) (3x – 2) but these brackets may not spring immediately
into your head. Substitution into the formula gives
–19 ± 35 9 2
x= =– or
24 4 3
just as we would obtain from the factorised form. So the equation 12x 2 + 19x – 18 = 0 has
9 2
the two roots or solutions of – 4 and 3.
66 Graphs and equations
exercise 2.d.5 Use the formula to solve the following quadratic equations. (If the answers are not
exact fractions, give them correct to 2 d.p.)
(1) x 2 + 10x + 16 = 0 (2) x 2 – 2x – 8 = 0 (3) 2x 2 + 5x – 3 = 0
2 2
(4) x + 4x + 2 = 0 (5) 3x – x – 2 = 0 (6) 2x 2 – x – 7 = 0
thinking
You should try this now as you will need your answers for the next section.
point
(a) For each equation which you have just solved, find what you get if you
add the two solutions or roots together. Can you connect this answer
with the a, b and c of the particular equation in any way?
(b) Now find what you get if you multiply each of the pairs of roots
together. Then again see if you can connect the results with the a, b and
c of the particular equation. If your answers aren't exact fractions or
whole numbers, you will find that the more decimal places you take, the
closer you will get to a nice result, because you will be lessening the
rounding errors.
(c) Now for the tricky bit. Can you see why you are getting these neat
results from adding and multiplying the pairs of roots even when the
roots themselves are not simple numbers? Try looking at how your
working went when you used the formula to get your two answers.
2.D.(e) Special properties of the roots of quadratic equations
This section is based on your answers to the thinking point at the end of the previous
section.
When you add the pairs of roots for each of the equations in Exercise 2.D.5, you should
find each time that you get the answer of –b/a for that equation.
1
For example, in question (3), the two roots are 2 and –3, and a = 2, b = 5 and c = –3.
1 1 5
Adding the roots gives 2 – 3 = –22 = – 2.
We can see exactly why this should be so by looking at the roots of the equation
2
ax + bx + c = 0. These are
–b + b 2 – 4ac –b – b 2 – 4ac
and .
2a 2a
Splitting each of them into two parts and adding them gives
–b b 2 – 4ac –b b 2 – 4ac –b –b b
+ + – = + =– .
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a a
The two complicated bits have cancelled out.
When you multiply the pairs of roots for each of the equations in Exercise 2.D.5, you
should find that you get the answer of +c/a for that equation. (For example, in question (3)
1 3
you get 2 –3 = – 2. The minus agrees with c being negative here.)
We can see why this happens if we multiply the two roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 together,
though it's a bit more complicated this time. We have
–b b 2 – 4ac –b b 2 – 4ac –b 2 b 2 – 4ac 2
+ – = – .
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 67
The two middle bits have cancelled out, because of the + and – signs. This is the difference
of two squares of Section 1.B.(b) again. Tidying up gives us
b2 (b 2 – 4ac) 4ac c
– = = .
4a 2 4a 2 4a 2 a
When we either add or multiply any pair of roots, we get rid of the square root of the number
b 2 – 4ac. We therefore also get rid of any complications which might arise from trying to
find this square root.
Two special properties of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Adding its two roots together gives –b/a.
This is called the sum of the roots.
Multiplying its two roots together gives c/a.
This is called the product of the roots.
We shall also get this same pair of results by following a different route in Section
2.D.(h).
exercise 2.d.6 This is an exercise of mixed questions on solving quadratic equations. If the
answers to any question are not exact, give them correct to three decimal places.
(1) Solve these in whatever way seems suitable.
(a) 2x 2 + 7x + 3 = 0 (b) 3x 2 + 4x + 1 = 0 (c) 2x 2 + x – 4 = 0
(d) 6x 2 – 7x + 2 = 0 (e) x 2 – 5x + 3 = 0 (f ) 6x 2 + 5x – 6 = 0
(g) x 2 – 81 = 0 (h) 6x 2 – x – 12 = 0 (i) x 2 – 2 = 0 (j) x 2 – 5x = 0
Check that the sum and product of the roots of each equation do fit the results
given in the box above.
(2) Solve the following equations.
2x – 3 x–1 2 1 3 2x + 4 x–8
(a) = (b) + = (c) =
2x + 3 x+1 y+1 y–1 y x+1 2x – 1
2.D.(f ) Getting useful information from 'b 2 – 4ac'
From the quadratic equations which we have solved and the work of the last section, we have
seen that it is having to find the square root of b 2 – 4ac which can make us sometimes get
complicated answers.
The b 2 – 4ac in the quadratic equation formula works as a kind of litmus paper or probe
to tell us what kind of roots any particular equation will have.
We look now at the different possibilities.
(1) If b 2 – 4ac is positive then the equation will have two distinct roots. Geometrically,
the curve of y = ax 2 + bx + c cuts the x-axis in two separate places.
If b 2 – 4ac has an exact square root, then the two roots will be either whole
numbers or fractions. This means that it must be possible to solve the equation by
factorising and so gives a good quick test for this.
68 Graphs and equations
(2) If b 2 – 4ac = 0 then the two roots will come together as one root. For example,
6 ± 36 – 36
if we have x 2 – 6x + 9 = 0 then x = = 3.
2
Also
x 2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 3)(x – 3) = (x – 3)2.
It is as though we have the root of 3 repeated twice. Geometrically, this is
because y = (x – 3)2 just touches the x-axis when x = 3. (See Figure 2.D.3.) The
usual two roots have met up together to make just one root.
Two roots One repeated root No roots
b 2 – 4ac > 0 b 2 – 4ac = 0 b 2 – 4ac < 0
Figure 2.D.3
We shall use this property geometrically in Section 4.C.(e).
(3) If b 2 – 4ac is negative, we cannot find a square root for it. The curve of the equation
does not cut the x-axis at all. It is either completely above or completely below it so
there are no values of x on the x-axis which fit the equation y = ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
For some purposes, this lack of roots is not very satisfactory, and we cleverly
get round it in Chapter 10 by inventing a new sort of number.
A summary of everything that we now know which will help us to sketch
curves of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c
If a is positive, the curve is U-shaped.
If a is negative, the curve is an upside-down U.
The value of c tells us the y-intercept.
The curve crosses the y-axis at (0,c).
We can factorise (or use the formula) to find whether and where the curve cuts
the x-axis.
If b 2 – 4ac is negative, the curve does not cut the x-axis at all.
We can complete the square to find where the least value of the curve is (or the
greatest value, if it is an inverted U-shape). We shall see in Section 8.E.(b) that
this can also be found by using calculus.
If the curve does cut the x-axis, substituting the midway value of x between
the cuts into the equation for y gives the least value of y (or the greatest value
of y if the curve has an inverted U-shape).
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 69
exercise 2.d.7 Each of the six sketches shown below in Figure 2.D.4 comes from one of the ten
curves whose equations are given. Fit each sketch to its correct equation, and then
draw your own sketches for the four equations which are left over.
(1) y = x 2 + 6x + 5 (2) y = x 2 – 6x + 5 (3) y = x 2 (4) y = –x 2
(5) y = x 2 – 4x + 4 (6) y = 4x – x 2 – 4 (7) y = x 2 – 8x + 16
2 2
(8) y = x + 1 (9) y = x – 3x – 4 (10) y = 3x + 4 – x 2
Figure 2.D.4
2.D.(g) A practical example of using quadratic equations
1
s = ut – 2 gt 2 is a formula which gives the distance s in metres travelled by a ball from the
thrower's hands if it is thrown upwards with an initial velocity of u m s–1 (metres per second),
after a time of t seconds. g is the acceleration due to gravity and is 9.8 m s–2 (metres per
second per second) to 1 d.p.
We shall now use this formula to answer the following questions.
(1) If a rubber ball is thrown upwards at 14 m s–1, how high has it gone after 1 second?
(2) How long does it take for the ball to reach a height of (a) 5 m, (b) 10 m, (c) 15 m
from the thrower's hands?
(3) Using the information you have now found, draw a sketch showing the relation
between s and t.
(4) How long does the ball take to fall back into the thrower's hands, which we will
assume are ready and waiting?
(5) Where is the ball after 2.9 seconds?
1
(1) Using s = ut – 2 gt 2, we have u = 14, t = 1 and g = 9.8 so s = 14 – (9.8/2) = 9.1;
the ball has reached a height of 9.1 metres after 1 second.
(2) (a) Putting s = 5, we have 5 = 14t – (9.8/2)t 2 so 4.9t 2 – 14t + 5 = 0. Solving this
using the formula for quadratic equations gives
14 ± 196 – 98 14 ± 98
t= =
9.8 9.8
which gives t = either 2.4 or 0.4 to 1 d.p.
70 Graphs and equations
(b) Putting s = 10 gives 10 = 14t – 4.9t 2 so 4.9t 2 – 14t + 10 = 0.
Again using the formula, we get
14 ± 196 – 196
t= = 1.4 to 1 d.p. or 1.43 to 2 d.p.
9.8
(c) Putting s = 15 gives 15 = 14t – 4.9t 2 so 4.9t 2 – 14t + 15 = 0.
Using the formula gives
14 ± 196 – 294 14 ± –98
t= = .
9.8 9.8
Because we have a negative square root here, it is impossible to find any value
of t on the horizontal t axis which fits this equation.
What is the physical meaning of the three answers we have found for question (2)?
Why are there two possible times to reach a height of 5 metres?
Why is there just one time to reach a height of 10 metres?
Why couldn't we find a time to reach a height of 15 metres?
Try answering each of these questions yourself.
The ball reaches a height of 5 metres from the thrower's hands both on the way up and
on the way down, so there are two possible answers for the time.
The single answer for the time taken to reach 10 metres means that this was the highest
point the ball reached. So it never reached a height of 15 metres and it was impossible to find
a time for this.
The mathematics of the quadratic equations has exactly corresponded back to the
physical situation.
(3) With this information we can now draw a sketch of the relation between s and t.
I show this below in Figure 2.D.5.
Figure 2.D.5
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 71
Notice that the graph sketch shows the height of the ball after time t. The little
sketch at the side shows the actual path of the ball which is straight up and then
straight back down.
(4) Because the curves giving quadratic equations are symmetrical, if we know that the
time taken for the ball to reach its highest point is 1.4 seconds, then the time taken
for it to fall back into the thrower's hands will be 2.8 seconds.
(5) Clearly, from the sketch, after 2.9 seconds the ball should have been safely caught.
1
If we put t = 2.9 in s = ut – 2 gt 2, we get s = –0.6 to 1 d.p. This describes what has
happened to the ball if the thrower completely misses it and it just carries on
downwards. It will be 0.6 metres below the thrower's hands after 2.9 seconds.
Now see if you can answer this question.
1
What is the meaning of the quadratic equation 0 = ut – 2 gt 2?
Solving this equation tells us when the ball is in the thrower's hands, that is, when s = 0.
Factorising, we have
1 1
0 = ut – 2 gt 2 = t(u – 2 gt)
1
so either t = 0 (the ball is just about to be thrown up) or u – 2 gt = 0 so t = 2 u/g which is
the time taken for the ball to return to the thrower's hands. When u = 14, t = 2.86 = 2 1.43
seconds. Strictly speaking, the time of 2.8 seconds is an underestimate.
The above working has ignored air resistance. It describes the motion of a rubber ball
quite well but would be of no use to describe the motion of a feather. We are using the
1
formula s = ut – 2 gt 2 as a mathematical model we can work with and which approximates
quite well to the actual physical situation.
1
thinking
If the ball is thrown up at 14 m s–1 we know that s = 14t – 2 gt 2.
point Therefore we know the ball's height at any time during the throw.
Surely, if we know this, we ought to be able to find out how fast it is
moving at any particular time?
See if you can answer these questions.
(1) When does the ball move fastest?
(2) When does it move slowest?
(3) Can you estimate how fast it is going one second after it has been
thrown up?
(These questions will be answered in Section 8.A.(a) later on but it would be
very good for you to think about the possibilities yourself here.)
2.D.(h) All equations are equal – but are some more equal than others?
In the last section, we looked at some of the physical meanings which equations can hold.
We will end this chapter by spending some time examining the equations themselves.
Do equations always work in the same kind of way, so that by solving them we find some
specific answers which fit these particular circumstances?
72 Graphs and equations
Or, if not, what else can happen?
The following examples all look straightforward at first sight, but try solving each of
them yourself. Things are not always quite as they seem.
(1) x 2 + 5x + 6 = x 2 + x – 2 (2) x 2 – x – 6 = x 2 + 3x – 4
(3) 2x 2 – 8x + 8 = x 2 – 4x + 5 (4) x 2 – 6x + 8 = (x – 2) (x – 4).
It will help you to see what is happening if you also sketch the graph of each side of each
equation. Then you can see whether, and if so where, these graphs cross.
You should try doing this for yourself before looking at my solutions.
(1) x 2 + 5x + 6 = x 2 + x – 2 so 4x = –8 and x = –2.
To show this single solution graphically, we sketch, using the same axes,
(a) y = x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3)(x + 2) and (b) y = x 2 + x – 2 = (x + 2)(x – 1).
The sketch in Figure 2.D.6 shows that y = 0 for both (a) and (b) when x = –2.
Figure 2.D.6
1
(2) x 2 – x – 6 = x 2 + 3x – 4 so –2 = 4x and x = – 2.
The sketch in Figure 2.D.7 of (a) y = x 2 – x – 6 = (x – 3) (x + 2) and
(b) y = x 2 + 3x – 4 = (x – 1) (x + 4) shows that there is the single solution of
1
x = – 2 which gives equal y values for both (a) and (b).
Figure 2.D.7
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 73
(3) 2x 2 – 8x + 8 = x 2 – 4x + 5 so x 2 – 4x + 3 = 0 so (x – 3)(x – 1) = 0 and x = 3 or x = 1.
The sketch in Figure 2.D.8 of (a) y = 2x 2 – 8x + 8 = 2(x 2 – 4x + 4) = 2(x – 2)2 and
(b) y = x 2 – 4x + 5 = (x – 2)2 – 4 + 5 = (x – 2)2 + 1 shows the two possible values of x
which make the y values of (a) and (b) the same. These are x = 1 and x = 3.
Figure 2.D.8
(4) x 2 – 6x + 8 = (x – 2)(x – 4)
Multiplying out the right-hand side gives exactly the same expression as the left-
hand side. Therefore, any value of x is a possible solution since it will make each
side of (4) have the same value. The two graphs lie on top of each other – they are
the same graph. I show this in Figure 2.D.9.
Figure 2.D.9
What we have here is not an ordinary equation but just two different ways of writing the
same piece of information. The two sides are identically equal to each other (rather like
identical twins). We call an equation like this an identity.
Just like identical twins, the two sides are equal in every detail, so there are the same
number of x 2 terms on both sides of the '=' sign, and the same number of xs. The number
terms on each side are also equal. This is the only way that the two sides can remain equal
to each other for all possible values of x.
Remembering that the number which tells you how many you have of x 2, say, is called
its coefficient, we see that comparing the coefficients will give us three equal pairs of
values.
74 Graphs and equations
If two expressions are identically equal to each other, the coefficients of each separate
power of x on each side of the '=' sign must be the same as each other.
This rule gives us a very neat method of finding out how to write expressions in different
ways. We'll use it in the next section to factorise expressions which involve terms with x 3,
and then later on in Section 10.D.(c) to find complex roots of equations. Also, we'll see in
Section 6.E.(d) that it will make finding some kinds of partial fraction much easier.
I'll now finish this section by showing you how to use this rule to find the special
properties of the sum and product of the roots of quadratic equations. We have already found
these properties in Section 2.D.(e) by working directly from the roots themselves, but this
new method will avoid the tricky algebra which we had to use there.
Suppose that the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has the two solutions x = α and x = β so that
its two roots are α and β. (α and β are the Greek letters for a and b and are called alpha and
beta. They are very often used to stand for the roots of quadratic equations.)
We start by dividing both sides of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 by a. This gives us
b c
x2 + x+ = 0.
a a
(We do this division because it will simplify the working which follows.)
Now, (x – α) (x – β) = 0 is just another way of writing
x 2 + (b/a)x + c/a = 0.
Also,
(x – α) (x – β) = x 2 – αx – βx + αβ = x 2 – (α + β) x + αβ
so y = x 2 – (α + β) x + αβ gives exactly the same curve as y = x 2 + (b/a)x + c/a.
(The earlier division by a means that we now have two curves which are identical for
every value of x. You can see exactly how this works if you take the numerical example of
2x 2 – 6x + 4 = x 2 – 3x + 2 = 0 which has the two roots x = 1 and x = 2.)
We already have matching terms of x 2 on both sides.
Comparing the coefficients of x (which must also be equal), we have
b b
–(α + β) = so α+β=– .
a a
Also, comparing the two number terms, we have αβ = c/a.
This gives us the following two rules.
If we have the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
then the sum of its roots = – b/a and the product of its roots = c/a.
A note on writing identities
The special form of equality called an identity in maths, where the two sides of the
expression remain equal for all possible values of x, is sometimes written using the triple
equals sign ' '. You can think of the sign ' ' as meaning 'is the same as' or 'is equivalent
to'. Mathematicians often speak of the two sides as being identically equal to each other.
2.D Quadratic equations and their graphs 75
2.E Further equations – the Remainder and Factor Theorems
2.E.(a) Cubic expressions and equations
How could we set about solving an equation like 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = 0?
This is called a cubic equation since the highest power of x is x 3. There isn't a very simple
formula for solving cubic equations, so we see if we can successfully guess one answer to
start us off. (The following method will only work for equations which have exact solutions
which are also not too hard to guess; if this is not the case, other methods involving closer
and closer approximations to the true solutions would have to be used.)
Here, if we try putting x = 1, we get 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = 2 – 5 – 6 + 9 = 0, so we
immediately have one solution of our equation.
It will make the working much shorter and easier to follow if we now introduce a
shorthand way of describing 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9. We will call it f(x), with the name f(x)
meaning this particular collection of terms whose value changes as x changes.
This gives us a neat way of showing particular values of f(x) associated with their
corresponding values of x.
For example, if x = 2 we have f(2) = 2(23 ) – 5(22 ) – 6(2) + 9 = –7 so f(2) = – 7.
(In fact, f(x) is what is called a function of x. In Section 3.B, we shall look at what
functions are in more detail.)
We can now say that f(x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 and we know that f(1) = 0.
Since x = 1 is a solution or root of this equation, it seems reasonable to think that (x – 1)
must be a factor of f(x), just as we found with quadratic equations.
(We will show that it is all right to say this in Section 2.E.(c).)
If (x – 1) is a factor, we can say that
f(x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 1) (something).
Since the right-hand side is just another way of writing the left-hand side, the two sides must
be exactly the same as each other. Therefore we must have the same matching quantities of
x 3, x 2, x and numbers on both sides. This means that it is easy to match up the two end terms
in the right-hand bracket. It is just the middle one which will take a bit more thought. We
can say
2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 1)(2x 2 + px – 9)
where p is standing for the number which we haven't found yet.
Now, matching the terms in x 2, we have –5x 2 = –2x 2 + px 2, picking out the ways in which
we can get x 2 on the right-hand side.
Therefore, –5 = –2 + p so p = –3.
We can check that this is correct by matching the terms in x.
Doing this gives us –6x = –px – 9x which does indeed work for p = –3.
So now we can say 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 1)(2x 2 – 3x – 9).
What we have here is an example of an identity, like the ones which we described in
Section 2.D.(h) where we also matched up terms in this way.
We can find the other two solutions or roots of the equation f(x) = 0 by solving
2x 2 – 3x – 9 = 0. Factorising,
2x 2 – 3x – 9 = (2x + 3)(x – 3) = 0
3
so x=3 or – 2.
The three solutions or roots of f(x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 = 0 are therefore given by x = 1,
3
x = 3 and x = – 2.
76 Graphs and equations
What will the graph of y = f(x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 look like?
3
We know that it must cut the x-axis three times, at x = 1, x = 3 and x = – 2.
It also seems reasonable to say that, if we find enough values of y from feeding in values
for x into f(x), the graph would be able to be drawn in one continuous line.
If we put x = 0, we get f(x) = 9, so we know that the curve cuts the y-axis at the point (0,9).
If x is large and positive, which has the most powerful effect: the 2x 3 or the –5x 2? Try
putting x = 2, x = 10 and x = 100. You will see that, as x gets larger, the 2x 3 term swamps
out the –5x 2 term. So y will also become large and positive.
In just the same way, if x is large and negative, 2x 3 will also be large and negative, and
so y also is large and negative.
We now know enough to make a sketch of the graph of f(x) and I show this below in
Figure. 2.E.1.
Figure 2.E.1 f (x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9
This is the best that we can do at the moment. With straight lines, we could also use the
steepness or gradient to help us with the graph sketch. With quadratic graphs, we were able
to complete the square to find the least (or greatest) value of the graph. You might perhaps
feel that, since we can find the value of y for any value of x here, surely we ought to be able
3
to find out a bit more about the size of the greatest value coming between x = – 2 and x =
1, and the least value coming between x = 1 and x = 3. We can't discover these values yet,
except approximately by trying lots of values of x, but we shall find out how it is possible
to do it in Section 8.E.(b).
example (1) We will now solve the equation f(x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 – 12x – 8 and use the
roots to sketch the graph of y = f(x).
(f(x) is now referring to the new collection of terms of
3
3x + 2x 2 – 12x – 8. We could also have used some other letter, calling
it, say, g(x) or h(x) if we had wished.)
First, we hope to find a root of f(x) = 0. Can you find one?
This time, if we try x = 1, we get f(1) = 3 + 2 – 12 – 8 ≠ 0 so x = 1
is not a solution of f(x) = 0.
Putting x = 2 gives f(2) = 3 8 + 2 4 – 12 2 – 8 = 0 so x = 2
is a root. This means that (x – 2) is a factor of f(x). We can now say
f(x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 – 12x – 8 = (x – 2)(3x 2 + px + 4)
matching up the two end terms in the right-hand bracket and letting p
stand for the number which we still have to find.
Matching up the terms in x 2, we have 2x 2 = –6x 2 + px 2 so p = 8.
2.E The Remainder and Factor Theorems 77
Checking with the terms in x, we have –12x = –2px + 4x so p = 8 is
correct.
(It is also possible to find the second bracket here of (3x 2 + 8x + 4)
by long division of (x – 2) into 3x 3 + 2x 2 – 12x – 8, but I think the
method above is easier. I shall show you how to do long division in
algebra in the next section.)
We now have
f(x) = (x – 2)(3x 2 + 8x + 4) = (x – 2)(3x + 2)(x + 2)
factorising the second bracket, and the equation f(x) = 0 has the three
2
solutions or roots: x = 2 or x = – 3 or x = –2.
We will now use these three roots to help us to sketch the graph of
y = f(x).
Putting x = 0 gives us f(0) = –8, so the curve of y = f(x) cuts the
y-axis at the point (0, –8).
f(x) will behave in a similar way to the first example when x takes
very large positive or negative values, so we now use all the information
we have to draw the sketch in Figure 2.E.2.
Figure 2.E.2 f(x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 – 12x – 8
exercise 2.e.1 For each of the following, first find the roots of f(x) = 0 and then use these to
help you to sketch the graphs of y = f(x) in each case. For each graph, you will
also need to find out where it cuts the y-axis, and how f(x) behaves when x takes
either very large positive values or very large negative values.
(1) y = f(x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 – 3x – 2 (2) y = f(x) = 2 + 3x – 3x 2 – 2x 3
(3) y = f(x) = 4x 3 – 15x 2 + 12x + 4 (4) y = f(x) = x 3 – 3x 2 + 3x – 1
We could use exactly the same method to solve equations which start with a term in x 4.
The only problem is that it depends upon being able to guess some roots correctly to start
with. Often, none of the roots of f(x) = 0 will be simple whole numbers, and indeed they may
not even be real numbers, as we have already found with some quadratic equations. If this
happens, the graph sketches will no longer look like the ones we have drawn, though in the
case of a cubic graph it will have to cross the x-axis at least once, because the y values must
go from large negative to large positive or vice versa, and the graph itself is a continuous
line. So a cubic equation will always have at least one real root (that is, a root which can be
found on the x-axis).
Also, once we have got beyond quadratic equations, general formulas for finding the
roots are either far more complicated or do not exist at all. It is, however, possible to use
numerical methods for solving such equations by approximating to the roots with any
desired degree of accuracy.
78 Graphs and equations
2.E.(b) Doing long division in algebra
Usually long division in algebra can be avoided (as we did in the last section when we used
the method of matching up the terms on the two sides for factorising), but sometimes this
isn't possible, so we will now look at how this process works.
2x 3 + 9x 2 – 3x – 20
We will take as a first example
x+3
We will have:
Figure 2.E.3
The working for the division is set out as I have shown in Figure 2.E.3.
x + 3 is called the divisor and 2x 3 + 9x 2 – 3x – 20 is called the dividend.
The process consists of the following.
Divide the highest power by the highest power in the divisor.
Here, divide 2x 3 by x, which gives us 2x 2.
Multiply the divisor by this quantity.
Here, we multiply x + 3 by 2x 2 to get 2x 3 + 6x 2.
Subtract. This gives us the mismatch at each stage.
Here, we get 3x 2.
Bring down the next term in the quantity being divided to the working level.
Here, we now get 3x 2 – 3x.
Repeat the process until the highest power of x in the divisor is greater than the
highest power of x it would be divided into.
What is then left is called the remainder, and the result of the division is called the
quotient.
Here we have the result
2x 3 + 9x 2 – 3x – 20 16
= 2x 2 + 3x – 12 + .
x+3 x+3
The quotient is 2x 2 + 3x – 12 and the remainder is +16.
Compare this with the numerical example
187 7
= 12 + .
15 15
We see that 15 goes 12 times into 187 with a remainder of 7.
2.E The Remainder and Factor Theorems 79
Here is another example of long division, this time with no remainder.
If (x – 3) is a factor of 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6 then it must divide into it exactly, (just as 3
is a factor of 12 and divides into it exactly four times).
We will now prove that (x – 3) is a factor of 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6 by using long division.
The working is shown in Figure 2.E.4.
Figure 2.E.4
In practice, it is almost always possible to avoid long division if you do not take kindly
to it; we managed to do this when we were doing the factorising earlier, and there are other
ingenious methods which can be used, which I will show you as you need them.
2.E.(c) Avoiding long division – the Remainder and Factor Theorems
In Section 2.E.(a), we found that if f(x) = 2x 3 – 5x 2 – 6x + 9 then f(1) = 0.
It is certainly true that if (x – 1) is a factor of f(x) then putting x = 1 will make f(x) = 0.
We assumed in that section that this would work the other way round too, so that if f(1) = 0
then (x – 1) must be a factor of f(x). We shall now prove that this assumption was justified,
and we shall also find a very neat way of finding the remainder from doing an algebra long
division without actually having to do this rather tedious process.
We prove these useful results as follows:
Suppose we have some general cubic equation f(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d, and we divide
it by (x – k). (Here, a, b, c, d and k are all standing for whatever particular numbers we might
have.) We will get
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d R
= q(x) + (1)
(x – k) (x – k)
where q(x) corresponds to the 2x 2 + 3x – 12 of the first example in the last section, and R
corresponds to the remainder of +16.
Now we multiply all through by (x – k). This gives us
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = (x – k)q(x) + R.
We can compare this with an arithmetical example.
79 4
=5+ so 79 = 5 15 + 4.
15 15
15 goes 5 times into 79 with a remainder of 4. In other words, 79 is made up of 5 lots of
15 with an extra 4 added on.
80 Graphs and equations
Here, ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d is made up of (x – k) lots of q(x) with an extra R added on.
Since we have f(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = (x – k) q(x) + R, putting x = k gives us
f(k) = ak 3 + bk 2 + ck + d = (k – k) q (k) + R, that is, f(k) = R.
From this, if f(k) = 0 then R = 0 also, which means that (x – k) divides into f(x) exactly.
It is a factor of f(x).
We now have the following pair of results.
If we have f(x) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
then dividing f(x) by (x – k) gives a remainder of f(k).
This is the Remainder Theorem for cubics.
If f(k) = 0, then (x – k) is a factor of f(x).
This is the Factor Theorem for cubics.
We now see how we can use these results by looking at the two long division examples
from the previous section.
In the first example, we divided f(x) = 2x 3 + 9x 2 – 3x – 20 by (x + 3). To find the
remainder, we no longer need to do this division. All we have to do is to work out
f(–3) = 2(–3)3 + 9(–3)2 – 3(–3) – 20 = –54 + 81 + 9 – 20 = 16 which agrees with the answer
that we found there.
!
Notice the switch in sign from x + 3 to f(– 3).
This is because x + 3 = x – (–3) which corresponds to the x – k.
If we only need to know the remainder from a long division, we can now find this just by
working out f(k).
In the second example, putting x = 3 in f(x) = 2x 3 – 9x 2 + 7x + 6 gives us
f(3) = 54 – 81 + 21 + 6 = 0 so therefore (x – 3) must be a factor of f(x).
Again, we don't need to do the long division to prove this.
Although we have taken the special case of f(x) being a cubic expression, the argument
would have worked in exactly the same way for higher whole number powers of x, so these
two theorems are true for any such expression.
2.E.(d) Three examples of using these theorems, and a red herring
example (1) Find the remainder when f(x) = 3x 3 – 4x 2 + 5x – 2 is divided by (x – 2).
We simply find f(2). This is 3(8) – 4(4) + 5(2) – 2 = 16 so the remainder is
16 and we have not had to do the actual division to find this out.
example (2) Given that (x – 4) is a factor of f(x) = 6x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 8 and that the
remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 1) is – 15, find a and b and the
other two factors.
We have
f(x) = 6x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 8.
2.E The Remainder and Factor Theorems 81
We are told that (x – 4) is a factor, therefore f(4) = 0. So
f(4) = 384 + 16a + 4b + 8 = 0 and 4a + b = –98. (1)
The remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 1) is – 15. So
f(–1) = – 15. We have
f(– 1) = –6 + a – b + 8 = – 15 so a – b = – 17. (2)
Adding equations (1) and (2) gives 5a = –115 so a = –23.
Substituting in (1) gives –92 + b = –98 so b = –6.
Check in (2): LHS = –23 – (–6) = –17 = RHS.
Now we have
f(x) = 6x 3 – 23x 2 – 6x + 8 = (x – 4)(something).
Comparing the two sides, the first term in the second bracket must be
6x 2. The last term of the second bracket must be –2. Let the middle
term be px. Then we have
6x 3 – 23x 2 –6x + 8 = (x – 4)(6x 2 + px – 2).
Matching the terms in x 2 gives
–23x 2 = –24x 2 + px 2 so p = 1.
Checking with the term in x we have –6x = –4px – 2x so again we have
p = 1. So we have
f(x) = (x – 4)(6x 2 + x – 2) = (x – 4) (2x – 1)(3x + 2)
factorising the second bracket.
The other two factors are (2x – 1) and (3x + 2).
example (3) This example is just sufficiently different that you might find it a little
difficult.
Suppose you have been asked to show that x 2 – 4 is a factor of
3x 3 + 4x 2 – 12x – 16. Can you see that you have actually been asked
about two factors? What are they?
We can use the difference of two squares to say x 2 – 4 = (x – 2)(x + 2).
Now, f(2) = 24 + 16 – 24 – 16 = 0 so (x – 2) is a factor.
f(–2) = – 24 + 16 + 24 – 16 = 0 so (x + 2) is a factor also.
If two factors are multiplied together, then the resulting expression is
also a factor.
example (4) (This is the red herring.) Solve the equation 4x 4 – 37x 2 + 9 = 0.
It is possible to solve this equation by finding two solutions by
guessing, but they are quite hard to find, and there is a much neater and
quicker way of finding the answers.
This is because what we have been asked to solve is really a heavily
disguised quadratic equation.
82 Graphs and equations
If we put y = x 2, the equation becomes 4y 2 – 37y + 9 = 0.
1
Factorising, we get (y – 9) (4y – 1) = 0 so y = 9 or y = 4. (If you
couldn't spot these factors, you could have used the quadratic equation
formula to find y.)
1
Replacing y by x 2, we get x 2 = 9 or x 2 = 4.
1
This gives us the four solutions of x = ±3 or x = ± 2.
exercise 2.e.2 Try these questions for yourself now.
(1) Show that (x – 2) is a factor of x 3 + 2x 2 – 5x – 6, and find the other two.
(2) Show that (x – 3) is a factor of 2x 3 – 3x 2 – 8x – 3, and find the other two.
(3) Factorise completely the expression f(x) = 3x 3 + x 2 – 12x – 4, and hence solve
the equation f(x) = 0.
(4) Factorise completely the expression f(x) = 2x 3 + 7x 2 + 2x – 3, and hence solve
the equation f(x) = 0.
(5) Solve the equation f(x) = x 4 – 29x 2 + 100 = 0.
(6) Given that (x – 3) is a factor of f(x) = 5x 3 + ax 2 + bx – 6, and that the
remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 2) is –40, find a and b, and the other
two factors.
(7) Show by using long division that (3x – 2) is a factor of 12x 3 + 4x 2 – 17x + 6.
Show also that this is true by using the Factor Theorem.
(8) Using long division, find the remainder when 6x 3 + 5x 2 – 8x + 1 is divided by
(2x – 1). Check that your answer is correct by using the Remainder Theorem.
2.E The Remainder and Factor Theorems 83
3 Relations and functions
We now build on the work of the previous two chapters to introduce functions.
These are very important in scientific and engineering applications, and this chapter
helps you to understand how they work.
It is split up into the following sections.
3.A Two special kinds of relationship
(a) Direct proportion, (b) Some physical examples of direct proportion,
(c) More exotic examples,
(d) Partial direct proportion – lines not through the origin,
(e) Inverse proportion, (f ) Some examples of mixed variation
3.B An introduction to functions
(a) What are functions? Some relationships examined,
(b) y = f (x) – a useful new shorthand, (c) When is a relationship a function?
(d) Stretching and shifting – new functions from old,
(e) Two practical examples of shifting and stretching,
(f ) Finding functions of functions,
(g) Can we go back the other way? Inverse functions,
(h) Finding inverses of more complicated functions,
(i) Sketching the particular case of f (x) = (x + 3)/(x – 2), and its inverse,
(j) Odd and even functions
3.C Exponential and log functions
(a) Exponential functions – describing population growth,
(b) The inverse of a growth function: log functions,
(c) Finding the logs of some particular numbers, (d) The three laws or rules for logs,
(e) What are 'e' and 'exp'? A brief introduction,
(f ) Negative exponential functions – describing population decay
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms
(a) Relationships of the form y = ax n, (b) Relationships of the form y = an x,
(c) What can we do if logs are no help?
3.A Two special kinds of relationship
We start this chapter with some more practical examples of the use of equations. Many
physical laws can be described by the two particular sorts of relation which we shall consider
next.
3.A.(a) Direct proportion
This describes a situation in which two quantities are related together so that as one gets
bigger the other does also, in the same proportion. If the first quantity is doubled then the
second quantity will be doubled also. We could take as an example the number of identical
objects bought and the price paid.
84 Relations and functions
The relationship between the number pairs making up the coordinates of the points on the
straight line shown in Figure 3.A.1 also fits this description because it passes through the
origin.
Fill in the blanks for the points C, D and E yourself.
Figure 3.A.1
You should have C is (6,3), D is (8,4) and E is (12,6).
Each fraction y/x gives the gradient of the line because all of them give the relative
change of y with respect to x measured from the origin. We have
1 2 3 4 6 y
= = = = = = the gradient, m.
2 4 6 8 12 x
1
For any two general pairs (x1 ,y1 ) and (x2 ,y2 ), we have y1 /x1 = y2 /x2 = 2. We know from
1 1
Section 2.B.(f) that the equation of the line through these points is given by y = 2 x. The 2 is
called the constant of proportionality and tells us the relation between this particular set of
ys and xs.
If two quantities x and y vary directly then we can write
x y or x = ky where k is a constant.
The symbol means 'is proportional to'.
3.A.(b) Some physical examples of direct proportion
Here are some examples of physical quantities which are related in this way.
,
example (1) Charles' Law of gases. This states that the volume, V of a certain mass
of gas is directly proportional to its temperature, T, measured from
absolute zero, which is –273 °C. Therefore we can say
V1 V2
V T or = etc. or V = kT.
T1 T2
where k is the constant of proportionality. The numerical value of k will
depend upon the units in which we measure V and T.
3.A Two special kinds of relationship 85
,
example (2) The volume, V of a cylinder of a given cross-section is directly
proportional to its height, h. (This is shown with two such cylinders in
Figure 3.A.2.)
Figure 3.A.2
We can say V h or V1 /h1 = V2 /h2 or V = kh.
Can you see what k will be this time?
The formula for the volume of a cylinder is V = πa 2h, so k = πa 2.
example (3) For simple tension or compression (so no bending is involved), stress, σ,
is directly proportional to strain, ε.
We can say σ ε or σ1 /ε1 = σ2 /ε2 or σ = Eε where E is
the constant of proportionality.
A possible (rather simplified) situation is shown in Figure 3.A.3(a).
Figure 3.A.3
Figure 3.A.3(b) shows the cross-section of a typical test specimen with a pre-determined
gauge length to perform the test on, and large end pieces to enable them to be clamped
firmly.
The strain is the fractional change in length, and the stress is the stretching force per unit
cross-sectional area. ∆L stands for the change in the original length, L. (The symbol '∆' is
often used to mean 'the change in'.)
86 Relations and functions
So we have
∆L F ∆L
ε= and σ= and therefore F/A = E .
L A L
E, the constant of proportionality, is called Young's Modulus of elasticity and is a physical
property of the particular material concerned.
Physically, the relationship will only be one of direct proportion, and so represented by
a straight line through the origin, up to a certain critical point which will depend upon the
properties of the material concerned. When the strain is increased beyond this critical value,
deformation takes place and the material behaves differently. The mathematical model of
direct proportion only works over a limited physical range.
3.A.(c) More exotic examples
example (1) The kinetic energy, E, of an object of mass M moving at a speed of v is
1
given by the relation E = 2 Mv 2. (Notice that we have used the symbol E to
mean different things in this example and the last one. This is because
engineers and physicists do commonly use this same letter with these two
different meanings. It is very important in any practical application to
make sure that you know what the different symbols represent.)
For two objects moving at the same speed, v, the kinetic energies will
be directly proportional to the masses of the objects. For example, a
lorry of mass 6 tonnes moving at a speed of 10 m s–1 has six times the
kinetic energy of a car of mass 1 tonne, also moving at 10 m s–1.
But how does the kinetic energy of the car compare when it is
moving at a speed of 10 m s–1 to when it is moving at a speed of
30 m s–1?
The speed is now three times greater but the kinetic energy is
proportional to the square of the speed. Therefore the kinetic energy is
nine times greater.
1
Here, E = kv 2 with this particular k being 2 since the mass of the car
is one tonne.
example (2) The area of a circle, A, of radius r is given by A = πr 2.
What is A directly proportional to?
What is the constant of proportionality?
A is directly proportional to r 2, and the constant of proportionality is π.
The table below shows possible values for A, r and r 2.
A 0 π 4π 9π 16π 25π
r 0 1 2 3 4 5
r2 0 1 4 9 16 25
Figure 3.A.4(a) shows a sketch of the graph of A against r, and Figure 3.A.4(b) shows a
sketch of the graph of A against r 2.
3.A Two special kinds of relationship 87
Figure 3.A.4
From these you will see that plotting A against r gives a graph of the same form as y = x 2,
but plotting A against r 2 gives a straight line through the origin of gradient π.
4
example (3) The volume, V of a sphere of radius r is given by V =
, 3 πr 3.
What is V directly proportional to?
What is the constant of proportionality?
4
V is directly proportional to r 3 and the constant of proportionality is 3 π.
example (4) In Section 2.A.(d), we used the formula T = 2π l/g for the period, T, of a
simple pendulum of length l. (g stands for the acceleration due to gravity.)
What is T directly proportional to here?
What is the constant of proportionality?
T is directly proportional to l, the square root of the length, so T = k l.
The constant of proportionality is 2π/ g. (This is assuming that the
acceleration due to gravity can be taken to be constant when we are
making our measurements.) A graph of T against l will give a straight
line through the origin with gradient 2π/ g.
exercise 3.a.1 Try answering these questions yourself. Each question is an example of a
relationship involving direct proportion, and you are asked to compare pairs of
physical measurements.
(1) Compare the volumes of the cylinders (a) A and B (b) C and D shown in Figure
3.A.5.
(2) Compare the kinetic energy, E1 , of a car moving at a speed of 5 m s–1 with its
kinetic energy E2 when it is moving at 30 m s–1.
(3) Compare the volumes V1 and V2 of two spheres if the first sphere has a radius
of 2 cm and the second has a radius of 8 cm.
(4) Compare the time of the swing of a simple pendulum of length 9 cm with a
pendulum of length 25 cm.
88 Relations and functions
Figure 3.A.5
3.A.(d) Partial direct proportion – lines not through the origin
We have seen that every direct proportion relationship gives us a straight line graph through
the origin.
Can we give any physical meaning to pairs of points lying on a straight line which doesn't
pass through the origin?
If we take any straight line, so that its equation can be written in the form y = mx + c
(Section 2.B.(f)), then y is partly directly proportional to x and partly made up of the
constant, c.
An electricity bill is a physical example of such a relationship. This is made up partly of
the cost of the number of units of electricity used and partly of a standing charge which is
a constant amount added to each bill. (See Figure 3.A.6.)
Figure 3.A.6
The equation for a typical electricity bill might read y = 7.42x + 910 where the cost in
pence per unit used is 7.42 and the standing charge is £9.10.
y, the total cost, is given in pence by this equation.
There are many other physical situations which can be described in a similar way. A second
example is given by the relationship between the volume and the temperature of a gas if we
don't measure the temperature on a scale starting from absolute zero. This is because we can
only have zero volume if the temperature is also at absolute zero, so measurements on a
temperature scale which starts from here are necessary to make the line pass through the
origin.
If the temperature is measured in °C, we shall get a graph like the one shown in Figure
3.A.7.
3.A Two special kinds of relationship 89
Figure 3.A.7
The equation which relates the volume to the temperature is V = kT + V0 where k (the
gradient) = V0 /273.
Compare this with the graph of Figure 3.A.8 which shows the simple relationship of
direct proportion of volume to absolute temperature, so V = kT. (The absolute temperature
is measured in degrees Kelvin where 0 K is equivalent to –273 °C.)
Figure 3.A.8
In the second graph we have effectively shifted the vertical axis back by 273 °C. We see
that the mathematical model which correctly describes the physical situation depends upon
the units we choose to measure in.
3.A.(e) Inverse proportion
Two quantities are in inverse proportion if, as one gets larger, the other gets proportionally
smaller and vice versa.
For example, if 24 apples are to be shared out equally among different numbers of people,
we have all the possibilities shown in the table below.
x (number of apples) 1 2 3 4 6 8 12 24
y (number of people) 24 12 8 6 4 3 2 1
Evidently, in each case xy must be equal to 24.
90 Relations and functions
If we plot these pairs of values we no longer get a straight line graph. (The graph we get
is shown in Figure 3.A.9(a).
Figure 3.A.9
Nor can we reasonably join the points together to form a curve unless we start dividing
up the apples (or, even more alarmingly, the people).
However, if we consider instead the possible variation in the measurements of the length
and breadth of a rectangle of a given area of 24 cm2, we get exactly the same pairs of values
as in the table above but we also get all the intermediate values too, including fractions as
1
in the pair 2 and 48, and irrationals such as 24, since 24 24 = 24.
This time, the set of all possible pairs does give a smooth curve and this is shown in
Figure 3.A.9(b).
Notice what happens at the two ends of this curve.
As we make one measurement smaller, so the other measurement has to become
correspondingly larger to give the fixed area of 24 cm2. If the rectangle gets very thin it will
also have to be extremely long. The points on the curve become closer and closer to the two
axes but they can never touch since a zero measurement either way gives a zero area. Lines
like this which a curve approaches but never touches are called asymptotes.
The relationship here is that l b = 24 which is a constant.
A relationship of inverse variation can always be written in this form.
If two quantities x and y vary inversely,
then we can write xy = c where c is a constant.
Another physical example of inverse variation is Boyle's Law for gases which states that,
for a given mass of gas at a constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional to
the volume, so PV = a constant.
3.A Two special kinds of relationship 91
3.A.(f ) Some examples of mixed variation
Some physical laws involve a combination of direct and inverse variation. Here are two
examples.
(1) For a given mass of gas, Boyle's Law and Charles' Law can be combined into a
single law which states that PV/T = a constant.
(2) Newton's Law of gravitation states that F, the force of attraction between two bodies
of masses m1 and m2 whose distance apart is r, is given by F = k m1m2 /r 2.
This force is directly proportional to the product of the masses, and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies.
In this first section, we have looked at how some physical relationships can be expressed
mathematically. If it is possible to describe a physical situation in a mathematical way, it will
then be possible to obtain reliable and exact information about how the physical variables
interact with each other. But it is important to realise that the information will only be as
reliable as the fit of the mathematical model itself to the particular physical situation which
it is describing. For example, the extension of a spring can be predicted for a known load but,
if the load is too great, the spring deforms and the new length can no longer be found.
3.B An introduction to functions
3.B.(a) What are functions? Some relationships examined
To be able to describe physical situations mathematically, and so to be able to extract
detailed information about how they can behave, you need to be confident about handling
the necessary maths. This next section is about different kinds of mathematical relationship
and how they work. In particular, we shall look at the special relationships which are called
functions.
Suppose we consider the four equations:
(a) y = 2x + 3, (b) y = x 2 – 2x – 3,
1
(c) y = 2
(d) y = (3x + 1)1/2.
x + 4,
Each of these gives a relationship between x and y from which we could build up a set of
ordered pairs or coordinates to draw a graph.
For each of these four in turn, try answering for yourself the following four questions.
(1) If you feed different values of x into the relationship, is there just one
corresponding value of y for each possible value of x?
(2) Does every new value of x which you feed in give you a correspondingly new value
of y, or do you sometimes find that two different values of x lead to the same y
value?
(3) Do you think that you could reasonably choose any real number as a value of x to
feed into each of the four cases above? (That is, could you choose any number
which lies somewhere on the x-axis? Section 1.E gives you a description of all the
different kinds of number which can be found here.)
(4) Finally, if we make the set of x values as large as possible in each case, what
happens to the complete set of possible values for y? Is it the same as the set of
possible values for x? If not, what is it?
92 Relations and functions
It will very much help your understanding if you think about these four questions
carefully yourself and write down what you think is going to happen in each case before you
go on to look at my answers.
I will answer the four questions for each example in turn.
(a) y = 2x + 3
It is clear that for every value of x which we feed in there is just one possible value of y, and also
that each value of y can only come from one possible value of x. Also there is no reason for
excluding any real number from the possible values of x if we want to make the choice as wide
as we can. Likewise, y can take all real values. We can see this graphically in Figure 3.B.1.
Figure 3.B.1
The arrows indicate that the line is infinitely long in either direction. Imagining this
extension, we see that all possible values of x are included, and also all possible values of
y. Also, each x value gives only one possible y value, and vice versa.
(b) y = x 2 – 2x – 3
This time, for every value of x which we feed in, again there is only one possible value of y.
But what about the other way round? For example, if we put x = 4 we get y = 5, and if
we put x = –2 we also get y = 5. Similarly, both x = 3 and x = –1 give y = 0, so the answer
to question (2) is 'no' for this relationship.
The graph sketch looks like Figure 3.B.2. We also see from this that, while there is no
reason why we shouldn't choose any real number for an x value, the possible values for y
Figure 3.B.2
3.B An introduction to functions 93
only go down to the lowest value of the curve. This we can find by completing the square
like we did in Section 2.D.(b) in the last chapter.
We have y = x 2 – 2x – 3 = (x – 1)2 – 1 – 3 = (x – 1)2 – 4.
The least possible value of y is –4 and this happens when x = 1.
We see that the range of possible values for y is restricted, because y ≥ –4.
1
(c) y=
x2 + 4
Again, it is clear here that each value of x fed in gives only one possible value of y. But, like
last time, we can get the same y value from two different values of x.
1 1
For example, if x = +1 then y = 5 and if x = –1 then y = 5 also. Notice that every
symmetrical pair of ± values of x will give the same value for y.
There is no reason not to allow all possible real numbers as values for x, but think
carefully about what happens to y!
First of all, x 2 + 4 must always be positive, so y is always positive.
1
The least value of x 2 + 4 is 4 when x = 0. This gives a corresponding value of y = 4 so
1
the point (0, 4 ) lies on this curve.
Also, y must have its largest value when x 2 + 4 has its least value since y = 1/(x 2 + 4).
As x becomes larger, y becomes correspondingly smaller. (Large positive values of x will
have the same effect as large negative values since x is being squared.) The graph will be
symmetrical about the y-axis. You can check this using your calculator if you like; putting
in a few values such as x = ±1, x = ±2 and x = ±4 also helps with drawing the sketch of
Figure 3.B.3 below.
Figure 3.B.3
1
We see that the possible values of y lie between 0 and 4.
1
Also, y can have the value of 4, but it never actually reaches 0 although it gets infinitely
1
close to it. We say that the values of y lie in the interval from 0 to 4 on its number line, with
1
the value 4 included, but 0 excluded even though, by taking a sufficiently large value of x,
we can get as close to 0 as we please.
1
We write this interval (0, 4 ]. The round bracket means that we don't include that end point
in the set of possible values; and the square bracket means that this end point is included.
(d) y = (3x + 1)1/2
Firstly, we see that, unlike the other three, here we can get more than one value of y for just
one value of x. For example, if x = 5, y = 161/2 so y = ±4. (Remember that the
convention is that means 'the positive square root', so if we had written y = 3x + 1 we
would have avoided the complication of double-valued ys.)
94 Relations and functions
However, it does look as though each possible y value can come from only one x value.
For example, if y = –5, we have (3x + 1)1/2 = –5 so 3x + 1 = 25 and x = 8.
Can we choose any real numbers for our values of x? Not unless we want complications
coming from trying to take the square root of negative numbers, which is not something
which we can yet do.
1
We must keep 3x + 1 ≥ 0 so 3x ≥ –1 and x ≥ – 3.
The possible y values include all the real numbers, however.
You can see that this will be so from the example which we took of y = –5. For any
chosen number, we could repeat this process.
Figure 3.B.4(a) shows a sketch of the graph of y = (3x + 1)1/2. Figure 3.B.4(b) shows
the graph of y = 3x + 1. If we always take the positive square root, we just get the top half
of (a).
Figure 3.B.4
3.B.(b) y = f (x) – a useful new shorthand
To make explanations simpler, it is often helpful to write what we have so far been calling
y as f (x), so that we have y = f (x). (We have already used this notation for cubic equations
in Section 2.E.(a).)
This means that y can be found from x according to some rule, in the way that the
different ys of (a), (b), (c) and (d) above can be found, for example.
In the case of (a), we would have y = f (x) = 2x + 3,
so f (2) = 4 + 3 = 7 and f (–3) = –6 + 3 = –3 etc.
In case (b),
y = f (x) = x 2 – 2x – 3, so f (0) = –3 and f (3) = f (–1) = 0 etc.
This notation is particularly useful when we want to talk about specific values, as we
have done here. It is also useful for making clear what the variable quantity is.
An example of this is the case of the ball thrown up in the air, given in Section 2.D.(g).
1
There, we used the formula s = ut – 2 gt 2 to find s, the distance moved from the thrower's
hands. Both u and g are constants, and t gives the changing measurement of time. Therefore,
we could write s = f (t) meaning that the distance moved is a function of the time that the
ball has been in the air.
A function is a particular form of relationship. Just what makes it particular is the subject
of the following section.
3.B An introduction to functions 95
3.B.(c) When is a relationship a function?
We shall now use the answers which we have just found to the four questions above to lead
us to some important definitions.
If a relationship y = f (x) is a function then, for any chosen value of the variable x,
there is only one corresponding possible value of y.
Of the four examples from Section 3.B.(a), we found that (a), (b) and (c) are all functions,
but (d) is not. However, y = 3x + 1 would have been.
Looking at this requirement graphically, we see that any vertical line on the graph must
never cut the curve more than once if it is the graph of a function. I call this the raindrop
test; the raindrop is only allowed to hit the curve once as it slides down the paper.
A function y = f (x) is called one-to-one if, for each value of y, there is just one
possible value of x, and for each value of x there is just one possible value of y.
Example (a) is one-to-one but neither (b) nor (c) are one-to-one since in both cases it is
possible to have the same value of f (x) for different values of x.
The domain is the set of numbers from which we choose the possible values of x.
In our four examples we deliberately made this choice as wide as possible, but as we saw
in case (d), it may be restricted because of the formula involved. There might be
circumstances in which you would choose to restrict the domain yourself. For example, if
you were considering a physical problem in which x represented a length, you would require
the domain to be restricted to positive numbers.
The set of all possible values of y is called the range.
We found that in (a) this was the complete set of real numbers (any value for y was
possible), but in each of (b) and (c) it was restricted in some way. Case (d) is a bit more
subtle: if y = (3x + 1)1/2 then, as we can see from Figure 3.B.4(a), y can take any value.
But, as we also saw there, y = (3x + 1)1/2 isn't a function. If we force a function by writing
y = 3x + 1 then, as we can see from Figure 3.B.4(b), the possible values of y are
restricted to y ≥ 0.
3.B.(d) Stretching and shifting – new functions from old
What kinds of effect will we get if we create new functions from old ones by adding or
multiplying the first function in various different ways? We will now look at the results
obtained from four possible different types of alteration.
96 Relations and functions
(1) Adding a fixed amount to a function
What happens if we go from f (x) to f (x) + a, where a is some given constant number? Here
are two examples, both taking a = 3.
(a) f (x) = 2x + 1 (b) f (x) = x 2
so f (x) + 3 = 2x + 4. so f (x) + 3 = x 2 + 3.
I show sketches of the two pairs of graphs below in Figure 3.B.5(a) and (b).
Figure 3.B.5
We see that the effect of adding 3 to f (x), so that y = f (x) + 3, is to shift the graph up by
3 units.
(2) Adding a fixed amount to each x value
What will happen if we add a fixed amount to each x value instead, so that we go from f (x)
to f (x + a) in each case? Again, we look at two examples, taking a = 3.
(a) f (x) = 2x + 1 (b) f (x) = x 2
so f (x + 3) = 2(x + 3) + 1 = 2x + 7. so f (x + 3) = (x + 3)2.
Notice that, to find f (x + 3) from f (x), we just replace x by (x + 3).
I show sketches of the two pairs of graphs in Figure 3.B.6(a) and (b).
This time, the effect is to slide the whole graph 3 units to the left. Notice that the
interesting bits happen 3 units sooner. For example, each contact with the x-axis happens 3
units earlier now.
!
What actually happens here is not what you might think at first; notice that
f (x + 3) is what you get if you slide f (x) three units to the left, not to the right.
Because the function of (a) is a straight line, we can get the same effect as this sideways
shift by giving the line an upwards shift of 6 units, so making f (x) go to f (x) + 6 with our
3.B An introduction to functions 97
Figure 3.B.6
particular f (x) of 2x + 1. The only way we could tell which of these transformations had been
done would be to keep track of what happened to particular points. For example, in the first
case, the point (0, 1) goes to (–3, 1), as we can see on Figure 3.B.6(a). In the second case,
(0, 1) would go to (0, 7).
We could also get the same end result for the line by moving it both sideways and upwards.
Once we allow two shifts, the number of different possibilities becomes infinite.
(3) Multiplying the original function by a fixed amount
What will happen if we go from f (x) to a f (x) where a is some given constant number?
Working with the same two examples as before, and with a = 3 again, we get
(a) f (x) = 2x + 1 (b) f (x) = x 2
so 3f (x) = 6x + 3. so 3f (x) = 3x 2
Sketches of the two pairs of graphs are shown below in Figure 3.B.7(a) and (b).
Figure 3.B.7
This time, the whole graph has been pulled away from the x-axis by a factor of 3, so that
every point is now three times further away than it was originally. Therefore the only points
on the graph which will remain unchanged are those on the x-axis itself.
98 Relations and functions
(4) Multiplying x by a fixed amount
What will happen if we go from f (x) to f (ax)?
Taking our same two examples, with a = 3, we have
(a) f (x) = 2x + 1 (b) f (x) = x 2
so f (3x) = 2(3x) + 1 = 6x + 1 so f (3x) = (3x)2 = 9x 2.
Notice that we simply replace x by 3x to find f (3x) from f (x).
I show sketches of the two pairs of graphs below in Figure 3.B.8(a) and (b).
Figure 3.B.8
This time the stretching effect is more complicated because it only affects the part of the
function involving x. Any purely number parts remain unchanged. The points which are
unaffected by the stretching are those where the graphs cut the y-axis, so x = 0.
Notice too that the strength of the effect now depends upon the power of x. Having (3x)2
in example 4(b) gives a more extreme effect than the 3x 2 in 3(b), since the 3 is also being
squared here.
We can relate examples 3(a) and 4 (a) to the real-life situation of the electricity bill graph
shown earlier in Section 3.A.(d). The positive parts of the two graphs of 3(a) correspond to
a situation of increasing both the standing charge and the cost per unit by a factor of three,
while the positive parts of the two graphs of 4(a) could show an increase in the cost per unit
of three, but an unchanged standing charge. (In this physical application, negative values of
x or y would be meaningless.)
It has been easier in all these descriptions to stick to the same variable, x, for the
functions. However, there is no reason why another letter should not be used.
In the physical example in Section 2.D.(g), on the motion of a ball when it is thrown up
in the air, we described the distance travelled in terms of t, the time from when it left the
thrower's hands.
1
We used the function s = f (t) = ut – 2 gt 2, and the horizontal axis was a t-axis instead of
an x-axis.
3.B An introduction to functions 99
We have now looked at the four simplest kinds of transformation of functions, and their
graphical effects. I will list these for you below.
A summary of some effects of transforming functions
(1) Transforming f (x) to f (x) + a shifts the whole of f (x) upwards by a distance a.
We have
Figure 3.B.9 (a)
(2) Transforming f (x) into f (x + a) shifts the whole of f (x) back a distance a,
because the curve is getting to each of its values faster, by an amount a. We have
Figure 3.B.9 (b)
Shifts are sometimes called translations.
(3) Transforming f (x) into af (x) stretches out each value of f (x) by a factor a. We have
Figure 3.B.9 (c)
(4) Transforming f (x) into f (ax) has a more complicated effect, since how much a
affects each part of f (x) depends on what is happening to x itself in f (x). For
example, if f (x) = x 2 + x + 1, then f (ax) = a 2x 2 + ax + 1. Each term has been
affected differently. Therefore it is not possible to show this case on one sketch;
the change in shape will depend entirely upon the function concerned.
100 Relations and functions
The following exercise gives you a chance to practise recognising these shifts and
stretches for yourself. Although f is the letter most commonly used for functions, it is
sometimes more convenient to use other letters to avoid confusion. I do this here, having
functions called g(x), h(x) etc.
exercise 3.b.1 This exercise contains four questions, each of which involves one of the following
four functions.
1
(1) f(x) = 3x – 1 (2) g(x) = 2x – 2 (3) h(x) = 2 x+1 (4) p(x) = x 2 – 4x + 3.
Each question shows the original function on the left, followed by two
examples of stretching or shifting it beside it. (See Figure 3.B.10 below.)
You have to decide what particular stretch or shift has happened in each case, and
then write it in beside its graph. (For example, in Figure 3.B.5(a) earlier, I showed the
shift of f (x) to f (x) + 3.) Then check in the answers given at the back of the book to
see if you have decided correctly. (Don't be tempted to go straight there!)
To make the questions easier for you, the constant number involved in each
transformation (its 'a') is always either +2 or –2. This also means that you will be
able to tell whether I have shifted my straight lines up or down or sideways to get
them to their new positions.
Figure 3.B.10
3.B An introduction to functions 101
3.B.(e) Two practical examples of shifting and stretching
The method of completing the square
When we do the process of completing the square for a quadratic expression, as we did in
Section 2.D.(b), we are actually finding what shift we would need to do to make the curve
sit on the x-axis.
For example, if we take the curve y = x 2 – 4x + 9, we can use the method of completing
the square to rewrite this as y = (x – 2)2 – 4 + 9 = (x – 2)2 + 5.
The curve y = (x – 2)2, which I have drawn in Figure 3.B.11(a), just touches the x-axis
when x = 2.
The curve y = (x – 2)2 + 5 is the result of shifting the curve y = (x – 2)2 up by 5 units.
I have drawn this in Figure 3.B.11(b).
We can see from this picture that y = (x – 2)2 + 5 = x 2 – 4x + 9 has a minimum value
of 5 when x = 2.
Figure 3.B.11
How we get the standard Normal distribution
If you have used Normal probability distributions in statistics, you will already have met an
application of stretching and shifting. Briefly, the situation here is that we can model the
likelihood of certain types of measurements occurring within particular intervals by
considering the area under a curve called a Normal distribution curve which I sketch below
in Figure 3.B.12(a).
Two examples of the kinds of measurement which can have their likelihoods modelled by
this kind of graph are the heights of all adult males, and the errors made in measuring a
particular length as accurately as possible. In both cases, a large number of measurements
will be bunched symmetrically about the mean and the more extreme examples will tail off
fairly steeply either side.
Figure 3.B.12
102 Relations and functions
On the graph sketch, µ represents the mean or average measurement, and σ represents a
measure of how spread out these measurements are. The curve flexes itself at a distance σ
away from µ either side.
The area under the curve gives the probabilities of measurements lying between certain
values. For example, the likelihood of a randomly chosen x lying between x1 and x2 is given
by the shaded area shown in Figure 3.B.12(b).
These areas are extremely difficult to calculate since the equation of the curve is
mathematically complicated, but since they are very frequently needed, tables have been
calculated from which the different probabilities can be read off.
There is only one problem: it would be impossible to print the tables for every Normal
distribution curve, and the tables just give the results for the simplest possible case, which
I show in Figure 3.B.13(a). For this curve, µ = 0 and σ = 1. The variable along the horizontal
axis is called the standard Normal variable. This is always given the letter z.
Beside the standard Normal distribution curve, I show again the general Normal
distribution curve in Figure 3.B.13(b).
Figure 3.B.13
How can we get from the curve shown in (b) to the curve shown in (a)?
In order to transform (b) into (a) we have to shift the y-axis forwards by µ, so this would
make z = x – µ.
But this alone is not sufficient because, in (a), we have also squeezed the x measurements
by a factor of 1/σ. So to get from (b) to (a), we put
x–µ
z= .
σ
This is the formula for finding the standard Normal variable, z, which corresponds to a
value x in a Normal distribution curve like Figure 3.B.13(b) above with mean µ and standard
deviation σ.
To sketch the correct graph, the y measurements have to be stretched by a factor of σ
since the total area under the graph remains one unit. (This is because it gives the sum of
all the possible likelihoods or probabilities of the measurements concerned.)
The equation of each Normal distribution curve is in terms of its particular µ and σ, and
this stretching of the y measurement takes place automatically in the new curve because of
the property of unit area.
Instead of having to find the area between x1 and x2 shown in Figure 3.B.12(b) above, we
can now use the tables to find the area between the corresponding z1 and z2 of the standard
Normal curve. The tables give the two cumulative areas measured from the left-hand end of
the curve up to z1 and z2 respectively, and the required area is the difference between these
3.B An introduction to functions 103
two. Since the total area remains 1, this area is unchanged in the two graphs. It is just a
different shape.
There is one other rather neat spin-off from this transformation. Because the standard
Normal curve is symmetrically placed about the origin, the tables only have to give values
for one side. In practice, this is the right-hand side, and values for the left-hand side are
found by using the symmetry of the curve.
3.B.(f ) Finding functions of functions
In Section 3.B.(d), we were able to see graphically the effects that some simple changes have
on functions. But suppose the changes are more complicated because they have been built
up from a number of simple steps. It's not so easy then to work out what is happening
geometrically, but it is easy to find out what has happened using algebra. We can think of
these changes as involving functions of functions.
Suppose we start with the two functions f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 5x.
What kind of meaning can we give to the expressions f (g(x)) and g(f (x))?
Do they mean the same thing?
This is a topic which sometimes makes students nervous, so we will look at it in some
detail.
The instruction which f (x) gives us is to 'double and add three', so we will have
f (lump) = 2 (lump) + 3, whatever the 'lump' may be.
Similarly, g(lump) = 5(lump), whatever that lump may be.
Therefore f (g(x)) = f (5x) = 2(5x) + 3 = 10x + 3 and g(f (x)) = g(2x + 3) = 5(2x + 3) =
10x + 15.
The two results are different, and in general f (g(x)) will not be the same as g(f (x)). In
fact, in this example, f (g(x)) is never equal to g(f (x)) for any value of x since we can't find
an x so that 10x + 3 = 10x + 15.
Notice the order of the operations. The inside function acts on x first, and then the outside
function acts on the result.
exercise 3.b.2 Try these for yourself.
Find (a) f(g(x)) (b) g(f(x)) if
(1) f(x) = 3x – 5 and g(x) = 2x
(2) f(x) = x 2 and g(x) = 4 – x
1
(3) f(x) = x and g(x) = x – 4.
Similarly, f (f (x)), which is the function of the function itself, holds no terrors.
We'll look at two examples to prove that this is so.
example (1) f (x) = 2x + 3 so f (f (x)) = 2(f (x)) + 3 = 2(2x + 3) + 3 = 4x + 9.
We can check that this works by putting x = 2, say. Then we can find
f (f (2)) either by doing f twice, getting f (2) = 7 and f (7) = 17, or in one
step using f (f (x)) = 4x + 9 so f (f (2)) = 8 + 9 = 17.
Try doing one for yourself before we go on.
If g(x) = 2x 2 + 3 what is g(g(x))? Check with x = 1.
104 Relations and functions
g(g(x)) = g(2x 2 + 3) = 2(2x 2 + 3)2 + 3
= 2(4x 4 + 12x 2 + 9) + 3 = 8x 4 + 24x 2 + 21.
Check: g(1) = 5 and g(5) = 50 + 3 = 53.
Alternatively, g(g(1)) = 8 + 24 + 21 = 53.
2x + 3
example (2) Now we'll find f (f (x)) if f (x) = .
3x + 2
To find f (f (x)) we simply replace the x of the formula by f (x), so we get
2x + 3
2 3x + 2
+3
f (f (x)) = 2x + 3
.
3 3x + 2
+2
We then simplify this unwieldy fraction by multiplying top and bottom
by (3x + 2). (Remember that this leaves the value of the fraction
unchanged – see Section 1.C.(a) if necessary.) So we have
2(2x + 3) + 3(3x + 2) 13x + 12
f (f (x)) = = .
3(2x + 3) + 2(3x + 2) 12x + 13
We must exclude the one value of x for which the function is undefined
13
by saying x ≠ – 12 . This value would make 12x + 13 = 0, and so involve
us in trying to divide by zero which is impossible. (This is also in
Section 1.C.(a).)
Try this very similar example for yourself, because it is also good practice for tidying up
fractions within fractions, sort of double-decker fractions. See if you can get right through
without referring back to the example above. (You could have another good look at that one
first.)
2x – 5
If f (x) = find (a) f (3), (b) f (x 2 ), (c) f (2x + 1) and (d) f (f (x)).
4x + 1
Here are the answers.
First of all, you wouldn't even consider cancelling the 2 and the 4 in the definition of f (x).
If you would, you should return to Sections 1.C.(a) and (b) and go through them again!
You should have:
2(3) – 5 1
(a) f (3) = =
4(3) + 1 13
2
2(x 2 ) – 5 2x 2 – 5
(b) f (x ) = =
4(x 2 ) + 1 4x 2 + 1
2(2x + 1) – 5 4x – 3
(c) f (2x + 1) = =
4(2x + 1) + 1 8x + 5
3.B An introduction to functions 105
2x – 5
2 4x + 1
–5
(d) f (f (x)) = 2x – 5
4 4x + 1
+1
2(2x – 5) – 5 (4x + 1)
= (multiplying top and bottom by (4x + 1))
4(2x – 5) + (4x + 1)
–16x – 15
=
12x – 19
16x + 15
= (multiplying top and bottom by –1 to make the answer
19 – 12x look more tasteful).
3.B.(g) Can we go back the other way? Inverse functions
We have now worked with quite a large number of functions each of which gives us a rule
for finding the function from any given starting value of x. We also know that, in order for
this relationship to be a function, the rule must give just one possible answer for each
starting value of x.
Is it possible to go back the other way? If we know a value of f (x) for a particular function
can we work out from this what the original value of x must have been?
Can you see any difficulty which we might have?
We can only do the backwards process if each value of f (x) comes from just one possible
x. This is why the answer to the second question of Section 3.B.(a) was so important. For
example, in the case of function (b) which was y = f (x) = x 2 – 2x – 3, we have f (4)=f (–2)=5.
Therefore, from knowing that f (x) = 5, it is not possible to say what value of x gave this,
since it could be either 4 or –2. Since the backwards relation has more than one possible
answer, it is not a function.
The function (if it exists) which undoes the effect of f (x) and brings you back to
where you started, is called the inverse function of x. It is written f –1 (x).
A function can only have an inverse function if it is one-to-one. This means that
f (a) = f (b) only if a = b.
If f –1 (x) exists, then f –1 (f (x)) = f (f –1(x)) = x.
Each of f and f –1 undoes the effect of the other.
!
f –1 (x) does not mean 1/f (x).
You can, if you want, write 1/f (x) as (f (x))–1. It is just unfortunate that the
mathematical way of writing these two very different things looks so similar.
106 Relations and functions
For simple functions, it is often very easy to see what the inverse function must be. Here
are two examples.
(1) If f (x) = x + 3, then f –1 (x) = x – 3 so, for example, f (4) = 7 and f –1 (7) = 4.
1
(2) If g(x) = 5x then g –1 (x) = 5 x so g(2) = 10 and g –1 (10) = 2.
Graphically, these two examples correspond to shifting x up and then shifting back down
by 3 units in the case of (1), and stretching x and then shrinking it back by a factor of 5 in
the case of (2). (These graphical effects were looked at in Section 3.B.(d).)
To make clearer what is happening here, it can sometimes be helpful to use an alternative
way of writing functions which emphasises the carrying across or mapping of x into the
function f (x).
Taking f (x) = x + 3 as an example, we can also write this as f: x x + 3 which means the
function f in which x maps to x + 3. Then we write the inverse function as f –1: x x – 3.
–1 1
Similarly, if g:x 5x, then g : x 5 x.
Try finding the inverse functions of the following three functions yourself.
(1) f (x) = x – 2 (2) g(x) = 2x (3) p(x) = 6 – x
1
You should have (1) f –1 (x) = x + 2 and (2) g –1(x) = 2 x.
Students often find (3) a little bit tricky. Clearly, it isn't true that p –1 (x) = 6 + x since this
doesn't bring us back to where we started.
If you haven't been able to find an answer, try finding p(1), p(5), p(2) and p(4).
You will see that doing p(x) twice brings you back to the original x, so that p(x) is its own
inverse function. We can say that p(p(x)) = x.
A function which is its own inverse is called self-inverse.
If f (x) is self-inverse, then f –1 (x) = f(x) so f (f (x)) = x.
(4) Can you find the inverse function for q(x) = 12/x?
Trying the pairs of values for x of 12 and 1, 6 and 2, and 3 and 4, shows us that this
function is also self-inverse. These pairs of values are behaving symmetrically with respect
to each other.
This is the same kind of relationship as those that we looked at in Section 3.A.(e) on
inverse proportion. However, unlike the physical examples of inverse proportion which
we looked at there, this function also includes negative pairs such as –3 and –4, and –2
and –6.
I show in Figure 3.B.14 graph sketches for the pairs of functions and their inverses from
the four questions above, taking equal scales on the x and y axes.
This is a good place to add colour to the sketches yourself. If you use two colours
so that you can highlight each function and its inverse function differently, you will bring
3.B An introduction to functions 107
Figure 3.B.14
out two important points. The first is that the two self-inverse functions are the same
function; they lie on top of one another. The second is that all the four pairs of graphs
shown have the same line of symmetry. Try sketching in this line yourself on each of the
four graphs.
Each function and its inverse function are symmetrically placed about the diagonal line
y = x. This symmetry stresses the equal standing of each function with its inverse; each is
the inverse of the other. They are mirror images of each other in the line y = x because the
original function is taking x to y, and the inverse function takes y back to x. This symmetry
means that the domain, the set of all possible x values for the original function, is the same
as the range, the set of all possible y values for the inverse function, and the range of the
original function gives the domain of the inverse function.
For the two self-inverse functions, the original function is itself symmetrical about the
line y = x. Each half of the line or curve reflects onto the other half, and therefore we can
see geometrically that these functions must be their own inverses.
Notice that this symmetry means that it is always possible to sketch an inverse function
if we know what the original function looks like. This sketching is easier if equal scales are
chosen on the two axes, so that the line y = x is at 45°. A quick sketch is much the easiest
way of seeing how an inverse function works.
108 Relations and functions
3.B.(h) Finding inverses of more complicated functions
How can we find the inverse function if the starting function is more complicated? For
example, what is f –1 for f (x) = 2x – 5 or f: x 2x – 5?
It's not very easy to write down the answer immediately. (Try it and see, checking with
some numbers to see if your answer works.) However, we can work out what it must be in
the following way.
We have y = f (x) = 2x – 5. This gives the rule or formula for finding y if we know x.
We are looking for the rule which, if we know y, will take us back to the original x. We
can find this by rearranging y = 2x – 5 to change it to the form x = some rule involving y.
This is called changing the subject of the formula to x, and we have already done this for
some physical formulas in Section 2.A.(d).
1
We have y = 2x – 5 so y + 5 = 2x so x = 2 (y + 5), so giving us the rule which will
take us back from y to the original x.
We can check that it works by doing a numerical test. If x = 3 then y = 6 – 5 = 1 and if
1
y = 1 then x = 2 (1 + 5) = 3.
We now use the rule we have found to write the inverse function so that it is itself a
function of x. Using the mirror-image property of the function and its inverse about y = x, we
1 1
simply swap x and y getting f –1 (x) = 2 (x + 5). The line giving f –1 (x) is y = 2 (x + 5).
I show both f (x) and f –1 (x) in Figure 3.B.15.
Figure 3.B.15
I have also shown 3 1 using f (x), and 1 3 using f –1 (x).
Can you work out where the two functions cross over each other?
3.B An introduction to functions 109
1
They cross over where f (x) = f –1 (x) so 2x–5 = 2 (x+5) giving 4x –10 = x+5 so x = 5.
1
Check: f (5) = 10 – 5 = 5 and f –1 (5) = 2 (5 + 5) = 5.
The crossing point is at (5, 5) on the line y = x which checks with what we know must
be true geometrically.
We set about finding the inverse function for a function involving a fraction like
f (x) = (x+3)/(x–2) in exactly the same kind of way. We have
x+3 x+3
f (x) = or f: x
x–2 x–2
meaning that, under the function f, x maps to (x+3)/(x–2), so, for example, 3 maps to 6. Let
x+3
y=
x–2
where y gives the outcome of feeding x into the function, as 6 is the outcome of feeding 3
into the function.
As before, we are looking for a formula which, if we know y, will take us back to the
original x, so we change the subject of the formula to x.
x+3
y= so y(x – 2) = x + 3 so xy – 2y = x + 3.
x–2
Now we collect all the terms with x in on the same side of the equation, because then we will
be able to factorise. We have
2y + 3
xy – x = 2y + 3 so x(y – 1) = 2y + 3 so x = .
y–1
We've now got the rule which, if we know y, will give us the original x.
Just as we did in the last example, we can now use this rule, and the mirror-image
property of the function and its inverse in the line y = x, to get the inverse function by
swapping y and x. This gives us
2x + 3 2x + 3
f –1 (x) = or f –1: x .
x–1 x–1
Check: if we feed in x = 6 we have f –1 (6) = 15/5 = 3.
2x + 3
To draw the graph of this inverse function, we would draw y =
x–1
We shall look together at how we can sketch f and f –1 in the next section, but before that I'll
give you a chance to find a few inverse functions for yourself.
exercise 3.b.3 Find the inverse functions for each of the following functions. (Some of them you
will be able to write down straight away and some of them will need rearranging
like the last two examples.)
(1) f(x) = 5x (2) f(x) = x – 9 (3) f(x) = 5x – 9
(4) f(x) = 8 – x (5) f(x) = x/4 (6) f(x) = 4/x (7) y = 3 – 2x
x–3 2x + 3
(8) f(x) = (x ≠ –2) (9) f(x) = (x ≠ 2.)
x+2 x–2
We say x ≠ –2 in (8) and x ≠ 2 in (9) to make it clear that we don't think that we
can divide by zero.
110 Relations and functions
3.B.(i) Sketching the particular case of f (x) = (x + 3)/(x – 2), and its inverse
We will now look into how we can set about drawing graph sketches for
x+3 2x + 3
f (x) = and f –1 (x) = .
x–2 x–1
Each of these functions is more complicated than any that we have sketched so far, but they
have interesting properties that it will be useful for you to see here. Also, if we can draw a
sketch for f (x) we shall then be able to reflect this in the line of symmetry y = x to draw the
sketch of f –1 (x).
In order to sketch y = f (x) we need to find out what it does at all its interesting bits. We
do this rather than making a table of values because we might choose the x values badly, so
that what we sketched was just a boring bit, such as a piece of curve which is almost a
straight line. (Many students panic at this stage, and make it into a completely straight line,
so finishing up with a total disaster.)
To investigate the interesting bits, we need to answer the following questions.
(a) When does f (x) = 0?
(b) What is the value of f (x) when x = 0?
(c) Is there any value of x which we can't have because f (x) would be undefined for
this value? If so, what happens to f (x) when x gets near this forbidden value?
(d) What happens to f (x) when x becomes very large?
Test your theory with some large positive and negative values of x.
Try answering each of these four questions yourself for the function f (x) above which we
want to sketch.
x+3
(a) f (x) = 0 if = 0.
x–2
This happens if x = –3. (Notice that we only have to look at the top of the fraction to answer
this question. However many parts something is divided into, if you get none of those parts
you've got nothing.)
We now know that f (x) cuts the x-axis at (–3, 0).
3 3
(b) f (x) = – 2 when x = 0 so f (x) cuts the y-axis at (0, – 2 ).
(c) We can't have x = 2 because we can't divide by zero.
If x is very close to 2, say 1.999 or 2.001, then (x – 2) is very small, and dividing
by a very small number gives a very large result.
Just before x = 2, f (x) is very large and negative, and just after x = 2, f (x) is very
large and positive. (You can check this on your calculator if you wish.)
f (x) becomes closer and closer here to the line x = 2. (This line is called a
vertical asymptote.)
x+3
(d) What happens to y = f (x) = as x becomes very large?
x–2
The easiest way of seeing what must happen here is to divide the top and bottom of f (x) by
x. This gives us
x+3 1 + (3/x)
f (x) = = .
x–2 1 – (2/x)
3.B An introduction to functions 111
Now, as x becomes very large, (either positive or negative), both (3/x) and (2/x) will become
extremely small. The larger x becomes, the tinier they get, and indeed we can make them as
small as we please by choosing a large enough value of x. (We can't actually make them
equal to zero because this would require x to be infinitely large and, as we saw with the two
straight lines in Section 1.E.(d), infinite quantities of things behave in strange ways.)
We see that, as x becomes very large, f (x) will become closer and closer to 1/1 = 1.
This means that we know that the curve of y = f (x) becomes closer and closer to the
straight line y = 1 as the values of x become larger and larger. (This line is called a
horizontal asymptote.)
We now have enough information to be able to have a good try at sketching this curve.
First, we draw the two axes and mark on them where the curve crosses them using our
answers to (a) and (b). Then we draw in the two lines y = 1 and x = 2 which we know the
curve gets closer and closer to. We then sketch in the curve which seems to fit in best with
this information. I've done this in Figure 3.B.16.
Figure 3.B.16
The only question we can't yet answer is how the slope of the curve changes from point
to point. Could it perhaps have some kinks and wiggles that we don't know about? Finding
out how slopes change is the subject of Chapter 8, and in Section 8.E.(c) I shall give you a
full list of curve-sketching help which will include this. Also, in Section 8.C.(e), we shall
show that this particular curve must always have a negative slope (except when x = 2).
For this particular curve, it is also possible to show that its slope is always downhill by
taking any two points which lie on it which are both either to the left of x = 2 or to the right
of it. If you then work out the gradient of the straight line joining them, you will find that
it is always negative.
This curve is interesting because of another special property. It's only the second one
we've met which does this particular thing. Can you see what it is?
112 Relations and functions
It does a jump. This jump, which happens when x = 2, is called a discontinuity. Because
of it, this curve can't be drawn with a continuous pencil line. (The other one like it is
example (4) at the end of Section 3.B.(g) – in fact, it is very like it indeed. When we've
finished this graph sketch, I shall show you how to turn this one into that one.)
Using the fact that the graph of f –1 (x) is the same as the graph of f (x) reflected in the
line of symmetry y = x, we can now sketch both of these graphs together.
helpful
If you are sketching an inverse function by this method, the best method for
hint drawing it convincingly is to turn your paper so that the line y = x is vertical.
This makes it much easier to get f and f –1 symmetrically placed either side of
this line.
I show my two graphs in Figure 3.B.17.
The two asymptotes of y = f (x) will also be reflected in the line y = x to give the
corresponding pair of asymptotes of y = f –1(x).
Adding your own colours to f and f –1 and the two pairs of asymptotes x = 2 and y = 1,
and x = 1 and y = 2 would help you to see exactly what is going on.
Figure 3.B.17
3.B An introduction to functions 113
From this graph sketch, you can see the symmetry of the gaps in the domain and range
of f (x) and f –1(x) respectively. The value 2 is excluded from the domain, the set of possible
x values for f (x), and also from the range, the set of possible y values for f –1(x), and the value
1 is excluded from the range of f (x) and the domain of f –1(x).
exercise 3.b.4 Using similar methods to those we used together above, find out as much
information as you can about the following two functions.
x–2 2x – 5
(1) g(x) = (2) h(x) =
x+4 x+1
Use this information to sketch the graphs of the two functions. (Of course, for
all of this sketching you could just use a graph-sketching calculator – but if you
answer the questions for each curve like we did in the example, you'll know why it
does what it does.)
Find also the two inverse functions, g –1(x) and h –1(x).
(3) Sketch the function
2x + 3
f(x) =
x–2
from question (9) of Exercise 3.B.3 and draw in the line y = x on your sketch.
Now we find out how to turn y = (x+3)/(x–2) into y = 12/x which was (4) at the end of
Section 3.B.(g).
Looking at the sketch of y = (x+3)/(x–2) in Figure 3.B.16, we can see that, if we move
the x-axis up by one unit and the y-axis to the right by two units, we shall have transformed
this sketch into one very similar to the sketch for (4).
We could think of this as putting Y = y – 1 and X = x – 2.
We can see this nicely by using algebra. We have
x+3 x–2+5 5
y = f (x) = = =1+
x–2 x–2 x–2
5
so y–1= .
x–2
Putting Y = y – 1 and X = x – 2 gives Y = 5/X.
I show its graph sketch below in Figure 3.B.18, with the graph sketch of y = 12/x.
Figure 3.B.18
The only difference now is one of scale. If we shrink (b) by a factor of 5/12, we get the
identical graph to (a).
114 Relations and functions
3.B.(j) Odd and even functions
Make sketches for yourself of the graphs of the following four functions.
(a) y=x (b) y = x 2 (c) y = x 3 (d) y = x .
x means 'take the positive value whatever the sign of x itself'.
What kinds of symmetry do you see in your sketches? Describe them.
Your four graphs should show two different sorts of symmetry, so giving you examples
of what are called even and odd functions.
Even functions
A function is even if it is symmetrical about the y-axis.
For these functions, f (x) = f (–x) for any value of x.
The functions (b) and (d) above are both examples of this. The standard Normal
distribution, which we talked about in Section 3.B.(e), is also an even function, and it is this
property which makes it possible to halve the size of the tables needed to work with it.
The sketches for (a) and (c) show a different sort of symmetry. In each case, if we rotate
the graph through a half turn about the origin, then it exactly fits onto itself. Put another way,
turning the page upside down leaves the graph unchanged.
Odd functions
A function is odd if rotation through a half-turn leaves it unchanged.
This is the same as saying that the function reverses its sign if it is
reflected in the y-axis, so f (x) = – f (–x).
Figure 3.B.19 shows my sketches of the four graphs for (a), (b), (c) and (d).
Figure 3.B.19
See if you can decide which of (a), (b), (c) and (d) have inverse functions.
3.B An introduction to functions 115
(a) and (c) will each have an inverse function because each value of y is given by only
one possible value of x, but (b) and (d) will only have inverse relations.
With (b) for example, if y = 4 then x could be +2 or –2.
If y = x 2 then x = y 1/2. The inverse relation is x x 1/2, and x 1/2 can be either + or –.
The sketch in Figure 3.B.20(a) shows the graphs of y = x 2 and its inverse relation
y = x 1/2.
Figure 3.B.20
However, if we say that x cannot be negative, so that we restrict the domain of y = x 2 to
values of x which are greater than or equal to 0 (which we write as x ≥ 0), then we shall have
a perfectly good inverse function which is y = x. This is shown in Figure 3.B.20(b). The
symbol is taken to mean the positive square root only.
3.C Exponential and log functions
3.C.(a) Exponential functions – describing population growth
The functions which we shall look at in this next section are of huge importance to scientists
and engineers. This is because they describe many physical situations where there is a
smooth rate of growth which depends on how much of the substance is present at any
particular time. An example of this is the process by which cell growth takes place through
the repeated division of individual cells into two new cells.
To help us to see what is going on in this kind of situation, we'll look at what happens if we
have a population of cells which doubles in size every hour. We'll suppose that there are 1000
cells at the time when we start measuring. Then after 1 hour we would have 2000 cells, after 2
hours we would have 4000 cells, and so on. (We will assume that the growth process is taking
place as smoothly as possible, so that particular groups of cells don't all double at the same
instant, and that conditions remain favourable for this continued growth. When the nutrients
start to run out, this mathematical description of what is happening will break down.)
We could make the table shown below to show the number of cells present at particular
instants in time, measured from a starting value of t = 0 when there are one thousand cells.
(I am using the letter t to stand for time as this is the usual choice.) Then x, the number of
thousands of cells present, is a function of t.
1
t (time in hours) –2 –1 0 2 1 2 3 4
x (number of cells in thousands) 1 2 4
116 Relations and functions
I have left some gaps in the table. Try filling in these for yourself, in the following
order:
(a) the numbers of thousands of cells which will be present after 3 hours and after 4
hours,
(b) the number of thousands of cells present both 1 hour and 2 hours before the
measuring started,
(c) the number of thousands of cells present after half an hour.
(a) For this, you should have 8000 after 3 hours and 16 000 after 4 hours, giving x = 8
and x = 16. The rule that gives you these answers is x = 2t.
1
(b) For this, you should have x = 2 when t = –1, meaning that there were 500 cells
1
present 1 hour before measuring started, and x = 4 when t = –2, meaning there were
250 cells present 2 hours before the measuring started. These numbers fit in with
the meanings which we gave to negative powers in Section 1.D.(b).
(c) From Section 1.D.(b), too, we take 21/2 as meaning 2 so that there will be about
1414 cells after half an hour. You should go through this section now if you are
unsure about these last results.
I show in Figure 3.C.1 a sketch of what happens if we plot the first seven of these pairs
of values.
Figure 3.C.1
They appear to form part of a smooth curve, so it would seem reasonable to join them
up in this way since it shows very well what is happening physically. We could then use the
curve to read off values for 2t which come between the points which we have plotted. (It's
worth mentioning very briefly here that if the process of doubling is not smooth, so that it
goes in definite steps like the numbers of people involved in a game which starts with one
person picking a partner, and then both these people picking partners and so on, then the
mathematical description of what is going on will be very different. We shall look at this
situation in Section 6.C. Then, later on in Section 8.B.(a), we look at what happens if you
start with stepped time intervals, but then make these intervals smaller and smaller, so that
you are getting closer and closer to a continuous process – something which is at the heart
of the maths of the physical world.)
3.C Exponential and log functions 117
Now try answering the following questions yourself.
(1) How many cells will there be after 5 hours?
1
(2) How many cells are there after 12 hours?
(3) How long is it until there are 16 000 cells?
(4) How long is it until there are 64 000 cells?
As you answer these four questions, you will probably guess what I'm working towards
here. The answers go as follows.
(1) There will be 32 000 cells after 5 hours (that is, 1000 25 ).
1
(2) After 12 hours there will be approximately 2828 cells (that is, 1000 23/2 ), using
a calculator for 23/2 and giving the answer to the nearest whole number.
(3) It takes 4 hours to get 16 000 cells because 1000 24 = 16 000.
(4) It takes 6 hours to get 64 000 cells because 1000 26 = 64 000.
The last two questions are put the other way round from the first two so that, to find the
answers, you have to go back from a known x to find the t which gave it. In other words, you
are using the inverse function of x = 2t.
So what is this inverse function that you are using?
The answer to this question is so important that it needs a section of its own.
3.C.(b) The inverse of a growth function: log functions
This inverse function has to describe 16 = 24 giving us the power 4, and 64 = 26 giving us
the power 6. It is the inverse function of x = 2t and we call it log to the base 2.
If x = f (t) = 2t then f –1 (t) = log2 t.
Because any function and its inverse also work opposite ways round, it is also true
that if f –1 (t) = log2 t then f (t) = 2t.
I show a sketch of x = 2t and its inverse function of x = log2 t in Figure 3.C.2.
Figure 3.C.2
118 Relations and functions
We know that these curves work well for giving a description of what is happening
physically. We can't therefore allow negative roots here, since these would give us points
1
which would not lie on the curve of x = 2t. (For example, we don't want x = – 2 when t = 2.)
For this reason we only include positive roots, meaning that our inverse function is safe.
This means that we can only have logs of positive numbers.
3.C.(c) Finding the logs of some particular numbers
Many students find logs rather alarming. They are so important in applications that it's
important for you not to be scared of them, so now we will look at some particular examples
of how they actually work.
We have already seen the particular cases of log2 (24 ) = 4 and log2 (26 ) = 6 from the
answers to questions (3) and (4) in the previous section.
We can say that if some number n = 2t then t = log2 n.
This means that if we can write any particular number as a power of 2 then it is very easy
to write down its log to base 2. Here are two examples.
(1) 128 = 27 so log2 (128) = 7 and (2) 1/8 = 1/23 = 2–3 so log2 (1/8) = –3.
exercise 3.c.1 Some of the questions in this exercise use the special results for powers from
Section 1.D.(b) – you may need to go back to these before you do them.
(1) Try finding the logs to base 2 of the following yourself.
1 1
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 2 (d) 1 (e) 2 (f ) 4
(2) Logs to other bases work in exactly the same sort of way.
For example, 27 = 33 so log3 27 = 3.
Try finding the logs to base 3 of the following numbers yourself.
1 1 1
(a) 9 (b) 81 (c) 27 (d) 3 (e) 1 (f ) 3 (g) 9 (h) 27 (i) 3
(3) Now try finding the logs to base 10 of these numbers.
1
(a) 100 (b) 1000 (c) 10 (d) 1 (e) 10 (f ) 0.01
Some important points come out of the answers to this exercise. This is the first.
It is always true that loga a = 1 and loga 1 = 0 for any base a.
We'll also widen the definition of logs to a general base, here.
If x = a t then t = loga x and if t = loga x then x = a t.
Also, logs to base 10 are given on your calculator, because we count in base 10. This
means that you can get the same answers to question (3) above by using your calculator –
do this, just to check. You will need to use the key marked 'lg' or 'log'. (The one marked
'ln' or 'loge' will give you a different sort of log which I'll come to in Section 3.C.(e).)
Because logs to base 10 are so common, we don't usually bother to write the little 10 below.
Your calculator will also give you values for all those in-between points on the smooth curve
of x = log10 t where we can't work out the answers in the way we've done the ones above.
We can't explain mathematically how it does this yet.
3.C Exponential and log functions 119
3.C.(d) The three laws or rules for logs
In Section 1.D.(a) we wrote down the three rules for working with powers. These are as
follows:
Rule (1) a m an = am + n
Rule (2) a m an = am – n
Rule (3) (a m )n = a mn
We showed there that they worked for whole number powers, and said that they do, in
fact, work for any values of m and n provided that a ≠ 0. We can't yet show that this is true
though at least now we have a mental picture of the graph of x = a t to give us some idea of
how the intermediate values work. Our next results come from assuming that the three laws
above are indeed true.
The special striking property of these three laws of powers is that they make things easier.
They write a multiplication in the form of an addition, a division in the form of a subtraction,
and raising to a power in the form of a multiplication.
Because logs are the inverses of powers, they also have this property of making things
nicer. Through the three rules for powers, we get the three rules for logs which I have put
in a box below.
The three rules for working with logs
Rule (1) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
x
Rule (2) loga = loga x – loga y
y
Rule (3) loga (x n ) = n loga x
I will show you through a numerical example how the first rule for logs comes from the
first rule for powers.
Suppose we have log3 (9 81).
Then Rule (1) says that log3 (9 81) = log3 9 + log3 81.
Can we show by using the first rule of powers that the LHS is equal to the RHS above?
We know that 9 = 32 and 81 = 34 so we can say that log3 9 = log3 (32 ) = 2 and
log3 81 = log3 (34 ) = 4.
Therefore the RHS = log3 9 + log3 81 = 2 + 4 = 6.
We can also say that the LHS = log3 (9 81) = log3 (32 34 ) = log3 (32+4 ) = 2 + 4 = 6.
Therefore we have shown that the RHS is equal to the LHS.
In exactly the same way, suppose we have loga (xy) and we rewrite each of x and y as
powers of a, so that x = a m and y = a n.
This then means that m = loga x and n = loga y. Then
loga (xy) = loga (a m a n ) = loga (a m + n ) (from the first rule)
= m + n = loga x + loga y.
120 Relations and functions
!
We can see from what we have just done that it cannot be true that loga (x + y)
= loga x + loga y (except for the very special case when xy = x + y).
We can show similarly that loga (x/y) = loga x – loga y.
Again, we start by looking at a numerical example.
Can you show that log2 (32/4) = log2 32 – log2 4?
We can say that log2 (32/4) = log2 (25/22 ) = log2 (25–2 ) = 5 – 2 = 3.
Also log2 32 – log2 4 = log2 25 – log2 22 = 5 – 2 = 3.
Therefore the LHS above is equal to the RHS.
Now we show in a more general way that
x
loga = loga x – loga y.
y
We rewrite x as a m and y as a n as we did before. Then loga x = m and loga y = n. So
x am
loga = loga n
= loga (a m – n ) (from Rule (2))
y a
= m – n = loga x – loga y.
Finally, we look at loga x n.
Taking a numerical example first, can you show that log2 (84 ) = 4log2 8?
You can say that 84 = (23 )4 = 212 from Rule (3), so log2 84 = log2 212 = 12.
Also, log2 8 = log2 23 = 3, so 4 log2 8 = 4 3 = 12.
Therefore, log2 (84 ) = 4 log2 8.
We now show in a more general way that
loga x n = n loga x.
We rewrite x as a m, so m = loga x.
Now, we have loga (a m )n = loga (a mn ) (from Rule (3)) = mn = nloga x.
A little piece of history
Before calculators were invented, the multiplication and particularly the division of large
numbers were very tedious and time-consuming processes. However, it was realised that if
the numbers could be written as powers of 10, the processes could be converted into addition
instead of multiplication, and, even better, subtraction instead of division. Books with tables
of these corresponding powers were published, to use for these calculations.
You can relive the experience of past days by using logs to divide 231.4 by 27.2.
First, find the logs of the two numbers on your calculator, then subtract the second from
the first, and finally do INV log or SHIFT log. You get the result 8.5074 to 4 d.p., an answer
which you, of course, can obtain far more quickly by simply feeding in the original numbers
and pressing the ÷ button. Back in those days, finding the logs from log tables and then
subtracting them was vastly preferable to the alternative of long division. Calculators are a
great blessing for those faced with complicated arithmetic.
3.C Exponential and log functions 121
For you, the three rules or laws of logs will be of great importance when you are solving
physical problems. They can be used either for splitting expressions up or for combining
separate logs together. Being able to rearrange in both directions is important so I will give
two examples of each.
In the first two, we split up as far as possible.
example (1) log2 8x 2 = log2 8 + log2 x 2 = log2 23 + 2 log2 x = 3 + 2 log2 x.
example (2) log2 (3x 2/y 3 ) = log2 (3x 2 ) – log2 (y 3 ) = log2 3 + log2 x 2 – log2 y 3
= log2 3 + 2 log2 x – 3 log2 y.
In the second two examples, we combine as far as possible.
example (3) log2 3 + 4 log2 x = log2 3 + log2 x 4 = log2 (3x 4 ).
x2 + 1
example (4) log10 (x 2 + 1) – log10 (x 2 – 1) = log10 .
x2 – 1
You can't split the insides of the brackets here!
exercise 3.c.2 (1) Use the rules of logs to split the following expressions up into separate logs
(or numbers) as much as possible.
(a) log3 3x (b) log3 27x 2
(c) log3 (x/y) (d) log3 (x 2/a 2 )
(e) log3 (ax n ) (f ) log3 (9a x ) (g) log3 (2x + 3y)
(2) Combine the logs in the following as far as possible, using the laws of logs.
(a) log10 x + log10 (x – 1) (b) 2 log10 x – log10 y
(c) log10 (x + 1) – log10 (x – 1) (d) 3 log10 x + 2 log10 y
3.C.(e) What are 'e' and 'exp'? A brief introduction
In the physical example of cell growth in Section 3.C.(a), the number of cells present at any
particular time t was given by the equation x = 2t. Also, the rate of increase of this number
of cells was directly proportional to the number of cells present at any particular time. Using
the ideas of Section 3.A.(a), we could say that
the rate of increase = k (the number of cells present)
where k is some constant. (We aren't yet in a position to work out the value of this constant
– this has to wait until Section 8.F.(d).)
The special and particular property of the number e is that the rate of growth at any
instant of a quantity x given by x = e t is actually equal to x itself. The constant of
proportionality, k, is equal to 1, which greatly simplifies many situations. We can't go into
what this will mean mathematically until Section 8.B, but because functions involving e are
of central importance in describing many physical processes, you are likely to meet them
early on in your course. This is why I'm putting in this brief introduction for you here.
The value of e lies between 2 and 3, and its value to 3 d.p. is 2.718. (It is a number like
π which cannot be written with an exact numerical value.)
The curve of x = e t lies between the curves of x = 2t and x = 3t. I show this in
Figure 3.C.3.
122 Relations and functions
Figure 3.C.3
Notice that all the curves pass through the point (0,1), because 20 = e 0 = 30 = 1.
You may sometimes see e t written as exp(t). (The 'exp' is short for 'exponent'.) This
notation is particularly useful if you have a complicated power of e because it makes it much
easier to read than the tiny writing of a power.
!
The word 'exp' is also sometimes used by calculators when they display very
large or very small numbers in scientific notation. For example, 314 000
might be displayed as 3.14 EXP 5, meaning 314 000 = 3.14 105, or
0.00176 might be displayed as 1.76 EXP –3, meaning 0.00176 = 1.76 10–3.
When 'exp' is used like this, it is referring to powers of 10 not e.
Calculators also sometimes use a gap instead of putting 'exp' when they are displaying
numbers in scientific notation. They may also write the power of 10 raised above the level
of the number. It is important for you to know how your own calculator does this. If you are
at all unsure, put in (600 000)2. This is 3.6 1011 in scientific notation, and you will be able
to see just how your calculator displays the 3.6 and the 11. (Your calculator will display this
number in this way because it is too large for the conventional display.)
Logs to base e are written as 'ln' or 'loge'. They are often shown as 'ln' on calculators.
Because the behaviour of e t and therefore of ln t is so special, these logs are often called
natural logs. We can say
if x = e t then t = ln x
and
if t = ln x then x = e t.
3.C Exponential and log functions 123
One example of how e creeps into physical laws is given by the value of the constant k
which we referred to at the beginning of this section. We shall show in Section 8.F.(d) that
k = ln 2.
I show a sketch of x = e t and its inverse function of x = ln t in Figure 3.C.4.
Figure 3.C.4
thinking
If you plot the curve of y = e x as accurately as possible on graph paper,
point taking values of x between 0 and 4 inclusive, you will be able to see more
clearly how the curve builds up. (You can fill in as many intermediate
points as you wish, using the e x button on your calculator. The curve of
y = e x is exactly the same as that for x = e t. We are just using different
letters.)
You will see that the steepness of the curve is changing smoothly as the
value of x increases. Clearly this is a very different situation from the
graphs of straight lines where the steepness, or rate of change of y with
respect to x, remains the same, and they have a constant gradient.
Can you think of a way of estimating the steepness or rate of change of
the curve of y = e x when x = 1.5, by drawing in a straight line and
finding its gradient? (If you choose different scales on the two axes, be
careful to allow for this when you find the gradient of the line.)
What answer do you expect to get?
3.C.(f ) Negative exponential functions – describing population decay
The situations represented by the graphs of x = 2t and x = e t are examples of what is called
exponential growth.
What would the graphs of x = 2–t or x = e –t represent?
124 Relations and functions
I show some values for x = 2–t in the table below.
t –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
x 8 4 2 1 2 4 8 16
You will see that the values match those of the table on page 114 except that they have
been switched either side of t = 0.
I have drawn a sketch of the graphs of x = 2–t and x = 2t together on the same axes in
Figure 3.C.5(a). This shows that they are mirror images of each other in the vertical axis.
In Figure 3.C.5(b), I have sketched the two graphs of x = e t and x = e –t. These, like all
similar pairs of equations, also form a pair of mirror images of each other in the vertical
axis. These mirror images will always intersect each other at the point (0,1) since a 0 = 1 for
all non-zero values of a.
Figure 3.C.5
!
Don't confuse the graph of x = e –t with the graph of x = – e t. The second of
these is the same as the graph of x = e t except that every value of x has now
become negative. Therefore it is the same as the graph of x = e t reflected in
the horizontal axis.
The graph of x = 2–t could represent the radioactive decay of 1 tonne of a substance with
a half-life of one hour. (This means that during each hour the mass of the substance becomes
half what it was at the beginning of that hour. The total mass of substance present will
probably not change very much since most radioactive elements decay into another element
with a very similar mass.) The left-hand side of the graph then shows the mass of the
substance present at various times before the instant when we started measuring. These times
therefore have negative values.
3.C Exponential and log functions 125
This graph represents what is called the exponential decay of the substance.
We shall look at this kind of situation in more detail in the first example in Section
9.C.(b).
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms
The use of logs gives us an extremely powerful method for analysing experimental
results to reveal underlying physical laws of relationship. This section describes how this
works. There are some practical applications of these methods to physical examples in
Section 9.C.(b), where we look at how we can solve some equations involving rates of
change.
3.D.(a) Relationships of the form y = ax n
Suppose that we have a table of pairs of experimental measurements x and y, and we suspect
that there is a relationship between x and y of the form y = ax n, where a and n are two
constants which we want to find out.
If our suspicion is correct, and we plot the points given by the pairs on graph paper, we
will find that they appear to lie on or close to a curve similar to the sketch I have shown in
Figure 3.D.1 (unless n = 1 when we will have the straight line y = ax).
Figure 3.D.1
But this curve will take us no further forward since we can't see from it what its equation
is, and so we can't find out from it what a and n are.
However, we know that we can get information from a straight line. If we have a straight
line with the equation y = mx + c then m is the gradient of the line, and c is its y intercept.
(Look in Sections 2.B.(d) and (e) if necessary.)
If we can somehow convert the curve into a straight line, we shall be able to read useful
information from it.
How can we do this?
We can take logs of both sides of the equation y = ax n. We do this usually either to base
10, or by finding natural logs (i.e. to base e), since these are the two possibilities given on
calculators. In my example, I use logs to base 10.
Then we use the laws of logs to write this new equation in a simpler form.
126 Relations and functions
These three laws or rules of logs come in Section 3.C.(d). As we shall be using them a
lot here, I have put them in again for you.
The three laws of logs
log(ab) = log a + log b
log(a/b) = log a – log b
log(a n ) = n log a
To fit any of these laws, all the logs involved must be taken to the same base.
! Remember that log(a + b) is not equal to log a + log b.
If we take logs on both sides of the equation y = ax n, we get
log y = log(ax n ) = log a + log(x n ) = n log x + log a.
Now we compare this with the equation of a straight line, Y = mX + c.
I've put this in a box for you as it is important.
Finding a linear form for y = ax n
Taking logs gives log y = n log x + log a.
Comparing this with Y = mX + c gives
Y = log y, X = log x, m = n and c = log a.
So we can now see that if the physical relationship is of the form y = ax n then we should
get an approximate straight line if we plot log y against log x. (I say 'approximate' because
if these are experimental values there is likely to be some error in the measurements.)
Drawing a line of best fit through the points will give us something similar to the
sketch I have shown in Figure 3.D.2(a). The reason for drawing this line of best fit is that
it evens out the inaccuracies as much as possible since it uses all the data that we have.
Trying to calculate an equation from just two of the pairs of values which we found from
taking the logs would be less accurate. Sometimes you may draw this line in by eye, or
in some cases you may do the job more accurately by finding a regression line, in which
case you will be able to write down the values for c = log a and m = n immediately from
its equation.
If you have drawn a line of best fit by eye, you will now have to use it to find your c and
m, so I will explain to you next how you would do this from your graph.
This graph will look similar to my drawing of Figure 3.D.2(a).
In Figure 3.D.2(b), I show a sketch on which I have put some numerical values, so that
I can more easily explain to you the process for the next stage.
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms 127
Figure 3.D.2
Firstly, we use the graph to find the value of c. This is given by reading off the value of
the Y-intercept. This gives us c = log a in (a) and c = log a = 1.8 in the numerical example
of (b), so a = 63 to 2 s.f.
Secondly, because we now have a straight line, we can find its gradient by using any two
points lying on the line. (This is explained in Section 2.B.(d).) Because this is a line of best fit,
it may be that neither of these points corresponds to an actual pair of plotted measurements.
The gradient is given by PR/QR in (a), and 2.4/0.8 = 3 giving n = 3 in (b).
The graph of Figure 3.D.2(b) would give us the result that the pairs of measurements x and
y are linked by the relationship y = 63x 3.
!
Remember that you must take account of the scales that you have used on
your horizontal and vertical axes when you work out the gradient of your
line. You can't do it simply from the graph paper squares.
Dealing with a possibly tricky situation
In order to make the best use of the pairs of measurements that you have, it is often better
to use only the parts of the scales which cover the range of your measurements, rather than
showing the entire scale from zero at the origin. The convention for showing that you have
done this is to use a zig-zag at the origin as I have done on my X-axis in Figure 3.D.3.
Figure 3.D.3
128 Relations and functions
It's quite easy to find the gradient of the line here, as it is
2.1 – 1.5 1
= .
10.52 – 8.12 4
!
The tricky bit is finding the Y-intercept correctly. It isn't 1.2 because of the
break in the x-axis which means that it is not true that Y = 1.2 when X = 0.
1
But, since we now know that the gradient of the line is 4 , we know that its
1
equation is Y = 4 X + c.
We also know that Y = 1.5 when X = 8.12, so c = 1.5 – 2.03 = –0.53.
But c = log a so a = 0.295 and we have the equation linking the
measurements as y = 0.295x 1/4.
3.D.(b) Relationships of the form y = an x
Suppose we have a table of pairs of experimental measurements x and y, and this time we
suspect there is a relationship between them of the form y = an x where, as before, a and n
are two constants for which we want to find the value.
Just like last time, if this relationship is true, plotting y against x will give us a curve from
which we can obtain no further information except that there does seem to be some form of
relationship.
Try taking logs of both sides of the equation y = ax n yourself, and see if you can
work out what we should make X and Y be so that we get a straight line when we plot
Y against X.
Taking logs of both sides of the equation y = an x, you should have
log y = log(an x ) = log a + log(n x ) = x log n + log a.
I've put the next part of the working in a box for you, so that it is easy to refer to when you
need it. This is what you should have found.
Finding a linear form for y = an x
Taking logs gives log y = x log n + log a.
Comparing this with Y = mX + c gives
Y = log y, m = log n, X = x and c = log a.
Therefore, plotting Y = log y against X = x should give us a straight line if our suspicion
is correct.
Doing this will give us a sketch similar to Figure 3.D.4(a).
Again, I have shown a numerical example in Figure 3.D.4(b).
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms 129
Figure 3.D.4
From Figure 3.D.4(a) we have c = log a and m = log n = PR/RQ.
1
From Figure 3.D.4(b) we have log a = 2.3 so a = 200 to 2 s.f. and m = log n = 9
so n = 1.3 to 2 s.f.
This would mean the original relationship in this case was y = 200(1.3x ).
If we do not know which of these forms the relationship has, then it would be sensible
to try both log y against log x, and log y against x, in the hope of getting a straight line.
It is possible to do this by using special log/linear or log/log graph paper, which saves you
having to do the logging yourself.
The log scales are in powers of 10 called cycles, so you would choose the number of
cycles according to the range of measurements you need to cover. For example, if this range
runs from 27 to 1540, then you would need the three cycles 10–100, 100–1000 and
1000–10 000.
3.D.(c) What can we do if logs are no help?
Unfortunately, it isn't possible to bring all relationships to a linear form by taking logs both
sides.
For example, if we suspect a relationship of the form y = a + bx 2, taking logs both sides
does not help us since log(a + bx 2 ) cannot be split up, and so the values of a and b will
remain hidden inside the log.
!
It isn't true that log(a + bx 2 ) is the same as log a + log(bx 2 ).
If you think this should be true, go quickly back to Section 3.C.(d) and sort
out these risky ideas.
All is not lost in the search for the values of a and b.
If you compare y = a + bx 2 with Y = mX + c, what could you choose for Y and X for the
points to lie on a straight line?
How would you then find the values of a and b from this straight line?
130 Relations and functions
Plotting Y = y against X = x 2 will give a straight line if the relationship is y = a + bx 2.
In this case, a is the y intercept, and b is the gradient of this line.
This may seem surprising so I will show you that it works by taking the example of
y = 3 + 2x 2 (which you will recognise gives the left-hand sketch of Figure 3.D.5(a)).
Plotting y against x 2 from the table of values in Figure 3.D.5(b) gives the straight line
shown in Figure 3.D.5(c).
Figure 3.D.5
This straight line has a y intercept of 3 and its gradient is (11 – 3)/4 = 2, so a = 3 and b = 2,
giving us the equation we know we should have of y = 3 + 2x 2.
If you suspected a relationship of the form (1) y = a + bx 3 or (2) y = a + b x what would
you plot in each case in order to get a straight line if your theory is correct?
For (1), you would try plotting values of y against values of x 3.
For (2), you would try plotting values of y against values of x.
You will see that the problem we have here is that, in order to get the straight line, we
need to know what power of x is involved. In the first example which we looked at, the logs
took care of that problem for us.
3.D Unveiling secrets – logs and linear forms 131
4 Some trigonometry and geometry
of triangles and circles
This chapter reminds you of what trig is for, and how it works in triangles. It also
explains some of the special geometrical properties of triangles and circles, because
they may be very useful to you in applications of maths to your own special subject
area.
The chapter is divided into the following sections.
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles
(a) Why use trig ratios? (b) Pythagoras' Theorem,
(c) General properties of triangles, (d) Triangles with particular shapes,
(e) Congruent triangles – what are they, and when?
(f ) Matching ratios given by parallel lines,
(g) Special cases – the sin, cos and tan of 30°, 45° and 60°,
(h) Special relations of sin, cos and tan
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry
(a) The Sine Rule for any triangle, (b) Another area formula for triangles,
(c) The Cosine Rule for any triangle
4.C Circles
(a) The parts of a circle, (b) Special properties of chords and tangents of circles,
(c) Special properties of angles in circles,
(d) Finding and working with the equations which give circles,
(e) Circles and straight lines – the different possibilities,
(f ) Finding the equations of tangents to circles
4.D Using radians
(a) Measuring angles in radians,
(b) Finding the perimeter and area of a sector of a circle,
(c) Finding the area of a segment of a circle,
(d) What do we do if the angle is given in degrees?
(e) Very small angles in radians – why we like them
4.E Tidying up – some thinking points returned to
(a) The sum of interior and exterior angles of polygons,
(b) Can we draw circles round all triangles and quadrilaterals?
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles
4.A.(a) Why use trig ratios?
When you began learning trigonometry (often referred to as 'trig'), you will have started by
working with right-angled triangles. Since my policy is to make sure of the groundwork for
each topic before going further, I will start from here, too.
We begin by looking at the right-angled triangle ABC shown in Figure 4.A.1.
132 Some trigonometry and geometry
Figure 4.A.1
We will describe the sides of this triangle by their position relative to the angle at A.
BC is the side opposite to angle A (opp. for short).
AC is the side adjacent to angle A (adj. for short).
(The word 'adjacent' means 'lying next to').
AB is the longest side, opposite to the right angle. It is called the hypotenuse (hyp. for
short).
Then we give particular names to each of the ratios of the different pairs of sides. We say:
BC opp. AC adj. BC opp.
sin A = = , cos A = = , tan A = = .
AB hyp. AB hyp. AC adj.
To do the thing thoroughly, the ratios obtained by turning the above three ratios upside
down are also given names as follows:
1 AB 1 AB 1 AC
= = cosec A, = = sec A, = = cot A.
sin A BC cos A AC tan A BC
These three ratios are the reciprocals of the first three ratios.
(Sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec and cot are all shortened versions of longer names which are
relatively rarely used. They are, in the same order, sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant and
cotangent.)
The question now is why did anyone think these different ratios so important that they
ought to be given special names? We can see the answer to this by looking at the triangles
in Figure 4.A.2 which are nested into each other because they are the same shape. Only their
Figure 4.A.2
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 133
size is different. Triangles ADE and AFG are enlargements of triangle ABC. It is as though
triangle ABC is stretched out into these larger triangles under a constant pull, so that all the
proportions stay the same. (If it is some time since you did any trig, you may find that it
helps you to draw in the outlines of the three triangles in three different colours.)
From the lengths shown on the triangles, how long will the sides AE, AD, AG and
AF be?
Triangle ADE has sides which are all twice as long as triangle ABC, since it is just a
scaled-up version of triangle ABC. So AE = 8 and AD = 10 units long.
Similarly, triangle AFG is scaled up by a factor of 4, so AG = 16 units and AF = 20 units
long.
Next, we write down the values of sin A, cos A and tan A in these three triangles.
I have left some blank for you to fill in because you will then see why they are so
important.
In ABC,
3 4 3
sin A = , cos A = , tan A = .
5 5 4
In ADE,
6 3 8 3
sin A = = , cos A = = , tan A = = .
10 5 5 8
In AFG,
12 3
sin A = = , cos A = = , tan A = = .
20 5
We see that the fractions or ratios giving the sin, cos and tan of angle A remain the same,
although the sizes of the triangles are different. It is this property of remaining constant for
a given angle, whatever the scale of the triangle that the angle is in, which makes these
ratios so important.
Practically, it makes it possible to find heights or depths in situations where we can't
make these measurements directly. For example, if we wish to find the height of a tree, it can
be done by measuring the distance to the foot of the tree, and the angle of elevation E to the
top of the tree. We can then use the tan of this angle of elevation to find its height.
Figure 4.A.3
134 Some trigonometry and geometry
In the case shown in Figure 4.A.3 we would have:
H
tan 38° = so H = 20 tan 38° = 15.6 m to 1 d.p.
20
There are two standard ways of measuring angles. They can be measured in
note
degrees, where 90° is a right angle, as shown in Figure 4.A.4 below. Then
180° is a straight line, and 360° is a full turn.
Figure 4.A.4
Angles can also be measured in radians which are described later on in
this chapter in Section 4.D.(a).
There is a third way of measuring angles on your calculator (called grad),
which is very rarely used.
The ratios for any sin, cos or tan are programmed into your calculator so
that you can then use them to find either unknown angles, or the lengths of
unknown sides of triangles.
Here's a quick revision of how the working out goes, just in case you haven't used it for
some time.
example (1) Find the length of PR in triangle PQR, in which the length of QR =
5 cm and the angle P is 32°. I show a sketch of this in Figure 4.A.5.
Figure 4.A.5
If we let PR = h, we have sin P = 5/h = sin 32°, so
h sin 32° = 5
and
5
h= = 9.44 cm to 3 significant figures (s.f.).
sin 32°
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 135
example (2) Find angle b in triangle ABC in Figure 4.A.6, if AB = 7 m and
BC = 4 m.
Figure 4.A.6
We have cos b = 4/7 so b = 55.2° to 1 d.p. (using INV cos or
SHIFT cos or 2nd/F cos on the calculator to find the angle with the
known cos). This angle is cos–1 (4/7), where cos–1 stands for 'the angle
whose cos is'. (We shall look at this in more detail in Section 5.A.(g).)
exercise 4.a.1 For completeness, I have included this exercise on finding angles and lengths of
sides in right-angled triangles. If you are at all unsure that you remember how to
do these, this exercise gives you something to check against.
(A) If the sketches in Figure 4.A.7 all show triangles with lengths given in
centimetres find the lengths of the sides marked with a letter to 2 d.p.
Figure 4.A.7
(B) Find the marked angles in these triangles giving your answers in degrees to
one decimal place (Figure 4.A.8).
Figure 4.A.8
136 Some trigonometry and geometry
Comparing the areas of the triangles in Figure 4.A.2
Returning to the three nested triangles of Figure 4.A.2, we know that the lengths of the
matching sides go in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 4 as we move from the smallest triangle to the largest
triangle.
How do their areas compare? Do they also go 1 : 2 : 4?
Figure 4.A.9
Each triangle is half a rectangle as you can see from Figure 4.A.9. Using to stand for
'triangle', we have
1
ABC = 2 4 3 = 6 square units,
1
ADE = 2 8 6 = 24 square units,
1
AFG = 2 16 12 = 96 square units.
The ratio of the areas is given by
ABC : ADE : AFG = 6 : 24 : 96
= 1 : 4 : 16
= 12 : 22 : 42.
The ratio of the areas is the same as the ratio of the lengths squared, which makes sense
as the area is found from multiplying two lengths together. So, for example, if each length
has been doubled, the area will be four times larger.
4.A.(b) Pythagoras' Theorem
You will almost certainly have recognised the smallest triangle in Figure 4.A.2 as having
sides of the smallest whole numbers which fit Pythagoras' Theorem. This says that the
square on the longest side (or hypotenuse) of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides.
(In this particular case, we have 52 = 32 + 42.)
The ancient Egyptians knew that they could use a 3, 4, 5 triangle to give them a square
corner to true their buildings.
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 137
We can see that Pythagoras' Theorem must be true for any right-angled triangle from the
pair of drawings in Figure 4.A.10.
Figure 4.A.10
This beautiful visual proof was first given in an old Chinese text.
It is based on the symmetry of the four triangles all sitting on the sides of the square on
their longest sides so that together they form a larger square. The larger square is then
rearranged to give the same four triangles and the two squares on each of the shorter
sides.
A similar proof by rearrangement was given by the twelfth-century Hindu mathema-
tician, Bhoskara. Underneath his drawing he wrote the single word 'Behold!'.
Two other examples of right-angled triangles in which the sides are whole numbers are
given by 5, 12 and 13 units, and 8, 15 and 17 units, because 52 + 122 = 132 and 82 + 152
= 172.
Sets of three whole numbers like these are called Pythagorean triples, and there are, in
fact, infinitely many of them. In the huge majority of cases, however, the sides of right-
angled triangles are not all exact numbers, and therefore involve those irrational numbers
like 2 which caused Pythagoras such distress. (See Section 1.E.(d).)
Pythagoras' Theorem can be used to calculate the length of the third side of any right-
angled triangle if we know the other two.
Here are two examples.
In each of the two triangles in Figure 4.A.11 find the length of the third side.
Figure 4.A.11
In (a), h 2 = 72 + 242 = 49 + 576 = 625 so h = 25 units.
In (b), 102 = y 2 + 72 so 100 = y 2 + 49 and y 2 = 51 so y = 7.14 to 2 d.p.
exercise 4.a.2 Find the lengths of the third sides of each of the four triangles from Exercise 4.A.1
part (B).
138 Some trigonometry and geometry
4.A.(c) General properties of triangles
We have just seen that right-angled triangles have a remarkable special property. Do all
triangles have special properties regardless of their shape?
The most important property held in common by all triangles is that their interior angles
always add up to 180°.
This can be seen from the drawing shown in Figure 4.A.12.
Figure 4.A.12
We start with any triangle ABC, and then draw the line CE so it is parallel to AB. (The
two arrows on AB and CE are to show that these lines are parallel.)
Then the two angles marked a exactly slot into each other, and so do the two angles
marked b.
a + b + c makes a straight line, and so adds to 180°.
Therefore, the angles of the triangle must also add up to 180°.
We also see from this same diagram that, if we have a triangle with one side extended,
then the exterior angle e is equal to a + b, the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
This is shown drawn in on Figure 4.A.13.
Figure 4.A.13
4.A.(d) Triangles with particular shapes
Triangles can come in an infinite variety of shapes, but there are two particular types which
have specific names.
If a triangle has two sides equal then it is called isosceles (originally by the Greeks who
were very keen on geometry – 'iso' means 'equal' and 'sceles' means 'sides'.
'Trigonometry' also comes from the Greeks – 'trigono' is the Greek word for triangle.)
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 139
The two equal sides give these triangles a line of symmetry, so that one half folds exactly
on to the other half, and the pair of angles opposite the equal sides are also equal. The line
of symmetry divides the triangle into two equal right-angled triangles. (See Figure
4.A.14(a).) The little dashes are there to mark the two equal sides.
Figure 4.A.14
If a triangle has all three sides equal then it is called equilateral. Such a triangle is
pictured in Figure 4.A.14(b).
It will have three lines of symmetry as shown, and will fit exactly onto itself three times
in a complete turn. Therefore all its angles are equal, and so must be 60° each.
All equilateral triangles can nest into each other, in any chosen corner.
Some are shown here in Figure 4.A.15.
Figure 4.A.15
They are all similar to each other. ('Similar' in maths doesn't just mean 'more or less the
same as' but 'an exact scale model of' so that all the angles remain the same, and the pairs
of sides are all in the same proportion.)
4.A.(e) Congruent triangles – what are they, and when?
If two triangles are exactly the same size and shape so that they can be fitted onto each other
exactly, they are called congruent. In this case, they will obviously have three equal pairs
of angles and three equal pairs of sides. (It may be necessary to lift one triangle out of the
paper, and turn it over, in order to fit it exactly on top of the other one.)
How many measurements (and which ones) do you need to know are the same in order
to be sure that two triangles must be congruent?
In general, three pairs of equal measurements will be enough, provided that they are the
right pairs. See how many of these you can find – draw little sketches if necessary! (Things
are not always what they seem.)
140 Some trigonometry and geometry
Case (1) We have already seen that having three pairs of equal angles certainly isn't
enough. This would just mean that the triangles were similar.
Case (2) On the other hand, having three pairs of equal sides is certainly sufficient. The
triangles will then exactly match.
Case (3) If we have two pairs of equal angles, then the third pair of angles must be equal
since the angles of a triangle add to 180°. Just one pair of equal sides opposite same-sized
angles is then enough to tell us that the scale is the same, and so the two triangles are
congruent.
Case (4) If we have two pairs of equal sides and one pair of equal angles, then it all
depends where the angle is! You can see the danger in Figure 4.A.16. We are only safe if the
angles are between the matching sides (except for one case when it doesn't matter where the
matching pair is . . .).
Figure 4.A.16
Case (5) This special case is when the two equal angles are both right angles.
In practice, similar and congruent triangles often appear at a slant to each other.
One example of this is shown in Figure 4.A.17 below. The two congruent triangles shown
here, with one of them turned through 180° relative to the other one, fit together to form a
parallelogram.
Figure 4.A.17
If the two triangles are isosceles, as shown in Figure 4.A.18(a), then together they make
what is called a rhombus or diamond.
Figure 4.A.18
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 141
By showing the two axes of symmetry set horizontally and vertically, we see why this
shape is called a diamond, and also that the diagonals cut at right angles.
This is shown in Figure 4.A.18(b).
thinking
What do you get if you add up all the interior angles shown in this
point drawing of a six-sided figure? (See Figure 4.A.19(a)). Does it depend on
its shape?
What is the sum of its exterior angles? (See Figure 4.A.19(b).)
What would be the sum of the interior angles if the figure had n sides?
(It would then be what is called an n-sided polygon.)
What would be the sum of its exterior angles?
See if you can work out the answers yourself to these four questions.
(I give solutions later on in the chapter for you to check against.)
Figure 4.A.19
4.A.(f ) Matching ratios given by parallel lines
Here is another useful property of similar triangles.
Suppose we have two similar triangles nested into each other.
This is shown in Figure 4.A.20.
Figure 4.A.20
Then BC is parallel to DE. This is shown in the diagram by using little arrows.
142 Some trigonometry and geometry
Because the triangles are similar, corresponding pairs of sides are in the same proportion,
so we have
AD AE DE
= = .
AB AC BC
But AD/AB = AE/AC can be written as
AB + BD AC + CE
= .
AB AC
Also
AB + BD BD AC + CE CE
=1+ and =1+ .
AB AB AC AC
Therefore
BD CE AB AC
= or, equally, =
AB AC BD CE
turning both fractions upside down if we prefer them that way.
You will find that this property of parallel lines cutting off sections with the same ratio
is often very useful when working with problems involving similar physical shapes.
4.A.(g) Special cases – the sin, cos and tan of 30°, 45° and 60°
It is often useful to know the ratios of the sides of right-angled triangles which have
particularly simple divisions of 90° for the other two angles.
The two most useful ones are as follows:
(a) the ratios for all triangles which have angles of 90°, 45° and 45°,
(b) the ratios for all triangles which have angles of 90°, 60° and 30°.
(a) The 90°, 45°, 45° triangle is isosceles.
The simplest example is the one which has two equal sides of 1 unit, shown in
Figure 4.A.21(a).
Figure 4.A.21
By Pythagoras, h 2 = 12 + 12 = 2 so h = 2 so we have
1 1
sin 45° = cos 45° = and tan 45° = = 1.
2 1
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 143
(b) The 90°, 60°, 30° triangle is half of an equilateral triangle, so if we take 2 units for
each side, the base is conveniently divided into 1 unit for each side.
A sketch of this triangle is shown in Figure 4.A.21(b).
Again, we can find the vertical height by using Pythagoras' Theorem.
We have 22 = 12 + y 2 so y 2 = 3 and y = 3. This gives us
3 1
sin 60° = cos 30° = and cos 60° = sin 30° =
2 2
1
tan 60° = 3 and tan 30° = .
3
You will find that these exact values do also check with the decimal values given
on your calculator for these angles. (Make sure of this for yourself.)
4.A.(h) Special relations of sin, cos and tan
Are there any relationships between the sin, cos and tan of the two angles a and b which will
be true in any right-angled triangle?
Use the triangle shown in Figure 4.A.22 below to write down the sin, cos and tan of a and
b. Then see if you can find any connections between them.
Figure 4.A.22
You should have found the following relationships.
b = 90° – a because the angle sum of the triangle is 180°.
y x y 1
sin a = = cos b, cos a = = sin b, tan a = = .
h h x tan b
We see also that
sin a y/h y sin b
= = = tan a and = tan b.
cos a x/h x cos b
144 Some trigonometry and geometry
We also find a very nice relationship between the sin and cos of each of a and b which
comes directly from Pythagoras' Theorem. We have
x2 y2 h2
x2 + y2 = h2 so + = = 1.
h2 h2 h2
But
y2 x2
2
= sin2 a and 2
= cos2 a
h h
sin2 a + cos2 a = 1.
This is an enormously useful result and it is worth surrounding its box with bright
colour.
It is, of course, equally true that sin2 b + cos2 b = 1. Indeed, all the special relationships
which we have shown above will carry through truthfully when we move on to consider
general angles instead of just being restricted to angles between 0° and 90°.
sin2 a is the usual way that (sin a)2 is written. Equally, cos2 a means
note
(cos a)2 etc.
!
sin2 a is not the same as sin(a 2 ). For example, if a = 5°, then sin a =
0.0872 to 3 s.f. and sin2 a = 0.00760 to 3 s.f. but sin(a 2 ) = sin 25° = 0.423
to 3 s.f.
The last result which we found above has two offspring which are also often very useful.
We start with
sin2 a + cos2 a = 1. (1)
Dividing through by cos2 a we get
sin2 a cos2 a 1
2
+ 2
=
cos a cos a cos2 a
so
tan2 a + 1 = sec2 a. (2)
Starting again from (1), and dividing through by sin2 a, what do you get?
4.A Trigonometry in right-angled triangles 145
sin2 a cos2 a 1
2
+ 2
=
sin a sin a sin2 a
so
1 + cot2 a = cosec2 a. (3)
It's also worth surrounding (2) and (3) in bright colour.
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry
4.B.(a) The Sine Rule for any triangle
We are now in a good position to get trig formulas for any triangle, which we will then be
able to use to find unknown angles and sides.
We start this process by finding what is called the Sine Rule.
Figure 4.B.1
I have drawn a general-shaped sort of triangle in Figure 4.B.1. I have labelled the sides
with the lower case letter corresponding to the capital letter of the opposite angle. (This is
the usual way in which such labelling is done.)
I've also drawn in the perpendicular line AH (so that we shall have two right-angled
triangles to work from!). I have labelled its length h.
Then, in ABH,
h
sin B = so h = c sin B.
c
Write down for yourself the same sort of thing for sin C in AHC.
You will have
h
sin C = so h = b sin C.
b
So we can say c sin B = b sin C. Therefore,
c b
= .
sin C sin B
We could equally have drawn the triangle in such a way that we used A and a.
146 Some trigonometry and geometry
Therefore, by symmetry, we have
The Sine Rule
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
This applies to any triangle, and we can use it to calculate the lengths of unknown sides
and angles.
Here is an example of this.
In triangle ABC, B is 58°, C is 40° and the side AC is 6 m long. Calculate the lengths
of the unknown sides and angles.
We start by drawing a sketch. A sketch is important in any geometrical or physical
problem, because it gives you some idea of what you are looking for.
Figure 4.B.2
My sketch is Figure 4.B.2. I have labelled it in the same sort of way that I labelled the
original triangle. Also, although it is not accurate, I have tried to make it believable, so that
the angles of 58° and 40° are roughly the right size.
So now we start. What is A?
It is 180° –58° –40° = 82° because the angles of a triangle add to 180° (Section
4.A.(c)).
Now, to find a, we have
a 6 6
= so a = sin 82° = 7.01 m to 2 d.p.
sin 82° sin 58° sin 58°
To find c, we can say
c 6
= so c = 4.55 m to 2 d.p.
sin 40° sin 58°
(It is safer not to use the newly found length of a to find c just in case it has a mistake in
it.)
Finally, before going on, we look at the sketch to see if our answers seem reasonably
convincing for this particular triangle. They do, so we can proceed happily to the next thing,
which is an exercise on using the Sine Rule.
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry 147
exercise 4.b.1 Find, if possible, the missing sides and angles in each of the three triangles
whose measurements are given below, giving the angles in degrees to 1 d.p. and
the sides in centimetres to 2 d.p. In each case, start by drawing a labelled sketch,
as I did in the previous example. It's particularly important to do this exercise
because things are not always quite as they seem.
(1) Triangle ABC in which A = 78°, B = 65° and AB = 5 cm
(2) Triangle ABC in which C = 33°, BC = 6 cm and AB = 4 cm
(3) Triangle ABC in which C = 40°, AB = 9 cm and BC = 5 cm
4.B.(b) Another area formula for triangles
The most usual formula for the area of a triangle is
1
the area of the triangle = 2 base height.
You can see that this must be so from Figure 4.B.3 below which shows the triangle as half
a rectangle.
Figure 4.B.3
Sometimes it is useful to be able to write this area in another way. We know that
1
the area = 2 ah
but h = b sin C = c sin B as we saw when we proved the Sine Rule in Section 4.B.(a), above.
So, by symmetry,
1 1 1
the area = 2 ab sin C = 2 ac sin B = 2 bc sin A.
In words, we can say
The area of a triangle is equal to one half of any two sides multiplied together and
then multiplied by the sine of the angle between them.
Here is an example of the use of this new formula.
Find the area of the equilateral triangle ABC with sides of length 3 cm, shown in Figure
4.B.4.
148 Some trigonometry and geometry
Figure 4.B.4
Instead of having to mess around finding the vertical height, we can say that
1 9 3
the area = 2 3 3 sin 60° = = 3.90 cm2 to 2 d.p.
4
The new formula is particularly useful for finding the area of triangles enclosed by two
radius lengths in circles such as the one I've shown in Figure 4.B.5. I've marked the angle
with the Greek letter θ (called theta), since this is often used for angles.
Figure 4.B.5
1
The area of the triangle is 2 r 2 sin θ.
4.B.(c) The Cosine Rule for any triangle
Suppose we have a triangle in which we know the lengths of the three sides, and we want
to find its angles, like the one in Figure 4.B.6.
Figure 4.B.6
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry 149
The Sine Rule will be of no help to us here because it always involves two angles. But
there is a formula which will help us, which is called the Cosine or Cos Rule.
To get this, we start with a general-shaped triangle like we did with the Sine Rule,
and label it in the same sort of way, except that this time we let the length of BH = x.
(See Figure 4.B.7.)
Figure 4.B.7
In triangle ABH, using Pythagoras' Theorem, we have
c2 = h2 + x2 so x 2 = c 2 – h 2.
What is the length of CH using the given letters? Use this to write down how Pythagoras'
Theorem will go for AHC.
CH = a – x.
So, in AHC, we have
b 2 = h 2 + (a – x)2 = h 2 + a 2 + x 2 – 2ax.
But x 2 = c 2 – h 2, so we have
b 2 = h 2 + a 2 + c 2 – h 2 – 2ax = a 2 + c 2 – 2ax.
In ABH, what is cos B?
We have
x
cos B = so x = c cos B.
c
Therefore, we have
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 – 2ac cos B.
Equally, by symmetry, we have the two other formulas which we could have got by labelling
the triangle differently.
We now have the Cosine Rule for any triangle.
150 Some trigonometry and geometry
The Cosine Rule
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 – 2bc cos A (1)
b 2 = c 2 + a 2 – 2ac cos B (2)
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 – 2ab cos C (3)
Notice also that if we put A = 90° in (1) above, we get Pythagoras' Theorem for what is
now a right-angled triangle.
That is, we get a 2 = b 2 + c 2 because cos 90° = 0, so everything connects up as it should do.
Here is an example of using the Cosine Rule to find a side of a triangle. We will use it
to find a in ABC shown in Figure 4.B.8.
Figure 4.B.8
This triangle is another example of a case in which the Sine Rule will not give us what
we want. This is because the known facts slot into it in such a way that every possible
equation has two unknowns.
We would have
a 10 8
= = which is no use.
sin 72° sin B sin C
Using the Cosine Rule, we have a 2 = b 2 + c 2 – 2bc cos A.
Substituting the known values, this gives us a 2 = 64 + 100 – 160 cos 72° so a = 10.7
to 1 d.p.
If we want to find the angles of a triangle using the Cosine Rule, it will pay us to
rearrange the three formulas.
For example, we have a 2 = b 2 + c 2 – 2bc cos A so 2bc cos A = b 2 + c 2 – a 2.
Rearranging this gives us
b2 + c2 – a2
cos A = , (1)
2bc
2
c + a2 – b2
cos B = , (2)
2ca
2
a + b2 – c2
cos C = , (3)
2ab
shifting the letters round again in turn to give the other two formulas.
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry 151
We take the triangle from the beginning of this section to show the use of the Cosine
Rule to find its angles. It has sides of 5 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm and I show it again in
Figure 4.B.9.
Figure 4.B.9
We will now find the angles A, B and C. I want the angles to go in this way, which is why
my lettering of the triangle isn't the usual one.
Using the Cosine Rule to find A, we have
b2 + c2 – a2 49 + 81 – 25 105
cos A = = so cos A =
2bc 126 126
and A = 33.6° to 1 d.p. ( A = 33.56° to 2 d.p.)
Similarly, using the Cosine Rule again to find B we have
c2 + a2 – b2 81 + 25 – 49 57
cos B = = = so B = 50.7(0)° to 1 d.p.
2ca 90 90
Working with 2 d.p. to avoid a rounding error in the first decimal place, we can find the third
angle using the angle sum of the triangle.
This gives us C = 180° – 33.56 – 50.70° = 95.7° to 1 d.p. which is an angle greater than
90°.
Are we going to have the same problem that we had with the Sine Rule if we are dealing
with an angle which might be greater than 90°? Will we be unsure about the shape of the
triangle?
If we had used the Cosine Rule to find C we would have got
a2 + b2 – c2 25 + 49 – 81 7
cos C = = =– .
2ab 70 70
If you now use your calculator to find C (putting in the fraction complete with its minus
sign), you will find that you again get 95.7° to 1 d.p. so it agrees with what we know it
should be.
We find, using the Cosine Rule, that angles between 90° and 180° have a negative cos.
This means that there can't be any ambiguous cases from using the Cosine Rule – we will
know from the sign of the answer whether the angle we have found is less than 90° (acute),
or greater than 90° (obtuse).
We saw earlier that, if the angle A = 90°, then the Cosine Rule for angle A of
2
a = b 2 + c 2 – 2bc cos A becomes a 2 = b 2 + c 2 (that is Pythagoras' Theorem).
If the angle A is acute, we are taking something off b 2 + c 2 to get a 2.
If the angle A is obtuse, because cos A is then negative, we are adding something on to
2
b + c 2 to get a 2.
152 Some trigonometry and geometry
Figure 4.B.10
You can see from the three cases which I show in Figure 4.B.10 that this must happen in
order that the length of a will work out correctly in each case.
If you think that the angle you are finding may be obtuse, it is safer to use the Cosine Rule
if possible, rather than the Sine Rule.
I shall explain exactly what we mean by the cos of an angle greater than 90° in Section
5.A.(c).
exercise 4.b.2 Now try the following questions.
(1) Find the sides and angles marked with a question-mark in the three triangles
shown in Figure 4.B.11.
Figure 4.B.11
(2) Figure 4.B.12 shows a triangle formed by joining together the two halves of an
equilateral triangle by their shortest sides.
Figure 4.B.12
(a) How large are the angles Q and R?
(b) How large is QPR?
(c) Use the Cosine Rule in QPR to find the cos of QPR.
(d) Use the Sine Rule in QPR to find the sin of QPR.
4.B Widening the field in trigonometry 153
4.C Circles
4.C.(a) The parts of a circle
Once we start considering angles larger than 90°, we become involved with the circles which
are used to show their turn (Figure 4.C.1).
Figure 4.C.1
The convention is that angles are shown turning anticlockwise from the positive x-axis,
so that angles from 0° to 90° lie in the quarter-circle or quadrant where all measurements
are positive. (Bearings are not measured like this; they turn clockwise from a zero position
at due north.)
Because circles are intimately connected with the trigonometry of angles which are
greater than 90°, I am including a section specially devoted to them next.
I start with a reminder of the names of the parts of a circle which we shall need to use.
These are shown in Figure 4.C.2 and described underneath.
Figure 4.C.2
The whole curve of the circle is called the circumference.
Any line from the centre to the circumference is called a radius (plural: radii). Clearly,
from the symmetry of the circle, these are all the same length.
A line drawn right across a circle through its centre is called a diameter.
A line like AB drawn across a circle is called a chord, so a diameter is a special case
of a chord.
The curved piece of the circle from A to B is called an arc. The short way round from
A to B is called the minor arc, and the long way round is called the major arc.
154 Some trigonometry and geometry
The part of the circle enclosed between the minor arc AB and the chord AB is called
a minor segment. The rest of the circle is a major segment.
The shaded piece shown in circle (c) is called a minor sector. The rest of the circle is
called a major sector.
To avoid mixing up segments and sectors, you can remember that 'a sector is like a piece
of cake because it's got a "c" in it'.
If the radius of the circle is r, then the length of the circumference is 2πr, and the area
of the circle is πr 2. π is a number which cannot be written exactly as a fraction (though 22/7
is sometimes used as an approximation to it.) To 4 d.p. it is 3.1412. As a decimal, it is non-
repeating, and has been calculated to a huge number of decimal places using computers.
If C stands for the circumference and A stands for the area
C = 2πr and A = πr 2.
4.C.(b) Special properties of chords and tangents of circles
The chords and tangents of circles have special properties because any diameter of a circle
is a line of symmetry.
(The circle can be folded along any diameter so that the two halves exactly match.)
The most important properties of chords and tangents
Any line perpendicular to a chord from the centre of the circle divides that
chord equally in two (or bisects it).
If a line from the centre of a circle divides a chord equally in two then it must
be perpendicular to that chord.
Any line which is perpendicular to a chord and bisects it must pass through the
centre of the circle.
If a chord is pushed to the edge of a circle and extended to make a tangent (a
line which touches the circle and gives its slope at that point), the tangent is
perpendicular to the radius to the point of contact.
The two tangents to a circle from any outside point must be equal in length.
I show examples of all these properties in Figure 4.C.3.
Figure 4.C.3
4.C Circles 155
The matching pairs of little marks show lines which are equal in length.
Draw in the diameters which show the lines of symmetry in colour if it helps you.
4.C.(c) Special properties of angles in circles
We come next to a result which does not come so obviously from the symmetry of the circle.
In Figure 4.C.4, I have shown three angles all standing on the same arc of the circle. This arc
is drawn with a thicker line. If you measure these three angles, you will find that they are all
equal. Any similar drawings will give other sets of equal angles. Why should this be so?
Figure 4.C.4
To find the answer to this, we compare the size of the angle at the centre of the circle with
any angle at the circumference which stands on the same arc.
We can do this in the way I have shown in the sequence of drawings in Figure 4.C.5.
Figure 4.C.5
156 Some trigonometry and geometry
From this, we see that the angle at the centre of the circle is twice the size of the angle
at the circumference.
This will be true wherever this angle touches the circumference above AB, so long as it
is standing on the same arc, so all the angles standing on this arc must be equal; an
unexpected and beautiful result.
If the angle is below AB, as I show in Figure 4.C.6, the angle at the circumference
is still half the angle at the centre, but we are looking at the situation upside down, so
the angle at the centre is now greater than 180°. (An angle like this is called a reflex
angle.) The two angles are now standing on the major arc of the circle which I have
shown using a thicker line.
Figure 4.C.6
From these two results we can now deduce a useful special case, which is that the
angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
We can see that this must be so either way round from the two diagrams shown in
Figure 4.C.7.
Figure 4.C.7
A summary of special properties of angles in circles
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice any angle standing on the same arc.
Angles at the circumference and standing on the same arc are equal.
The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
4.C Circles 157
thinking
(a) Is it possible to draw a circle round any triangle as in Figure 4.C.8(a)?
point (b) Is it possible to draw a circle round any four-sided shape (quadrilateral)
as shown in Figure 4.C.8(b)?
Figure 4.C.8
In each case, if it isn't always possible, what special conditions must you
have in order to be able to do it?
4.C.(d) Finding and working with the equations which give circles
How can we find the equation of the curve which gives a particular circle in terms of
x and y?
We will start by considering the simplest case which is a circle of radius r sym-
metrically placed so that its centre is at the origin. I have drawn a circle like this in Figure
4.C.9(a).
Figure 4.C.9
Any point P on it, with coordinates (x, y), must be a distance r from the origin, so
2
x + y 2 = r 2 by Pythagoras' Theorem.
158 Some trigonometry and geometry
The equation of any circle with radius r and whose centre is the origin can be
written in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
For example, if the radius r is 4 units, we get the circle whose equation is x 2 + y 2 = 32 or
x 2 + y 2 = 9.
If the centre of the circle is not at the origin, we can still use the property that the distance
of any point on the circumference from the centre is equal to the constant length of the
radius.
In Figure 4.C.9(b) the length of PC remains constant, and equal to r.
If P has coordinates (x, y), using Pythagoras' Theorem here gives us (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r 2.
The equation of the circle with centre (a,b) and radius r is given by
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r 2.
For example, the circle with a radius of 4 units, and with its centre at the point (6,5), has
the equation
(x – 6)2 + (y – 5)2 = 42
or x 2 – 12x + 36 + y 2 – 10y + 25 = 16
giving x 2 – 12x + y 2 – 10y + 45 = 0.
(These numbers will fit Figure 4.C.9(b) quite nicely. If you are at all unsure about the
algebra version of the equation of this circle, feed in the numbers to make yourself an actual
example of the algebra working.)
Now we do the same thing of multiplying out with the algebra version of the equation
given in the box above.
We have (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r 2.
Multiplying out the brackets gives x 2 – 2ax + a 2 + y 2 – 2by + b 2 = r 2
Tidied up, this gives us an alternative form for the equation of this circle.
The equation of the circle with centre (a,b) and radius r can also be written as
x 2 – 2ax + y 2 – 2by + c = 0 where c = a 2 + b 2 – r 2.
For an equation like this to give a circle it must fit the following conditions.
(1) There must be equal coefficients of x 2 and y 2. The coefficient is the number which
tells us how many we've got. The coefficient of 3x 2 is 3. The coefficient of y 2 is
1. If there are no terms in x, say, then the coefficient of x is zero.
(2) There must only be, at the most, terms in x 2, y 2, x, y and a number.
(We mustn't have any terms with xy, for instance.)
(3) The value of r 2 must be positive so that we have a physically possible length for
the radius.
4.C Circles 159
!
It's easy to remember that the circle with equation x 2 – 2ax + y 2 – 2by + c = 0
has its centre at the point (a, b). But its radius is not c.
From above, we have r 2 = a 2 + b 2 – c so r = a 2 + b 2 – c.
This is a very clumsy formula to remember. I think that much the best way of finding the
centre and radius of a circle is to complete the two squares. (Completing the square is
explained in Section 2.D.(b).)
Here is an example of this, to show you how it works.
Suppose we have the circle whose equation is x 2 – 4x + y 2 + 6y – 3 = 0.
Completing the two squares gives us (x – 2)2 – 4 + (y + 3)2 – 9 – 3 = 0 so
(x – 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 16.
Therefore the centre of the circle is at (2, –3) and its radius is 4 units.
!
Notice that the signs flip to give the coordinates of the centre, just as they
do to give the solutions to quadratic equations.
exercise 4.c.1 Find the centre and radius of each of the following circles.
(1) (x – 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 16. (2) x 2 + y 2 – 2x – 4y = 0.
2 2
(3) x + y – 8x + 7 = 0. (4) x 2 + y 2 – 6x + 2y – 6 = 0.
(5) x 2 + y 2 – x + y = 0. (6) x 2 + y 2 + 3x + 2y + 1 = 0.
(7) Find the equation of the circle which is concentric with the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2x – 4y = 0 and which has a radius of 5 units.
('Concentric' means 'having the same centre as'.)
(8) Find the equation of the circle which passes through the origin and the points
(3,0) and (0,4), writing it in the form x 2 – 2ax + y 2 – 2by + c = 0.
Find also its centre and radius.
4.C.(e) Circles and straight lines – the different possibilities
What are the three possible relationships between a straight line and a circle? Try sketching
them for yourself.
You should have a line which passes through the circle so that it cuts it twice, a line which
just touches the circle and so is a tangent, and a line which misses the circle altogether.
How will these three different possibilities show up if we work from the equations of the
particular line and circle?
We will go through the following example together, to see what happens.
example (1) Find whether, and if so where, the lines
(a) y = 2x – 4 (b) 3y = x + 11 and (c) y = 3x + 6
cut the circle whose equation is x 2 – 4x + y 2 – 2y – 5 = 0.
Draw a sketch showing the three lines and the circle.
160 Some trigonometry and geometry
(a) If the line y = 2x – 4 cuts the circle, the values of x and y at the points where it cuts
must fit both the equations of the circle and of the line. (In other words, we have
two simultaneous equations at these points, but they involve a line and a circle
instead of two straight lines like the ones in Section 2.C.)
This means that we can put y = 2x – 4 into the equation of the circle to find the
possible values of x.
This gives us
x 2 – 4x + (2x – 4)2 – 2(2x – 4) – 5 = 0
x 2 – 4x + 4x 2 – 16x + 16 – 4x + 8 – 5 = 0
5x 2 – 24x + 19 = 0
(5x – 19)(x – 1) = 0
19
x=1 or x= 5.
(You could use the formula for quadratic equations from Section 2.D.(d) to find
these two roots if you prefer.)
Substituting these values of x back in the line y = 2x – 4 gives us the
18
corresponding two values for y of –2 and 5 .
So the line y = 2x – 4 cuts the circle at the two points with coordinates (1, –2)
19 18
and ( 5 , 5 ). Sometimes, the word 'intersects' is used instead of the word 'cuts'.
(b) To find if the line 3y = x + 11 cuts the circle, we can rewrite its equation as
x = 3y – 11 and substitute this for x in the equation of the circle.
This gives us
(3y – 11)2 – 4(3y – 11) + y 2 – 2y – 5 = 0
9y 2 – 66y + 121 – 12y + 44 + y 2 – 2y – 5 = 0
10y 2 – 80y + 160 = 0
y 2 – 8y + 16 = 0
(y – 4)2 = 0.
The two possible cutting points have come together here to give the single point
for which y = 4 and x = 12 – 11 = 1.
This means that the line 3y = x + 11 just touches the circle – it is a tangent
to it.
The point of contact has the coordinates (1,4).
(c) This time, we put y = 3x + 6 in the equation of the circle.
This gives us
x 2 – 4x + (3x + 6)2 – 2(3x + 6) – 5 = 0
x 2 – 4x + 9x 2 + 36x + 36 – 6x – 12 – 5 = 0
10x 2 + 26x + 19 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula on this equation, with a = 10, b = 26 and c = 19 gives
b 2 – 4ac = –84, so we can't find any value for x which will satisfy this equation.
This must mean that the line misses the circle completely.
4.C Circles 161
The three different quadratic equations of (a), (b) and (c) have revealed exactly what is
happening geometrically.
For the sketch, we need the centre and the radius of the circle.
We have
x 2 – 4x + y 2 – 2y – 5 = 0
(x – 2)2 – 4 + (y – 1)2 – 1 – 5 = 0
so (x – 2)2 + (y – 1)2 = 10.
The centre of the circle is at the point (2,1) and its radius is 10.
I have drawn a sketch of the three lines and the circle in Figure 4.C.10.
Figure 4.C.10
I've summarised the results which we have just found in the box below for you.
Straight lines and circles
Substituting the equation of the line into the equation of the circle will give you a
quadratic equation in x or y.
There are then three possibilities.
The equation has two roots. This means that the line cuts the circle in two points.
The equation has one repeated root. This means that the line is a tangent to the
circle – it just touches it.
'b 2 – 4ac' is negative, and the equation has no real roots.
This means that the line misses the circle altogether.
162 Some trigonometry and geometry
exercise 4.c.2 Find whether, and if so where, the lines (a) 3y = x – 5 (b) 2y = x + 4 and
(c) y = 2x + 3 cut the circle x 2 – 6x + y 2 – 2y + 5 = 0.
Draw a sketch showing the three lines and the circle.
4.C.(f ) Finding the equations of tangents to circles
The circle is the first curve for which we can find the steepness or gradient at any point on
it. We saw in Section 4.C.(b) that any tangent to a circle must be perpendicular to the radius
going to the point of contact. The gradient of the tangent will then tell us the slope or
gradient of the circle at this point of contact.
We will look at the following example together to see how these ideas work out in
practice.
example (1) Find the equations of the four tangents to the circle
x 2 – 6x + y 2 – 4y – 12 = 0
with points of contact (a) (7,5), (b) (–1, –1), (c) (8,2) and (d) (3,7).
Draw a sketch showing the circle and these four tangents.
We start by finding the centre and radius of the circle.
We have
x 2 – 6x + y 2 – 4y – 12 = 0 = (x – 3)2 – 9 + (y – 2)2 – 4 – 12.
So the equation of the circle is also given by (x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 25.
Its centre is at the point (3,2) and its radius is 5 units.
I have drawn a sketch of this circle in Figure 4.C.11 showing the
first tangent that we shall find. I think that it will help you in the
working which follows if you sketch in how you think the other three
tangents will go.
Figure 4.C.11
(a) The first tangent touches the circle at the point (7,5).
The radius to the point of contact joins (3,2) to (7,5), so its
gradient is
y2 – y1 5–2 3
= = using Section 2.B.(d).
x2 – x1 7–3 4
4.C Circles 163
4
The tangent is perpendicular to this radius, so its gradient is – 3,
using m1 m2 = –1 from Section 2.B.(h).
4
It passes through the point (7,5) so its equation is y – 5 = – 3 (x – 7).
(This uses y – y1 = m(x – x1 ) from Section 2.B.(f).)
Tidied up, this gives 3y – 15 = – 4x + 28 or 3y + 4x = 43.
I have shown this tangent on my sketch on the previous page.
Try finding the other three tangents yourself.
If curious things happen, look at the sketch and see if you can
see why.
This is what you should have.
–1 – 2 3
(b) The gradient of the radius which joins (3,2) to (–1, –1) is = .
–1 – 3 4
4
Therefore, the gradient of tangent (b) is – 3.
4
The equation of tangent (b) is y + 1 = – 3 (x + 1) or 3y + 4x + 7 = 0.
You can sketch this tangent yourself, if you haven't already done so.
It is parallel to the one which we found in (a).
2–2
(c) The gradient of the radius which joins (3,2) to (8,2) is = 0.
8–3
This gives us a real problem for finding the equation of the
tangent by algebra but, when we look at the sketch, everything
becomes clear.
The gradient of this radius is zero because it is horizontal.
Therefore the tangent at the point (8,2) is vertical and its
equation is x = 8.
(The x coordinate of every point on it is 8 while the y coordinate
can be any value you choose. Excellent thinking if you got this
equation correctly!)
If you got stuck on this one, have another go now at answering (d).
(d) The gradient of the radius which joins (3,2) to (3,7) is given by
7–2 4
= .
3–3 0
This gives us even more algebraic trouble since we know we
can't divide by zero. (Students in desperation sometimes say that
this fraction is equal to zero but this is not true!)
Again, looking at the sketch we see that everything falls into
place.
This radius is vertical and the tangent at the point (3,7) is
horizontal. Its gradient is zero and its equation is y = 7.
Add tangents (c) and (d) to the sketch if you haven't already
done so.
Because the circle is a curve for which we can find out what is
happening with the algebra which we can do now, the example
164 Some trigonometry and geometry
above will be very useful to you when you start working with the
slopes of general curves using implicit differentiation in Section
8.F.(a). It will help you to see why things happen in the way that
they do.
exercise 4.c.3 Draw a sketch of the circle x 2 + 16x + y 2 – 4y – 101 = 0.
Find the equations of the four tangents to this circle with the points of contact
(a) (4, –3), (b) (–3, 14), (c) (–21, 2) and (d) (–8, –11).
Show these four tangents on your sketch.
4.D Using radians
4.D.(a) Measuring angles in radians
So far, all the angles to which we have given a size have been measured in degrees. This
form of measurement has an arbitrary element about it in that somebody originally
decided that 90 would be a nice number of units to have in a right angle. It could equally
well have been 100 or 80, say. Had the scale been chosen by Napoleon, it probably would
have been 100, to fit with his other metric measurements. (Indeed, the mysterious
gradians on your calculator are divided so that there are 100 parts to each right
angle.)
The special property of the radian is that it does not depend upon any arbitrary choice of
number. It does depend on that beautiful and symmetrical shape, the circle.
I show how in Figure 4.D.1.
Figure 4.D.1
If we draw an angle as shown in Figure 4.D.1(a), so that the length of the arc is equal to
the radius, then this angle is defined to be 1 radian.
If the arc is 2 radius lengths long, the angle is 2 radians (Figure 4.D.1(b)).
From Figure 4.D.1(c), an angle of θ radians gives an arc length of rθ.
(θ is the Greek letter theta and is a hot favourite for describing an unknown angle, just
as x is for describing general unknown quantities.)
4.D Using radians 165
Since a full turn gives an arc length of the whole circumference of the circle, which is
an arc length of 2πr, we see from Figure 4.D.1(d) that a full turn is 2π radians.
This means that 2π radians is the same angle as 360°.
Remembering, too, that π is a bit bigger than 3, we have the following box of results.
Useful rules connecting degrees and radians
π radians is the same angle as 180°.
(You can think of π as a symbol for a straight line angle.)
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by π/180.
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by 180/π.
It is useful to remember that one radian is just slightly less than 60°.
(In practice, you very rarely have to use the conversion from degrees to radians or vice
versa, because you will set your calculator in either degree or radian mode depending upon
which units you want to work in.)
Because radians come from the structure of the circle, they will slot directly into any
working involving angles when we use calculus. If we work with degrees, however, we shall
keep having to do a sort of gear change – and it's much nicer not having to worry about that!
For this reason you need to be happy working with radians, so it is a good idea now to
become familiar with the corresponding radian measurements for the standard divisions
of 360°.
exercise 4.d.1 Use the two circles of Figure 4.D.2 to help you to fill in the missing angles in the
table.
Figure 4.D.2
Degrees 0 60 90 135 150 180 240 270 360
π π π 2π 7π 7π
Radians 0 6 4 2 3 6 4
166 Some trigonometry and geometry
4.D.(b) Finding the perimeter and the area of a sector of a circle
I have shown the minor sector AOB shaded in the circle with radius r in Figure 4.D.3.
Figure 4.D.3
We know from the last section that the arc length AB is equal to rθ.
Therefore, the length of the perimeter of the sector AOB (that is, the distance round its
boundary) is given by 2r + rθ.
! Don't forget to include the two radius lengths here.
The perimeter of the sector is 2r + rθ.
We can find the area of the sector AOB by thinking of it as a fraction of the area of the
whole circle (which is πr 2 ).
θ 1
The area of the sector AOB is given by πr 2 = 2 r 2θ.
2π
! Both these formulas are only true if θ is in radians.
Try writing down for yourself what the area of the major sector AOB is (that is, the area
of the rest of the circle).
4.D Using radians 167
Subtracting the area of the minor sector AOB from the area of the whole circle gives the
1
result that the area of the major sector AOB = πr 2 – 2 r 2θ.
Alternatively, you could say that the angle of the major sector is 2π – θ.
Therefore its area is given by
1 2 1
2 r (2π – θ) = πr 2 – 2 r 2θ.
4.D.(c) Finding the area of a segment of a circle
We can find the area of the segment drawn in Figure 4.D.4 by noticing that it comes from
subtracting AOB from sector AOB. (I'm using to stand for 'triangle'.)
Figure 4.D.4
Again, the angle θ is in radians.
1
We know from Section 4.B.(b) that the area of AOB is equal to 2 r 2 sin θ, so the area
of the segment shown (that is, the minor segment), is given by the rule below.
1 1 1
The area of the segment AOB = 2 r 2θ – 2 r 2 sin θ = 2 r 2 (θ – sin θ)
(Make sure that your calculator is in radian mode when you find this!)
Now try writing down for yourself the area of the major segment AB (that is, the
unshaded part of the circle in Figure 4.D.4).
1 1
It is given by πr 2 – 2 r 2 (θ – sin θ) = 2 r 2 (2π – θ + sin θ).
4.D.(d) What do we do if the angle is given in degrees?
I will call the angle D° to avoid confusing it with the angle θ in radians.
There are two things you can do in this situation.
M ETHOD (1) Immediately convert the angle D° into radians by multiplying it by
π/180. (See Section 4.D.(a) if necessary.) Then you can use all the rules
given above for angles in radians. This is the method I would
recommend.
168 Some trigonometry and geometry
M ETHOD (2) Alternatively, you can change the rules that we have already found so
that they will be right for working with angles in degrees by replacing θ
by Dπ/180.
This will then give you, for an angle D measured in degrees,
Dπ πrD angle
(1) The arc length is r = = circumference.
180 180 360
(2) The area of the sector is
1 Dπ πr 2D angle
r2 = = the area of the circle.
2 180 360 360
These rules are more clumsy than the rules for radians because of
the arbitrary nature of the choice of 360 for the number of degrees
in a full turn.
Because radians use the structure of the circle itself, they give
much nicer results.
exercise 4.d.2 Now try these questions, giving your answers correct to 2 d.p. (if they are not
exact) in the units used on the drawings.
(1) Using the sketch shown in Figure 4.D.5(a), find
(a) the minor arc length AB,
(b) the area of AOB,
(c) the area of the minor segment AB.
(2) Find the shaded area (that is, the major sector) shown in Figure 4.D.5(b).
Figure 4.D.5
thinking
The circle shown in Figure 4.D.5(c) above has a fixed radius of r units. What
point do you think the size of the angle θ should be in order to make triangle AOB
have maximum area?
4.D.(e) Very small angles in radians – why we like them
Radians have a second very special quality, as well as being independent of anyone's
particular choice of number.
Suppose we start with an angle of θ radians as shown in Figure 4.D.6.
4.D Using radians 169
Figure 4.D.6
We know from Section 4.D.(a) that the arc length is rθ, and we also know that
y x y
sin θ = , cos θ = and tan θ = .
r r x
What happens to these trig ratios as θ becomes very small?
Try finding this out yourself experimentally with your calculator. Use radian mode,
and put in very small values for the angle, say 0.001 as one possible value. See what
values the answers are close to. Can you see why this might be if you look at the drawing
of Figure 4.D.7?
Figure 4.D.7
Look also to see if there seems to be any connection between the size of the angle that
you put in and the values for sin, cos and tan that you get out.
!
Remember that your calculator must be in radian mode for this experiment.
A mistake here will seriously affect your results. (For example, 1° is quite a
small angle, but 1 radian is about 60°, so an input of 1 will give you vastly
different results depending on which mode your calculator is in.)
You should now have a good experimental idea of what is happening.
We will now look together at why this should be so.
Figure 4.D.7. shows a very small angle θ set inside its circle.
170 Some trigonometry and geometry
As θ becomes increasingly smaller, x becomes closer and closer to r so cos θ → 1.
(The → symbol I have used above is a mathematical shorthand for saying 'becomes
increasingly closer in value to'. It saves a lot of writing!)
Also, y becomes very small indeed, so sin θ → 0, and tan θ → 0 also.
But you should also have found a more startling result. Not only are sin θ and tan θ
becoming very small, they are also becoming very close to θ itself, as θ becomes small.
We can see from the diagram that this must be so.
As y becomes smaller it gets closer and closer in length to the arc rθ. So
rθ
sin θ → , that is sin θ → θ as θ → 0.
r
The smaller the angle becomes, the closer these two are. We also see that sin θ will
always be slightly less than θ because y stays less than rθ. Notice that the arc rθ will become
closer and closer to a straight line as θ becomes smaller.
Now, what happens to tan θ?
Since tan θ = y/x, it is clearly going to get smaller and smaller just as sin θ does. It looks
from the calculator as if it is close to θ too, but a little bit larger.
Will it stay like this?
We can see that it will from Figure 4.D.8.
Figure 4.D.8
This uses the fourth property from Section 4.C.(b) to give the right angle between the
radius and the tangent. Using this right-angled triangle, tan θ = d/r, but d is getting closer
and closer to rθ while remaining just slightly larger.
So
rθ
tan θ → , that is tan θ → θ also, as θ → 0.
r
But it stays slightly larger than θ while sin θ stays slightly smaller.
The fact that when we measure in radians sin θ and tan θ are approximately the same as
θ when θ is very small is of crucial importance when we come to calculus.
4.D Using radians 171
4.E Tidying up – some thinking points returned to
4.E.(a) The sum of interior and exterior angles of polygons
At the end of Section 4.A.(e) on congruent triangles, I asked you if you could find the sum
of the interior angles of a six-sided figure. (This is called a hexagon.)
Figure 4.E.1
(a) One way of answering this question is to split the shape into triangles by joining
up to one corner as I have shown in Figure 4.E.1(a).
This gives us four triangles, that is, two fewer triangles than there are sides.
Together they account for all the interior angles.
We see, therefore, that the sum of the interior angles is 4 180° = 720°.
(b) You could also have got this answer by joining up each corner (or vertex) to some
point inside the hexagon, as I have shown in Figure 4.E.1(b). This would then give
you six triangles, so 6 lots of 180°. You then take off the 360° for the full turn in
the middle, so finishing up with the same answer as (a).
You can then use either of these methods to answer my third question.
Using (a), we can say that, if the polygon has n sides, splitting it up in the same
way will give n – 2 triangles.
Therefore the sum of the interior angles would be (n – 2) 180°.
This result is usually written in the following form.
The sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is equal to (2n – 4)
right angles.
The sum of the exterior angles will be the same whatever the shape of the hexagon is,
so long as we are turning inwards all the while as we go round.
We find this sum by noticing in Figure 4.E.2(a) that we have six straight lines formed by
the exterior angles and the interior angles together.
Therefore, the exterior angles together make 6 180° – 720° = 360° or a full turn.
We can see that this must be so because if we start at A and travel round the sides of the
shape, we will have made a full turn when we come back to A. This full turn is built up from
all the small turns made by the exterior angles, as I have shown in Figure 4.E.2(b). Exactly
the same thing will happen however many sides the shape has, provided we are always
turning inwards as we go round, that is, none of the interior angles is greater than 180°. The
exterior angles will always add to four right angles.
172 Some trigonometry and geometry
Figure 4.E.2
Indeed, this result is still true if our particular choice of shape means that we do sometimes
turn outwards, but in this case we must count these outwards turns as negative.
4.E.(b) Can we draw circles round all triangles and quadrilaterals?
I asked you this question at the end of Section 4.C.(c) on the special properties of circles.
The answer is that it is always possible to draw a circle round a triangle.
You can see this from the drawings of Figure 4.E.3(a) and (b).
Figure 4.E.3
From (3) in Section 4.C.(b), the centre of the circle would have to lie on the line PQ. (The
little marks are to show that PQ divides BC equally in two as well as being perpendicular to it.)
For the same reason, it would have to lie on RS.
But where PQ and RS cross, we have CO = BO and BO = AO. So CO = AO too, and O
is the centre of the circle which triangle ABC sits inside.
We can also see from this that it isn't always possible to draw a circle round a
quadrilateral like ABCD.
If we have a quadrilateral ABCD sitting inside a circle, as in Figure 4.E.4, then this must
be the particular circle which can be drawn round triangle ABC.
But a small adjustment to D, either inwards or outwards, will mean that this point is no
longer on the circle which works for A, B and C.
So what particular property must ABCD have for it to be possible to draw a circle through
its four corners?
4.E Some thinking points returned to 173
Figure 4.E.4
We can see the answer to this from Figure 4.E.5(a).
Using (1) from Section 4.C.(c), we know that AOC = 2 ABC.
Looked at the other way up, the other part of AOC = 2 ADC.
But the two parts together of AOC make 360°, so ABC + ADC = 180°.
Also, since A + B + C + D = 360°, A + C = 180° too.
Figure 4.E.5
It is only possible to draw a circle through the four corners of a quadrilateral if its
opposite angles add up to 180°. Such a quadrilateral is called cyclic.
This is the same as saying that each exterior angle must equal its interior opposite angle.
We can see that this must be so from Figure 4.E.5(b) since the two angles at A together make
a straight line.
174 Some trigonometry and geometry
5 Extending trigonometry to angles
of any size
This chapter makes it possible for us to use trig ratios with angles of any size, and
looks at the graphs of these trig functions. These are very important in many
physical applications, so we look at what happens if we shift them and combine
them. We also look at methods of handling trig functions and equations.
The chapter is divided into the following sections.
5.A Giving meaning to trig functions of any size of angle
(a) Extending sin and cos, (b) The graph of y = tan x from 0° to 90°,
(c) Defining the sin, cos and tan of angles of any size,
(d) How does X move as P moves round its circle?
(e) The graph of tan θ for any value of θ, (f ) Can we find the angle from its sine?
(g) sin–1 x and cos–1 x: what are they?
(h) What do the graphs of sin–1 x and cos–1 x look like? (i) Defining the function tan–1 x
5.B The trig reciprocal functions
(a) What are trig reciprocal functions?
(b) The trig reciprocal identities: tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ and cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ,
(c) Some examples of proving other trig identities,
(d) What do the graphs of the trig reciprocal functions look like?
(e) Drawing other reciprocal graphs
5.C Building more trig functions from the simplest ones
(a) Stretching, shifting and shrinking trig functions,
(b) Relating trig functions to how P moves round its circle and SHM,
(c) New shapes from putting together trig functions,
(d) Putting together trig functions with different periods
5.D Finding rules for combining trig functions
(a) How else can we write sin (A + B)?
(b) A summary of results for similar combinations,
(c) Finding tan (A + B) and tan (A – B), (d) The rules for sin 2A, cos 2A and tan 2A,
(e) How could we find a formula for sin 3A?
(f ) Using sin (A + B) to find another way of writing 4 sin t + 3 cos t,
(g) More examples of the R sin (t ± α) and R cos (t ± α) forms,
(h) Going back the other way – the Factor Formulas
5.E Solving trig equations
(a) Laying some useful foundations, (b) Finding solutions for equations in cos x,
(c) Finding solutions for equations in tan x, (d) Finding solutions for equations in sin x,
(e) Solving equations using R sin (x + α) etc.
5.A Giving meaning to trig functions of any size of angle
5.A.(a) Extending sin and cos
In the last chapter we discovered that we were able to find the sin and cos of some angles
between 90° and 180° by using the Sine and Cosine Rules for any triangle. (In fact, it would be
possible, by choosing suitable triangles, to find the sin and cos of any angle in this range.)
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 175
It seemed, from the results which we got there, that we would need to put sin (180° – x)
= sin x and cos (180° – x) = – cos x in order to make the Sine and Cosine Rules work for
all triangles. If we use this to draw graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x for values of x from
0° to 180° we will get curves like those in Figure 5.A.1.(a) and (b).
Figure 5.A.1
The shape of these two curves suggests that what we have here is part of a much longer
pattern, and that indeed they are parts of the same graph which has just been shifted by 90°
to the left to give the second case.
This view will seem very reasonable if you have seen, for example, sound waves displayed
on an oscilloscope, or the graph of an alternating electric current in a wire, or the waves which
you get along a rope if you fix one end and move the other end up and down.
From these physical examples, we will get the pair of graphs shown in Figure 5.A.2.(a)
and (b). I have used units of radians here for the angles. I explain how radians work in
Section 4.D and if you are at all unsure about them you should go back there now, before
going on. This is because they are very important throughout this chapter and for future
work, particularly if it involves calculus.
Figure 5.A.2
176 Extending trigonometry
Clearly, there is no particular reason to stop anywhere, so we imagine the two graphs as
extending an infinite distance in both the + and – directions.
How many special distinctive properties can you see in these two graphs?
Make a note of as many as you can.
Here are some of the important particular properties of these two graphs which I hope
that you will have noticed.
(1) The cos graph is symmetrical about the y-axis, or the line x = 0.
π π
For example, cos 2 = cos(– 2 ). In fact, cos x = cos(–x), whatever x is.
A graph like this is called even, as we saw in Section 3.B.(j).
(2) The sin graph exactly fits onto itself if it is rotated through half a complete turn
about the origin. If you turn the page upside down, this graph is unchanged.
You could also describe this by saying that the graph of sin x reverses sign if it
is reflected through the y-axis.
π π
sin 2 = – sin(– 2 ), and sin x = – sin(–x) whatever x is.
A graph like this is called odd. (Again, there were similar ones in Section
3.B.(j).)
(3) They are the same graph, except that the sin graph must be shifted π/2 to the left
to give the cos graph.
π π π
For example, sin 2 = cos 0, sin π = cos 2 and, in general, sin (x + 2 ) = cos x.
(There are other examples of shifts in Section 3.B.(d).)
(4) Both of the graphs infinitely repeat themselves, with the length of the unit of
repeat being 2π in each case. This is called the period of the graph.
(5) In both cases, the graphs are enclosed in a pair of horizontal lines which are one
unit either side of the x-axis so the maximum displacement of the graph from this
axis is one unit.
exercise 5.a.1 We have already found (in Section 4.A.(g)), values for the sin and cos of angles of
0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
I have shown these values again set out in the table below, using both radians
and degrees.
Angle (x)
–180 –120 –90 –30 0 30 45 60 90 120 180 210 270 315 360
degrees
2π π π π π π π 2π 7π 3π 7π
radians –π –3 –2 –6 0 6 4 3 2 3 π 6 2 8 2π
1 1 3
sin x 0 2 2 2 1
3 1 1
cos x 1 2 2 2 0
Use these values, and the symmetrical properties of the graphs shown in
Figure 5.A.3 (a) and (b), to write down the values of the sin and cos of the other
angles listed in the table. Check your values using your calculator.
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 177
Figure 5.A.3
5.A.(b) The graph of y = tan x from 0° to 90°
We have not yet thought about what the graph of y = tan x will look like. We know from
Section 4.A.(g) that
1
tan 45° = 1, tan 30° = = 0.58 to 2 d.p. and
3
tan 60° = 3 = 1.73 to 2 d.p.
We also know, from Section 4.A.(h), that
sin x 0 1
tan x = so tan 0° = =0 and tan 90° = = trouble,
cos x 1 0
since we can't divide by zero.
Using your calculator, you can see that, the closer the angle gets to 90°, the larger its tan
becomes. (Try this for yourself.) You can also see that this will happen from the three
triangles in Figure 5.A.4(a) by finding the tans of the three marked angles. The height of the
triangles remains the same but the horizontal measurement becomes smaller, so the fraction
which gives the tan is becoming larger.
Using all our known information, we get a sketch for y = tan x from 0° to 90° which looks
like Figure 5.A.4(b).
178 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.A.4
5.A.(c) Defining the sin, cos and tan of angles of any size
There is no general Tangent Rule which works for any triangle, like the Sine and Cosine
Rules, so we have no simple way to sketch the continuation of the graph for tan x.
It would be good to have a definition for the sin, cos and tan of angles of any size so that
we wouldn't have to rely on what is apparently happening physically, although, to be useful,
any definition would have to fit in with observed wave phenomena.
We shall now do this by using the turn or angle measured out on a circle. (We have already
used this method for showing the turn of angles in Figure 4.C.1 in the last chapter.)
We consider the rotation of a unit length through a full turn about the origin, in an
anticlockwise direction from the positive x-axis. I have shown this in four separate diagrams
which show rotations round to each quadrant or quarter-circle, in turn. The angles of rotation
are shown shaded.
You can think of OP as a rod of length one unit which is turning about O.
First quadrant
In the first quadrant, shown in Figure 5.A.5, the definition exactly tallies with the definitions
given at the beginning of the last chapter in Section 4.A.(a) for the sin, cos and tan of angles
between 0° and 90°. I have used the symbol θ for the angle here, as I want to keep x for the
length OX. (θ is the Greek letter theta.)
Figure 5.A.5
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 179
We use the right-angled triangle OPX, and say
PX PX
sin θ = = =y
OP 1
OX OX
cos θ = = = x.
OP 1
Both sin θ and cos θ are positive since they are measured along the positive x and y axes.
PX y
tan θ = = so tan θ is positive, also.
OX x
It is very important that this new definition is giving sin θ and cos θ as
note
measurements along the y- and x-axes respectively – so important that I
suggest that you use one colour for y = sin θ and another for x = cos θ here,
and on the following three diagrams.
Second quadrant
The angle we are considering is now between π/2 and π radians (or 90° and 180°.) Again,
we use the right-angled triangle OPX for our definitions.
Figure 5.A.6
We say
PX PX
sin θ = = = y,
OP 1
OX OX
cos θ = = = x.
OP 1
This time, although y is positive, x will now be negative since it is measured along the
negative x-axis, so sin θ is positive but cos θ is negative. This agrees with what we found
when we used the Sine and Cosine Rules for angles larger than 90°.
PX y
tan θ = = so it is also negative.
OX x
We can see from the diagram that sin(π – θ) = sin θ and that cos(π – θ) = – cos θ.
(π – θ) = POX in size, so it would come in the first quadrant.
180 Extending trigonometry
Third quadrant
Again using the right-angled triangle OPX for our definitions, we say
PX PX
sin θ = = = y,
OP 1
OX OX
cos θ = = = x.
OP 1
Figure 5.A.7
This time, both sin θ and cos θ are negative, since they are measured along the negative y
and x axes respectively.
PX y
tan θ = = so it is positive.
OX x
We also see from the diagram that sin θ = –sin(θ – π) and cos θ = –cos(θ – π).
(θ – π) = POX in size, so it would come in the first quadrant.
Fourth quadrant
Again using the right-angled triangle OPX for our definitions, we have
PX PX
sin θ = = = y,
OP 1
OX OX
cos θ = = = x.
OP 1
Figure 5.A.8
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 181
We see that sin θ is negative, and cos θ is positive, from the positions of y and x on the two
axes.
PX y
tan θ = = so it is negative.
OX x
We also see that sin θ = – sin(2π – θ) and cos θ = cos(2π – θ).
(2π – θ) = POX in size, so it would come in the first quadrant.
You can see from these four diagrams that, by using the right-angled triangle OPX in each
quadrant, we have now defined the sin and cos of the angle θ in terms of the shadow or
projection of the unit length OP on the x-axis for cos θ (the distance shown as x in the
diagrams), and the shadow or projection of OP on the y-axis for sin θ (the distance shown
as y in the diagrams). If you have highlighted x and y with two different colours on these
diagrams, it will emphasise for you, when you look back at them, where the sin and cos are
and how they are changing.
The + or – signs automatically follow from where the projections lie on the two axes. You
may find it helpful to use the picture shown in Figure 5.A.9 to remember the changing signs
for sin, cos and tan in a complete turn.
Figure 5.A.9
The letters A S T C stand for whatever is positive in that particular quadrant. A = 'all',
S = 'sin', T = 'tan' and C = 'cos'. This can be remembered by a catch-phrase if you like,
such as 'All Silly Tom Cats.'
When OP has turned through an angle of 2π it will have returned to its original position.
(It has completed one cycle.) If we then continue to rotate it, the whole identical process will
be repeated with each new full turn or cycle.
We can obtain negative angles by rotating OP in the opposite direction, so we would
rotate it clockwise from the positive x-axis to get these angles.
Plotting the graphs for y = sin θ and y = cos θ, using the definitions which we have just
given, will give us identical graphs to the ones in Figure 5.A.2 which we know describe
actual physical happenings.
5.A.(d) How does X move as P moves round its circle?
thinking
Suppose the point P is moving round the circle shown in Figure 5.A.10 at a
point steady speed, starting from the point A. Suppose that the radius of the circle
is 1 m (metre), and that, after one second, P has moved a distance of 1 m.
182 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.A.10
Try answering the following questions.
(1) What angle (in radians) has the line OP turned through after one second?
(See Section 4.D.(a) if you need help with radians.)
(2) How long will it take P to make a full turn round the circle?
(3) How far is the point X from O after a time of
(a) 0 seconds, (b) 1 second, (c) 1.5 seconds, (d) π/2 seconds, (e) π seconds,
(f) 3π/2 seconds, and (g) t seconds?
(4) As P turns round the circle at its steady speed, how is the point X moving? Does
it also have a constant speed? If not, when do you think it is moving fastest? When
is it moving slowest?
These are the answers which I hope you have found.
(1) One radian. We say that the angular velocity of P is one radian per second.
(2) A full turn is 2π radians, so 2π seconds.
(3) (a) OX = 1 m. (b) OX = cos t = cos 1 = 0.54 m to 2 d.p.
(c) After 1.5 seconds, OX = cos 1.5 = 0.07 m to 2 d.p.
(d) After π/2 seconds, X is at O, so OX = 0.
(e) After π seconds, the distance OX is again 1 m as P is now at B. We can think of
this distance as negative, since it is measured in the opposite direction to OA.
(f) After 3π/2 seconds, OX = 0.
(g) After t seconds, OX = cos t metres. If we let OX = x, we could write the
equation giving the position of X after time t as x = cos t.
(4) X is not moving at a constant speed. It moves fastest as it passes through O and
slowest at the points A and B when it instantaneously comes to rest before turning
back on itself.
The point X is moving in what is called simple harmonic motion or SHM.
Surely, if we know the distance or displacement of X from O at any time, we
have enough information to discover its speed exactly? Indeed we have, and we
shall be able to do just this in Section 8.A.(e).
5.A.(e) The graph of tan θ for any value of θ
Using tan θ = y/x = sin θ/cos θ in the four diagrams of Figures 5.A.5–5.A.8, we can now
define tan θ for any size of angle θ. We can therefore draw the extended graph of y = tan θ
which I've done in Figure 5.A.11.
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 183
Figure 5.A.11
What special properties does this graph have? Make a note of as many as you can.
The graph shows these special properties.
It is periodic, but the period of repeat this time is π rather than 2π, as it was for sin θ
and cos θ.
It is odd, that is, if you rotate it through half a turn about the origin, it fits exactly onto
itself, so if you turn the page upside down you get the same graph. Equally you could
say that, if you reflect it through the y-axis, it reverses its sign, so
tan x = – tan(–x).
The tan of an angle just less than π/2 (or 90°) is very large and positive.
The tan of an angle just greater than π/2 (or 90°) is very large and negative.
There is a jump or discontinuity in the graph when θ = π/2 and we therefore see that
the tan of 90° can't be given a value, and any calculator asked to display it will give
an ERROR message. The same thing happens for all odd multiples of π/2, so on the
graph we see it happening at
π π π π
–1 , +1 and +3 and +5 .
2 2 2 2
The graph has a vertical asymptote for each of these values of θ, just as the graph in
Section 3.B.(i) had a vertical asymptote of x = 2.
5.A.(f ) Can we find the angle from its sine?
In Figure 5.A.12, I show again the graph of y = sin x for values of x from –π to 2π.
From this graph, find x for these values of sin x.
1 1
(a) sin x = 1 (b) sin x = 0 (c) sin x = –1 (d) sin x = 2 (e) sin x = – 2 .
184 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.A.12
Here are the answers which you should have found.
(a) x = π/2.
(b) As soon as we try this one, we find that we've got a more complicated situation.
There are four possible values of x on this graph for which sin x = 0.
We can have x = –π or x = 0 or x = π or x = 2π.
(c) Similarly, if sin x = –1, from the graph we have x = –π/2 or + 3π/2.
1
(d) If sin x = 2 , then from the graph we have x = π/6 or 5π/6.
1
(e) If sin x = – 2 , then from the graph we have x = –5π/6 or –π/6 or 7π/6 or 11π/6.
We can see that extending the graph further in either direction would give us more
solutions for x for any given value of sin x, and that there are, in fact, an infinite number of
possible solutions.
Although this infinitely repeating possibility will be very important in describing some
situations, such as those involving waves of one kind or another, in many other
circumstances they will just be an awkward embarrassment. If you have sin x = 0.6, for
example, and you want to find an angle from this on your calculator, you don't really want
it to try to flash up an infinite number of answers for you.
So what do we do?
It would make sense for us to restrict the possible angle shown for a given sin to a short
range so that we only get one answer, but every possible value for sin x is included, that is,
we have all values of sin x from –1 to +1. If we do require further answers, we can then find
them using the repeating pattern of the graph. (We shall look into this in more detail later
on in Section 5.E.(d).)
We shall want to include 0° to 90° (or 0 to π/2 radians) in our range because this is the
cradle of civilisation as far as trig is concerned – it all started with right-angled triangles. But
this will only give us answers for positive values of sin x, so what should we add to it?
We see from the graph that if we add –90° to 0° (or –π/2 to 0 radians) we shall be all
fixed up.
Then if, for example, sin x = –0.4, using INV or SHIFT or 2nd Function Sin on your
calculator (in degree mode) should give you an angle lying between –90° and 0°. Try it
and see.
You should get –23.6° to 1 d.p.
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 185
It would have been no good trying to extend the range by adding on 90° to 180° because
this would have just given us repeats for the positive values of sin x and no solutions for the
negative values.
Exactly the same sort of problem with multiple solutions will happen if we want to find
an angle from its cos.
Look back to the graph of y = cos x in Figure 5.A.3(b) and decide for yourself what you
think a sensible range for the answers would be.
1
What do you think you should have for x if cos x = 2?
1
What should you have for x if cos x = – 2?
Test out your ideas by seeing if your calculator agrees with you.
You should have the range from 0° to 180° this time (or 0 to π radians). This then gives
you one and only one possible solution for any value of cos x between –1 and +1, and
includes those important angles between 0° and 90°.
1
Using this range gives x = 60°, or π/3 radians, if cos x = 2 , and x = 120°, or 2π/3 radians,
1
if cos x = – 2 .
What we have cunningly done here, by restricting the range of values which we will allow
for the angle from a given sin or cos, is to give ourselves inverse functions to take us back
from a known sin or cos to just the one possible angle. (If you need help with inverse
functions, you should go back now to Section 3.B.(g).)
We have already dealt with a similar situation to the one which we have here when we
were looking for an inverse relation for f(x) = x 2 in Section 3.B.(j). There we also found that
we could define an inverse function by restricting the possible values for x.
5.A.(g) sin–1 x and cos–1 x: what are they?
Don't panic! We have just found them.
sin–1 x is the inverse function which takes us back from a value of sin x to an angle with
that sin, and cos–1 x is the function which takes us back from a value of cos x to an angle
with that cos. The possible values of these angles are restricted in the way we have just
decided above will make sense.
With these restrictions, there is only one possible value for the angle from a given sin or
cos, which is a condition which we must have for a relation to be a function as we saw in
Section 3.B.(c).
Two inverse trig functions
sin–1 x is the angle in the range from –90° to +90°
(or – π/2 to +π/2 radians) whose sin is x.
cos–1 x is the angle in the range from 0° to 180°
(or 0 to π radians) whose cos is x.
sin–1 x is sometimes called arcsin x and cos–1 x is sometimes called arccos x.
!
sin–1 x does not mean 1/sin x. This would be written as (sin x)–1. It is one of
those tricky bits of mathematical notation which make a trap for the unwary.
186 Extending trigonometry
5.A.(h) What do the graphs of sin–1 x and cos–1 x look like?
We can use the method which we found in Section 3.B.(g) to draw a sketch of these two
graphs.
Since the inverse relations take us from the y values back to the original x values, their
graphs are mirror images of the original graph in the line y = x. The sketches will be easier
to draw if we take equal scales on the two axes. We then get graphs as sketched in Figure
5.A.13 and Figure 5.A.14. If you are sketching these graphs for yourself, you may find it
helps if you use the helpful hint I suggested for complicated inverse sketches in Section
3.B.(i). If you use equal scales on your two axes, and turn your paper so that the line y = x
is vertical, it is much easier to sketch the mirror image of f (x) in the line y = x which gives
you the graph of f –1 (x).
You can see from Figure 5.A.13(a) that, without the restrictions, the inverse relation is not
a function – extending the graph would give an infinite number of solutions to 'y is the angle
whose sin is x.' (Remember the raindrop test in Section 3.B.(c).)
Figure 5.A.13
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 187
You can also see how we have forced a function from this relation by restricting the range
of values which we will accept.
This is shown in the graph in Figure 5.A.13(b) which represents the function 'y is the
angle in the range from –π/2 to +π/2 radians whose sin is x.' Notice that this function is only
defined for values of x lying between –1 and +1 inclusive, that is, –1 ≤ x ≤ +1, because this
is the range of possible values for sin x.
Similarly, the graph in Figure 5.A.14(a) shows the repeated solutions of 'y is the angle
whose cos is x', while Figure 5.A.14(b) shows the function 'y is the angle in the range from
0 to π radians whose cos is x', which gives a single solution for y for each x.
Again, –1 ≤ x ≤ + 1.
Figure 5.A.14
I think it will help you a lot here if you put your own two colours on each of the pairs
of graphs of y = sin x and y is the angle whose sin is x, and y = cos x and y is the angle whose
cos is x. It's much easier then to see which wiggle belongs to which.
188 Extending trigonometry
5.A.(i) Defining the function tan–1 x
To do this, we need to look at the graph of y = tan x which I show in Figure 5.A.15.
We see from this graph that, for any given value of tan x, there will be an infinite possible
number of angles x which have this tan value. For example, if tan x = 1 then, from the graph,
we could have x = π/4 or 5π/4 or 9π/4. Clearly, there are infinitely many more answers
stretching out in both the right-hand and left-hand directions.
Figure 5.A.15
To define the function tan–1 x, we shall again have to restrict the possible range of angles
which we will allow. We certainly want to include 0 to π/2 and we could extend the range
so as to go either from –π/2 to +π/2, or from 0 to π in order to get just one possible solution
for the angle from each possible value of tan x.
The agreed convention is that we take the range from –π/2 to +π/2.
I show a sketch of the graph of y = tan–1 x below, in Figure 5.A.16.
I've drawn it by using the reflection in the line y = x of the graph of y = tan x for values
between – π/2 and π/2.
Again, using two colours, one for each of tan x and tan–1 x, will make the two graphs
stand out more clearly for you.
Figure 5.A.16
5.A Trig functions of any size of angle 189
5.B The trig reciprocal functions
5.B.(a) What are trig reciprocal functions?
1
The reciprocal function of a function, f (x), is defined as .
f (x)
The three trig reciprocal functions are
1 1
= (sin x)–1 = cosec x, = (cos x)–1 = sec x,
sin x cos x
1
= (tan x)–1 = cot x.
tan x
!
Remember that these are not the same as the inverse functions,
sin–1 x, cos–1 x and tan–1 x.
5.B.(b) The trig reciprocal identities: tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ and cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ
In Section 4.A.(h), we used Pythagoras' Theorem to show that the three identities,
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1,
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ,
cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ,
are true for any angle θ which is less than 90°.
These three identities will remain true for any angle θ since, as we have seen in Section
5.A.(c), we still have the right-angled triangles. Although negative values for the sin, cos and
tan of θ are now possible, when they are squared they become positive, and therefore the
three identities remain true.
5.B.(c) Some examples of proving other trig identities
Students quite often find this process difficult, so we shall now look at some examples of
how it is done.
1
example (1) Prove that tan θ + cot θ = for any angle θ.
sin θ cos θ
!
We have to show that the two sides are equal, so we mustn't write them down
as equal from the start.
190 Extending trigonometry
Instead, we deal with the sides separately. Here,
sin θ cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ cos θ
LHS = tan θ + cot θ = + = +
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
sin2 θ cos2 θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ 1
= + = = = RHS.
sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ
Just like adding any other fractions, we make it possible to put them
over the same denominator in the first line of working above – see
Section 1.C.(c) if necessary.
example (2) Try showing that sec2 θ + cosec2 θ = sec2 θ cosec2 θ for yourself.
It looks quite an unexpected result!
You could do it like this:
1 1 sin2 θ cos2 θ
LHS = sec θ + cosec θ =
2 2
+ = +
cos2 θ sin2 θ cos2 θ sin2 θ sin2 θ cos2 θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ 1
= = = sec2 θ cosec2 θ = RHS.
cos θ sin θ
2 2
cos θ sin2 θ
2
I say above 'you could do it like this' because identities can usually be proved in a large number
of different ways. This is because the process is a bit like following a maze; you can write down
a sequence of true statements starting from one side, but they do not always bring you any
closer to the other side. Sometimes, after much effort, they bring you back where you started –
at least you know then that what you have written down is true if not helpful.
Usually it is best to start with the more complicated side and show that this can be
reduced to the simpler side. In really tough cases, it pays to work on each side separately and
bring both of them to some third form. (The example which we have just done can be proved
very neatly by using the two relevant identities of Section 5.B.(b) on each side in turn. Try
it and see!)
Because there are all these possible branches to follow, you should never spend too long
trying to prove an identity in an exam. If it doesn't come out quite quickly, leave it and return
to it later if you've got time.
Have a go at the one below too. It is a bit tricky, but you have all the working knowledge
and skills to get through it all right. We'll take it in stages.
cos x sin x
example (3) Show that + = sin x + cos x for any angle, x.
1 – tan x 1 – cot x
The LHS is more complicated, so we will work with this and try to
show that it is the same as the RHS. It would seem to be a good idea to
have the whole of this side in terms of sin x and cos x. How can we
rewrite tan x and cos x to do this?
5.B The trig reciprocal functions 191
We can put
sin x cos x
tan x = and cot x =
cos x sin x
then, at least, everything is in terms of sin x and cos x. Then
cos x sin x
LHS = sin x
+ cos x
.
1– cos x
1– sin x
Now what should we do? (See if you can tidy up what we've now got.)
We get rid of fractions inside fractions by multiplying the first bit
top and bottom by cos x, and the second bit top and bottom by sin x.
(Try doing this if you didn't already.)
You should get
cos2 x sin2 x
LHS = + .
cos x – sin x sin x – cos x
Using sin x – cos x = –(cos x – sin x), how can we rewrite what we've
now got?
We can say that
cos2 x sin2 x cos2 x – sin2 x
LHS = – = .
cos x – sin x cos x – sin x cos x – sin x
How can we rewrite the top? (Try using a neat factorisation.)
cos2 x – sin2 x = (cos x – sin x) (cos x + sin x)
(using the difference of two squares)
Try to finish it off now.
(cos x – sin x) (cos x + sin x)
LHS = = cos x + sin x = RHS.
cos x – sin x
You may have recognised that cos2 x – sin2 x could also be written as cos 2x.
note
Although this is true, it would not have helped us here. The trickiest part in
proving identities is picking out the possible steps which will also lead you
forward in the proof.
192 Extending trigonometry
5.B.(d) What do the graphs of the trig reciprocal functions look like?
We start by thinking about how we can draw a sketch of the graph of
1
y = cosec x = .
sin x
I show in Figure 5.B.1 a sketch of y = sin x to work from.
Figure 5.B.1
To help us, we need first to answer the following five questions.
(1) When sin x = 1, what is cosec x?
(2) When sin x = –1, what is cosec x?
(3) Does cosec x have the same sign as sin x?
(4) What happens to cosec x when sin x is positive but very close to zero?
(5) What happens to cosec x when sin x is negative but very close to zero?
Try answering each of these for yourself.
Here are the answers.
(1) cosec x = 1 (2) cosec x = –1 (3) Yes it does, since it is just 1/sin x.
(4) cosec x becomes very large and positive.
(5) cosec x becomes very large and negative.
(When sin x = 0, cosec x is undefined because we can't divide by zero.)
5.B The trig reciprocal functions 193
exercise 5.b.1 Using the answers to the five questions above, try to sketch in for yourself the
graph of y = cosec x on the sketch I have already drawn for you of y = sin x. Use
pencil so that you can have second thoughts if necessary!
(The sketch is shown in the answers at the back of the book, but it is
important to try to draw it yourself before looking.)
Because the functions of y = sin x and y = cos x are periodic, so also are the functions
of y = cosec x and y = sec x. The graph of y = sec x is the same as the one for y = cosec x
shifted by π/2 to the left.
(Strictly speaking, when we say that y = cosec x and y = sec x are functions, we must
exclude any value of x which would involve dividing by zero, as this is impossible.)
exercise 5.b.2 Using the same methods as you used for sketching y = cosec x, try sketching for
yourself the graph of y = cot x (that is, the reciprocal graph of y = tan x), using
the sketch of y = tan x which I have drawn for you in Figure 5.B.2.
To do this successfully, you will need the answer to one more question.
What happens to cot x as tan x becomes very large?
Figure 5.B.2
cot x will become closer and closer to zero, so that when tan x is undefined, say for
x = π/2, cot x = 0.
5.B.(e) Drawing other reciprocal graphs
Drawing and checking the two reciprocal graphs of y = cosec x and y = cot x will have shown
you many of the basic guidelines to use when drawing reciprocal graphs.
I will summarise these here for you in a box. Then you will be able to have a go at
drawing reciprocal graphs for some of the functions which have been mentioned in earlier
chapters.
194 Extending trigonometry
Rules for drawing reciprocal graphs
If we have a function y = f (x), its reciprocal function is y = 1/f (x).
If the graph of y = f (x) has symmetries (for example, being odd or even or
periodic), then the graph of 1/f (x) will have the same symmetries.
If y = f (x) = 0 for some value of x, then 1/f (x) is undefined. There is a jump or
discontinuity in its graph for this value of x.
This means that, as f (x) gets close to 0, 1/f (x) will become very large in value.
Equally, if there is a jump or discontinuity in the graph of y = f (x) for some
value of x, then y = 1/f (x) = 0 for that value of x.
If you know a few key values for y = f (x), it is easy to calculate the
corresponding values for y = 1/f (x). These can then be used to help you to get
the sketch in the right place.
exercise 5.b.3 Using the rules above, try drawing in the reciprocal functions for the six functions
shown on my graph sketches. Use any values given on my sketches to write in the
corresponding values on the reciprocal sketches.
In case some of these functions are unfamiliar, I have given you a reference back
to where I have talked about them earlier in this book.
I suggest that you sketch them first in pencil to allow for second thoughts. When
you have got them right, it might help you to use two colours on them (one for
the original graph and one for its reciprocal), to emphasise how they depend upon
each other.
1
(1) Sketch y = 2
using my sketch of y = x2 – 2x + 2 = (x – 1)2 + 1.
x – 2x + 2
(My sketch uses Sections 2.D.(b) and (c) on completing the square and graph
sketching.)
1
(2) Sketch y = 2
using my sketch for y = x2 – 4x + 3 = (x – 1)(x – 3).
x – 4x + 3
(3) Sketch the graph of y = 1/x using my sketch of y = x.
(4) Sketch the graph of y = 1/x2 using my sketch of y = x2.
(5) Sketch the graph of y = 1/ex using my sketch of y = ex.
You may find that Section 3.C.(f ) helps you here.
x–2 x+3
(6) Sketch the graph of y = using my sketch of y = .
x+3 x–2
(We drew this sketch in Section 3.B.(i).) See if you can also find the coordinates of
the point where this graph and its reciprocal graph cross over each other.)
5.B The trig reciprocal functions 195
Figure 5.B.3
5.C Building more trig functions from the simplest ones
5.C.(a) Stretching, shifting and shrinking trig functions
In Section 3.B.(d), we looked at what happens to functions when we add or multiply them
in different ways. You should look back at this section if you haven't yet read it, and make
sure that these ideas are familiar to you. I have summarised the effects of the simplest kinds
of transformation there.
196 Extending trigonometry
Because trig functions are periodic, particularly interesting possibilities of combination
arise which have profound physical implications. In particular, they are very useful in
thinking about mechanically vibrating systems and the behaviour of current and voltage in
electric circuits. They can also be used to describe the different qualities of particular notes
played on different musical instruments.
We have already seen that, because these functions are periodic, and because of their
symmetries, they are very closely related to each other. For example, the cos curve y = cos x
is the same as the sin curve y = sin x except that the sin curve has been shifted π/2 to the
left (Figure 5.C.1).
Figure 5.C.1
Using the second result from the summary at the end of Section 3.B.(d), we see that this
means that sin(x + π/2) = cos x.
Combinations of sin and cos functions are often used to describe how various kinds of
wave motion change with time. In this case we would need to have the horizontal axis in the
graphs representing time, and so it is better to use t rather than x for the variable on this axis.
The vertical axis is then measuring some displacement, so it is often labelled x, with x being
a function of time, t.
Because so many of the different kinds of waves which occur in the natural world can be
represented by various combinations of trig functions, these functions are often called wave
functions or waveforms.
Using the results summarised in Section 3.B.(d), we can sketch graphs for functions such
as x = 3 cos t, or x = cos 2t. I show the sketches for these in Figure 5.C.2(a) and (b). In each
case, the graph of x = cos t is shown by a dashed line.
Figure 5.C.2
5.C Building more trig functions 197
In the graph of x = 3 cos t, each value of cos t has been pulled out three times as far from
the t-axis.
In the graph of x = cos 2t, each point of the curve as we move out from t = 0 is being
reached twice as fast. So, if t = π/2, cos π/2 = 0 but cos(2 π/2) = cos π = –1.
We can now use these two graphs to illustrate some important definitions.
The maximum displacement or amplitude, A, is 3 units in (a), and 1 unit in (b).
If t is in seconds, the period, T, or time taken for each complete cycle is 2π seconds
in (a), and π seconds in (b).
The frequency, f, which is the number of cycles per second, is 1/2π in (a), and 1/π in
(b). The units for frequency are hertz, written as Hz.
1
T and f are related by the equation T = .
f
exercise 5.c.1 Using the results from Section 3.B.(d), and the two examples shown in Figure
5.C.2 in this section, try sketching the following six wave functions for yourself in
pencil using my drawings in Figure 5.C.3 on the next page. I have already drawn in
the graph of x = sin t on each of them, to help you.
(1) x = 2 sin t (2) x = sin 2t (3) x = sin (t/2) (4) x = 1 + sin t
(5) x = cos t (6) x = cos (t + π/2)
Also, for each wave function, answer the following questions.
(a) What is its amplitude, A?
(b) What is its period, T?
(c) What is its frequency, f?
(d) Is the function odd or even?
(e) If ω = 2π/T find ω in each case. The physical interpretation of ω is described
in the next section.
Then check your results against the answers in the back of the book. (If
necessary, draw the graph sketches in again so that you have the right version.)
5.C.(b) Relating trig functions to how P moves round its circle and SHM
We can also think about the two functions whose graphs we sketched in Figure 5.C.2(a) and
(b) in the last section by relating them to the motion of X as P moves round its circle. I
described this in the thinking point of Section 5.A.(d). We looked there at how the distance
x = cos t was changing as P moved round the circle with an angular velocity of 1 rad/s. Have
another look at this thinking point now.
Can you see how you could draw two similar pictures to show how P would be moving
to give (a) OX = x = 3 cos t and (b) OX = x = cos 2t?
x = 3 cos t would be illustrated by the motion of X if P moves round a circle with a radius
of 3 units, but still with an angular velocity of 1 rad/s. I show this in Figure 5.C.4(a). As P
moves round this circle, the distance OX = x varies between the two extremes of +3 and –3
units, corresponding to the amplitude of 3 in Figure 5.C.2(a).
x = cos 2t would be illustrated by the motion of X if P moves round a circle of radius one
unit, but twice as fast, so its angular velocity is 2 rad/s. I show this on Figure 5.C.4(b).
198 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.C.3
Figure 5.C.4
5.C Building more trig functions 199
In each case, I have shown the displacement x after time t as a thick black line. Because
these changing displacements are very important in many physical applications, you may
like to highlight them for yourself in colour in the same way that I suggested you should for
the four pictures showing the definitions for the sin and cos of angles greater than 90° in
Section 5.A.(c).
In both cases, the point X is moving in what is called simple harmonic motion, or SHM.
'Harmonic' is just another way of saying 'periodic' – used because sound waves are
produced by combinations of waves of this kind. The word 'simple' is used here because we
are looking at a motion which can be described by a single cos.
SHM also describes many other important physical situations. Often these involve an
object being slightly displaced from its equilibrium position. Examples of this are the
motion of a weight hung on a spring which is slightly pulled down from its equilibrium
position, and the motion of a small weight hanging on a long string which is pulled slightly
to one side and then released so that it moves as a simple pendulum. Again, the 'simple'
means that the motion can be described in terms of a single cos or sin.
If a point X moves in SHM it is called a harmonic oscillator. Harmonic oscillators are
fundamental to the understanding of physical systems. Amazingly, any real-life situation
involving small vibrations, however complicated it is, can be reduced to a system of
harmonic oscillators.
If we write the equation of motion of X as
x = A cos ωt
then A is the amplitude and ω is the constant angular velocity of the point P.
ω is called the angular frequency of the wave described by this equation.
(ω is the Greek letter called omega.)
In the two examples we have just looked at, we have the following results.
(1) If x = 3 cos t, then A = 3 and ω = 1. We also saw that T = 2π and f = 1/2π.
(2) If x = cos 2t, then A = 1 and ω = 2. We also know that T = π and f = 1/π.
2π ω
We also have the relations that T = and f= .
ω 2π
If, in the simplest case described in the thinking point of Section 5.A.(d), where P is
moving round its circle of radius one unit, at a constant angular velocity of 1 rad/s, we had
looked at the motion of the point Y on the vertical axis instead, we would have had the
equation for OY of y = sin t (Figure 5.C.5). This is also SHM. Now, when t = 0, y = 0
also.
The point Y is starting from the central position of its motion, unlike X which started from
its most extreme positive position.
These circle diagrams make it much easier to see what is happening with more
complicated sin and cos functions. Such functions are very important in physical
applications such as describing the voltage and current waveforms in electric circuits. It is
200 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.C.5
much simpler to handle them mathematically through the use of complex numbers and the
first step in doing this is to become happy with using these circle diagrams.
I have already drawn for you the examples of x = 3 cos t and x = cos 2t in Figure 5.C.4,
and y = sin t in Figure 5.C.5. Since I have used x to represent the displacement after time
t on all my graph sketches, I shall also use it from now on to show displacements on both
the horizontal axis of my circle (which gives a cos function), and on the vertical axis of my
circle (which gives a sin function).
Here are two more examples showing this kind of relationship.
example (1) Show the relation of x = 2 sin 3t to the motion of P round its circle.
Figure 5.C.6
I show this on Figure 5.C.6. The maximum value of x is 2, therefore
A = 2, and the radius of the circle must be 2 units. When t = 0, x = 0. After a
time t, x = 2 sin 3t, so P is moving with an angular velocity of 3 rad/s
therefore ω = 3. A full turn or cycle takes 2π/3 s so T = 2 π/3.
example (2) Show the relation of x = cos (t + π/6) to the motion of P round its circle.
Figure 5.C.7
5.C Building more trig functions 201
I show this on Figure 5.C.7. The maximum value of x is 1, so A = 1
and the radius of the circle must be 1 unit. x = cos π/6 when t = 0.
Notice that x would have been equal to one unit π/6 s before the instant
when we took t = 0. After a time of t, x = cos (t + π/6). P is moving
with an angular velocity of 1 rad/s, so ω = 1. A full turn or cycle takes
2π s so T = 2π.
exercise 5.c.2 Now have a go at these yourself.
Draw sketches showing the motion of the point P round its circle for each of
the following:
(1) x = cos 3t (2) x = 2 sin t (3) x = 3 cos 2t
(4) x = 4 sin (t/2) (5) x = sin (t + π/6) (6) x = sin (2t + π/4)
(7) x = 2 cos (t – π/6) (8) x = 5 sin (3t + π/6).
Label each sketch in a similar way to my two examples. In each case, you should
also give the value of the amplitude, A, and of the angular velocity, ω, and of the
period, T. It is very important to actually do these sketches yourself; don't just
look at my answers.
5.C.(c) New shapes from putting together trig functions
What happens if we add sin t to cos (t + π/2)? (Have a look at your sketch for question (6)
of Exercise 5.C.1.)
What happens if we add sin t to cos t? Try sketching for yourself what the result would
be in each case.
In (6), because cos (t + π/2) = –sin t, the result of adding the two waves is always zero.
They are exactly out of phase with each other.
I show in Figure 5.C.8 a sketch for x = sin t + cos t drawn from putting together the two
curves x = cos t and x = sin t and marking in all the easy points such as where one of them
is equal to zero, or they are equal to each other and so just double, or they are equal but
opposite in sign and so balance out.
Figure 5.C.8
202 Extending trigonometry
We see from this sketch that x = sin t + cos t has an amplitude of 2 sin (π/4) = 2 1/ 2
= 2, and a period of 2π.
It looks as if it might also be sin-shaped. (We shall find out how to show that it is a sin
curve in Section 5.D.(f).)
Sketching graphs by hand becomes very time-consuming (and difficult if the functions
are more complicated), but if you have access to a graph-sketching calculator or computer
it would be good to see what happens when you add all the pairs of functions in the six
graphs shown in the answers to Exercise 5.C.1.
It is also very interesting to see what happens if you add a sequence of sines. You will
see that the shape of the resulting curve gets successively modified to give some remarkable
results.
Here are two examples you could try.
(I have used the → symbol here to mean 'put in the next bit of the sequence and see how
it affects your graph.')
sin 2t sin 2t sin 3t
(1) (sin t) → sin t – → sin t – + → ...
2 2 3
sin 3t sin 3t sin 5t
(2) (sin t) → sin t + → sin t + + → ...
3 3 5
The further you go with these sequences the more interestingly modified the shapes of the
graphs become.
By this kind of method it is possible to get graphs which are very close approximations
to the ones shown in Figure 5.C.9, both of which are waveforms which can occur naturally
in electrical signals.
If you have done the experiments of (1) and (2) above, you will find that you get
increasingly good matches except for little overshoots close to the vertical parts of the graph.
Figure 5.C.9
5.C Building more trig functions 203
This is called Gibb's phenomenon and it comes from the problems in accurately representing
a graph which is effectively doing a jump at these points.
The fact that these functions can be thought of as sums of sines (or, more generally, to
include other cases, as sums of sines and cosines) is of great practical importance. This
whole area of what is called harmonic analysis was developed by the French mathematician,
Fourier.
Can you see why we couldn't represent any periodic functions just by sums of sines of
multiples of t as in the two earlier examples I gave you?
The sums of such sines will always give odd functions. If the function we want to
represent isn't odd then we shall need also to include cosines of multiples of t to get a correct
representation of what is happening.
If the function is made up entirely from cosines of multiples of t it will always be
even.
Try the following sequence to see this happening.
cos 3x cos 3x cos 5x
(cos x) → cos x + → cos x + + → ...
32 32 52
5.C.(d) Putting together trig functions with different periods
All the examples of putting trig functions together which we have looked at so far in this
section have had periods which were the same as at least one of the input functions. For
example, both sin t and cos t have a period of 2π and x = sin t + cos t also has a period of
2π.
1 1
x = sin t + 3 sin 3t + 5 sin 5t has the period of 2π belonging to sin t since all the other
1
functions neatly sit inside this. (sin 3t has a period of 3 2π, and sin 5t has a period of
1
5 2π.)
What happens if we put together trig functions with different periods?
For example, suppose we take the case of x = sin (t/4) + sin (t/5).
sin (t/4) has a period of 8π and sin (t/5) has a period of 10π.
The joint period, when these two functions are added together, is given by the smallest
number which both 8π and 10π divide into exactly (their l.c.m.), which is 40π. This is the
smallest number which can accommodate a whole number of cycles of both functions.
I show in Figure 5.C.10(a) a sketch of x = sin (t/4) and x = sin (t/5) on the same axes.
Underneath that, in Figure 5.C.10(b), I show a sketch of the joint function, x = sin (t/4) +
sin (t/5) so that you can see how it comes from the two functions above.
The complete cycle shown of x = sin (t/4) + sin (t/5) has a more complicated shape than
its two building functions because, at the beginning and end of the cycle these two functions
are quite close and so their sum produces roughly twice the displacement.
Then, because sin (t/5) is changing more slowly, it gets more and more behind sin (t/4).
This means that around the middle of the cycle the two functions are nearly cancelling each
other out.
By the end of the cycle, sin (t/5) has got so far behind that it gets lapped by sin (t/4), and
the two functions are again close together.
If the two building functions have periods which are very close together, then the contrast
between the peaking effect at the two ends of each cycle and the level trough near its centre
204 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.C.10
becomes very much more marked. A physical example of this is what happens if two musical
notes, very close to each other in pitch, are played at the same time. The peaks are heard as
beats which will disappear when the two notes exactly match. This phenomenon is made use
of by piano tuners and by other musicians when they tune their instruments.
5.D Finding rules for combining trig functions
5.D.(a) How else can we write sin (A + B)?
If A and B are two different angles, is it true that sin (A + B) = sin A + sin B?
Test your answer with two examples on your calculator.
Except for some very special cases, such as when B = 0, it is not true that
sin (A + B) = sin A + sin B.
!
Students sometimes write that sin 2A = 2 sin A, for example, but from the
first two questions of Exercise 5.C.1 earlier it is clearly obvious that sin 2t
and 2 sin t are not at all the same thing.
Can we find a way of writing sin (A + B) using the sin and cos of A and B?
(As we shall see in Section 5.D.(f) it is often important to be able to do this.)
To show this geometrically, we shall need right-angled triangles to work from.
We start by drawing the tilted triangle for B, as this is the trickiest one to get, and then
build up the diagram as I show in Figure 5.D.1.
Then we complete this chain by drawing the triangle RNQ. This is because it gives us
another right-angled triangle with lengths that we want. RQN = A because NQP is a
straight line, and so 180°, and the angles of OQP also add to 180°.
5.D Rules for combining trig functions 205
Figure 5.D.1
Then we have:
RM PQ + QN OQ sin A + QR cos A
sin (A + B) = = =
OR OR OR
OQ QR
= sin A + cos A = cos B sin A + sin B cos A.
OR OR
This is more usually written as
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
5.D.(b) A summary of results for similar combinations
In a very similar way, we can get formulas for sin (A – B), cos (A + B) and cos (A – B).
(These can also all be shown to be true for angles larger than 90°.)
These are listed in the box below:
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B,
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B,
cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
206 Extending trigonometry
!
Notice the + and – signs in the middle of the formulas for cos (A + B) and
cos (A – B). It makes sense that they should be this way round when you
remember that cos (60° + 30°) = cos 90° = 0 but cos (60° – 30°) = cos 30° =
3/2.
5.D.(c) Finding tan (A + B) and tan (A – B)
How shall we set about getting a formula for tan(A + B)? We can say
sin (A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan (A + B) = = .
cos (A + B) cos A cos B – sin A sin B
It would be nicer to have the answer entirely in terms of tan A and tan B. Can you see what
we need to do to the top and bottom of this fraction to make this possible?
If we divide top and bottom by cos A cos B, and cancel where possible, we shall get
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) = .
1 – tan A tan B
(Remember that each of the four separate chunks in the fraction is getting divided.)
You should now be able to show for yourself that
tan A – tan B
tan (A – B) = .
1 + tan A tan B
5.D.(d) The rules for sin 2A, cos 2A and tan 2A
These follow immediately from the previous results, putting B = A. We get:
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A,
cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A,
2tan A
tan 2A = .
1 – tan2 A
In the case of cos 2A, it is possible to write this rule in two other ways, using the identity
that sin2 A + cos2 A = 1. We then get:
cos 2A = cos2 A – (1 – cos2 A) = 2 cos2 A – 1,
cos 2A = (1 – sin2 A) – sin2 A = 1 – 2 sin2 A.
5.D Rules for combining trig functions 207
We shall find these alternative versions very useful later on in solving trig equations and
for integrating sin2 x and cos2 x. I give you examples of this in Section 5.E.(d) and example
(4) of Section 9.B.(c).
5.D.(e) How could we find a formula for sin 3A?
We can now find a formula for sin 3A completely in terms of sin A.
We do it by writing sin 3A as sin (A + 2A) and then using the sin (A + B) formula on this.
Then we have
sin 3A = sin (A + 2A) = sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 2A
= sin A(1 – 2 sin2 A) + cos A(2 sin A cos A)
(using the rules for sin 2A and cos 2A from the section above)
= sin A – 2 sin3 A + 2 sin A cos2 A
= sin A – 2 sin3 A + 2 sin A(1 – sin2 A)
= 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A.
You should now be able to find a similar rule for cos 3A in terms of cos A for yourself.
I have put this pair of rules in the box below for you:
sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A,
cos 3A = 4 cos3 A – 3 cos A.
5.D.(f ) Using sin (A + B) to find another way of writing 4 sin t + 3 cos t
In Section 5.C.(c), we investigated graphically the effect of adding sin t to cos t for each
value of t. The result seemed to be a sin curve which had been shifted by some angle from
the origin.
There are many physical and mathematical situations where it is much easier to deal with
a single sin or cos function rather than having combinations of such functions. Such
examples include describing the wave functions for alternating current and voltage, and
making it easier to solve certain kinds of trig equation as we shall see in Section 5.E.(e).
I will show you how we can do this conversion to a single function by taking the
particular example of x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t.
We start by noticing that 4 sin t + 3 cos t looks a little bit like
sin A cos B + cos A sin B, which is sin (A + B)
as we saw in Section 5.D.(a). So we try writing
4 sin t + 3 cos t = R sin t cos α + R cos t sin α
which is R sin (t + α).
(We need to include the R here to avoid getting into the impossible position of needing
a sin or cos greater than 1.)
We now have to find the particular numerical values of R and α which will make this
equation be true for every value of t, so that each of the two sides is just another way of
writing the same thing. This means that the equation is an identity and each separate part
must match up, just as we matched up the separate terms in the identity in Section
2.D.(h).
208 Extending trigonometry
Here, the two sides will only be equal for every value of t if we have both the same
quantity of sin t each side, and the same quantity of cos t on each side.
Matching up the parts with sin t, we get
4 sin t = R cos α sin t so 4 = R cos α.
Matching up the parts with cos t, we get
3 cos t = R sin α cos t so 3 = R sin α.
The easiest way to find R and α is to draw a picture showing the information we now have.
I do this here in Figure 5.D.2.
Figure 5.D.2
Using Pythagoras' theorem gives us R2 = 32 + 42 = 25 so R = 5.
3
We also see that tan α = 4 so α = 0.6435 radians to 4 d.p.
We can now write x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t in the alternative form of x = 5 sin (t + α) with
α = 0.6435 to 4 d.p. (I shall continue calling this angle α for short.)
What will the graph of x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t = 5 sin (t + α) look like?
(You will find the answer to this question much easier to understand if you did Exercises
5.C.1 and 5.C.2 in Sections 5.C.(a) and 5.C.(b). If you haven't yet done these, you should
go back and do them now.)
To help us to sketch the curve of x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t = 5 sin (t + α), we relate this to
how the point P moves round its circle. The displacement x will be shown on the vertical axis
since it is a sin function. I show this below in Figure 5.D.3(a).
P is moving round its circle of radius 5 units with an angular velocity of one radian per
second. It starts at the angle α when t = 0.
Figure 5.D.3
5.D Rules for combining trig functions 209
When it has moved through a further angle of t, the displacement x is given by x =
5 sin (t + α).
We can see from the picture that x will increase first to its maximum value of +5 and then
decrease through zero to –5.
We can also see that x would have been equal to zero at α or 0.6435 seconds before the
instant when we are taking t = 0.
Using this information we can then draw the sin curve x = 5 sin (t + α) shown in Figure
5.D.3(b). I have also drawn x = 5 sin t, using a dashed line. You can see that we have a gap
of α between these two graphs. The angle α is called the phase angle or phase. We see that
x = 5 sin (t + α) leads x = 5 sin t by α seconds.
For both graphs, the amplitude A = 5, the angular velocity ω = 1, and the period T =
2π.
We have just seen that it is possible to write the function x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t
in the form x = 5 sin (t + α) with α = 0.6435 radians.
Would it be possible to combine 4 sin t + 3 cos t to give a single cos function instead,
and if so which rule should we use?
It is possible to do this, and we would need to use the rule for cos (A – B) because this
gives us the plus sign in the middle. Doing this will give us
3 cos t + 4 sin t = R cos t cos β + R sin t sin β
which is the same as R cos (t – β).
We can see that R will still be equal to 5 here, but I have called the angle β to avoid
confusing it with the angle α which we found earlier.
Figure 5.D.4
Matching up the separate terms in sin and cos gives us 3 = R cos β and 4 = R sin β. This
4
information is shown on the little triangle in Figure 5.D.4. We see that tan β = 3 so β = 0.9273
radians to 4 d.p. We can also see now that α + β = π/2 because α is the top angle in this
triangle. So we now have the result that x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t can also be written as
5 cos (t – β) with β = 0.9273 radians to 4 d.p.
Drawing the circle diagram for x = 5 cos (t – β) in Figure 5.D.5(a) shows us that we
have exactly the same displacement x after time t as before. The only difference is that it is
now being shown on the horizontal axis as a cos function. This shift in position through a
right angle is the reason why α + β = π/2.
At time t we have x = 5 cos (t – β).
When t = 0, x = 5 cos (– β) = 5 cos β because the cos graph is even (see Section 5.A.(a)
if necessary).
210 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.D.5
When t = β, x has its maximum value of 5 cos (0) = 5 units.
The graph for x = 5 cos (t – β) is, of course, identical to the graph for x = 5 sin (t + α)
because both represent x = 4 sin t + 3 cos t.
I have shown it again in Figure 5.D.5(b) with the graph of x = 5 cos t shown as a dashed
line. We see that the phase angle is β and x = 5 cos (t – β) lags x = 5 cos t by β seconds.
The α + β together make the π/2 shift between x = 5 cos t and x = 5 sin t.
Again, A = 5, ω = 1 and T = 2π for both graphs.
You can see from Figure 5.D.5(a) that, as P moves round from its starting position, what
happens first is that x increases in size to its maximum value of 5 units, and this is what the
graph of x = 5 cos (t – β) is also doing.
5.D.(g) More examples of the R sin (t ± α) and R cos (t ± α) forms
Here is another example, this time involving a minus sign.
Write x = 3 cos t – 2 sin t as a single trig function and sketch its curve.
We start by choosing a rule which will fit nicely to what we have this time, including the
minus sign in the middle. Which rule should we choose?
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B will give the kind of fit that we want.
We write
3 cos t – 2 sin t = R cos (t + α) = R cos t cos α – R sin t sin α
so, matching up the separate parts as before, 3 = R cos α and 2 = R sin α.
2
Using the little triangle in Figure 5.D.6 shows us that R = 13 and tan α = 3 giving
α = 0.5880 radians to 4 d.p.
Figure 5.D.6
5.D Rules for combining trig functions 211
We can therefore rewrite x = 3 cos t – 2 sin t in the form x = 13 cos(t + α) with
α = 0.5880 radians.
This can then be related to the way in which P moves round its circle which I show in
Figure 5.D.7(a).
Figure 5.D.7
After time t, the displacement x is given by x = 13 cos(t + α).
When t = 0, x = 13 cos α.
When t = – α (that is, α seconds before the instant at which we are taking t = 0), x will
have its maximum size of 13 cos(0) = 13.
When t = π/2 –α, x = 13 cos(π/2) = 0.
We can now sketch the graph of x = 13 cos (t + α). I show this in Figure 5.D.7(b), with
the graph of x = 13 cos t shown as a dashed line. The phase angle is α and x =
13 cos (t + α) leads x = 13 cos t by α seconds.
For both the graphs, we have A = 13, ω = 1 and T = 2π.
Each of the circle diagrams which we have drawn shows very nicely how its related graph
works. (It's very easy to see on the circle diagram just what effect the shift given by the angle
α is having.) But you may be thinking that it is just being perverse to measure time in such
a way that we get these shifts to worry about. Surely in the real world we can choose to have
t = 0 when α = 0?
Not necessarily so! There are some physical situations where we have to deal with waves
which are out of phase with each other. For example, if we are working with the functions
which describe how the voltage and current in an alternating current (a.c.) circuit change
with time, and if this circuit includes components with inductance or capacitance, the
current will peak after the voltage does, and so the two wave functions describing them will
be out of phase with each other.
I'll now give you an example which involves functions of 2t instead of t. We'll combine
x = 3 sin 2t + cos 2t into a single trig function and sketch its graph.
How can we write 3 sin 2t + cos 2t using one of the rules for combined angles?
We could say either
3 sin 2t + cos 2t = R sin (2t + α) = R sin 2t cos α + R cos 2t sin α
or cos 2t + 3 sin 2t = R cos (2t – β) = R cos 2t cos β + R sin 2t sin β.
212 Extending trigonometry
I shall work with the first of these, but the second would of course give an identical curve.
We have
x = 3 sin 2t + cos 2t = R sin 2t cos α + R cos 2t sin α.
(Notice that everything here is in terms of 2t instead of t.)
Now, matching up the separate parts, we have 3 = R cos α and 1 = R sin α.
1
Drawing the little triangle in Figure 5.D.8 shows us that R = 10 and tan α = 3 so
α = 0.3218 rads to 4 d.p.
Figure 5.D.8
This gives us
x = 3 sin 2t + cos 2t = 10 sin (2t + α)
with α = 0.3218 radians to 4 d.p.
We now know that when t = 0, x = 10 sin α and, when 2t + α = π/2, x = 10 sin (π/2)
1
= 10. This happens when t = 2 (π/2 – α) = 0.624 seconds to 3 d.p.
As usual, we shall need the circle picture to help us to draw the graph. I show this in
Figure 5.D.9(a) below. We shall also use these two diagrams in Section 9.C.(c) when we look
at some differential equations which describe SHM.
This time, P is moving at 2 rad/s.
Figure 5.D.9
!
From the circle picture, we can see that we shall have to be very careful
about labelling the interesting points on the graph sketch this time.
P is moving at 2 rad/s so the period of the function is π seconds. (Each cycle takes π
seconds.) Because it is moving at 2 rad/s it would have been at the point A at α/2 seconds
before the instant when we took t = 0.
5.D Rules for combining trig functions 213
1
We also know that x has its first maximum value of 10 after 2 (π/2 – α) seconds.
Using this information, I have drawn the function x = 10 sin (2t + α) in Figure 5.D.9(b).
I've also sketched x = 10 sin 2t using a dashed line.
The phase angle is α and we see that x = 10 sin (2t + α) leads x = 10 sin 2t by α/2
seconds.
For each graph, A = 10, ω = 2 and T = 2π/2 = π.
exercise 5.d.1 Now try the following questions yourself. Give all your angles in radians, either
exactly or to 3 d.p.
For each question, you should also draw a diagram showing the related motion
of P round its circle. Then use this to sketch the graph of the single combined trig
function which you have found, in the same way that I have done in my examples.
Make sure that you label your diagrams clearly, and then use them to write down
the values of A (the amplitude), ω (the angular velocity) and T (the period), of
each of your combined trig functions.
(1) Find x = 3 cos t – sin t in the form x = R cos(t + α).
(2) Find x = 5 cos t + 12 sin t in the form x = R cos(t – α).
(3) By choosing a suitable formula, find x = 15 cos t – 8 sin t as a single
combined trig function.
(4) By choosing a suitable formula, find x = 2 cos t – 3 sin t as a single
combined trig function.
(5) Find x = cos 4t – sin 4t in the form R cos(4t + α).
(6) Write 3 sin 3t – cos 3t in the form R sin(3t – α).
5.D.(h) Going back the other way – the Factor Formulas
We can use the formulas for sin(A + B) and sin(A – B) to find a useful new way of writing
the sum of the sines of two angles.
If we call the two angles P and Q, then we shall find another way of writing sin P + sin Q.
This is how we do it. We know
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
Adding these two equations gives
sin (A + B) + sin (A – B) = 2 sin A cos B.
What we actually want is a formula for sin P + sin Q. How can we choose P and Q so that
they match up with what we have just got?
We need to put P=A+B and Q = A – B. Then we have
P+Q P–Q
P + Q = 2A so A= and P – Q = 2B so B=
2 2
This gives us the result
P+Q P–Q
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos .
2 2
214 Extending trigonometry
Similarly, it can be shown that
P+Q P–Q
sin P – sin Q = 2 cos sin ,
2 2
P+Q P–Q
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos ,
2 2
P+Q P–Q
cos P – cos Q = –2 sin sin .
2 2
!
Notice the minus sign at the start of the rule for cos P – cos Q.
You can see that it must be there if you put P = 60° and Q = 30°, for
example. cos 60° is smaller than cos 30°, but sin 45° and sin 15° are both
positive.
It is sometimes useful to be able to make use of the midway steps for each of these.
We found in the working above that sin (A + B) + sin (A – B) = 2 sin A cos B.
The three rules like this one, put together in a box, are:
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B),
2 sin A sin B = cos(A – B) – cos(A + B),
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A – B).
These two sets of rules are useful to turn adding into multiplying to make it easier to
solve certain types of trig equation. I show you an example of this in Section 5.E.(d). They
are also useful the other way round, when they turn multiplying into adding, for certain kinds
of integral. Example (8) in Section 9.B.(f) shows you how this works.
We have now obtained all the basic trig rules involving two angles, and so have them
ready for use whenever we need them.
You might find it helpful now to go through the previous sections highlighting in colour
all the boxes with these rules inside, so that you can quickly find them when you need them,
and can become familiar with them.
5.E Solving trig equations
5.E.(a) Laying some useful foundations
Quite often, students don't like solving trig equations because they find the possibilities of
more than one answer confusing. It's in the nature of trig equations that they will have an
infinite number of solutions – we only need to look at the repeating graphs of y = sin x and
y = cos x to see this. (Of course, physical circumstances may limit the number of possible
answers; for example, any angle in a triangle must be somewhere between 0° and 180°.)
5.E Solving trig equations 215
When infinite numbers of answers are possible, we shall use the patterns of how they
come to describe them. To do this, we shall need the circle definitions for the trig ratios of
angles greater than 90° of Section 5.A.(c). I think you will find that it will help you here if
you read through this section again before going on. Then do the following exercise which
is based on the results of this section, and which will also give you some particular values
which will be useful for solving equations.
exercise 5.e.1 The table below is very similar to the one I gave you for Exercise 5.A.1 in Section
5.A.(a) except that I have only included positive angles here, and I have put in a
line for the tan of the angles, too. In that exercise, you worked out the values for
the sin and cos of the extra angles by using the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x.
Try filling in the blanks again by thinking how each angle will come in the
turning circle, and then matching it up with an angle for which I've given you the
sin, cos and tan. The values for your angle will then be the same as these except
for a change of sign in some cases.
Write your answers in the same form that mine are given in, including signs if
necessary, because you will find when you use these results that exact answers
are often easier to work with than strings of decimals. Then check that your
answers are right by using your calculator. (It's best to use pencil until you have
checked!)
Angles π π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π
0 6 4 3 2 3 4 6 π 6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2π
(radians)
Degrees 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 210 225 240 270 300 315 330 360
1 1 3
sin 0 2 2 2 1
3 1 1
cos 1 2 2 2 0
1
tan 0 3 1 3 U
U stands for 'undefined'.
We can now start solving trig equations by using the patterns of how these solutions come
to give us a way of describing the infinite number of possible answers. This is called giving
the general solution.
The easiest way for me to explain how to do this is for us to work through some particular
examples together. I shall take separate examples for sin, cos and tan with one positive and
one negative value in each case, so that we cover all the possibilities. Then we shall use these
to build up the rules for the general solutions for each particular case.
When we solve trig equations, we are working back from the sin, cos or tan of the angle
to the angle itself. This means that we shall have to use the inverse functions of sin–1, cos–1
and tan–1 (or arcsin, arccos and arctan as they are sometimes known). If you are unsure about
these, you should go back now to Sections 5.A(f), (g), (h) and (i) to see how they work.
216 Extending trigonometry
The angle given by your calculator from a known sin, cos or tan is the angle given by
using the inverse function. (Remember that a function gives just one possible result for every
value fed into it.) We know that for any particular value of sin, cos or tan, there are an
infinite number of possible matching angles.
The angle given by using a trig inverse function is called the principal value.
1
For example, if sin x = 2 , then the principal value for the angle x in radians is π/6. This
1 1
is what sin–1 ( 2 ) gives you. But other possible solutions to the equation sin x = 2 are the
angles 5π/6, 13π/6, 17π/6, etc. and there are an infinite number of these.
5.E.(b) Finding solutions for equations in cos x
I am starting with cos x because this is the easiest one to write down the patterns for. We'll
solve the equation 6 cos2 x – cos x – 1 = 0
(a) for the principal values,
(b) for all angles between 0° and 360°,
(c) for all possible angles, giving the answers in degrees.
This is just a quadratic equation like the ones we worked with in Chapter 2. If you like, you can
put cos x = y in the equation, which then gives you 6y2 – y – 1 = 0. This factorises to give
(2y – 1)(3y + 1) = 0 or (2 cos x – 1)(3 cos x + 1) = 0
replacing y by cos x. You can also factorise straight to this form without bothering with the
y if you like.
From this, there are two possible solutions for cos x.
1
Either 2 cos x – 1 = 0 so cos x = 2 and the principal value of x is 60°, or
1
3 cos x + 1 = 0 so cos x = – 3 and the principal value of x is 109.5° to 1 d.p. (This
answer is 109.47 to 2 d.p. and I'll use this in any further working to avoid rounding errors.)
These two angles give us the answer to (a).
Now we answer (b) by finding all the solutions of the equation between 0° and 360°.
It's easiest to see where these must be if we use the two circle diagrams of Figure 5.E.1.
From Figure 5.E.1(a) we get a second possible solution of 360° – 60° = 300°.
From Figure 5.E.1(b) we get a second possible solution of 360° – 109.47 = 250.5° to 1 d.p.
Use your calculator to check that x = 300° and x = 250.5 do fit the equation which we
started with.
Figure 5.E.1
5.E Solving trig equations 217
(c) Now we want to find all the possible solutions to the given equation.
Looking at the two circle diagrams of Figure 5.E.1, we can see that each pair of answers
is symmetrically placed either side of the horizontal axis.
Adding any number of full turns to each of the four solutions we already have will give
further possible solutions.
We can show all these further solutions by writing the ones which we already have in the
form
x = 360°n ± 60° and x = 360°n ± 109.5°
where n is any whole number. (Remember that '±' means 'plus or minus'.)
The answers which we already have for (ii) could have been found by putting n = 0 and
n = 1 in the two general solutions above and then picking out the ones which come between
0° and 360°. (Try doing this for yourself.)
You can also see that these answers agree entirely with what happens if you use the graph
of cos x, by looking at Figure 5.E.2. The answers are given here by the x values at the
1 1
intersections of y = cos x with the two lines y = 2 and y = – 3 .
We have now seen that the two sets of general solutions are given by
x = 360n ± (the principal value in degrees)
and that this was true whether the principal value was positive or negative.
Figure 5.E.2
These are the rules which we now have.
Finding all possible solutions for the angles from a given cos
You must decide whether you are working in degrees or radians before you start.
If cos x = a, first find cos–1 a on your calculator.
cos–1 a is called the principal value for the angle.
If you are working in degrees, all the possible values are then given by
x = 360°n ± (the principal value in degrees).
If you are working in radians, all the possible values are then given by
x = 2πn ± (the principal value in radians).
where n is any whole number.
This is called the general solution of the equation cos x = a.
218 Extending trigonometry
!
Never give a mixed answer like x = 2nπ ± 60° because this is meaningless.
You must work completely either in degrees or in radians. (If you need help
with radians, see Section 4.D.)
exercise 5.e.2 Try solving the similar equation 2 cos2 x + 3 cos x + 1 = 0 for yourself,
(a) for the principal values, (giving your answers in degrees),
(b) for all angles between 0° and 360°,
(c) for all possible angles, that is, the general solution.
5.E.(c) Finding solutions for equations in tan x
We'll use the following example to show how this is done.
Solve the equation sec2 x – tan x – 3 = 0
(a) for the principal values,
(b) for all angles between 0° and 360°,
(c) for all possible angles.
We have a difficulty here which is that this equation is partly in terms of sec x and partly
in terms of tan x, and we can't do anything with it as it stands. But we found earlier a
relationship between sec x and tan x which we can use here.
Can you remember what it is?
We can use the identity tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x (Section 5.B.(b)).
Substituting for sec2 x using this, we now have
(tan2 x + 1) – tan x – 3 = 0 so tan2 x – tan x – 2 = 0
so (tan x – 2)(tan x + 1) = 0.
(a) Either tan x – 2 = 0 so tan x = 2 and the principal value of x is 63.43 = 63.4° to
1 d.p., or tan x + 1 = 0 so tan x = –1 and the principal value of x is –45°.
(b) Now we want all the solutions between 0° and 360°.
Using the definition for the tan of an angle greater than 90° from Section
5.A.(c), we can see where the other two solutions between 0° and 360° must be.
Figure 5.E.3(a) shows the two solutions of tan x = 2, and Figure 5.E.3(b) shows
the two solutions of tan x = –1 between 0° and 360°.
Figure 5.E.3
5.E Solving trig equations 219
(c) Adding any number of full turns to the solutions above will give all the possible
solutions.
Can you see what pattern these will have? Look particularly at what happens
after any number of half turns.
This time, the principal value is always added on to however many half turns have been
made.
This adding on takes into account the sign of the principal value, so 135° = 180° +
(–45°), for example.
The general solution is given by x = 180°n + 63.4 and x = 180°n – 45°, where n is a whole
number (or integer).
You can see how these solutions will also work graphically by looking at Figure 5.E.4
below.
Figure 5.E.4
The solutions are given by the x values at the intersections of y = tan x with the two lines
y = 2 and y = –1.
These are the rules which we now have.
Finding all possible solutions for the angles from a given tan
If tan x = a, first find tan–1 a on your calculator.
tan–1 a is the principal value for the angle.
If you are working in degrees, all the possible values are then given by
x = 180°n + (the principal value in degrees).
If you are working in radians, all the possible values are then given by
x = nπ + (the principal value in radians)
where n is any whole number.
(You must include the sign of the principal value in these rules.)
This is called the general solution of the equation tan x = a.
220 Extending trigonometry
exercise 5.e.3 Try solving the similar equation of sec2 x + 2 tan x – 4 = 0 for yourself
(a) for the principal values, giving your answers in degrees,
(b) for all angles between 0° and 360°,
(c) for all possible angles, that is, the general solution.
5.E.(d) Finding solutions for equations in sin x
We'll use the example of solving the equation 1 + 3 sin x – 5 cos 2x = 0
(a) for the principal values,
(b) for all angles between 0° and 360°,
(c) for all possible angles, giving the answers in degrees.
Again we have a mixed equation. We need to use a trig identity so that we can write it
just in terms of sin x.
How else can we write cos 2x?
We can say that cos 2x = 1 – 2 sin2 x from Section 5.D.(d).
Substituting this in the equation gives us
1 + 3 sin x – 5 (1 – 2 sin2 x) = 0.
From this we get
10 sin2 x + 3 sin x – 4 = 0 so (2 sin x – 1) (5 sin x + 4) = 0.
1 4
(a) Either sin x = which gives the principal value of x = 30°, or sin x = – 5 , which
2,
gives the principal value of x = –53.13° = –53.1° to 1 d.p.
(b) All the possible solutions between 0° and 360° can be seen from the two circle
diagrams in Figure 5.E.5.
Figure 5.E.5
Circle (a) gives us 30° and 180° – 30° = 150°.
Circle (b) gives us 360° – 53.13° = 306.9° to 1 d.p. and 180° + 53.13° = 233.1°
to 1 d.p.
(c) The pattern for getting all the possible solutions is a little bit harder to spot this
time as the principal value is sometimes being added on and sometimes being
taken off. Can you see how to describe this pattern? It might help you if you think
about the number of half turns involved as you get to each new solution.
5.E Solving trig equations 221
We know that all the possible solutions will be given by adding any number of full turns
to the four solutions which we already have.
If we look at Figure 5.E.5(a) first, this gives 360°n + 30° and 360°n + 180° – 30°.
Now 360°n = 2 180°n, so we can write these two answers as 2 180°n + 30° and
2 180°n + 180° – 30°.
This is the same as 2n (180°) + 30° and (2n + 1) 180° – 30°.
If the number of half turns is even, we add on the 30°.
If the number of half turns is odd, we take off the 30°.
These two results can be ingeniously combined by using (–1)n, because (–1)n gives us +1
if n is even and –1 if n is odd.
1
All the possible solutions from sin x = 2 are given by x = 180°n + (–1)n 30°. (The two
solutions of (b) are given by putting n = 0 and n = 1.)
4
In just the same way, all the possible solutions of sin x = – 5 are given by writing
x = 180°n + (–1)n (–53.1°).
You can also see how these solutions are building up in the sketch graph of Figure 5.E.6.
They are given by the x values at every intersection of the curve of y = sin x with the two
1 4
lines y = 2 and y = – 5 respectively.
Figure 5.E.6
The box below gives the rules which we have now found.
Finding all possible solutions for the angles from a given sin
If sin x = a, first find sin–1 a on your calculator.
sin–1 a is called the principal value for the angle.
If you are working in degrees, all the possible values are then given by
x = 180°n + (–1)n (the principal value in degrees).
If you are working in radians, all the possible values are then given by
x = πn + (–1)n (the principal value in radians).
where n is any whole number.
(You must include the sign of the principal value in this rule.)
This is called the general solution of the equation sin x = a.
222 Extending trigonometry
exercise 5.e.4 Try solving the equation cos2 x + 2 sin x = 1 for yourself
(a) for the principal values (giving your answers in radians),
(b) for all angles from 0 to 2π,
(c) for all possible angles, that is, the general solution.
I will finish this section with an example of a slightly different kind of equation involving
sin x.
Suppose we need to solve sin 3x = sin x for angles between 0 and 2π.
See how far you can get with this yourself before looking at what I have done.
It's easy to spot that x = 0 is one solution of this equation, but how can we set about
finding the others?
Figure 5.E.7 shows a snapshot of what's happening graphically.
Figure 5.E.7
We can now see that x = π and x = 2π will also fit, but what values of x will give the other
four solutions?
We have sin 3x = sin x so sin 3x – sin x = 0.
Now we use the second of the four factor formulas from Section 5.D.(h)
P+Q P–Q
sin P – sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2
and put 3x = P and x = Q. This gives us
2 cos(2x) sin x = 0 so sin x = 0 or cos 2x = 0.
From sin x = 0 we get x = 0 or π or 2π.
From cos 2x = 0 we get 2x = 2nπ ± π/2 so x = nπ ± π/4, giving us the other four
solutions of x = π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and 7π/4.
There is often more than one possible method for solving these equations. For example,
we could have done this one by writing sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x from Section 5.D.(e) and
then factorising. Also, in the method above, when we had cos 2x = 0 we could have used
1 1
cos 2x = 1 – 2 sin2 x, giving sin2 x = 2 so sin x = ± 2 . Sometimes one method is neater
than another, but there is no magic 'right way'.
5.E Solving trig equations 223
exercise 5.e.5 Try solving the following equations which use the whole of Section 5.E so far.
In each case, find (a) the principal value(s), (b) solutions for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° or
0 ≤ x ≤ 2π (I give the units after each question), and (c) the general solution. (Give
your answers correct to 1 d.p. for degrees and 2 d.p. for radians.)
helpful
I think it is much easier to use the general solutions to find the answers
hint between 0° and 360° or 0 and 2π. You just need to put in the values for n
which give the answers in the desired range. I suggest you try doing this.
2 1
(1) cos x = 3 (deg) (2) tan x = 5 (deg) (3) cos x = – 2 (rad)
(4) tan x = –1 (rad) (5) sin x = 0.4 (deg) (6) 6 sin2 x + 5 cos x = 7 (rad)
(7) tan2 x = tan x (rad) (8) 3 sec2 x + tan2 x = 5 (deg)
(9) sin 2x = 3 cos x (rad) (10) sin 5x + sin x = 0 (deg)
5.E.(e) Solving equations using R sin (x + α) etc
What should you do if you meet a problem like the following one?
Solve, when possible, for angles between 0° and 360°, the three equations
(1) 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 6,
(2) 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 5,
(3) 4 sin x + 3 cos x = 2.
It is not difficult to do this if we use the results of Section 5.D.(f).
We showed there that we can write 4 sin t + 3 cos t in the form 5 sin (t + α) with
3
α = tan–1 4 . (The only differences here are that we have x instead of t, and that we are
working in degrees instead of radians, so α = 36.87° to 2 d.p.)
If you are at all unsure about this, you should go back now to Sections 5.D.(f) and (g),
and work through them before going any further. Then see if you can solve the three
equations yourself.
This is what I hope you have found.
(1) There is no possible solution here. We can see this in two ways.
6
Firstly, if 5 sin (x + α) = 6 then sin (x + α) = 5 which is impossible.
You can also see this by looking at the graph of y = 5 sin (x + α) which I have
sketched in Figure 5.E.8.
You can see here that the line y = 6 misses this sine curve completely, so there
are no solutions to the equation.
(2) Again, we can look at this in two ways.
We have 5 sin (x + α) = 5 which gives sin (x + α) = 1, so the principal value
of (x + α) is 90°.
From this, we can say that (x + α) = 180°n + (–1)n 90° using the rule for the
general solution from Section 5.E.(d).
This then gives us x = 180°n + (–1)n 90° – α.
Putting α = 36.87 gives us the single solution between 0° and 360° of x = 53.1°
to 1 d.p.
224 Extending trigonometry
Figure 5.E.8
This answer fits with what we can see is happening graphically. The line y = 5
is a tangent to the curve y = 5 sin (x + α), and only touches it once between x =
0° and x = 360°.
2
(3) Now we have 5 sin (x + α) = 2 so sin (x + α) = 5 which gives the principal value
of (x + α) as 23.58° to 2 d.p.
Therefore, the general solution for (x + α) is given by 180°n + (–1)n (23.58°)
or x + 36.87° = 180°n + (–1)n (23.58°), putting α = 36.87°.
Putting n = 0 gives x = – 13.3°, n = 1 gives x = 119.6° and n = 2 gives x = 346.7°
all to 1 d.p.
You can see all three of these answers on the sketch graph in Figure 5.E.8. The last two
of them give the solutions in the range from 0° to 360° that we want.
Notice that the answers given by the general solution for (3) are symmetrically placed
either side of the answers for (2), and that all these answers have been affected by the sliding
along to the left by α of the graph of y = 5 sin x to give y = 5 sin (x + α).
!
The most usual mistake made when solving this sort of equation goes as
follows:
The solver gets to x + α = 23.58° correctly and then rearranges this to
get the correct answer for x of –13.3°.
Then they think 'Curses, I needed a general solution here! Oh well, I'll
put x = 180°n + (–1)n (–13.3°).'
This is not true! The general solution comes from using the graph of
y = 5 sin (x + α) and the solutions must be found taking the whole of
(x + α) as I have done.
exercise 5.e.6 Try these two for yourself now.
(1) Solve, when possible, the three equations
(a) 3 cos t – 2 sin t = 4,
(b) 3 cos t – 2 sin t = 13,
(c) 3 cos t – 2 sin t = 1 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π giving your answers to 2 d.p.
Show your answers on a sketch graph.
(2) Solve the equation 3 sin 2t + cos 2t = 2 for angles between 0° and 360°.
5.E Solving trig equations 225
6 Sequences and series
In this chapter we look at different patterns in sequences of numbers, and how they
might be described. We discover how it is possible to find the sum of the terms of
some of these sequences, and find some practical applications of these sums. We
begin to see how infinite quantities of things behave through looking at what
happens if we have very large numbers of them. Endless quantities of things have
to be treated with great caution, so I show you some examples of what can happen
otherwise.
The chapter is divided into the following sections.
6.A Patterns and formulas
(a) Finding patterns in sequences of numbers,
(b) How to describe number patterns mathematically
6.B Arithmetic progressions (APs)
(a) What are arithmetic progressions? (b) Finding a rule for summing APs,
(c) The arithmetic mean or 'average', (d) Solving a typical problem,
(e) A summary of the results for APs
6.C Geometric progressions (GPs)
(a) What are geometric progressions? (b) Summing geometric progressions,
(c) The sum to infinity of a GP, (d) What do 'convergent' and 'divergent' mean?
(e) More examples using GPs; chain letters, (f ) A summary of the results for GPs,
(g) Recurring decimals, and writing them as fractions,
(h) Compound interest: a faster way of getting rich, (i) The geometric mean,
(j) Comparing arithmetic and geometric means,
(k) Thinking point: what is the fate of the frog down the well?
6.D A compact way of writing sums: the Σ notation
(a) What does Σ stand for? (b) Unpacking the Σs,
(c) Summing by breaking down to simpler series
6.E Partial fractions
(a) Introducing partial fractions for summing series,
(b) General rules for using partial fractions, (c) The cover-up rule,
(d) Coping with possible complications
6.F The fate of the frog down the well
6.A Patterns and formulas
6.A.(a) Finding patterns in sequences of numbers
We shall start by looking at some lists of numbers for which there is an underlying pattern
so that there is some rule for writing down the next number. A list of numbers like this is
called a sequence. A particular number from a sequence is called a term of the
sequence.
Here are some examples. In each case, see if you can fill in the next three terms in the
sequence, and write down the rule that you are using so that somebody else could continue
filling in where you have stopped.
226 Sequences and series
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . (b) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . . .
(c) 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . . (d) 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .
2
(e) 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, . . . (f) 54, 18, 6, 2, 3 , . . .
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4
(g) 3 , 6 , 12 , 24 , . . . (h) 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
(i) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . (j) 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .
(k) 1, 8, 27, 64, . . . (l) 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, . . .
Here are the answers for you to check yours against.
(a) 6, 7, 8. The counting numbers, or add 1 each time.
(b) 11, 13, 15. The odd numbers. Add 2 each time, starting from 1.
(c) 17, 20, 23. Add 3 each time, starting from 2.
(d) 16, 32, 64. Double each time, starting from 1.
(e) 16, 22, 29. Start by adding 1 to the first term, which is itself 1. Then, for each new
term, add 2, 3, 4, etc. so that the number you add is always 1 more than the
previous number added.
2 2 2
(f) 9 , 27 , 81 . Take one third of the previous term each time, starting with 54.
1 1 1
(g) 48 , 96 , 192 . Take one half of the previous term, starting from one third.
5 6 7
(h) 6 , 7 , 8 . For each new term, add 1 to both the top and the bottom of the fraction
which makes the previous term.
(i) 36, 49, 64. This sequence is formed from the squares of the counting numbers.
(j) 34, 55, 89. After the first two terms, each term is made by adding the previous two
terms. This is called a Fibonacci sequence.
(k) 125, 216, 343. These terms are the cubes of the counting numbers.
(l) 720, 5040, 40 320. The terms of this sequence are formed by finding 1, 2 1,
3 2 1, etc. They are called factorials, and are written as 1!, 2!, 3!, etc.
6.A.(b) How to describe number patterns mathematically
It is often useful to be able to write down a rule or formula which will tell us how to find
any term we want in a sequence of numbers such as the ones above. To be able do this, we
shall need a shorthand system for labelling the terms. We will use the system of calling them
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . so that u4 for (b) is 7, and u5 for (e) is 11. If we don't want to specify a
particular number, we can call the term un where n is standing for any number which we
might later want to choose. We call un the general term.
!
The n in un is called a subscript and is just a label telling us how far we
have gone. Don't confuse it with u n which means u multiplied by itself
n times.
What we now want to do is to find some way of writing a rule which gives the general
term or un for each of the sequences from (a) to (1).
The easiest way of explaining how we can set about doing this is to take two particular
examples.
6.A Patterns and formulas 227
example (1) Sequence (c) goes 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . .
The description in words for this was 'add 3 each time, starting from 2.'
There are two ways in which we can write this mathematically.
We can say u1 = 2, u2 = 2 + 3, u3 = 2 + (2 3), u4 = 2 + (3 3)
and so on, so that we are describing each term using the actual numbers
which make it up. We'll call this description (A).
Sticking to the same system, how would you write u7? How would
you write un?
u7 = 2 + (6 3) and un = 2 + ((n – 1) 3) = 2 + 3n – 3 = 3n – 1.
Notice that we needed (n – 1) rather than n when we first wrote down the rule for un . We
can check this rule by testing it when n = 5. We get 3 5 – 1 = 14 which we know is
correct.
We could also think of this sequence as building up in a chain, each new term coming
from the previous term according to a particular rule. We'll call this description (B).
Description (B) for this sequence would be un = un – 1 + 3. But just knowing this would
not be enough, because, for example, the sequence 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . would also fit this
description. However, if we also give the value of the first term, the sequence is fully
described.
Description (B) is un = un – 1 + 3 and u1 = 2.
1 1 1 1
example (2) Sequence (g) goes 3 , 6 , 12 , 24 . ...
The description in words for this was 'take one half of the previous
term starting from one third'.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
D ESCRIPTION (A) We can say that u1 = 3 , u2 = 2 3 , u3 = 2 2 3 = (2)2 3
1 1 1 1
so u7 , say, is (2)6 3 and un = (2)n –1 3 .
Notice that we need a power of n – 1 here to make un work
correctly, not n.
1 1
D ESCRIPTION (B) We can say that un = 2un – 1 and u1 = 3 .
Just as in the last example, if we don't say what u1 is, we could
get quite a different sequence. For example, the sequence 24, 12,
1
6, 3, . . . also fits the description un = 2 un – 1 .
Sometimes both these methods of description are useful when we are considering
particular sequences. Sometimes one is very much easier to find than the other.
exercise 6.a.1 Try finding the following descriptions for yourself now. Keep a special eye out for
sequences which can be described in a similar way to each other because we shall
be looking at some of these in more detail in the next two sections.
(1) Find descriptions (A) and (B) for sequence (a) on page 225.
(2) Find descriptions (A) and (B) for sequence (b).
(3) Find descriptions (A) and (B) for sequence (d).
(4) Find just description (B) for sequence (e).
(5) Find both descriptions (A) and (B) for sequence (f ).
(6) Find just description (A) for sequence (h).
228 Sequences and series
(7) Find just description (A) for sequence (i).
(8) Find just description (B) for sequence (j).
(9) Find just description (A) for sequence (k).
(10) Find both descriptions (A) and (B) for sequence (l).
I am giving the answers to this exercise here as we shall be needing some of them in the
next two sections.
(1) Description (A) for sequence (a) gives un = n and description (B) gives
un = un–1 + 1 with u1 = 1.
(2) For description (A) for sequence (b), we can say that each odd number is one behind
the corresponding term in the sequence of even numbers, so un = 2n – 1.
helpful
It is useful to remember this as a formula which must give an odd number.
hint Similarly, 2n + 1 must also always be an odd number, while 2n is always
even.
Description (B) for this sequence says un = un – 1 + 2, with u1 = 1.
(3) Description (A) for sequence (d) is u2 = 2 1 and u3 = 22 1 etc.
so un = 2n – 1 1 = 2n – 1.
For description (B) we have un = 2un – 1 with u1 = 1.
(4) Description (B) for sequence (e) is un = un – 1 + (n – 1) with u1 = 1, or you could
write this as un + 1 = un + n with u1 = 1.
It is quite difficult to find a formula for un in terms of n here, just by looking
at the terms, which is why I didn't ask you to do it.
1 1
In fact, the rule for (A) is un = 2n 2 – 2n + 1. Check for yourself that this works
for n = 1, 2 and 3.
1 1
(5) For sequence (f), if we write u2 = 18 = (3) 54, and u3 = 6 = (3)2 54, we see that
1
un = (3)n–1 54, so this is description (A).
1
Notice, here, that the first term uses (3)0 = 1, which is one of the rules from
Section 1.D.(b).
1
Description (B) is un = 3(un – 1 ) with u1 = 54.
n
(6) Description (A) for sequence (h) is un = .
n+1
(7) Description (A) for sequence (i) is un = n 2.
(8) Description (B) for sequence (j) is un = un – 1 + un –2 with u1 = 1 and u2 = 2.
The formula for un in terms of n is so unlikely that even your wildest guesses
would never have produced it.
1 1+ 5 n+1 1– 5 n+1
It is un = – .
5 2 2
If you substitute some values for n in this formula, and use a calculator, you will
find that you do indeed get the right terms.
6.A Patterns and formulas 229
(9) Description (A) for sequence (k) is un = n 3.
(10) Description (A) for sequence (1) is un = n!
This means that un – 1 = (n – 1)! But n! = n(n – 1)! so description (B) is
un = nun – 1 with u1 = 1.
A formula which describes un using the previous terms of the sequence, such as
un = un – 1 + un – 2 for the Fibonacci sequence, is called a recurrence relation or difference
equation. Such equations have important applications in electrical engineering.
6.B Arithmetic progressions (APs)
6.B.(a) What are arithmetic progressions?
The sequences (a), (b) and (c) in Section 6.A.(a) are all examples of arithmetic progressions
or APs for short.
If you look back, you will see that in each case each new term is made by adding the
same constant number to the previous term.
We can write this type of sequence in the form
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
where a is the first term (so u1 = a) and d is what is called the common difference between
each successive pair of terms.
In (a), a = 1 and d = 1. What are a and d in (b) and (c)?
We would have a = 1 and d = 2 in (b), and a = 2 and d = 3 in (c).
The nth term of an AP is given by un = a + (n – 1)d since we have only added d
on (n – 1) times.
!
It's easy to think that the nth term will be a + nd but this is not so!
If the particular AP which we are considering only has n terms, so that un is the last term,
we sometimes call this last term l, so then un = l = a + (n – 1)d.
Suppose we have the AP 1, 3, 5, 7, . . ., 33.
(The dots in the middle signify that there are a whole lot of other terms here which we
do not want to (or even in some cases cannot) list individually. This use of dots is a standard
piece of mathematical language.)
How many terms have we got here?
Using un = l = a + (n – 1)d with a = 1 and d = 2 gives
l = 33 = 1 + (n – 1)2 = 1 + 2n – 2 so 2n = 34 and n = 17.
(Equally, each individual jump is of size 2, and the total jump from 1 to 33 is 32.
Therefore, we have 16 jumps and 17 terms. This is like fence-posts and the gaps between
them; there is one more post than there are gaps.)
230 Sequences and series
Try these two yourself.
For each of the APs (1) 3, 7, 11, . . . , 79 and (2) 102, 100, 98, . . . , 14 write down the
values of a and d. How many terms are there in each series?
You should have these answers.
For (1), a = 3 and d = 4 which gives 79 = un = l = 3 + (n – 1)4 = 3 + 4n – 4 so 80 = 4n
and n = 20.
For (2), a = 102 and d = –2. (The common difference here is negative.)
We have un = l = 14 = 102 + (n – 1) (–2) = 102 – 2n + 2 so 2n = 104 – 14
and n = 45.
6.B.(b) Finding a rule for summing APs
For practical purposes, we often need the sum of some number of terms of an AP.
When the terms are added together, we call the result a series.
The process of actually adding the terms to find their sum is called summing the series.
Is there any way in which we can do this without actually having to add on each term
separately?
There is a very neat way to do this. Think what happens if we turn the series the other
way round, and then add it to itself in the original order. The pairs of terms exactly slot into
each other to give the same result, like two staircases fitted opposite ways round.
Figure 6.B.1 shows the steps in adding the first eight terms of an AP as the sums build
up term by term.
Figure 6.B.1
Turn it upside down and you have the identical situation.
To show how we can use this, we'll take the example of the series (1) which is
3 + 7 + 11 + . . . + 75 + 79.
We have just found that it has 20 terms, so we can write, using S for 'sum',
S20 = 3 + 7 + 11 + . . . + 75 + 79.
Reversing the order, we can also write
S20 = 79 + 75 + 71 + . . . + 7 + 3.
Adding these two sums, we get
2S20 = 82 + 82 + 82 + . . . + 82 + 82
6.B Arithmetic progressions 231
and there are 20 lots of 82. Therefore
1
S20 = 2 20 82 = 820.
We can now see how this same system will work for a general AP with a first term of a,
a common difference of d and a last term, un , of l, by writing
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (l – d) + l.
Reversing the order, we can also write
Sn = l + (l – d) + (l – 2d) + . . . + (a + d) + a.
Adding, we get
2Sn = (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) + . . . + (a + l) + (a + l).
There are n terms here, so we have
1
2Sn = n(a + l) or Sn = 2n (a + l).
Also, since l = un = a + (n – 1)d, we can say
1 1
Sn = 2n(a + a + (n – 1)d) = 2n (2a + (n – 1)d).
The rule for the sum of n terms of an AP is
n n
Sn = a+l = 2a + (n – 1)d .
2 2
6.B.(c) The arithmetic mean or 'average'
We define the arithmetic mean, A, of two numbers, a and b, to be the number which makes
a, A, and b form an AP.
In other words, the arithmetic mean of a and b is the midway value between a and b, since
an arithmetic progression is formed by taking equal steps between the terms.
1
This means that A = 2 (a + b). A is what people commonly mean when they talk about
the 'average' of two numbers.
This definition can also be generalised by defining the arithmetic mean of n numbers to be
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . + an
.
n
Again, this is what is commonly meant by the 'average' of these n numbers.
6.B.(d) Solving a typical problem
Here is an example of a typical problem on APs.
The 7th term of an AP is 23, and the 4th term is 14. Find the sum of the first 20 terms.
First, we must find a and d from the information that we have been given. The 7th term is
a + 6d, and the 4th term is a + 3d, so we have
a + 6d = 23 (1)
a + 3d = 14 (2)
Subtracting equation (2) from (1) gives 3d = 9 so d = 3. Therefore
20
a = 5, and S20 = (10 + 19 3) = 670.
2
232 Sequences and series
6.B.(e) A summary of the results for APs
Before asking you to try some similar questions yourself, I will group together all the
formulas which we have found for APs.
We write APs as a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , where d is called the common difference.
The nth term is given by un = a + (n – 1)d. If this is also the last term, we call it l.
The sum of n terms is given by Sn = n/2 (a + l) where l is the last or nth term,
n
or Sn = 2 [2a + (n – 1)d].
a+b
The arithmetic mean of two numbers, a and b, is .
2
The arithmetic mean of n numbers, a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , is
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . + an
.
n
exercise 6.b.1 Try these questions yourself.
(1) For each of the following APs:
(i) write down the values of a and d,
(ii) find the number of terms in the series,
(iii) sum the series.
(a) 2 + 9 + 16 + . . . + 107
(b) 100 + 95 + 90 + . . . + 15
1 1 3
(c) 6 + 64 + 62 + . . . + 174
(2) (a) Find the sum of the natural numbers from 1 to 100 (that is, find 1 + 2 + 3 +
. . . + 100).
(b) Find the sum of the even numbers up to, and including 100, starting with 2.
(c) Find the sum of the odd numbers up to 100, starting from 1.
(d) Find the sum of the first n natural numbers.
(3) The first term of an AP is 11 and the sum of the first 18 terms is 1269. What is
the common difference?
(4) How many terms must be taken in the series 7 + 11 + 15 + . . . for the sum to
be 1375?
(5) An AP is such that the third term equals twice the first term. The sum of the
first ten terms is 195. Find the first term and the common difference.
6.C Geometric progressions (GPs)
6.C.(a) What are geometric progressions?
We move on now to consider sequences like those in (d), (f) and (g) in Section 6.A.(a). Each
of these is an example of a sequence in which each new term is found by multiplying the
previous term by a constant amount. This amount is called the common ratio. A sequence
like this is called a geometric progression, or GP for short.
6.C Geometric progressions 233
We can write this type of sequence as a, ar, ar 2, ar 3, . . ., ar n–1 where a is the first term,
and r is the common ratio.
The nth term is ar n – 1.
(Notice that it isn't ar n. Again, we are one behind ourselves.) r is called the common ratio
because if we divide any term by the previous term, we get r as the answer.
un ar n – 1
It is always true for a GP that = = r.
un – 1 ar n – 2
In other words, the ratio between any pair of successive terms is 1: r.
It is often helpful to use this property in problems on GPs.
Taking (d) as a numerical example, we have a = 1 and r = 2, and
2 4 8 16
= = = etc. = the common ratio, 2.
1 2 4 8
6.C.(b) Summing geometric progressions
How can we find Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + . . . + ar n – 1?
It will be no good turning the sum the other way round this time, as the two sums will
not slot together nicely as they did for the AP.
However, if we multiply Sn by r, the whole sequence gets shifted along by one. We get
rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + . . . + ar n (1)
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + . . . + ar n – 1 (2)
Can you see what makes a good next step?
Subtracting (2) from (1) makes nearly everything disappear, and neatly gives us
rSn – Sn = ar n – a.
Factorising, we get Sn(r – 1) = a(r n – 1), so
a(r n – 1)
Sn = . (G1)
r–1
Equally, by multiplying the top and bottom of the previous formula by –1, we can write
this as
a(1 – r n )
Sn = . (G2)
1–r
234 Sequences and series
The working is easier if you use (G2) when r is between –1 and +1, and (G1)
otherwise.
Here are some typical problems on GPs. (You might like to try having a go yourself first,
before looking at how I have done them.)
(1) Sum the following GPs.
(a) 2 + 6 + 18 + . . . for the first 20 terms.
(b) 1 – 2 + 4 – 8 + 16 . . . for (i) 10 terms, (ii) 11 terms.
The solutions for this first question are as follows:
(1) (a) We want S20 with a = 2 and r = 3.
Using formula (G1), we have
2(320 – 1)
S20 = = 3 486 784 398.
3–1
(b) We want (i) S10 , (ii) S11 , with a = 1 and r = –2.
Again using (G1), we have
1((–2)10 – 1)
(i) S10 = = –341
–2 –1
1((–2)11 – 1)
(ii) S11 = = 683.
–2 –1
It seems as if, for this series, not only are the terms alternating in sign, but also the
sums, as we add on each new term.
6.C.(c) The sum to infinity of a GP
Suppose we have the GP 24 + 12 + 6 + 3 + . . . and we want to find (a) S4 , (b) S10 and
(c) S20 .
1
We have a = 24 and r = 2 .
(a) The easiest way to find S4 is simply to add the first four terms, which gives us 45.
It is slightly more convenient to use formula (G2) for (b) and (c).
(b) S10 is given by
1
24(1 – ( 2 )10 )
S10 = 1 = 47.953125.
1– 2
(c) Similarly,
1
24(1 – ( 2 )20 )
S20 = 1 = 47.99995422.
1– 2
We notice here that the difference between the sum of the first four terms and the first ten
terms is small. The difference between the sum of the first ten terms and the first twenty
terms is very small indeed.
We can see why this is so if we look at the sum of n terms. We have
1
24(1 – ( 2 )n ) 1
Sn = 1 = 48(1 – ( 2 )n ).
1– 2
6.C Geometric progressions 235
1
As n becomes larger and larger, ( 2 )n will become smaller and smaller. In fact, by taking a
1
sufficiently large value of n, we can make the value of ( 2 )n become as close to zero as we
please, although it will never equal zero.
1
We can write this mathematically by saying lim ( 2 )n = 0.
n→
1
This means that the limiting value of ( 2 )n, as n tends to infinity, is zero. The symbol
represents infinity, a boundlessly huge amount.
1
Since ( 2 )n → 0 as n → , we see that the sum to which the series is approaching, is 48.
We call this the sum to infinity, and write it as S .
The same kind of thing will happen with any r which lies between –1 and +1.
The example which we have just looked at could be demonstrated by what happens if you
start with a piece of string 48 centimetres long and cut it in half. Lay down the stretched out
left-hand piece, and halve the right-hand piece. Continue with this process, each time laying
the new left-hand piece end to end with the previous pieces, and halving the right-hand
piece. The lengths which you have joined end to end are the same as the numbers in the
sequence, and your infinite process (mathematicians have no problem in halving infinitely
tiny bits of string) brings you closer and closer to your original 48 centimetres of string.
Another way of explaining what conditions r must fit in order for us to have a sum to
infinity is to say that we must have r < 1 where r means the absolute value of r. This is
1 1
the value of r taken as positive, whatever the value of r itself, so for example, 2 = 2
but –3 = 3. r < 1 means the same as –1 < r < + 1.
The sum to infinity of a GP
a(1 – r n ) a
If r < 1 and Sn = then S = .
1–r 1–r
!
This sum to infinity only exists if r < 1, so that the values of r n actually
do become smaller, as n becomes larger.
For example, if we have the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, . . . so a = 2 and r = 3, and
we say that
2
S = 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + . . . = = –1
1–3
it is clearly absolute nonsense. (It must be, because now r n is getting larger
and larger.)
6.C.(d) What do 'convergent' and 'divergent' mean?
A series whose sum becomes closer and closer to a definite finite value, S , as we take a
larger and larger number of terms, is called convergent.
For a convergent series, it must be possible to make the difference Sn – S as small as we
please, by taking a large enough value of n.
236 Sequences and series
If a series is not convergent, then it is called divergent.
An AP is always divergent. However tiny we make each individual step, we can always
add together enough terms to get an absolute total which is larger than any number we are
challenged with, because each step is equal in size.
The different sums that we can find by taking different values of n are called partial
sums. For example, if we have the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + . . ., then S1 = 1, S2 = 1 + 2 = 3,
S5 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31 and each of these are partial sums.
6.C.(e) More examples using GPs; chain letters
The following three examples also use GPs.
(1) How many terms of the GP 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + . . . are required for the sum to be
greater than one million?
(2) The third term of a GP is 72, and the sixth term is 243. Find the first term.
(3) The numbers n + 1, n + 5, and 2n + 4 are consecutive terms in a GP. (Consecutive
terms are terms which come immediately after each other in order.) Find the
possible values of n, and of the common ratio. Find also the values of the three
given terms in each case.
Have a go at these yourself before looking at what I have done.
Here are my answers.
(1) We have 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + . . .
Suppose we let n be the first number for which Sn > 1 000 000.
1(2n – 1)
a=1 and r=2 so Sn = = 2n – 1.
2–1
2n – 1 > 1 000 000 so 2n > 1 000 001.
Taking logs to base 10 both sides, we have
log10 (2n ) > log10 (1 000 001).
Using the third law of logs from Section 3.C.(d), we have
log10 (1 000 001)
nlog10 (2) > log10 (1 000 001) so n> .
log10 (2)
Therefore n > 19.93 to 2 d.p.
The first whole number for which this is true is 20, so n = 20.
This series appears in the story of the slave who was offered a reward by a
grateful King. Spurning gold, he asked for wheat to be placed on a chess-board,
with one grain for the first square, two for the second, and the number of grains
doubled for each subsequent square. We have seen that there were already over a
million grains by the 20th square. For the 64th square, he had 264 – 1 grains. This
1
is a seriously large number. If each grain is 4 cm long, and they are placed end to
end, they stretch more than one million times round the equator.
Chain letters do not work for the same reason. Suppose you receive a chain
letter asking you to post £1 to the sender, and then send off two identical letters
yourself. In theory, you end up £1 better off, but, in practice, this is exactly the
6.C Geometric progressions 237
same situation as the grains of wheat. By the twentieth step in the chain, even with
the number of letters only doubling each time, over a million people are involved,
and clearly the system must break down. The more letters there are in each step of
the chain, the sooner it breaks down. The only people who will safely make money
are those near the beginning of the chain. For them, the larger the number of letters
the better they do. The system is, in effect, a confidence trick.
(2) The third term of the GP is 72 so ar 2 = 72.
The sixth term is –243 so ar 5 = –243. Dividing, we get
ar 5 243
=– .
ar 2 72
Because GPs are formed by continued multiplication, dividing is often a technique
which works well.
Cancelling down gives us r 3 = –3.375.
This can be solved on a calculator by finding the cube root of +3.375, by using
the 'x 1/y' key.
This gives 1.5, so the cube root of –3.375 is –1.5.
Now, 72 = a(–1.5)2, so a = 32.
(3) The ratio from dividing consecutive terms of a GP is constant, so
n+5 2n + 4
= = the common ratio, r, of the series.
n+1 n+5
We have
(n + 5)(n + 5) = (n + 1)(2n + 4)
so n 2 + 10n + 25 = 2n 2 + 6n + 4
which gives
n 2 – 4n – 21 = 0.
Factorising this, we get
(n – 7) (n + 3) = 0 so n=7 or n = –3.
Both of these answers are possible.
We substitute back each in turn into (n + 5)/(n + 1) to find the common
ratio.
12 3
If n = 7, the common ratio is 8 = 2 , and the three terms are 8, 12 and 18.
2
If n = –3, the common ratio is – 2 = –1, and the three terms are –2, 2 and –2.
6.C.(f ) A summary of the results for GPs
We write GPs as a, ar, ar 2, . . . , where r is called the common ratio.
The nth term is ar n – 1.
The sum of n terms is given by
a(r n – 1)
Sn = (best used if r is greater than 1) (G1)
r–1
or
a(1 – r n )
Sn = (best used if r is less than 1). (G2)
1–r
238 Sequences and series
If r < 1, then
a
S = (G3)
1–r
r < 1 means the same thing as –1 < r < +1.
exercise 6.c.1 This exercise introduces some very important ideas, so you should do it now as I
shall use your answers straight away to show you how things work. Don't be
tempted just to look at mine – thinking about your own answers makes an infinite
difference to how much you learn.
(1) Which of the following GPs are convergent? If they are convergent, find the
sum to infinity in each case.
(a) 12 + 18 + 27 + . . . (b) 18 + 12 + 8 + . . .
(c) 64 – 48 + 36 – 27 + . . . (d) 16 – 40 + 100 – 250 + . . .
1 1 1 1
(e) 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + . . . (f ) 1 – 2 + 4 – 8 + 16 + . . .
(2) The sum of the first two terms of a GP is 30, and the sum of the second and
third terms is 20. Find the first term and the common ratio.
(3) The numbers n + 3, 3n – 3, and 5n + 3 are consecutive terms of a GP. Find the
possible values of n and of the common ratio. Find also the values of the three
given terms in each case.
(4) (a) Which is the first term of the GP 3 + 12 + 48 + . . . to be greater than
1 000 000?
(b) How many terms of this GP are required in order to make a sum which is
greater than 1010?
These are the answers which I hope you will have found.
3
(1) (a) r = 2 so r > 1 and the series is not convergent. In fact, we can easily see that
the sums will increase rapidly.
2
(b) r = 3 so r < 1 and the series is convergent.
18
S = 2 = 54.
1– 3
3 3
(c) r = – 4 so r = 4 < 1 and the series is convergent.
64 256 4
S = 3 = = 367 .
1 – (– 4) 7
5
(d) r = – 2 so r > 1 and the series is not convergent.
(e) r = – 1 so r 1. The symbol ' ' means 'is not less than'. The series is not
convergent.
In fact, a very curious thing happens with (e).
Normally, if we are adding a string of numbers, we can add them in any
order that we please, so for example
1 + 2 + 5 + 18 + 24 = (1 + 2) + (5 + 18) + 24 = (1 + 2 + 5) + (18 + 24) etc.
Here, if we put in brackets to group the terms, we get a very odd result.
It would appear that it is possible to say
S = (1 – 1) + (1 – 1) + (1 – 1) + . . . = 0.
6.C Geometric progressions 239
Also, it would seem reasonable to say
S = 1 + (– 1 + 1) + (– 1 + 1) + (–1 + 1) + . . . = 1.
Clearly, something is going wrong here.
The fault in the argument is that, by taking the sum to infinity, we are
implicitly assuming that the sum of this series is going to get closer and closer
to a definite number the further we go. Here, this is not at all true. In fact, if
we take an even number of terms the sum is zero, and if we take an odd number
of terms the sum is 1, and there is a continual flip-flop between the two. The
sum to infinity does not exist and the series is divergent.
At the time when mathematicians were first working on the theory of
infinite series, around the beginning of the nineteenth century, this kind of
result caused considerable consternation, followed by a big jump forwards in
understanding. It is often the cases which behave in peculiar ways which lead
to advances in maths, because they make it necessary to look in more detail at
what is actually going on. Situations like the one above make it evident that
everything is not always as it seems, and that it can be dangerous to jump too
soon to conclusions.
It is true that we can group together the terms in any way we please in any
finite sum of numbers. Also, if all the terms are positive, we can group the
terms in any convenient way in an infinite series, because each next term is just
another step up in the staircase. Putting some steps together into a larger step
will make no difference to the total height of the staircase, whether this height
is infinite or not.
1
(f) Here, r = – so r < 1 and the series is convergent.
2
1 2
S = 1 = 3.
1+2
If we calculate some partial sums, that is, sums of different numbers of terms,
2
we find that they are alternately larger and smaller than 3 , but getting closer
and closer to this value the more terms of the series we take. (Try this for
yourself, using a calculator.) By taking a sufficiently large number of terms,
2
we can get as close to 3 as we please. Furthermore, and importantly, any greater
2
number of terms will bring us even closer to 3 .
(2) Writing the given information mathematically, we have
a + ar = 30 (1)
ar + ar 2 = 20 (2)
These equations can be solved rather neatly in the following way. Instead of
writing equation (2) in the obvious factorisation of ar(1 + r) = 20, we write it as
r(a + ar) = 20. We do this because the (a + ar) exactly matches up with the first
equation.
Now we can substitute in this new equation, using equation (1), and we get
2
30r = 20 so r = 3 . Then, since a(1 + r) = 30, a = 18.
(3) The ratio of successive terms of a GP is the same, so
3n – 3 5n + 3
= = the common ratio.
n+3 3n – 3
240 Sequences and series
So
9n 2 – 18n + 9 = 5n 2 + 18n + 9.
4n 2 – 36n = 0 so, factorising, we have
4n(n – 9) = 0 so n=0 or 9.
If n = 0, we get r = –1 and the three terms of the series are 3, –3, 3.
24
If n = 9, r = 12 = 2 and the three terms are 12, 24 and 48.
(4) Here, a = 3 and r = 4.
(a) Let n be the first number for which un is greater than 1 000 000. Then
1 000 000
un = 3(4)n – 1 > 1 000 000 so 4n – 1 > .
3
Taking logs, we have
1 000 000
log10 (4n – 1 ) > log10 .
3
Now, using the third law of logs, we get
1 000 000
(n – 1) log10 (4) > log10
3
from which n – 1 > 9.17 to 2 d.p. So the first possible integer value of n is 11.
(b) Now let n be the first integer such that Sn > 1010.
!
In the first part of this question, we are looking for the first term which is
larger than some given value. In the second part, we are looking at the size
of the sum of all the terms up to that point. Students quite often mix up
these two different situations.
We have
3(4n – 1)
> 1010 so 4n > 1010 + 1.
4–1
Taking logs, and using the third law, we have
nlog10 (4) > log10 (1010 + 1)
so n > 16.6 to 1 d.p. The first possible integer value of n is 17.
6.C.(g) Recurring decimals, and writing them as fractions
We come next to some applications of GPs.
The first of these gives us a way to convert some decimals to fractions. The strength of
the decimal system for writing fractions is that it uses the same system of place values based
on powers of 10 as our system of whole numbers uses. This means that decimal fractions are
particularly easy to add and subtract and multiply, in just the same way that whole number
calculations are straightforward with our number system. If you've ever tried adding or
subtracting with Roman numerals, you will appreciate this.
6.C Geometric progressions 241
Here are some examples of the place values.
3 4 7 47
0.3 means , 0.47 means + = ,
10 10 100 100
1 0 8 108
and 0.108 means + + = .
10 100 1000 1000
(In general, we simply put a zero underneath for every digit on the top.)
!
1
Don't be tempted to say that 8 , for example, is 0.8!
1
In fact, to write 8 as a decimal, we divide the bottom into the top and our
1
number system automatically takes care of the rest so 8 = 0.125.
1
˙
A single-digit repeating decimal, like 3 = 0.333 . . . is written as 0.3.
1
In a similar way, 11 = 0.090909 . . . = 0.09, where the line signifies that these two digits
are repeated.
Both of these examples are called recurring decimals, because the same group of digits
is repeated infinitely.
What happens if we want to convert a recurring decimal into fraction form?
For example, suppose we have 0.17171717. . . or 0.17.
It is no use trying to use our rule of zeros underneath for each digit, as this gives us a
fraction with an infinitely long top and bottom.
Instead, we use exactly the same device which we used to find the sum of a GP. In other
words, we multiply by a number which slides everything along so that it exactly slots for a
subtraction to work. Suppose we let
F = 0.171717 . . .
Then
100F = 17.171717 . . .
and, subtracting, we get
17
99F = 17 so F= .
99
You can check this result on your calculator, allowing for the fact that, as it gives a limited
number of decimal places, it will round the last digit.
The reason that the same technique works so well is that 0.171717 . . . is a GP. We can
see this by writing it as
0.17 = 0.17171717 . . .
1 1 2 1 3
= (17) + (17) + (17) + . . .
100 100 100
We have
17 1
a= and r= .
100 100
242 Sequences and series
r < 1, so the sum to infinity of this series exists.
17
a 100 17 17
S = = 1 = =
1–r 1– 100 100 – 1 99
which agrees with our previous result.
Here is another example. Find in fraction form
12.4125125125. . . or 12.4125.
What do you think we should multiply by this time in order to slot everything into the
optimum position?
It will need to be 1000. (It is the number of digits which are repeated which is important
here.)
If we let F = 12.4125, then we have
1000F = 12412.5125125 . . .
F= 12.4125125 . . .
Subtracting, we have 999F = 12400.1, so
12400.1 124001
F= =
999 9990
multiplying top and bottom of this fraction by 10, to tidy it up.
exercise 6.c.2 Try converting the following decimals to fractions yourself.
(1) 0.7 (2) 0.25 (3) 0.401 (4) 0.011 ˙
(5) 0.7
(6) 0.29 (7) 2.534 (8) 40.2106 (9) 0.142857
6.C.(h) Compound interest: a faster way of getting rich
Another application of GPs is in calculating compound interest. If money is invested to
obtain compound interest, this means that, in each successive period (usually a year or six
months), you not only receive money on the original amount invested (the principal) but
also on the accumulated interest so far obtained.
With simple interest, on the other hand, you receive only the interest on the original
capital or principal.
example (1) James invests £800 at 5% compound interest per annum (year). How
much money has he at the end of six years?
Compare this with what he would have received if his money was
invested at 5% per annum simple interest.
We will look at how much he gets with simple interest first.
At the end of the first year, he receives 5% extra, so he gets
5
£800 = £40 extra.
100
Exactly the same thing happens in the other five years since he receives
no extra interest on his accumulating interest. So at the end of six years
he will have
£800 + 6 £40 = £1040.
6.C Geometric progressions 243
Under the compound interest system, the result at the end of the first
year is unchanged. Writing what happens in detail, we see that he has
5 105
£800 + (£800) = (£800) = (1.05) (£800) = £840.
100 100
Now the difference in the two systems starts to show because the
interest for the second year is calculated from the total amount of
money he now has.
At the end of the second year, he has
(1.05) (the amount now there) = ((1.05)(1.05)(£800)) = (1.05)2 £800.
So, at the end of six years, he has (1.05)6 £800 = £1072.08 to the
nearest penny.
We see that he is £32.08 better off with the compound interest.
When James is on a system of simple interest, the steps of his increases form an AP with
'a' = 800 and 'd' = 0.05 800 = 40.
When he is on a system of compound interest, the steps of his increases form a GP with
'a' = 800 and 'r' = 1.05.
How much money does James have in total after n years?
If the money was invested at 5% simple interest, he will have n (0.05 £800) in
accumulated interest, giving him a total of £800 + 0.05n(£800).
If his money was invested at 5% compound interest, he would have (1.05)n £800
altogether.
Notice that these two formulas give us practical examples of working sequences.
The sequence for his totals with simple interest over periods of a year, in £ units, is the
AP which goes:
800, 840, 880, 920, . . ., [800 + (n – 1) (0.05 800)], . . .
The nth term of this AP is 800 + (n – 1) (0.05 800).
This can also be written as a recurrence relation or difference equation, using the
method of description (B) from Section 6.A.(b). We would write
un = un – 1 + (0.05 800) = un – 1 + 40 with u1 = 800.
The sequence for his totals with compound interest form the GP
800, 840, 882, 926.10, . . ., (1.05)n –1 800, . . .
with (1.05)n – 1 800 as its nth term.
It can also be written as a difference equation in the form
un = (1.05)un – 1 with u1 = 800.
What if James invests the same amount each year with compound interest?
Suppose that he was able to invest £800 at the beginning of each of the six years at the same
rate of compound interest of 5%. How much would he have altogether on 2 January of the
seventh year, when he has just deposited his most recent £800?
He would have
£800 + (1.05)£800 + (1.05)2 £800 + . . . + (1.05)6 £800
which is a GP with a = £800, r = 1.05, and n = 7. So his total investment is
800 ((1.05)7 – 1)
S7 = = £6513.61.
1.05 – 1
244 Sequences and series
6.C.(i) The geometric mean
We have already seen that the arithmetic mean, A, of two numbers, a and b, is defined as the
number A such that a, A and b form an arithmetic progression.
In a similar way, we define the geometric mean G, of two positive numbers a and b, to
be the number such that a, G, b are in geometric progression.
So a, G, b can also be written as a, ar, ar 2 giving G = ar and b = ar 2. Now
ab = a(ar 2 ) = a 2r 2 = G 2 so G = ab.
For example, suppose we have the pair of numbers 2 and 8.
The arithmetic mean of these two numbers is the midway point of 5 (Section 6.B.(c)).
This then gives a mini AP of 2, 5, 8 with a common difference of 3.
The geometric mean of these two numbers is 4, given by 2 8, resulting in the mini
GP of 2, 4, 8 with common ratio 2.
The definition of the geometric mean can also be extended to n numbers, provided that
they are positive, in the following way.
If the numbers are a1 , a2 , a3 , . . ., an then the geometric mean is n a1 a2 a3 . . . an .
6.C.(j) Comparing arithmetic and geometric means
We can also show that the arithmetic mean of any two positive numbers a and b is greater
than their geometric mean. We have to show that
a+b
≥ ab.
2
This can be done rather neatly by putting a = x 2 and b = y 2. Since we have said that a and b are
positive, this is a safe move, and it gets rid of the sign. We now have to show that
x2 + y2
≥ xy.
2
Can you see how the rest of the argument will go?
We must show that x 2 + y 2 ≥ 2xy.
So we must show that x 2 + y 2 – 2xy ≥ 0, that is, that (x – y)2 ≥ 0. But (x – y)2 must be
either positive (or zero, if x = y), since it is something squared. Therefore A ≥ G.
6.C.(k) What is the fate of the frog down the well?
thinking
I will finish this section by asking you the following question.
point A frog is at the bottom of a well. He finds that he can jump up the side
of the well, hanging on briefly between jumps. This procedure is exhausting
1 1
so he jumps a shorter distance each time, starting with 1 m then 2 m, 3 m,
and so on, so that the total height he has reached after n jumps is given by
1 1 1 1
1 + + + + . . . + metres.
2 3 4 n
Obviously, if the well is only 2 metres deep, he will have escaped by his
fourth jump. How deep must the well be for him never to escape, or will he
always gain his freedom?
6.C Geometric progressions 245
It is worth testing your ideas here numerically in any way you can.
You could sum as many terms as you have the patience for on a calculator to get some
idea of what is happening.
Even better, if you can write computer programs, you could test any particular depth
which you might think would definitely spell the frog's doom, by seeing if there is some
number of jumps whose sum would actually come to more than this depth, so that he does
escape. (I shall return to this puzzle later on in this chapter.)
6.D A compact way of writing sums: the notation
6.D.(a) What does Σ stand for?
We have looked fairly thoroughly at APs and GPs because they are relatively easy to sum,
and also come up quite often in practical situations. Now we will widen the field by looking
at some other kinds of series.
To make this easier, I will show you a neat new method of writing the sum of a series.
It is called the Σ notation, from the Greek capital letter S which is written Σ, and pronounced
'sigma'.
1 1 1 n 1
To write 1 + + + ... + in this notation, we write .
2 3 n r=1 r
What we have done is to write down the sum using the general term of the series. The value
of r at the bottom of the Σ gives the first term, and the value (of r) at the top of the Σ gives
the last term. You can think of this Σ as meaning 'The sum of all such things as 1/r with r
going from 1 to n'.
The letters used need not necessarily be r and n but the general idea will be
note
the same.
Here is another example, which uses n as the letter inside the Σ.
10
n = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 10.
n=1
The r in the first example and the n in the second example are dummy variables with the
information about how far they run being written at the bottom and the top of the Σ. Once
this information has been filled in, the answer will be purely numerical, and it won't matter
what letter we chose to use.
exercise 6.d.1 Try writing the following in Σ notation for yourself.
1 2 3 11
(1) 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + . . . + 81 (2) + + +...+
2 3 4 12
1 1 1 1
(3) + + +...+
1 2 2 3 3 4 29 30
(4) –1 + 4 – 9 + 16 – 25 + . . . – 81 Be ingenious!
246 Sequences and series
6.D.(b) Unpacking the Σs
It will be quite useful for you to get some practice here in unpacking the Σ notation into the
separate numerical terms, as sometimes it is necessary to convert back in this way.
Here is an example of this.
Find the sum of the first four terms, and also write down the nth term and the (n + 1)th
term, of the series
n 1
.
r = 1 r(r + 1)(2r + 1)
The first four terms are
1 1 1 1
+ + +
1(2)(3) 2(3)(5) 3(4)(7) 4(5)(9)
feeding in r = 1, 2, 3, 4 in turn. Tidying up, we get
1 1 1 1 137
+ + + =
6 30 84 180 630
The nth term is
1
, putting r = n.
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
For the (n + 1)th term, we put r = n + 1, and get
1 1
= .
(n + 1)(n + 2) (2(n + 1) + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
Students sometimes find this last procedure a bit tricky, but it is well worth practising it now
because you will need it if you have to work with more complicated series.
exercise 6.d.2 For each of the following series, write down the first four terms, and then add
them together. Also, write down the nth term and the (n + 1)th term.
n n n
1 1
(1) (2r + 3) (2) 36( 3 )r – 1 (3)
r=1 r=1 r = 1 r!
n n
r 1
(4) (–1)r + 1 (5)
r=1 r+2 r = 1 (2r – 1) (2r + 1)
6.D.(c) Summing by breaking down to simpler series
Sometimes it is possible to sum series by breaking them down into simpler series which have
known sums. I will give you some examples of this, using the following three standard sums.
n
1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n = r = 2 n(n + 1) (S1)
r=1
n
1
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + . . . + n 2 = r 2 = 6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) (S2)
r=1
n
3 3 3 3 3 1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n = r 3 = 4 n 2(n + 1)2 (S3)
r=1
6.D The notation 247
(If not knowing where these have come from worries you, we showed the first one when
we did APs in question 2(d) of Exercise 6.B.1. The other two are shown to be true in the next
chapter in Section 7.D.)
Here is an example of how they can be used.
n
Find (r + 1)(r + 2).
r=1
n n
(r + 1)(r + 2) = (r 2 + 3r + 2).
r=1 r=1
This can then be split into separate sums since it makes no difference what order we do the
adding in. We say
n n n n
2 2
(r + 3r + 2) = r + 3r + 2.
r=1 r=1 r=1 r=1
Also,
n n
3r = 3 r
r=1 r=1
since multiplying each separate number by 3, and then adding, is the same as adding first
and then multiplying the total by 3.
You can see all this actually working if I put n = 3.
3 3 3 3
2 2
(r + 3r + 2) = r +3 r+ 2.
r=1 r=1 r=1 r=1
The LHS of this is (12 + 3 + 2) + (22 + 6 + 2) + (32 + 9 + 2) = 38.
The RHS of this is (12 + 22 + 32 ) + 3(1 + 2 + 3) + (2 + 2 + 2) = 38.
!
3
Notice 2 is 2 + 2 + 2 and not just 2. The 2 is being added in three times.
r=1
So we have
n n n n
2
(r + 1)(r + 2) = r +3 r+ 2.
r=1 r=1 r=1 r=1
Using (S1) and (S2), we find this is the same as
1 1
6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 3 [2 n(n + 1)] + 2n.
(The 2 is now being added n times.)
1
Factorising this by taking out 6 n, we get
1
6n [(n + 1) (2n + 1) + 9 (n + 1) + 12] .
1
(It is good to have the 6 out of the way in the front. If you are doubtful about what is inside
the bracket, check by multiplying out.) Multiplying out the inside brackets, we have
1
6n [(2n 2 + 3n + 1) + (9n + 9) + 12] = 1 n(2n 2 + 12n + 22) = 1 n(n 2 + 6n + 11)
6 3
taking out an extra factor of 2, and cancelling. So
n
1
(r + 1)(r + 2) = 3 n(n 2 + 6n + 11).
r=1
248 Sequences and series
Check: If n = 3, we have just seen that
3
LHS = (r + 1)(r + 2) = 38.
r=1
Putting n = 3 in the answer gives
1 1
RHS = 3 n(n 2 + 6n + 11) with n = 3, which is 3 (3)(9 + 18 + 11) = 38.
exercise 6.d.3 Try these two yourself. Find
n n
(1) (r – 1)(r + 3) (2) r(r – 1)(r + 1).
r=1 r=1
In each case, check your answers by putting n = 3.
6.E Partial fractions
6.E.(a) Introducing partial fractions for summing series
In the earlier part of this chapter, we found out how to sum APs and GPs. Now we look at
a rather ingenious technique which can be used for summing series involving fractions.
(This particular technique also has many other uses.)
Suppose we want to find
n 1
r=1 r(r + 1)
that is, we want to find
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +...+ = + + + +...+ .
1.2 2.3 3.4 4.5 n(n + 1) 2 6 12 20 n(n + 1)
As it stands, there is no simple way of calculating this sum.
1
However, the fraction r(r + 1) looks as if it has come from putting two simpler fractions
into one single fraction, as we did in Section 1.C.(c). Suppose we try writing
1 A B
+
r(r + 1) r r+1
where A and B are standing for numbers which we would need to find out. I've used the ' '
sign here to emphasise that the two sides are just different ways of writing the same thing.
What we have here is another example of an identity. I explained what this means in Section
2.D.(h).
To find A and B, we get rid of fractions by multiplying through by r(r + 1).
Cancelling where possible, we get 1 A(r + 1) + Br.
Since this is just a rewriting, or identity, it must be true for all values of r.
Putting r = 0, we get 1 = A.
Putting r = – 1, we get 1 = – B, so B = –1.
We can check by putting r = 1, say. With these values of A and B, we get the LHS = 1,
and the RHS = 2 – 1 = 1 also.
We now know that we can replace
1 1 1
by – .
r(r + 1) r r+1
6.E Partial fractions 249
Will this help us? We can say
n 1 n 1 1
–
r=1 r(r + 1) r=1 r r+1
n 1 n 1
= –
r=1 r r=1 r+1
1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + ... +
2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1 1
– + + + ... + + ,
2 3 4 n n+1
and we see that it does indeed help us.
The second bracket is almost exactly the same as the first bracket. It has the same number
of terms, but everything has been slid one place to the right.
When we do the subtraction, we are left with just 1 – 1/(n + 1) so
n 1 1
=1– .
r=1 r(r + 1) n+1
You can check that this actually works by putting n = 2. This gives a LHS of
1 1 1
2 + 6 and a RHS of 1 – 3 , so the two sides do come out the same.
What will happen as n becomes very large? Will this series have a sum to infinity? In
other words, is it convergent?
The larger n gets, the closer 1/(n + 1) becomes to zero, so the sum of the series will get
closer and closer to 1.
The series is convergent, with a sum to infinity of 1. We can say
1
= 1.
r=1 r(r + 1)
Now have a go at using the same method yourself to find the sum of the series
2 2 2 2 2 n 2
+ + + + ... + = .
3 8 15 24 n(n + 2) r= 1 r(r + 2)
Check how you got on.
2 A B
can be split up into two simpler fractions as + .
r(r + 2) r r+2
Then, multiplying by r(r + 2) to get rid of fractions, we have
2 A(r + 2) + Br.
Putting r = –2 gives 2 = –2B, so B = –1.
Putting r = 0 gives 2 = 2A, so A = 1.
Checking, by putting r = 1, we have the LHS = 2 and the RHS = 3 – 1 = 2.
250 Sequences and series
We can therefore say
2 1 1
– ,
r(r + 2) r r + 2'
and we now have
n 2 n 1 n 1
–
r=1 r(r + 2) r=1 r r=1 r+2
1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + ... +
2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1 1
– + + ... + + + .
3 4 n n+1 n+2
(The last three terms in the second bracket come from putting r = n – 2, n – 1, and n
respectively.)
This time, it is as though the right-hand bracket has been slid along two places instead
of just one, as it was in the previous example.
Subtracting all the overlapping parts, we are left with
n 2 1 1 1 3 1 1
= 1+ – . + = – –
r(r + 2)
r=1 2 n+1 n+2 2 n+1 n+2
1 1
Both and will become very small as n becomes large. We can say that
n+1 n+2
1 1
→ 0 and → 0 as n →
n+1 n+2
3
so we see that the sum of the series is getting closer and closer to 2 .
n 2 3
The series is convergent, and its sum to infinity is 2 .
r=1 r(r + 2)
3
The number forms a barrier beyond which the sum cannot go, however many extra
2
terms we add, although we can get as close to it as we please if we take a sufficiently large
number of terms. (We never quite get there, though! We are always a tiny bit less than it since
all the terms of the series are positive.)
6.E.(b) General rules for using partial fractions
When we summed the series
n 1 n 2
and ,
r=1 r(r + 1) r=1 r(r + 2)
we split up the complicated fraction into two simpler fractions, in each case.
This technique of rewriting complicated fractions in the form of separate simpler
fractions is called the method of partial fractions. It is often extremely useful, not only for
summing series as we have already used it, but also in integration, as you will see in
Section.9.B.(e).
Because it is such an important technique, we shall look at it now in more detail. The two
examples which we have already met both had two factors underneath. If the fraction has
more factors underneath, it is simply split into more fractions.
6.E Partial fractions 251
So, for example,
6 A B C
is written as + + ,
(x – 1)(x + 1)(2x + 1) x–1 x+1 2x + 1
where A, B and C are standing for numbers which we have to find.
Getting rid of fractions as before, by multiplying by (x – 1) (x + 1) (2x + 1) and cancelling
where possible, we get
6 A(x + 1)(2x + 1) + B(x – 1)(2x + 1) + C(x – 1) (x + 1).
Putting x = 1 gives 6 = 6A, so A = 1.
Putting x = –1 gives 6 = 2B, so B = 3.
1 3
Putting x = – 2 gives 6= – 4 C, so C = –8.
Notice that we cunningly choose values of x so that two parts get knocked out each time,
and we can easily find the value of the remaining letter.
Then it is sensible to check the values we have found, by putting x = 0, say, with these
values, and making sure that the two sides balance.
Here, the LHS = 6, and the RHS = A – B – C = 1 – 3 + 8 = 6.
Often, finding the partial fractions is only a small part of the complete problem, so it is
wise to check that nothing has gone wrong at this stage.
6.E.(c) The cover-up rule
In a case like the above, it is also possible to find A, B and C by what is known as the cover-
up rule.
To do this, we choose each of the three values of x in turn which gives a zero in the
denominator of
6
(x – 1)(x + 1)(2x + 1)
(that is, we choose the same three values which we used in the previous working).
Suppose we start with x = 1. Then we cover up the bracket (x – 1), and feed x = 1 into
the rest of the fraction.
This gives 6/6 = 1 as A, the number over (x – 1).
Similarly, covering up (x + 1), and feeding in x = –1 to the rest of the fraction, gives
B = 6/2 = 3.
1
Finally, covering up (2x + 1), and feeding in x = – 2 to the rest of the fraction, gives
C = –8.
You can use whichever method you prefer.
exercise 6.e.1 Use whichever method you find most convenient to write the following as partial
fractions.
4 6 10
(1) (2) (3)
(x + 2)(x + 3) (2y – 1)(2y + 1) x(x – 1)(x + 4)
6.E.(d) Coping with possible complications
Unfortunately, sometimes complications arise. These can be split into three types and I'll
describe each of them in turn.
252 Sequences and series
Repeated factors
Suppose we have the fraction
4
.
(x + 1)(x – 1)2
Can we say
4 A B
2
+ ?
(x + 1)(x – 1) x+1 (x – 1)2
We'll see what happens when we try to find A and B.
Getting rid of fractions, we have 4 A(x – 1)2 + B(x + 1).
Putting x = 1 gives 4 = 2B so B = 2.
Putting x = –1 gives 4 = 4A so A = 1.
Now check with x = 0. The LHS = 4 and the RHS = 1 + 2 = 3.
Clearly, something has gone wrong!
If we think what fractions we could have put together to give the original fraction then
we see that there could have been a hidden one extra to the two which we wrote down above.
Can you see what this extra one is?
There could also have been the fraction
C
.
x–1
If we now write
4 A B C
+ +
(x + 1)(x – 1)2 x+1 (x – 1)2 x–1
and get rid of fractions by multiplying by (x + 1)(x – 1)2, cancelling where possible, we get
4 A(x – 1)2 + B(x + 1) + C(x – 1)(x + 1). (1)
!
You need to think carefully here about the cancelling down. If you try to get
rid of the fractions on autopilot, you will almost certainly go wrong.
Now, putting x = 1 we get 4 = 2B so B = 2 as before.
Putting x = – 1 gives us 4 = 4A so A = 1, also as before.
To find C, we can apply the very useful technique which we employed when we were
factorising cubic equations in Section 2.E.(a).
The way to do this is as follows.
Since equation (1) above is an identity, the coefficients of each separate power of x on
each side of it must match up. For example, there must be the same number of x 2 terms on
each side; this is the only way that (1) can be true for all values of x.
Looking at the terms in x 2, we have 0 = Ax 2 + Cx 2 so C = –A so C = –1.
Now we check again, putting x = 0.
6.E Partial fractions 253
This time, the LHS = 4 and the RHS = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4, which is a much better state of
affairs. Our final result is
4 1 2 1
+ – .
(x + 1)(x –1)2 x+1 (x – 1)2 x–1
The rule for dealing with repeated factors
If there is a repeated factor underneath, we must put in extra fractions to make up
the whole power. For example,
1 A B C D
3
+ + 2
+ .
(x + 1)(x + 3) x–1 x+3 (x + 3) (x + 3)3
exercise 6.e.2 Try these two for yourself. Find partial fractions for
5 2
(1) 2
, (2) 2
.
(x – 2)(x + 3) y (y – 1)
Non-linear factors
3 3
Suppose we have (1) 2
and (2) .
(x + 1)(x – 4) (x + 1)(x 2 + 4)
How could we split up (1) to find its partial fractions?
We could use the difference of two squares (again!) on x 2 – 4, and write
3 3 A B C
+ + .
(x + 1)(x 2 – 4) (x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 2) x+1 x–2 x+2
Finish this for yourself. You should get
1 3
3 –1 4 4
+ + .
(x + 1)(x 2 – 4) x+1 x–2 x+2
However, when we come to (2), we can't split up x 2 + 4 into two linear factors. (A linear
factor is one like (x + 2) where, if we plotted y = x + 2, we would get a straight line.)
Now, if we are dividing by x 2 + 4, the remainder can have xs in, as well as numbers, so
we have to split (2) up into partial fractions as follows:
3 A Bx + C
2
+ .
(x + 1)(x + 4) x+1 x2 + 4
Getting rid of fractions, 3 A(x 2 + 4) + (Bx + C)(x + 1).
3
Putting x = –1 gives 3 = 5A, so A = 5 .
3
Putting x = 0 gives us 3 = 4A + C, so C = 5 .
3
Matching the terms in x 2 gives us 0 = Ax 2 + Bx 2, so B = –A = – 5 .
Checking with x = 1 gives the LHS = 3, and the RHS = 3 + 0 = 3.
254 Sequences and series
So
3 3 3
3 5 (– 5 x + 5 ) 3 1 x–1
+ = –
(x + 1)(x 2 + 4) x+1 x2 + 4 5 x+1 x2 + 4
3
taking out the factor of 5 . Notice carefully the signs in the two forms of writing this answer.
Remember that the line of the fraction acts as a bracket. (See, if necessary, Section 1.C.(e)
on subtracting fractions.)
The rule for dealing with non-linear factors
If one of the factors on the bottom of a fraction has an x 2 term, and this factor
won't itself factorise any further, then we need both xs and numbers on the top,
like the Bx + C above.
Similarly, if we had a factor underneath with an x 3 term, and this factor wouldn't itself
factorise, we would need to have Ax 2 + Bx + C on the top, and so on.
exercise 6.e.3 Try finding partial fractions for
14 4
(1) 2
, (2) 2
.
(x + 3)(x + 2) y(y + 1)
Top-heavy fractions
Consider these four examples.
x 2 + 3x – 5 x 2 + 4x – 2 x2 + 1 x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x – 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
x 2 + 2x – 8 x 2 + 5x + 6 x2 – 9 (x + 2) (x – 1)
Each of these fractions is top-heavy. By this I mean that the highest power of x on the top
is greater than, or equal to, the highest power of x on the bottom.
If we have this situation, it is necessary to divide before finding partial fractions for the
rest of the expression.
19 3
(This division is exactly the same process that we use in writing the fraction 8 as 28 . The
19
arithmetical fraction 8 is top-heavy.)
Fortunately, quite often this dividing can be done without using the full long-division
process.
(1) In this example, we can cunningly rewrite the top of the fraction as follows:
x 2 + 3x – 5 x 2 + 2x – 8 + x + 3
.
x 2 + 2x – 8 x 2 + 2x – 8
This can then be written as
x+3
1+ .
x 2 + 2x – 8
Now we find partial fractions for
x+3
.
x 2 + 2x – 8
6.E Partial fractions 255
This factorises to
x+3
(x + 4)(x – 2)
giving partial fractions of
1 5
6 6
+ .
x+4 x–2
(Check this for yourself.)
The complete solution is then given by
1 5
x 2 + 3x – 5 6 6
1+ + .
x 2 + 2x – 8 x+4 x–2
!
It's very easy to forget to include the 1 here.
(2) Can you see how to rewrite the top of the fraction in example (2) to make the
division easy?
We can say
x 2 + 4x – 2 x 2 + 5x + 6 – x – 8
.
x 2 + 5x + 6 x 2 + 5x + 6
This can then be written as
x+8
1– .
x 2 + 5x + 6
Notice the signs again! The line of the fraction is acting as a bracket.
Now, find partial fractions for
x+8
2
.
x + 5x + 6
You should have
x+8 x+8 A B
2
= +
x + 5x + 6 (x + 3)(x + 2) x+3 x+2
so x+8 A(x + 2) + B(x + 3).
Putting x = –2 gives 6 = B.
Putting x = –3 gives us 5 = –A.
Notice that, in this example, it is necessary to substitute for x on the LHS too.
So the complete solution is
x 2 + 4x – 2 –5 6 5 6
1– + 1+ – .
x 2 + 5x + 6 x+3 x+2 x+3 x+2
256 Sequences and series
There are two things to remember here: we must include the 1 like last time, and we also
have to remember the minus sign in front of the big bracket.
(3) Try doing this example for yourself.
You should have
x2 + 1 x 2 – 9 + 10
x2 – 9 x2 – 9
10 10
=1+ 2
1+ .
x –9 (x – 3)(x + 3)
10/(x – 3)(x + 3) can then be easily split into partial fractions, giving a final complete
answer of
5 5
3 3
1+ – .
x–3 x+3
(4) Here, we shall have to have recourse to the full long-division process. I explained
how to do this in Section 2.E.(b). We have
x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x – 3
,
x2 + x – 2
so we find
x +2
x 2 + x – 2 x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x –3
x3 + x2 – 2x
2x 2 + 4x –3
2x 2 + 2x –4
2x +1
Since x 2 + x – 2 = (x + 2)(x – 1), we now have
x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x – 3 2x + 1
x+2+ .
(x + 2)(x – 1) (x + 2)(x – 1)
You should check for yourself that this comes to
x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x – 3 1 1
2
x+2+ +
x +x–2 x+2 x–1
remembering to include the x + 2 in the final answer.
The rule for dealing with top-heavy fractions
If the fraction is top-heavy, that is, if the highest power of x on the top is greater
than or equal to the highest power of x on the bottom, then we must divide out
first, and find partial fractions for the remaining fraction.
6.E Partial fractions 257
We shan't need to use partial fractions which are as complicated as these for summing
series, but you will need them for integration, and you are now set up for dealing with them
when this happens.
exercise 6.e.4 The following questions involve a mixture of the complications we have just been
looking at. In each case, find suitable partial fractions.
4 3p + 1 4x – 5
(1) 2
(2) 2
(3)
(x + 3)(x – 1) (2p – 1)(p + 2) (2x + 1) (x 2 – 6x + 9)
10y 10x r2 + 1
(4) (5) (6)
(y – 1)(y 2 + 9) (x – 1)(x 2 – 9) r2 – 1
x4 + 1 u2 – 1 x2 + 1
(7) (8) (9)
x4 – 1 u 2(2u + 1) (x + 2)(x + 4)
n
2
(10) (a) Write down the first four terms of the series .
r = 1 4r 2 – 1
2
(b) Factorise 4r 2 – 1 and then use this to find partial fractions for 2
.
n
4r – 1
2
(c) Now use these to find .
r = 1 4r 2 – 1
(d) What is the sum to infinity for this series?
6.F The fate of the frog down the well
1 1 1
In this last section, we return to the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . which describes the attempts
of the frog to escape from the well in the thinking point of Section 6.C.(k). What I was really
asking you there was whether this series is convergent or divergent. If it is divergent then,
however deep the well, the frog will eventually escape. If it is convergent, then it must be
possible to find a depth D so that anything deeper than this spells his doom. (D wouldn't
necessarily have to be the sum to infinity of the series – this could well be tricky to find. It's
like the headroom of a bridge: if a lorry crashes into it we know that anything higher than
the lorry certainly won't get through, and we know this without having measured the exact
headroom of the bridge.) Even if this series is convergent, there will be some depths which
the frog can escape from, just like most cars can probably go safely under the bridge.
We know that four jumps are sufficient to escape from a well which is 2 metres deep.
Adding up the terms on a calculator, it is quite easy to discover that 31 jumps are sufficient
if the well is 4 metres deep. We also know that each individual jump is getting smaller and
smaller the more jumps the frog makes.
Is knowing this sufficient for us to say that this series must converge towards some
particular sum? (We know from Section 6.C.(c) that it would be enough in the case of a GP
because, if the terms get smaller, then its common ratio must be less than 1 and therefore
it will have a sum to infinity.)
Might it help us here if we find the ratio of successive terms? We can see that, as n
becomes large, there will be very little difference between 1/n and 1/(n + 1), although each
of them separately is also becoming very tiny. We can say that
un + 1 1/(n + 1) n 1
= = = .
un 1/n n+1 1 + 1/n
(We did this same sort of thing when we were graph-sketching in Section 3.B.(i).)
258 Sequences and series
1
Now, since n becomes closer and closer to zero the larger n becomes, this ratio gets closer
and closer to 1. This still leaves us in a bit of a quandary. The terms are getting more and
more equal but they are also getting exceedingly tiny. Which will win?
Mathematicians have actually shown that, if the terms of a series are positive, and if the
ratio of successive terms gets closer and closer to some number less than 1, then the series
is convergent. If this ratio gets closer and closer to a number greater than 1 then the series
is divergent. But if the ratio is equal to 1, we need to do more investigation.
Figure 6.F.1 gives a picture of what is happening as the number of jumps increases. I have
laid them out sideways to fit them into the space better. The full height travelled is what we
get if we place all these lines on top of each other, including the ones which will be too small
to see, but which go on for ever.
Figure 6.F.1
There is a very neat way of showing what happens in the case of this series. It goes
like this:
Since all the terms are positive, we can reasonably group them in any way we please,
because where we add bits on makes no difference to the total result. Every term you add
on is moving you in the same positive direction, so each of these forward steps will have the
same effect wherever it is placed.
So we can say
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + + + + ...
3 42 5 6 7 8
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
=1+ + + + + + + + ...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
>1+ + + + + + + + ...
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
1 1 1
that is, >1+ + + + ...
2 2 2
Clearly, this second series is divergent since we can make the sum as large as we like by
taking enough terms. Therefore, the first series must also be divergent, and the frog does
eventually escape. Actually, although mathematically his escape is assured, practically his
6.F The fate of the frog down the well 259
1
situation is not very rosy. After 1000 jumps he has still only gone about 72 metres. This series
is very close to the convergence/divergence divide. Its true name is the harmonic series.
Each term is related to a different mode of oscillation of a stretched string, with 1
corresponding to the fundamental mode or first harmonic. Oscillation modes are important
in all oscillating systems including the strings of musical instruments, which explains the
use of the word 'harmonic'.
In working out what happened in the case above we were able to compare the series we
got by grouping the terms of the original series with the behaviour of a known series. Such
comparisons make a very good method of attack on series which we can't easily sum, but
we have to be very pernickety about when we can rearrange or regroup the terms of a
series.
We have already met the curious case of the flip-flop series in question (1)(e) of Exercise
6.C.1 in Section 6.C.(f).
This goes 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + 1 – 1 + 1 – . . . and its sum alternates between 0 and 1 depending
on whether we've taken an odd or even number of terms. This series is divergent. It's
important that 'divergent' doesn't necessarily mean that the sum gets larger and larger the
more terms you take, though it does describe this possibility. 'Divergent' means any series
which isn't convergent, and so doesn't have a sum to infinity.
We can only rearrange or regroup the terms of an infinite series if they are all positive.
(You can do what you like with a finite number of terms of any series – the order you add
the terms in will make no difference to that particular total.) Once we start letting the series
go on endlessly we find that the obvious is not always true.
You might think that it would be safe to group the terms in brackets in a series where the
individual terms are becoming smaller, and which is known to be convergent, even though
these terms alternate in sign.
1 1 1 1 1
The series 1 – 2 + 3 – 4 + 5 – 6 + . . . is convergent. We'll find in Example (4) of Section
8.G that its sum is equal to ln 2.
Now have a look at the following apparently plausible steps of working.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ln 2 = 1 – 2 + 3 – 4 + 5 – 6 + 7 – 8 ...
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1– 2 – 4 + 3 – 6 – 8 + 5 – 10 – 12 + ... well, why not?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 – 2 ) – 4 + (3 – 6) – 8 + (5 – 10 ) – ... hmm . . .
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 – 4 + 6 – 8 + 10 – 12 ...
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 2 (1 – 2 + 3 – 4 + 5 – 6 ... = 2 ln 2. a minefield!
It is because of unexpected and curious results like this that mathematicians have had to
investigate what actually happens so carefully. Since series are deeply involved in many
practical applications, knowing what can and can't be done with them is very important. For
these purposes, it may often only be necessary to consider what happens when you take a
limited number of terms, but you need to know when it is safe to do this. It is the difference
between taking a permitted liberty and sailing ahead without noticing the warning signs.
Mathematically, as well as socially, this can lead to disaster.
260 Sequences and series
7 Binomial series and proof by
induction
In this chapter we find out how to do binomial expansions, and see how they can
describe some real-life situations. We also look at a new method of proving
mathematical statements.
The chapter is divided into the following sections.
7.A Binomial series for positive whole numbers
(a) Looking for the patterns, (b) Permutations or arrangements,
(c) Combinations or selections, (d) How selections give binomial expansions,
(e) Writing down rules for binomial expansions,
(f ) Linking Pascal's Triangle to selections, (g) Some more binomial examples
7.B Some applications of binomial series and selections
(a) Tossing coins and throwing dice,
(b) What do the probabilities we have found mean?
(c) When is a game fair? (Or are you fair game?)
(d) Lotteries: winning the jackpot . . . or not
7.C Binomial expansions when n is not a positive whole number
(a) Can we expand (1 + x)n if n is negative or a fraction? If so, when?
(b) Working out some expansions, (c) Dealing with slightly different situations
7.D Mathematical induction
(a) Truth from patterns – or false mirages?
(b) Proving the Binomial Theorem by induction,
(c) Two non-series applications of induction
7.A Binomial series for positive whole numbers
7.A.(a) Looking for the patterns
The first half of this chapter describes what are called binomial series. I have given them so
much space because they have many applications. For this reason it is important that you
should be able to do binomial expansions correctly and happily. The word 'binomial' comes
from the two quantities put together in a bracket which we start from. Binomial expansions
are what we get when we raise these brackets to different powers and then multiply the
brackets together to find the result. In this first section all these powers will be positive
whole numbers.
Here are some examples.
(a + b)1 is just a + b
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2.
The 2ab comes from the two middle terms of ab which add together because it doesn't
matter what order we multiply a and b in.
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 261
Next comes
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3.
We find the answer by picking one letter from each bracket in every possible way and
then multiplying these choices together.
There is only one way of getting a 3 and b 3.
The a 2b term comes in three ways, as we can choose the b from any of the three brackets,
and then multiply it with the a terms in the other two brackets. Similarly, ab 2 can be made
in three possible ways.
What happens with
(a + b)4 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)?
There will be just one a 4 and just one b 4. There will also be some numbers of terms for each
of a 3b, a 2b 2 and ab 3.
Because the a and the b are symmetrically placed in the brackets, there must be the same
number of terms in a 3b as there are in ab 3.
There will be four of each since we can pick either a single b or a single a in four different
ways from the four brackets.
The six possibilities for a 2b 2 are given by aabb, abba, abab, baab, baba and bbaa.
We see that by multiplying the four brackets together, we get
(a + b)4 = a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2b 2 + 4ab 3 + b 4.
Now we ask two questions.
Firstly, is there an easier way than this of finding, for example, the 6a 2b 2 term?
Secondly, is there a general pattern building up from these results?
If we write down how many we have of each possible combination of as and bs for all
the brackets which we have multiplied out so far, we get the four lines of numbers written
out below, which make a kind of blunt-topped triangle.
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
These numbers give the coefficients for the different combinations of as and bs.
Can you see what the next line of it will be?
It is
1 5 10 10 5 1
Each number in each row is found by adding the two numbers nearest in the line above.
If it is at the end of a row, the single number closest to it is used.
We can use the row which we have just worked out to write down the expansion of
(a + b)5. It is
(a + b)5 = a 5 + 5a 4b + 10a 3 b 2 + 10a 2b 3 + 5ab 4 + b 5.
This triangle, which gives the various different sets of binomial coefficients, is called
Pascal's Triangle, after the French mathematician who first observed it, Blaise Pascal.
Provided the power is not too high, it is the easiest way of working out what the coefficients
will be.
262 Binomial series and induction
exercise 7.a.1 Write down, by extending this triangle, the expansions of
(1) (a + b)6 (2) (a + b)7
I've put the answers in straight away because they show something important. You should
have
(1) a 6 + 6a 5 b + 15a 4b 2 + 20a 3b 3 + 15a 2b 4 + 6ab 5 + b 6
(2) a 7 + 7a 6 b + 21a 5b 2 + 35a 4b 3 + 35a 3b 4 + 21a 2b 5 + 7ab 6 + b 7.
Notice how the power of a moves down by 1 and the power of b up by 1 for each new
term. The powers together add up to 6 for (1) and 7 for (2).
We will now get some practice in the mechanics of binomial expansions in which the 'a'
and the 'b' are replaced by more complicated expressions. (These often form part of the
working of longer problems, and it is important that you should be able to do them
confidently and accurately.)
We'll work out (2x + 3y)6 as an example.
Here, the 'a' is 2x, and the 'b' is 3y, and n = 6.
We get the binomial coefficients by using the sixth line of Pascal's Triangle. This is
1 6 15 20 15 6 1. (P6)
I've labelled it (P6) so I can easily refer back to it.
The expansion goes
(2x + 3y)6 = (2x)6 + 6(2x)5 (3y) + 15(2x)4 (3y)2
+ 20(2x)3 (3y)3 + 15(2x)2 (3y)4 + 6(2x)(3y)5 + (3y)6.
Notice again the pattern of the powers. They move down by 1 each time for the 'a' and up
1 each time for the 'b' of the expansion.
Added together, they always give n, the overall power we are calculating.
Multiplying out, we have
(2x + 3y)6 = 64x 6 + 576x 5y + 2160x 4y 2 + 4320x 3 y 3 + 4860x 2 y 4 + 2916xy 5 +
729y 6.
!
Don't forget the part of each coefficient which comes from the 'a' and the
'b' raised to the various different powers. Students very frequently make
mistakes here. It is safer always to put brackets round the whole of the 'a'
and the 'b' as I have done above.
exercise 7.a.2 Try expanding these for yourself.
1 4 3 3
(1) (x – 2y)6 (2) (2x 2 – y 2 )5 (3) 2x – (4) + 4x 2
x x
7.A.(b) Permutations or arrangements
The pattern shown in Pascal's Triangle is very neat and, as we have seen, is very useful for
writing down the answers for binomial expansions when the power is not too large. It would,
however, be rather tedious to have to go much further than (P7) and we look now at how we
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 263
can find a general rule to give us these results. (This will also explain why we get this pattern
in the first place.)
To do this, we will look at the numbers of different possibilities of choosing some objects
from a larger number of objects. We know that when we multiply out the brackets the order
of the letters doesn't matter, so, for example, both aba and baa count as a 2b. It's actually
easier to find a general rule for what happens when the order of choice does matter, so we'll
look at some examples of this first.
Because it can make it easier to see what is happening if we look at it pictorially, and
because the total number of choices quite quickly becomes amazingly large as we increase
the possibilities, we will start with a relatively simple situation.
Let's consider the number of possible choices of three counters from four differently
shaped counters, and let's also suppose that the order of choice matters. Then the first
counter can be chosen in four ways. The second one can be chosen in three ways from the
three which are now left, and the third counter can then be chosen in two ways. This gives
us a grand total of 4 3 2 = 24 choices.
All the possibilities are shown in Figure 7.A.1.
Figure 7.A.1
Here is another example.
Suppose there is a class of ten children and six of them will be given a prize. It is not
allowed for any child to have more than one prize, and six different books have been bought
for the purpose. We'll also suppose that these prizes are being handed out randomly – no
awards for merit here!
The child who gets the first book may be chosen in ten ways. For each of these ten
choices, there are nine ways of choosing the child to get the second book. Then, for each of
these choices, there are eight ways of choosing the third child. The total number of choices
of the six fortunate children is given by 10 9 8 7 6 5 = 151 200 which is a
surprisingly large number. The order of choice of the children matters because the books are
all different so the same six children chosen in a different order will count as a different
choice, since they would each then get different books.
We can use the fact that the numbers are running down by 1 each time to write the total
number of ways of distributing the prizes in a very neat compact form. We let the top run
right down to 1 and then divide this by the extra part on the bottom (so that cancelling would
bring us back to the original multiplication).
We can then say that this total number is
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
10 9 8 7 6 5=
4 3 2 1
10!
= .
4!
264 Binomial series and induction
The symbol ! is used for multiplications like these. The 10! above is called 'ten factorial'.
(Factorials came in also when we looked at series (l) in Section 6.A.(a).)
The expression 10!/4! gives the number of permutations or arrangements of six objects
(or people) chosen from ten objects (or people).
We can see that it must be 4! on the bottom by noticing that
4 = 10 (the total number we chose from) – 6 (the number of choices we are making).
For permutations or arrangements, the order of choice matters. A different
note
order gives a different arrangement.
The number of permutations or arrangements of r objects from n objects is given by
n!
.
(n – r)!
7.A.(c) Combinations or selections
How much difference will it make if we have a situation in which we don't care what order
the choices are made in?
Returning first of all to the example of choosing three counters from four differently
shaped counters, if the order of choice isn't important, how many different possibilities are
there?
There are only four.
These are shown in Figure 7.A.2. (Any order would have done equally well.)
Figure 7.A.2
If you now look back at the 24 possibilities shown in Figure 7.A.1. you will see that these
are the four different possibilities shown in the left-hand column. Each row is then made up
of the different arrangements of that particular choice of three counters, and there are six of
each because each possible set of three counters was shown there in all its different orders.
So there were three different choices for the first counter, two for the second and just one
for the third, giving 3 2 1 = 3! = 6 for each group of three counters.
The total number of choices of three counters from four counters, if we don't care about
the order of choice, is given by
24 4!
= .
6 1! 3!
We have to divide the total of 24 by 6 or 3! to get rid of all the different internal
arrangements of each group of three counters, which we aren't interested in this time.
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 265
We can take a second example by looking again at the different ways in which the
children can receive their prizes.
Suppose this time that six identical copies of the same book had been bought for the
prizes. The order of choice of the children no longer makes any difference because all six
are getting the same book anyway.
The number of different choices is now given by the number of different groups of six
children. To find these, we no longer need to take account of the order in which any
particular group was chosen.
So we must divide our previous total of 10!/4! by 6! to get rid of all these unwanted
internal different orderings.
This gives us that the number of combinations or selections (that is, choices in which
the order of choice doesn't matter) of six people from ten people, is
10!
.
6! 4!
This is sometimes called 'ten pick six' or 'ten choose six'.
For combinations or selections, the order of the choices made does not
note
matter. If the same objects are chosen, it makes no difference which one was
chosen first, which second, etc.
The number of combinations or selections of r objects from n objects is given by
n!
.
r! (n – r)!
n
This is sometimes written as nCr or .
r
s pec i a l
The number of ways of picking n objects from n objects if the order of
cases choice doesn't matter, is just 1. Using the rule above, we would have
n!
= 1.
n! 0!
In order to make this rule work we say that 0! = 1.
7.A.(d) How selections give binomial expansions
We now link the work we have just done on selections back to what we saw was happening
with binomial expansions. The procedure in these expansions is that we are choosing one of
two possibilities from each bracket, then multiplying these choices together and finally
grouping together all the similar results.
266 Binomial series and induction
For example, we look again at finding (a + b)4 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)(a + b).
It's easy to see that all the as can be chosen in only one way, giving a 4.
Similarly, all the bs can be chosen in only one way, giving b 4.
Three as and one b can be chosen in four ways since the single b can be chosen from any
of the four brackets and the other three will then necessarily be as. This gives us 4a 3b.
Similarly, three bs and an a can be chosen in four different ways, giving us 4ab 3.
Finally, in how many different ways can we choose two as?
We are choosing two as from four as and the order of choice doesn't matter, so this can
be done in 4!/2! 2! = 6 ways.
We have found the 6 without using either Pascal's Triangle or having to draw the six
possibilities.
In exactly the same way, suppose we want to find the term in a 5b 11 in the expansion of
(a + b)16.
The power here is of such a size that we wouldn't really want to have to extend Pascal's
Triangle this far. (Besides, we only want one term.)
We think of the term we want as giving the number of ways of choosing five as from 16
as if the order of choice doesn't matter.
16! 16 15 14 13 12
This is given by = = 4368.
5! 11! 5 4 3 2 1
Since we must choose one letter from each bracket, choosing five as means that we must
also have 11 bs so, equally, we could have said that this term would be given by the number
of ways of choosing 11 bs from 16 bs. This is
16!
= 4368 as before.
11! 5!
In each case, once a certain number of one letter has been chosen, we know that the gaps must
be filled by the other letter, so we don't have to worry about making choices for that.
exercise 7.a.3 We have just found that the coefficient of the term in a 5b 11 in the expansion of
(a + b)16 is 16!/5! 11! = 4368 so the term is 4368a 5b 11.
Find the coefficients of the following terms in the same expansion, giving your
answers both in factorial form and as numbers.
(1) a 16 (2) a 15b (3) a 14b 2 (4) a 12 b 4 (5) a 8b 8
4 12 2 14 16 r 16 – r
(6) a b (7) a b (8) b (9) a b
In each case, say also what the actual term would be.
7.A.(e) Writing down rules for binomial expansions
We can use the results which we have found in this exercise to write down the whole
expansion of (a + b)16 as follows:
16.15 16!
(a + b)16 = a 16 + 16a 15b + a 14b 2 + . . . + a 16 – rb r + . . . + b 16.
2! r!(16 – r)!
(The . . . stands for missing terms in the same way that we used it in Chapter 6.)
We could also use the Σ notation which we met in Section 6.D, and write
16 16!
(a + b)16 = a 16 – rb r.
r=0 r!(16 – r)!
Notice that we start with r = 0 so that we have a 16 and b 0 = 1 in the first term.
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 267
If n is a positive whole number, we can write down this rule for the binomial
expansion of (a + b)n:
n(n – 1) n(n – 1)(n – 2)
(a + b)n = a n + na n – 1b + a n – 2b 2 + a n – 3b 3 + . . .
2! 3!
n!
+ a n – rb r + . . . + b n. (B1)
r!(n – r)!
If you put n = 16, you will get the example of (a + b)16 which we have just done.
I have always found it best to remember the binomial expansion in the way in which I
give it here, with the first three terms in their cancelled down form, because this is the
easiest form to feed into, if you want to work out just the first few terms of a particular
expansion.
Have a go at one yourself, now.
Try using the rule above to write down the expansion of (a + b)5.
You will need to put n = 5.
You should get:
5(4) 5(4)(3) 5(4)(3)(2)
(a + b)5 = a 5 + 5a 4b + a 3b 2 + a 2b 3 + ab 4 + b 5
2! 3! 4!
so (a + b)5 = a 5 + 5a 4b + 10a 3b 2 + 10a 2b 3 + 5ab 4 + b 4
which gives the same result as using Pascal's Triangle.
In many circumstances, it happens that the first term in the bracket (which we called a
above) is 1.
Then, putting a = 1 and b = x to avoid confusion between the two forms, we get:
n n(n – 1) n!
(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + . . . + x r + . . . + x n. (B2)
1! 2! r!(n – r)!
I've included the 1! in the second term to keep the pattern of the factorials running
through. We'll need this later on in Section 8.B.(a) when we take another look at e.
Notice also that the second term has x and the third has x 2, so
n!
the term x r is actually the (r + 1)th term.
r!(n – r)!
268 Binomial series and induction
Similarly, in (B1), the general term
n!
a n – rb r is actually the (r + 1)th term.
r! (n – r)!
When we wrote the series using Σ we made the sum run from zero to n, so there are n + 1
terms altogether.
Here is an example which uses the formula (B1).
1
Write down the first four terms of the expansion of (2x – 2 y)12.
The value of n here is so large that it would be tedious to continue Pascal's Triangle as
far down as we would need.
1
Instead, we use form (B1), putting 'a' = 2x, 'b' = – 2 y and n = 12.
!
Remember that the minus sign must be included as part of 'b'.
Substituting in these values, we have for the first four terms of the expansion
1 12 11 1 12 11 10 1
(2x)12 + 12(2x)11 (– 2 y) + (2x)10 (– 2 y)2 + (2x)9 (– 2 y)3.
2 1 3 2 1
Tidying up these first four terms, we get
4096x 12 – 12288x 11y + 16896x 10y 2 – 14080x 9y 3.
exercise 7.a.4 Now try these for yourself.
Write down and simplify the first four terms in the expansions of
1
(1) (2x – y)12 (2) (1 – 2x)18 (3) (1 + x 2 )10 (4) (2 x + 3y)16
7.A.(f ) Linking Pascal's Triangle to selections
We are now in a position to be able to see comfortably how the links work between Pascal's
Triangle and the selections which give the coefficients, using formula (B2). We use (B2)
because it makes it a bit easier to see what is going on, but (B1) would work in exactly the
same way.
We begin by writing down the eighth row of Pascal's Triangle, giving the coefficients in
the expansion of (1 + x)8. I have labelled it (P8). It is:
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 (P8)
Try answering the following questions, and then we'll look at them together.
(1) Use (P8) to write down the next row of the triangle, giving the coefficients for the
expansion of (1 + x)9. Label it (P9).
(2) Using (P8), write down the coefficients of (a) x 4 and (b) x 5 in the expansion of
(1 + x)8.
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 269
(3) In factorial form, the coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x)8 is 8!/4! 4!. Write
down the coefficient of x 5 in factorial form.
(4) Using (P9), write down the coefficient of x 5 in the expansion of (1 + x)9.
(5) Now write down the coefficient of x 5 in this expansion in factorial form.
Here are the answers.
(1) 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1. (P9)
(2) The coefficient of x 4 in (P8) is 70. The coefficient of x 5 is 56.
(3) The coefficient of x 5 from (1 + x)8 in factorial form is 8!/5! 3!.
(4) From (P9), the coefficient of x 5 in the expansion of (1 + x)9 is 126.
(5) The coefficient of x 5 in this expansion in factorial form is 9!/5! 4!.
Now we try answering this question.
We used 70 + 56 in (P8) to get 126 in (P9).
Obviously this must also be true written in factorials, so
8! 8! 9!
+ must equal .
4! 4! 5! 3! 5! 4!
We now show that this must be true by factorising and tidying up the first two fractions. We
have
8! 8! 8! 1 1
+ = + .
4! 4! 5! 3! 4! 3! 1 4 5 1
(Check this step for yourself by multiplying it back. You'll need to use 4 3! = 4! and
5 4! = 5!)
8! 5+4 8! 9 9!
= = = .
4!3! 4 5 (4! 5)(3! 4) 5! 4!
(This step involves adding fractions as we did in Section 1.C.(c).)
We can also see that this must happen if we think of (1 + x)9 as coming from
(1 + x) (1 + x)8. Then the term with x 5 in (1 + x)9 comes from
1 the term in x 5 from (1 + x)8 + x the term in x 4 from (1 + x)8.
exercise 7.a.5 With the above example to look back at, you should be able to answer the
following three questions yourself.
You first have to fill in the gaps marked with asterisks (*), and then combine
the factorials.
9!
(1) The coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (1 + x)9 is . (a)
3! 6!
*!
The coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x)9 is . (b)
*! *!
10!
The coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x)10 is . (c)
*! *!
Show, by factorising and tidying up, that (a) + (b) = (c).
270 Binomial series and induction
*!
(2) The coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (1 + x)12 is . (a)
3! 9!
*!
The coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x)12 is . (b)
*! *!
*!
The coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (1 + x)13 is . (c)
*! *!
Show, by factorising and tidying up, that (a) + (b) = (c).
k!
(3) The coefficient of x r – 1 in the expansion of (1 + x)k is . (a)
(r – 1)! (k – r + 1)!
*!
The coefficient of x r in the expansion of (1 + x)k is . (b)
*! *!
*!
The coefficient of x r in the expansion of (1 + x)k+1 is . (c)
*! *!
Show, by factorising and tidying up, that (a) + (b) = (c).
7.A.(g) Some more binomial examples
Here are three more examples showing ways in which we can pick out particular terms.
example (1) Write down the term containing (a) p 6, (b) q 6, in the expansion of (p – 2q)14.
To do this, we can use the expression for the general term in form
(B1). This is
n!
a n – rb r.
r! (n – r)!
(Remember that this is the (r + 1)th term of the series, not the rth term.)
Here, n = 14, 'a' = p, 'b' = –2q and the term in p 6 is given when
n – r = 6 so r = 8.
14!
The term in p 6 is p 6 (–2q)8 = 768768p 6q 8.
8! 6!
14!
The term in q 6 is p 8 (–2q)6 = 192192p 8q 6.
6! 8!
Notice the symmetry of the binomial coefficients:
14! 14!
= .
8! 6! 6! 8!
3 12
example (2) Find the constant term in the expansion of 4x 2 + .
x
This is the one term in the expansion which is purely a number, and
so doesn't depend upon the value of x for its size. It happens because
the powers of x in this expansion are cancelling each other out to some
extent on each term.
Can you work out for yourself when it will be that they will cancel
out exactly?
7.A Binomial series: positive whole numbers 271
3
The term we want will involve (4x 2 )4 ( x )8, so it is
12! 3
(4x 2 )4 ( x )8 = 831 409 920.
8! 4!
example (3) Find the term in x 11 in the expansion of (1 – x)8 (3 + 2x)5.
The complication here is that the term in x 11 arises from three
different multiplications of pairs of terms, because x 11 can come from
x 8 x 3 and x 7 x 4 and x 6 x 5.
Any other combinations are impossible from this particular pair of
brackets.
We need to write down the terms of these separate multiplications
fully in order to work out the complete term in x 11. We get
5! 5!
(–x)8 (3)2(2x)3 + 8(–x)7 (3)(2x)4
2! 3! 1! 4!
8!
+ (–x)6 (2x)5 .
2! 6!
Each separate part of the three terms we have added together here is
enclosed in square brackets to make it easier for you to see how each
bit has been worked out.
Now, tidying up the above working, we get
720x 11 – 1920x 11 + 896x 11 = –304x 11.
exercise 7.a.6 Try these questions yourself.
(1) Find the term in x 6 in the expansion of
(a) (2 – 3x)11 (b) (2x – y)8 (c) (y 2 – 2x 2 )10
(2) Find the constant terms in the expansions of
3 10 1 9 1 16
(a) 2x – (b) x+ (c) 2x 3 +
x x2 x
(3) Find the term in x 10 in the expansion of (1 + x)7 (2 – 3x)5.
7.B Some applications of binomial series and selections
7.B.(a) Tossing coins and throwing dice
Binomial expansions can be applied very neatly to describe the likelihoods of the different
possible outcomes to some events involving chance. When you do a binomial expansion, you
are making a free choice of which of two terms to pick in each of the equal brackets, and
then writing down all the different possible results. This fits any real-life situation in which
there are repeated events, each of which has just two possible outcomes, and where the
outcome of one event doesn't have any effect on subsequent events.
For example, suppose you toss a fair coin. The likelihood or probability of getting a head
1
is 2. ('Fair' here means that it is equally likely to fall heads or tails.)
What will be the likelihood or probability of each of the different outcomes if you toss
the coin three times instead?
272 Binomial series and induction
We can show all these probabilities by writing the binomial expansion
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( 2 T + 2 H)3 = ( 2 T)3 + 3 ( 2 T)2 ( 2 H) + 3 ( 2 T)( 2 H)2 + ( 2 H)3.
I have used H and T as markers for heads and tails, and the two halves in the first bracket
stand for the probabilities of each of these on a single toss. Tidied up, we get
1 3 3 3 1
8T + 8 T 2 H + 8 TH 2 + 8 H 3.
This carries all the information on the possible outcomes of the three trials, that is,
1
a probability of 8 of getting three tails,
3
a probability of 8 of getting two tails and one head,
3
a probability of 8 of getting one tail and two heads,
1
a probability of 8 of getting three heads.
This idea can be extended to situations where the outcomes on each trial aren't equally
likely. Suppose you throw three dice and you want to know the probabilities of getting the
different possible numbers of sixes. The probability of getting a six on a single throw of a
fair die is one sixth because there are six possible equally likely outcomes, and only one of
5
them gives a six. The probability of not throwing a six is 6. If I use markers of P (for success
in throwing a six) and Q (for throwing a different score) then I can show the probabilities
for all the different outcomes by writing
5 1 5 5 1 5 1 1
( 6 Q + 6 P)3 = ( 6 Q)3 + 3( 6 Q)2 ( 6 P) + 3( 6 Q) ( 6 P)2 + ( 6 P)3
125 75 15 1
= Q3 + Q 2P + QP 2 + P 3.
216 216 216 216
So
1
the probability of getting three sixes is 216,
15
the probability of getting two sixes is 216,
75
the probability of getting one six is 216,
125
and the probability of getting no sixes is 216.
216
Notice that all the probabilities added together give 216 = 1. We are certain that the dice
will fall in one of these ways. (This makes a useful check on the arithmetic.)
I only listed the probabilities of the outcomes of three trials in each of my examples. It
wouldn't be too hard to work these out by drawing tree diagrams or listing all the possible
equally likely outcomes (remembering that, for example, you can get just one tail in three
different ways because there are three coins). The strength of the binomial expansion is that
it works equally well for some huge number of dice where it would be hideously tedious to
write down all the possible outcomes. It would also work equally well in forecasting the
likelihoods of the numbers of faulty items off a production line in batches of a given size,
provided the probability of any one item being faulty remained constant. Once you
understand the mathematical structure of a model, you can apply it in a vast range of
situations which are similar mathematically, though physically they are very different.
7.B.(b) What do the probabilities we have found mean?
What does it actually mean when we say, for example, that the probability of getting two
1
sixes if we throw two dice is 36?
It does not mean that if we throw two dice 36 times then there will be exactly one double
six. We know from our own experience that this can't be so. What it does mean is that if we
throw two dice a very large number of times then the proportion of double sixes will be
7.B Some applications of binomial series 273
roughly 1 in 36. (It will get closer to 1 in 36 the larger the number of trials we make; yet
another example of tending to a limit!)
It is important that, in all these examples, what we have found are only theoretical
probabilities which give us the likely ratio of the different outcomes in a very large number
of trials.
It is possible, for example, to get 12 heads in a row if you toss a coin, but both common
1
sense and the theoretical probability of ( 2 )12 of this happening, tell you that it is very
unlikely. You would begin to suspect that you might have a double-headed coin.
Usually, the study of statistics tells us not whether something is possible or impossible,
but how likely it is. Also, as we have just seen, these likelihoods can be found exactly. If the
observed outcomes are, for example, much more frequent than their theoretical probability
we are warned that further investigation is sensible. Perhaps all is not as it seems.
These ideas are developed further in the study of statistics, in which such arguments
(leading to tests of significance) can be made on a precise mathematical basis, rather than
woolly feelings that something is wrong. These feelings may well be correct but a careful
statistical test can make it possible to argue the case backed up by sound mathematical
reasoning.
7.B.(c) When is a game fair? (Or are you fair game?)
This is a good point at which to introduce the idea of a 'fair' game. If a game is fair in the
mathematical sense then it must be designed so that, over a very large number of goes, none
of the contestants is expected to make a profit over the others. So, for example, if we toss
a coin with you paying me £1 for a head, and me paying you £1 for a tail, then on average
we will end up with neither of us gaining from the other. We have an equal probability of
winning overall, even though, on three goes say, I may be lucky with three heads in a row.
However, I can't play this game expecting to win money from you.
But casinos and lotteries aren't fair in this sense. Clearly, they can't be, because they
make profits for the people who run them. The probabilities are built in to be unequal from
the start, and they are only fair in the sense that each contestant other than the banker or
owner has an equal chance of winning on each attempt.
7.B.(d) Lotteries: winning the jackpot . . . or not
Let's now consider one other practical application of these ideas before we go on to the next
section.
Suppose that the rules of a lottery say that in order to win the big prize or jackpot six
numbers must be chosen correctly in the range from 1 to 49.
What is the probability of actually doing this?
There are 49 equal choices which can be made for the first number. Each number in the
range can only be chosen once, so although the first choice is made from 49 numbers, the
next is from the remaining 48, and so on. It is exactly the same kind of situation as when
we were giving out the six identical prizes in Section 7.A.(c). The total number of choices
is given by
49!
= 13 983 816.
6!43!
(We are using combinations here rather than permutations because the order of choice does
not matter. For example, one person might choose 42 first, and another person, with the
identical final choice of six numbers, might have had 42 as his second chosen number.)
274 Binomial series and induction
So the probability of winning the jackpot in this lottery would be 1/13 983 816. In an
astronomical number of tries, you could expect to win it roughly once in every fourteen
million attempts.
exercise 7.b.1 Try answering the following questions.
(1) Choose six numbers in the range from 1 to 49 as randomly as you can without
using any help like the random number generator on a calculator. Now repeat
this nine more times. Use squared paper to show your choices on a grid which
is 49 squares wide and 10 squares deep. Do you think your choices look really
random? Feel free to alter them if you want to.
(2) In a lottery like the one described in the previous section, which of these
three choices of six numbers would be most likely to win you the jackpot?
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (b) 2, 14, 21, 29, 33, 45 (c) 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49
(3) Would there be any good reason for picking one group rather than the other two?
(4) What would be the probability of guessing at least one number correctly in a
lottery like this? Write down what you think it might be, and then work out
how near your estimate is to the true answer. Hint: work out how many ways
there are of choosing all six numbers completely wrongly.
7.C Binomial expansions when n is not a positive whole number
7.C.(a) Can we expand (1 + x)n if n is negative or a fraction? If so, when?
All the arguments we have used to justify the binomial series have depended on having a
factor multiplied by itself a whole number of times.
It would be interesting and useful if we could extend this. Can we make any sense of
something like an expansion of (1 + x)–1, for example?
We certainly can't give it the same kind of meaning which we could when we had a
positive whole number power; then, we could actually lay out the brackets to make our
choices. However, we'll persevere and see what would happen in an experimental kind of
way, taking the particular case of (1 + x)–1.
We know that we can certainly write (1 + x)–1 as 1/(1 + x). Now let's see what happens
if we try using the (B2) expansion from Section 7.A.(e) on (1 + x)–1, putting the n of this
formula equal to –1. We shall get
(–1) (–1)(–2) (–1)(–2)(–3) (–1)(–2)(–3)(–4)
(1 + x)–1 = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + x4 + . . .
1 2 1 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
The first thing that we notice is that the countdown on the top of the fractions isn't going
to come to a natural end like it does when n is a positive whole number.
(1 + x)–1 is giving us an infinite series. We've seen examples in Chapter 6 of the dangers
connected with summing infinite series.
Try tidying up this one yourself and see if you recognise what you get. Then you should
be able to say whether this expansion works. If so, will this depend in any way on what value
x has?
Tidying up what we have above for the expansion of (1 + x)–1, we get:
1
(1 + x)–1 = = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + x4 – . . .
1+x
This is a GP with 'a' = 1 and 'r' = – x, and 1/(1 + x) is its sum to infinity.
7.C When n is not a positive whole number 275
So far, so good, but we know from Section 6.C.(c) that a GP only has a sum to infinity
if its common ratio lies between –1 and +1. So we can say that, in this particular case, the
expansion does work provided –x < 1. Now –x is the same as x since we are taking the
positive value whatever the sign. So we must have x < 1, or –1 < x < 1, writing it another
way.
You can see for yourself that we will be in trouble if we don't stick to this. For example,
suppose x = 2. This would give us
1
= 1 – 2 + 4 – 8 + ...
1+2
The problem here is that successive terms are getting bigger. These terms alternate in sign
and so do the partial sums obtained by adding in each new term. Each of these is larger than
1
the previous one in absolute size, so this series can't be getting closer and closer to 3 as we
add more and more terms.
It has been shown by mathematicians that (1 + m)n can be expanded using (B2) if
n is either negative or a fraction or both, provided that the m fits the requirement
that m < 1.
(m stands for whatever we have in this position in the bracket.)
7.C.(b) Working out some expansions
Now we'll practise the mechanics of how these expansions go, because this process is just
an extension of what we have been doing with binomial expansions for positive whole
number powers, and it will be useful for you later on to be able to do this.
Here are two examples of such expansions.
Expand as far as the term in x 3, stating the restrictions on the value of x in each case:
(1) (1 + 3x)–2 (2) (1 – x/2)1/2
For (1), n = –2 and m = 3x. We must have m < 1, so we want 3x < 1, which means
1 1
–1 < 3x < 1, so – 3 < x < 3.
In order for the expansion to be possible, x must lie somewhere in this interval.
If x does fit this requirement, we can say:
(–2)(–3) (–2)(–3)(–4)
(1 + 3x)–2 = 1 + (–2)(3x) + (3x)2 + (3x)3 + . . .
2 1 3 2 1
= 1 – 6x + 27x 2 – 108x 3 as far as the fourth term.
1
For (2), n = 2 and m = –x/2, so we want –x/2 < 1. But –x/2 = x/2 , since we are taking
the positive value whatever the sign.
So we must have –1 < x/2 < 1 which means –2 < x < 2.
Provided x fits this requirement, we can write:
1/2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3
x 1 x ( 2 )(– 2 ) x ( 2 )(– 2 )(– 2 ) x
1– =1+ (2) – + – + – +. . .
2 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 2
x x2 x3
=1– – – as far as the fourth term.
4 32 128
276 Binomial series and induction
Now, in each of the above cases, substitute x = 0.001 and see how closely the two sides
match up, as you add in the extra terms on the RHS. You will find that, because x is small,
you very quickly get close to the LHS, and indeed are beginning to find an answer accurate
to more decimal places than your calculator is giving you, in the second case. This
possibility of being able to replace an infinite series by a fast numerical equivalent to any
desired degree of accuracy is often important in practical applications.
exercise 7.c.1 Try expanding the following three examples yourself, as far as the term in x 3,
stating in each case the restrictions on x for the expansion to be valid.
1
(1) (1 + 2x)–3 (2) (1 – 3x)–1 (3) (1 + 3x)–2
7.C.(c) Dealing with slightly different situations
What should we do if we want to find the expansion of (2 + 3x)–2? We can't any longer use
the (B2) formula to expand this.
I think that in such a case the simplest method is to rearrange the bracket so that it is in
(1 + m) form. Doing this simplifies the arithmetic quite a bit, as it avoids complicated and
changing powers of 'a'.
So we write:
3x –2 3x –2 1 3x –2
(2 + 3x)–2 = 2 1 + = 2–2 1 + = 1+ .
2 2 4 2
!
It is important that the factor which we take out of the bracket was part of this
bracket, and so it is raised to the same power as the bracket itself.
!
Remember, too, that if you are taking out a factor, it applies to the whole
bracket, so we must write 3x/2, and not leave the 3x unchanged.
For the expansion to be possible, what interval must x lie in?
We must have
3x 3x 2 2
<1 so –1< <1 so – 2 < 3x < 2 giving – <x< .
2 2 3 3
Expanding, using (B2), we get that
3x –2 3x (–2)(–3) 3x 2 (–2)(–3)(–4) 3x 3
1 1
4 1+ = 4 1 + (–2) + + +...
2 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 2
1 3x 27x 2 27x 3
= – + – ...
4 4 16 8
This step needs to be done quite carefully if you are not to lose any bits! Try doing it yourself
3
as a check. Remember to square and cube the 2 when necessary.
7.C When n is not a positive whole number 277
Here is another situation which you may meet.
Suppose you need to find the expansion of
1
y=
(2 – x)(1 + 2x)
up to the term in x 3, also finding the interval in which x must lie for the expansion to be
valid.
There are two ways of doing this.
M ETHOD (1) We write
y = (2 – x)–1 (1 + 2x)–1 = 2–1 (1 – x/2)–1 (1 + 2x)–1
1 x x2 x3
= 1+ + + + . . . [1 – 2x + 4x 2 – 8x 3 . . .]
2 2 4 8
using the rules I gave at the end of the answer to question (2) of
Exercise 7.C.1 to speed up the working inside these two brackets.
Now we do the multiplying. This is not as bad as it might at first
sight seem since we only want terms up to x 3.
I shall multiply the second bracket by each of the terms of the first
bracket, only writing down the terms I need. This gives me
1
2 [1 – 2x + 4x 2 – 8x 3
1
+ 2 x – x 2 + 2x 3
1 1
+ 4 x2 – 2 x3
1
+ 8 x 3]
1 3 13 2 51 3
= 2 [1 – 2 x + 4x – 8x ]
1 3 13 2 51 3
= 2 – 4x + 8x – 16 x .
M ETHOD (2) This avoids the multiplication by finding partial fractions for y. (Partial
fractions are explained in Section 6.E.) Doing this gives
1 2
5 5
y= +
2–x 1 + 2x
x –1
1 2 1 2
= 5 (2 – x)–1 + 5 (1 + 2x)–1 = 10 1– + 5 (1 + 2x)–1
2
1 x x2 x3 2
= 10 1+ + + + ... + 5 (1 – 2x + 4x 2 – 8x 3 + . . .)
2 4 8
1 3 13 2 51 3
= 2 – 4x + 8x – 16 x
writing down the first four terms.
Finally, whichever method we used, we must find the interval in which x must lie for the
expansion to be valid. Both methods involved the same two expansions, so we look at each
of these in turn.
For the first, we want –x/2 < 1 so x/2 < 1 and – 2 < x < 2.
1 1
For the second, we must have 2x < 1 so – 2 < x < 2.
278 Binomial series and induction
1 1
So, to fit both requirements, we must take the tighter of the two restrictions, so – 2 < x < 2.
This is the same situation as a lorry driving down a road which successfully makes it under
the first bridge, but the headroom of the second bridge is lower. Disaster will strike unless
the lorry is also lower than this second bridge.
exercise 7.c.2 Try these for yourself.
(1) Expand each of the following as far as the term in x 3. In each case, find the
interval in which x must lie for the expansion to be valid.
x 2/3
(a) (1 – 3x)1/3 (b) 1+ (c) (16 – 3x)1/4
2
(d) (4 + x)–1/2 (e) (– 2 + x)–2 (f ) (27 – 4x)–2/3
You may need to look back at the rules for powers in Section 1.D.(b) for help
with the tidying up.
(2) Expand (3 – 2x)–1 (1 + 3x)–1 as far as the term in x 2, and find the interval in
which x must lie for this expansion to be valid.
7.D Mathematical induction
7.D.(a) Truth from patterns – or false mirages?
If we find a particular pattern, how can we discover if this pattern will always be true or if
it was just a lucky chance that it was true for the cases which we looked at?
To answer this question, we will start by looking at the following pair of series.
n
(a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n = r
r=1
n
3 3 3 3 3
(b) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n = r3
r=1
An interesting thing happens if we compare the two sets of partial sums of these series, as
they build up.
If we take n = 1, so we are just comparing the first terms, we get
S1 for (a) = 1 and S1 for (b) = 1.
Summing the first two terms of each series, we get
S2 for (a) = 3 and S2 for (b) = 9.
Find S3 and S4 for each series yourself and see if you can suggest an experimental pattern
for what is happening.
You will have
S3 for (a) is 6, S3 for (b) is 36,
S4 for (a) is 10, S4 for (b) is 100.
It rather looks as though, if we square the sum of (a) for any given number of terms, we get
the corresponding sum for (b), for that number of terms.
7.D Mathematical induction 279
In other words, it looks as though, if n is any number of terms we might choose to pick,
then
(Sn for (a))2 = Sn for (b).
(Because n is counting the number of terms, it must be a positive whole number or natural
number as these counting numbers are sometimes called.)
Now, we have already found a formula for the sum of n terms of series (a) in Exercise
6.B.1. 2(d). We found
n(n + 1)
Sn =
2
Is it true that Sn for (b) is n 2(n + 1)2/4 whatever n is?
We shall prove that this is true by using the following process.
Mathematical induction: how to do it
(1) We first show that a statement is true for the case in which n = 1.
(2) We then show that
if the statement is true when n is given some particular value, k,
then it must also be true if n = k + 1.
We can then argue that, since we know it is true when n = 1, it must also be true
for n = 2, and therefore also for n = 3, etc. through all the counting numbers.
We have already done step (1) for this first example.
Now we go to step (2).
We will suppose that the statement
n n 2 (n + 1)2
3
r =
r=1 4
is true when n is given the particular value, k, so that
k 2 (k + 1)2
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + . . . + k 3 = (This is St[k].)
4
The St[k] at the right-hand edge of the line above is a convenient shorthand meaning 'the
statement of the formula when n = k'.
We then show, that if St[k] is true, then the formula is also true when n = k + 1, so that
St[k + 1] is true.
Here, we must show that if St[k] is true then
3 3 3 3 3 3
(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = . (This is St[k + 1].)
4
We have added in the extra term on the left-hand side, and replaced k by k + 1 in the formula
on the right-hand side.
The LHS of St[k + 1] can be written as
k 2 (k + 1)2
(13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + . . . + k 3 ) + (k + 1)3 = + (k + 1)3
4
using St[k] to replace 13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + k 3 with k 2(k + 1)2/4.
280 Binomial series and induction
Now we factorise this, by taking out the common factor of (k + 1)2.
1
It will also pay us here to take out a factor of 4, as it is more convenient to have the
fractions at the front, out of the way.
helpful
Always look for factorisations at this stage. Multiplying out the brackets is
hint long and tedious, and liable to bring in mistakes. You want to make the
statement as simple as possible.
This then gives
k 2(k + 1)2 1
+ (k + 1)3 = 4(k + 1)2 (k 2 + 4(k + 1)).
4
Notice the 4 inside the bracket, to make it multiply out correctly to give what we started
with. But
1 1
4(k + 1)2(k 2 + 4k + 4) = 4 (k + 1)2(k + 2)2
so now we have
1
13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + (k + 1)3 = 4(k + 1)2 (k + 2)2 = RHS of St[k + 1].
Therefore we have shown that if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is true.
But we know that St[1] is true, so St[2] is true, and so on, for n = 3, 4, . . . through all
the counting numbers.
!
It is important to be very careful about the 'if' . . . 'then' aspect of this
argument.
When using this method of proof we must always show that if the
statement we are considering is true for n = a particular value, k, then it
must also be true for n = k + 1.
(We can't give an actual numerical value of k since then a person could
say 'Oh well, maybe it is true for that value, and the next one, but I don't
see that that makes it true for any pair of values.' And they would be right.)
Here is a second example of proof by induction. Prove that
n
1
r 2 = 6 n(n + 1) (2n + 1).
r=1
You may notice a rather serious disadvantage here! The method of mathematical induction
is only going to be any use when we have somehow come to what the formula might be by
some other route. It won't find an appropriate formula for us.
Working with the formula we have been given here, we first check that it works for n = 1,
that is, that St[1] is true.
Always start with this; if it is not true there is no point in proceeding any further, and if
it is true, showing this is part of the chain of the proof.
1
If n = 1, the LHS = 1, and the RHS = 6(1)(2)(3) = 1 so it is true in this case.
7.D Mathematical induction 281
Next, we suppose that the formula is true for n = a particular value, k, that is, we
suppose
1
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 = 6 k(k + 1)(2k + 1) St[k]
We then have to show that this would mean that the formula is also true for n = k + 1, that
is, we must show that, if St[k] is true, then
1
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2 = 6(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3) St[k + 1]
adding in the extra term on the LHS, and replacing k by k + 1 on the RHS.
The LHS of St[k + 1] can then be rewritten as
1
6 k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1)2 using St[k] to replace 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2.
Factorising in a similar way to the last example, we have
1 1
6 k(k + 1) (2k + 1) + (k + 1)2 = 6(k + 1) (k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)).
helpful
If you are at all doubtful about your factorising at this stage, check by
hint multiplying back that it agrees with the previous step.
Tidying up, we get
1 1
6(k + 1) (k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)) = 6(k + 1)(2k 2 + 7k + 6)
1
= 6(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3) = RHS of St[k + 1].
Therefore, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is true. But we know that St[1] is true, so therefore
the statement is true for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . all through the counting numbers.
!
It is important that St[k] is shorthand for a statement.
It is not a function or part of an equation.
In the example above, you can't say St[k] = 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2
1
or St[k] = 6 k(k + 1)(2k + 1).
1
St[k] is the statement that 12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 = 6 k(k + 1) (2k + 1).
St[k + 1] is the statement that
1
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + k 2 + (k + 1)2 = 6(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
St[k + 1] is exactly the same as St[k] except that k has been replaced by k + 1.
exercise 7.d.1 Try these similar questions yourself.
(1) When we were working on APs, we found in Exercise 6.B.1 question 2(d) that
1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + . . . + n = 2n(n + 1).
See if you can prove this, using mathematical induction.
282 Binomial series and induction
(2) First, see if you can spot a way of finding the sum of n odd numbers by
looking at what you get for the first four sums, that is:
(a) S1 = 1 (b) S2 = 1 + 3 (c) S3 = 1 + 3 + 5 (d) S4 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7.
Then, if you have guessed a formula, see if you can prove it is true by
mathematical induction.
(3) Show, using mathematical induction, that
(1 2) + (2 3) + (3 4) + . . . + n(n + 1) = (n/3)(n + 1)(n + 2).
7.D.(b) Proving the Binomial Theorem by induction
As the summit of our ambition for this section, we will now prove the Binomial Theorem
using induction.
We have already done the only hard bit when we showed in question (3) of Exercise 7.A.5
that
k! k! (k + 1)!
+ = .
r! (k – r)! (r – 1)! (k + 1 – r)! r!(k – r + 1)!
So we now set out to show that
n n(n – 1) n!
(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + . . . + xr + . . . + xn
1! 2! r!(n – r)!
where n is a positive whole number, by using mathematical induction.
We first have to check that the statement is true when n = 1 (that is, that St[1] is
true).
If n = 1, we get (1 + x)1 = 1 + x so St[1] is true.
Now we have to show that if the formula is true when n = a particular value, k, then it
must also be true when n = k + 1. (That is, we show that, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is
also true.)
To write down St[k], we must replace n by this particular value k. So St[k] says
k k(k – 1) k!
(1 + x)k = 1 + x+ x2 + . . . + xr – 1 +
1! 2! (r – 1)!(k – r + 1)!
k!
x r + . . . + x k.
r! (k – r)!
Notice that we have included the term with x r – 1 as well as the one with x r. Can you see
why?
St[k + 1] states that
(k + 1) (k + 1)(k) (k + 1)!
(1 + x)k + 1 = 1 + x+ x2 + . . . + x r + . . . + x k + 1.
1! 2! r! (k + 1 – r)!
(To write this down, we just replaced 'n' by 'k + 1' in (B2).)
But (1 + x)k + 1 = (1 + x)(1 + x)k.
We need to show that the term in x r resulting from this multiplication is the same as the term
in x r in St[k + 1].
7.D Mathematical induction 283
But, just as in the examples we have already looked at, the term in x r in (1 + x) (1 + x)k
comes from
1 (the term in x r from (1 + x)k ) + x (the term in x r – 1 from (1 + x)k ).
So we have to show that
k! k! (k + 1)!
+ xr = xr
r! (k – r)! (r – 1)! (k – r + 1)! r! (k + 1 – r)!
but this is exactly what we have already shown in question (3) of Exercise 7.A.5.
So we know that, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is also true.
But St[1] is true, and therefore St[2] is true, and St[3] and so on through all the counting
numbers, and the theorem is proved.
7.D.(c) Two non-series applications of induction
The method of mathematical induction is not just restricted to proving results for series.
Here are two examples of other ways in which it can be used.
example (1) Show that, if n is a positive integer, 9n –1 is always divisible by 8.
As always, we test first by putting n = 1.
Doing this gives = 91 –1 = 9 – 1 = 8 so the statement is true for n = 1.
Now we suppose that 9n – 1 is divisible by 8 when n = a particular
value, k. We can show this by writing 9k – 1 = 8M where M stands for
some positive whole number.
Stating that 9k – 1 = 8M is St[k].
We have to show now that, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is also true,
that is, that 9k + 1 – 1 is also divisible by 8.
Now 9k + 1 – 1 = 9(9k ) – 1 = 9(8M + 1) – 1 using St[k] to replace 9k
by 8M + 1.
So 9k + 1 – 1 = 72M + 9 – 1 = 72M + 8 = 8(9M + 1).
Therefore 9k+1 – 1 is divisible by 8.
We have shown that, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is true.
But St[1] is true so therefore St[2] is true, and so on through all the
counting numbers.
helpful
The juggling of the powers which we used above by writing 9k+1 as 9(9k ) so
hint that we could substitute for 9k is typical of what works for this type of
question.
example (2) Suppose that we have an infinite flat sheet of paper (which is the same
as a plane in geometry). We then draw straight lines on it so that no
two lines are parallel and no new line cuts through a point where two
previous lines cross each other.
How is the number of crossing points related to the number of lines?
284 Binomial series and induction
Figure 7.D.1
For example, from the sketches in Figure 7.D.1,
one line has no crossing points,
two lines have one crossing point,
three lines have three crossing points etc.
Draw separate sketches for four and five lines (remembering that you
must extend the lines sufficiently far so that all possible crossing points
are counted).
Now see if you can find a relationship between the number of lines
and the number of crossing points.
You should have got six crossing points for four lines and ten
crossing points for five lines.
If you had trouble spotting a relationship, doubling the number of
crossing points may help you to see the pattern.
1
You should then get a possible rule that n lines have 2 n(n – 1)
crossing points.
But we do not know that this is always true; further checking from
sketches will only show it to be true for as many sketches as we draw.
(Sometimes the most apparently beautiful patterns break down when n
is quite large even though they have seemed fine until then.)
However, we can now show that this formula is always true by
induction.
We know that it is true for n = 1.
Suppose that it is true for n = k so that k lines do cut each other in
1
2 k(k – 1) crossing points. This is St[k].
Now St[k + 1] states that k + 1 lines would cut each other in
1
2 (k + 1)(k) crossing points. Does this follow from St[k]?
The (k + 1)th line cuts all the previous k lines in k extra points, so
1
drawing in this (k + 1)th line gives us a total of 2 k(k – 1) + k cutting
points. But
1 1 1
2 k(k – 1) + k = 2 k((k – 1) + 2) = 2 k(k + 1)
so, if St[k] is true, then St[k + 1] is also true.
But St[1] is true, and therefore St[2] is true, and so on for any
possible number of lines.
7.D Mathematical induction 285
8 Differentiation
In this chapter we look at how it is possible to describe relationships which are
changing and how we can find out the rate of this change.
The chapter is split up into the following sections.
8.A Some problems answered and difficulties solved
(a) How can we find a speed from knowing the distance travelled?
(b) How does y = x n change as x changes?
˙
(c) Different ways of writing differentiation: dx/dt, f (t), x, etc.,
(d) Some special cases of y = ax n,
(e) Differentiating x = cos t answers another thinking point,
(f ) Can we always differentiate? If not, why not?
8.B Natural growth and decay – the number e
(a) Even more money – compound interest and exponential growth,
(b) What is the equation of this smooth growth curve?
(c) Getting numerical results from the natural growth law of x = e t,
(d) Relating ln x to the log of x using other bases,
(e) What do we get if we differentiate ln t?
8.C Differentiating more complicated functions
(a) The Chain Rule, (b) Writing the Chain Rule as F (x) = f (g(x))g (x),
(c) Differentiating functions with angles in degrees or logs to base 10,
(d) The Product Rule, or 'uv' Rule, (e) The Quotient Rule, or 'u/v' Rule
8.D The hyperbolic functions of sinh x and cosh x
(a) Getting symmetries from e x and e –x, (b) Differentiating sinh x and cosh x,
(c) Using sinh x and cosh x to get other hyperbolic functions,
(d) Comparing other hyperbolic and trig formulas – Osborn's Rule,
(e) Finding the inverse function for sinh x,
(f ) Can we find an inverse function for cosh x?
(g) tanh x and its inverse function tanh–1 x,
(h) What's in a name? Why 'hyperbolic' functions?
(i) Differentiating inverse trig and hyperbolic functions,
8.E Some uses for differentiation
(a) Finding the equations of tangents to particular curves,
(b) Finding turning points and points of inflection,
(c) General rules for sketching curves, (d) Some practical uses of turning points,
(e) A clever use for tangents – the Newton–Raphson Rule
8.F Implicit differentiation
(a) How implicit differentiation works, using circles as examples,
(b) Using implicit differentiation with more complicated relationships,
(c) Differentiating inverse functions implicitly,
(d) Differentiating exponential functions like x = 2t,
(e) A practical application of implicit differentiation,
8.G Writing functions in an alternative form using series
286 Differentiation
8.A Some problems answered and difficulties solved
What kinds of things can differentiation tell us? I find that sometimes students know some
rules but don't really know what use these rules are. We start this chapter by looking at some
examples based on earlier thinking points. In these, we wanted to find answers to what is
happening in particular physical situations.
If you see how we can use differentiation to help us here, you will understand better what
kinds of things it can do for you.
8.A.(a) How can we find a speed from knowing the distance travelled?
Suppose somebody is walking at a steady speed of 3 miles per hour (m.p.h.). Then the
distance travelled for different lengths of time can be shown on a graph sketch like the one
in Figure 8.A.1.
Figure 8.A.1
Since equal distances are covered in equal intervals of time, the speed is represented by
the gradient of the line, and this can be found by using any of the triangles I have drawn in;
the size does not matter.
Any two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the line will give its gradient, using the
formula
y2 – y 1
m= from Section 2.B.(d).
x2 – x1
Each of these triangles will give a gradient of 3. This represents the constant rate of
change of distance travelled, or steady speed, of 3 m.p.h.
But how can we find the speed if the rate at which the distance is covered is continually
changing?
This question first came up at the end of the thinking point of Section 2.D.(g), in which
we looked at how the motion of a ball thrown up in the air changes as time passes.
Look at this again so that we can use it together now.
Because of the pull of gravity, the speed of the ball is changing all the while. It is
moving fastest when it leaves the thrower's hands and when it returns to them; and slowest
when it comes instantaneously to rest at the highest point of its motion. (We can say that
it does this because there is an instant in its motion when, rather like the Grand Old Duke
of York, it is neither moving up nor down.) Between these two extremes, its speed is
changing smoothly, so that the graph of the distance travelled against the time that this
has taken is a curve.
8.A Some problems answered 287
The last question I asked you in this thinking point was whether you could think of a way
of estimating the ball's speed one second after it has been thrown up in the air. Surely since
we can find how far it has travelled at any instant we should be able to do this?
1
We used the equation s = ut – 2 gt 2 to give us the distance s in metres (m), travelled by
the ball after a time of t seconds (s), if it is thrown up at a speed of u metres per second
(m s–1 ).
In our example, the ball was thrown up at a speed of 14 m s–1, and we took g, the
acceleration due to gravity, as 9.8 metres per second per second (m s–2 ).
This then gave us the equation of s = 14t – 4.9t 2 for the curve.
I have drawn a new sketch graph, in Figure 8.A.2.(a), showing how the height of the ball
changes with time over the first 1.4 seconds of the motion.
Figure 8.A.2
288 Differentiation
I have drawn in the separate changes in height for each 0.2 second interval on this graph,
to give a picture of how the speed is changing. You can see the inaccuracy in this by drawing
in the slant sides of the triangles yourself. The slopes or gradients of these slant sides are
giving the average speeds over each 0.2 second interval, but they only give an approximation
to the actual shape of the curve. It seems reasonable to think that, at any point where two
adjacent triangles touch it, the steepness of the curve will be somewhere between the
steepness of the slant sides of these two triangles.
Taking the equation of the curve as s = 14t – 4.9t 2, we can make the table (a) below for
the different values of s.
(a) (b)
t 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 t 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
s 0 2.60 4.82 6.64 8.06 9.10 9.74 10.00 s 8.06 8.63 9.10 9.47 9.74
We now use the triangles either side of t = 1 to get estimates of the speed when t = 1.
I will call the change in height ∆s and the corresponding change in time ∆t.
(∆ is the Greek capital D, pronounced 'delta'. It is often used to mean 'the change in'.
We have used it this way already in Section 3.A.(b).)
The left-hand triangle gives
∆s 9.10 – 8.06
= = 5.2 m s–1.
∆t 0.2
The right-hand triangle gives
∆s 9.74 – 9.10
= = 3.2 m s–1.
∆t 0.2
From Figure 8.A.2(a), we believe that 5.2 m s–1 is an over-estimate and 3.2 m s–1 is an
under-estimate of the speed when t = 1.
Next, we try taking smaller time intervals either side of t = 1. I have done this in table
(b), and I show the separate changes in height on this small section of curve in Figure
8.A.2(b). Again, you should draw in the slant sides yourself.
Taking the two triangles on either side of t = 1 again, the left-hand triangle gives
∆s 0.47
= = 4.7 m s–1
∆t 0.1
and the right-hand triangle gives
∆s 0.37
= = 3.7 m s–1.
∆t 0.1
We see that we are getting closer to an agreement between the estimates.
Infilling again in the same kind of way gives us the table below.
t 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10
s 8.63 8.88 9.10 9.30 9.47
8.A Some problems answered 289
Figure 8.A.3
I have shown again, in Figure 8.A.3, a magnified picture of the small part of the curve
which we are considering here. If you now draw in the slant sides of the triangles, you will
find that they are almost indistinguishable from the curve itself.
Since the differences are now becoming very small, it seems a good idea to show this by
labelling them in a slightly different way. I shall use δ, which is the small Greek letter d, and
call the changes δs and δt. δ is very commonly used in maths to mean 'a small change in'.
Now, looking at the two small triangles either side of t = 1 shown in Figure 8.A.3, the left-
hand triangle gives
δs 0.22
= = 4.4 m s–1
δt 0.05
and the right-hand triangle gives
δs 0.20
= = 4 m s–1.
δt 0.05
So, coming from the left and from the right, we have two sets of approximations which
are getting closer and closer to the speed at the instant when t = 1. We have
5.2 → 4.7 → 4.4 and 4 ← 3.7 ← 3.2
This system looks very promising. We can see that the smaller the differences are the better
the approximation is, so perhaps we should focus on making the differences extremely small
and see what happens?
We don't want to specify exactly how small since, for any given interval, we know we
could always halve that and so get a better approximation.
So what we will do is to look at what happens to δs/δt, just making the proviso that we
are letting δt become smaller and smaller. We are snuggling the little triangles in closer and
closer to t = 1 from both sides.
Also, it would be much nicer if we could get a rule for finding the speed which works
for different initial speeds, u, and for the slightly different possible values of g as we travel
over the earth's surface, so that we don't have to recalculate every time these are different.
So, instead of taking particular values, we will work with u and g.
1
We start with s = ut – 2 gt 2 and then see what happens to this equation at the nearby time
of t + δt.
290 Differentiation
If the time has changed by a small amount δt then the distance s will also have changed
by a correspondingly small amount δs. So we will have
1
s + δs = u(t + δt) – 2 g(t + δt)2.
Now,
(t + δt)2 = t 2 + 2t(δt) + (δt)2.
So
1 1
s + δs = ut + u(δt) – 2 gt 2 – gt(δt) – 2 g(δt)2 (1)
But, at time t,
1
s = ut – 2 gt 2 (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1) gives
1
δs = u(δt) – gt(δt) – 2 g(δt)2
δs 1
so = u – gt – 2 g(δt).
δt
But, if we now let δt get closer and closer to zero, it will become so small that we can ignore
1
the – 2 g(δt).
Because δs is also becoming very small, the fraction δs/δt continues to give the slope of
the slant side of the little triangle. The smaller this triangle becomes, the closer this slope
gets to the slope of the curve itself at the point (t, s).
As δt gets smaller and smaller, δs/δt will become closer and closer in size to u – gt.
We write this mathematically by saying that the limit of δs/δt as δt → 0 is u – gt.
δs ds
The limit of as δt → 0 is called .
δt dt
In this particular example, we have ds/dt = u – gt. We now have a rule to tell us the speed
at any point on the path of the ball.
The value of ds/dt tells us the rate of change of s with respect to t for any chosen
value of t while the ball is still in motion.
The line with gradient ds/dt which touches the curve at this particular value of t,
showing its steepness there, is called the tangent to the curve at this point.
Returning to the particular case of u = 14 and g = 9.8, we can now work out the speed of
the ball one second after it has been thrown into the air.
It is given by v = ds/dt = u – gt = 14 – 9.8 = 4.2, so the speed is 4.2 m s–1. I show this
on Figure 8.A.4(a). I also show again, in Figure 8.A.4(b), the little sketch of the actual path
of the ball, which is straight up and straight down. The graph of Figure 8.A.4(a) shows how
its distance from the ground changes with time.
8.A Some problems answered 291
Figure 8.A.4
The gradient of the curve at A, that is, of its tangent there, is 4.2. The speed of the ball
after half a second is 4.2 m s–1 vertically upwards.
Similarly, if t = 2, ds/dt = –5.6. The gradient of the curve, given by the gradient of its
tangent at B, is negative. The speed of the ball is 5.6 m s–1 vertically downwards.
Taking the vertically upwards direction as positive, we can say that the velocity of the ball
(which describes the direction of its motion as well as its speed) is 4.2 m s–1 at A and
–5.6 m s–1 at B.
When you first looked at this thinking point, because the acceleration is
note
constant, you may have used the formula v = u + at to find the speed when
t = 1, putting u = 14 and a = –9.8. This also gives v = 4.2. This method
works very well in this particular example, but the method we have just been
looking at above is enormously more powerful because it can cope with
situations of non-constant acceleration (and much else besides).
8.A.(b) How does y = x n change as x changes?
We can now answer this question provided that n is a positive whole number.
(I am putting in just enough examples here of where these formulas come from to show
you how they link back to past work, and to justify using them in their hundreds of
applications.)
We will look at what kind of small change, δy, we will get in y if we change x by the small
amount δx. We have
y = xn so y + δy = (x + δx)n.
Now, we can expand (x + δx)n using Rule (B1) from Section 7.A.(e). This gives us
n(n – 1)
y + δy = x n + nx n – 1 (δx) + x n – 2 (δx)2
2!
+ terms with higher powers of δx.
292 Differentiation
Putting y = x n, and tidying up, gives us
n(n – 1)
δy = nx n – 1 (δx) + x n – 2 (δx)2 + other terms with higher powers of δx
2!
so
δy n(n – 1)
= nx n – 1 + x n – 2 (δx) + other terms with higher powers of δx.
δx 2!
If we now let δx → 0, everything except nx n – 1 becomes so small that we can ignore it, and
we have
δy
The limit of as δx → 0 is nx n – 1.
δx
dy
If y = x n then = nx n – 1.
dx
We know that this result is true if n is a positive whole number because we showed that
the Binomial Theorem is true in this case.
Mathematicians have shown that this result is still true if n is any real number, and we
will use this widened version.
Multiplying by a constant, a, will just have the effect of multiplying the answer by a. This
gives us the following general rule.
dy
If y = ax n then = nax n – 1.
dx
Doing this process is called differentiating (with respect to x if the function is in terms
of x, or with respect to t if it is in terms of t etc.).
If we have a string of terms similar to this which are added or subtracted, we can go
through differentiating term by term in order to find the total rate of change, so, for example,
if y = 3x 2 + 2x, then dy/dx = 6x + 2.
8.A.(c) ˙
Different ways of writing differentiation: dx/dt, f (t), x, etc.
There is another way of writing dy/dx, dx/dt, etc. which emphasises more that we are doing
the process of differentiation to functions.
In Chapter 3, we used f(x), g(x), f(t) and so on to talk about functions of x and t.
dy
If we have y = f(x), then is also sometimes written as f (x).
dx
dx
If we have x = f(t), then can also be written as f (t).
dt
Writing x = f(t) stresses that x is a function of the variable t.
The dash in f (t) means that the function f(t) has been differentiated with respect to this
variable.
8.A Some problems answered 293
In the particular circumstances when x = f(t) is a function of time, sometimes the dot
notation is used.
x
In this notation dx/dt is written as ˙ .
dx
If x = f(t) then x
= ˙ = f (t).
dt
Historically, the ideas of calculus were developed separately but in parallel by eminent
(but rivalrous) mathematicians.
The notation dx/dt was used by the German mathematician Leibnitz.
˙
The notation x was used by the English mathematician and physicist Newton.
Here are some examples, using the two most usual notations.
dy
(1) If y = f(x) = 3x 4 + 2x 3 then = f (x) = 12x 3 + 6x 2.
dx
1 ds 3
(2) If s = f(t) = 2t + 2 t 3 then = f (t) = 2 + 2 t 2.
dt
dx 1
(3) If x = f(t) = 5t + 4t 1/2 then = f (t) = 5 + 4 2 t –1/2 = 5 + 2t –1/2.
dt
2 dy 4
(4) If y = f(x) = 5x + 2 = 5x + 2x –2 then = f (x) = 5 – 4x –3 = 5 – 3 .
x dx x
(If you are unsure about the use of powers here, see Section 1.D.)
exercise 8.a.1 Try these for yourself. Differentiate with respect to whatever letter the function is
written in on the right-hand side.
1
(1) y = 7x 2 + 3x 4 (2) x = 5t – 2 t 3 (3) y = 3 – 2/x 3 (4) x = 2t 1/2 + 3t –1/2.
(5) (a) Show, by thinking about what happens when x is increased by a small
amount δx, that if y = x 3 then dy/dx = 3x 2.
(5) (b) Check what happens at each stage of your working numerically by taking
the particular case of x = 2 and δx = 0.001.
8.A.(d) Some special cases of y = ax n
Students sometimes have difficulty linking the rule for differentiating y = ax n back to these
two particular cases, so I have put in two examples here to show how this works.
(1) If n = 1 then y = ax n is the straight line y = ax. (This is using x 1 = x from Section
1.D.(b).)
For example, if y = 3x then, using the rule above, we get dy/dx = 3x 0 = 3 since
0
x = 1. (This is also in Section 1.D.(b).)
The result of using the rule agrees entirely with what we know to be the
gradient of the line. (See Figure 8.A.5(a).)
(2) If n = 0 then we have a very particular kind of straight line of the form y = a where
a is some number.
For example, if y = 4 then we can say y = 4x 0.
Now using the rule gives us dy/dx = 0 4x –1 = 0.
Again, this fits in with what we can see to be true in Figure 8.A.5(b).
The line y = 4 is horizontal and its gradient is zero.
294 Differentiation
Figure 8.A.5
Two special cases
dy
If y = ax then = a.
dx
dy
If y = a then = 0.
dx
(a stands for any constant number.)
8.A.(e) Differentiating x = cos t answers another thinking point
In Section 5.A.(d), we looked at how the point X moves on the line AB as P moves round
a circle of unit radius at 1 rad/s. You should go back to this now, and answer the questions
there, if you haven't already done so. Because this particular kind of motion is of enormous
importance in physics and engineering applications, I will use it as a last example of how
we can find a rate of change by considering what happens over smaller and smaller time
intervals. After this, we will use these results as we need them without specifically proving
any further ones.
I show the diagram again here in Figure 8.A.6. The final question of this thinking point
was to find the speed of X after a time interval of t seconds, knowing that the distance OX
is given by OX = x = cos t.
Figure 8.A.6
8.A Some problems answered 295
We would also like the answer to tell us whether X is moving from left to right, in which
case x is increasing and the motion is in the positive direction; or from right to left, in which
case x is decreasing and the direction of the motion is negative.
If we can find the speed with its attached + or – sign then we will have found the velocity
of the point X. I have shown the graph of the distance x moved by X as P goes round its circle
in Figure 8.A.7.
Figure 8.A.7
We know x = cos t.
How does x change as t changes?
We saw in the thinking point that X moves fastest as it passes through O and
instantaneously comes to rest every time it gets to either A or B because then it turns back
on itself.
Also, when t = 0, it starts by moving in the negative direction towards O. Its velocity will
be negative for the first π seconds of its motion. Also, its velocity changes regularly with
time just like its distance from O does.
Do you have any idea how you could write this velocity in terms of t?
Could it be that the rate of change of X's distance from O with time, that is dx/dt, is equal
to – sin t? To answer this question, we shall look how x changes if we change t by a small
amount δt.
We are again looking at the gradients of the slanted sides of the little triangles as they
tuck in closer and closer to any particular point Q on the curve x = cos t. I show a possible
pair in Figure 8.A.8.
To find dx/dt, we have to find the limiting value of δx/δt as δt → 0.
Figure 8.A.8
296 Differentiation
If the time changes by a small amount δt, so that the distance changes by a
correspondingly small amount δx, we have x + δx = cos(t + δt). Which of the formulas from
Chapter 5 can we use here on the RHS?
We can use cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B (Section 5.D.(b)). So then we have
x + δx = cos t cos(δt) – sin t sin(δt).
Now comes the step which only works because we are measuring the angle turned through
by P in radians.
In Section 4.D.(e), we looked at some special properties of very small angles measured
in radians. (Have another look at this section now.)
We found there that, for a very small angle θ, cos θ → 1 as θ → 0, and sin θ → θ as
θ → 0. So here, cos(δt) → 1 and sin (δt) → δt as δt → 0. Therefore
as δt → 0, x + δx → cos t – (δt) sin t
but
δx
x = cos t so δx → –(δt) sin t so → – sin t as δt → 0.
δt
Therefore we have the following result.
dx
If x = cos t then = – sin t.
dt
So the velocity of the point X after time t is – sin t.
If the radius of the circle is 1 metre then, when X passes through O on its way to B, it
has a velocity of – sin π/2 = –1 m s–1.
The corresponding result for the curve y = sin t can be shown in a very similar way. Try
doing this for yourself. This is what you should get.
dy d
If y = sin t then = cos t or (sin t) = cos t.
dt dt
We are now able to get a very interesting result for the motion of X.
The rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration. But
d
(– sin t) = – cos t = –x.
dt
So the acceleration of the point X is always towards O and equal in magnitude to the distance
of X from O.
This means that, if X is a particle of unit mass, then the force on X which would make
it move in this way is also equal in size to the distance of X from O, and always acts
towards O.
8.A Some problems answered 297
These last two results will be unchanged for a larger circle but, if the speed of P is different,
the relationship will be altered by some constant factor depending on the new speed.
The point X is moving in what is called simple harmonic motion (SHM).
A physical example of this is the motion of the bob of a simple pendulum.
The joint effects of the force of gravity and the tension in the string on the bob produce
a force on it which gives it an acceleration of the kind we have described.
We said above that acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.
Also, velocity is the rate of change of distance with time.
So acceleration is the rate of change of a quantity which is itself a rate of change.
If we call the velocity v and the acceleration a, then
dx dv d dx
v= and a= so a= .
dt dt dt dt
This is written as
d 2x
.
dt 2
So, here, we can say that
d 2x
= –x.
dt 2
This is an example of what is called a differential equation. A differential equation is an
equation which includes terms like dx/dt or d 2x/dt 2.
We know the solution of this particular example of this equation, which is that x = cos t.
We'll look at some more equations like this in section 9.C.(c).
dx
is called the first derivative of x with respect to t.
dt
d 2x
is called the second derivative of x with respect to t.
dt 2
This is what happens with the other notations.
dx d 2x
If x = f(t) then x
= f (t) = ˙ and ¨
= f (t) = x.
dt dt 2
exercise 8.a.2 (1) Do we get the same kind of results if we look at the motion of the point Y on
the vertical axis described near the end of Section 5.C.(b)?
The distance OY is given by y = sin t.
Find for yourself the velocity dy/dt and the acceleration d 2y/dt 2 of Y.
Can you link up d 2y/dt 2 and y by an equation?
(2) What happens if we have an object moving so that its distance from the origin
can be described as a combination of sin t and cos t?
For example, what would happen if we had x = 3 cos t + 4 sin t?
Find dx/dt and d 2x/dt 2, and see if you can find a linking equation between
x and d 2x/dt 2.
298 Differentiation
8.A.(f ) Can we always differentiate? If not, why not?
In all the examples which we have looked at, we have been using the same process of tucking
the little triangles in closer and closer to the point we are considering on the curve, to get
better and better approximations to its steepness and so to its rate of change at that point.
Is it always possible to do this?
If we have some relationship giving y in terms of x, can we always go ahead and find
dy/dx?
What kinds of thing might happen which would mean that we could not differentiate y
with respect to x?
The graph sketches in Figure 8.A.9 may suggest some potential problems to you.
Figure 8.A.9
Also, suppose we can no longer draw the small triangles near some point on a graph
because tiny differences in x give rise to huge differences in y? Can you think of such an
example on any of the graphs which we have already sketched in this book?
Make a list for yourself of all the circumstances which you think will spell trouble for the
process of differentiating.
I hope that you will have thought of some of these possibilities.
In order to differentiate successfully, we must have the following conditions.
(1) There must be no breaks or discontinuities as at A in Figure 8.A.9(a).
There is no meaning to the slope at the point where the break is.
(2) It must be true that, moving in from either side with the little triangles, we get the
same slope for the tangent that we are considering. The left-hand limiting value
must be equal to the right-hand limiting value.
For example, we can't find dy/dx at the points B and C in Figure 8.A.9(b)
and (c).
(3) The graph cannot be infinitely wiggly like a fractal curve where, however small the
scale you take, the outline is still very similar to the one I have drawn in Figure
8.A.9(d). A coastline looks much the same in whatever detail you look at it, with
smaller and smaller inlets being revealed. For a curve like this, it is impossible to
define the slope at any point on it.
8.A Some problems answered 299
(4) It must be true that there is a limiting value to be found, so tiny changes in x don't
give uncontrollably huge changes in y. This is what happens, for example, as we get
closer and closer to x = π/2 in the graph of y = tan x.
Any graph which has some value of x for which the function is undefined
because it is impossible to divide by zero will give a discontinuity like this.
Another example is the function f(x) = (x + 3)/(x – 2) which we drew in Figure
3.B.16 in Section 3.B.(i). It has a discontinuity like this when x = 2. dy/dx does not
exist for this value of x.
Unfortunately, it isn't possible to produce watertight definitions of the problems just by
using pictures.
For example, in Figure 8.A.9(b), would we be all right if we rounded off the sharp point?
How rounded off is the balance point of a see-saw?
How close to the origin can we get in Figure 8.A.9(e) before the wiggles become so
violent it is impossible to find the slope?
Suppose we severely squash the horizontal scale on an ordinary sin graph. It will then
become very wiggly. If we squash it far enough can we make it impossible to find the slope?
But surely that would be ridiculous? How could differentiation depend on the personal scale
we have chosen?
The study of how continuity and differentiability can be defined rigorously to make clear
just what is possible is what mathematicians call analysis.
I have tried here to give you enough of an insight into what is happening so that you will
have a feel of when there might be a problem, and be suitably cautious.
8.B Natural growth and decay – the number e
I have found that many students regard e as something of a mystery – something that
obviously matters a lot in calculus because it is always being used, but why? You will know,
if you are studying science or engineering, that e is involved in many of the equations which
describe the physical relationships which are important in your subject. This next section
sets out to give you at least some of the reasons why e is so important. If you are in a hurry,
you can leave the reading of it until later, but you should go through highlighting all the
boxes of important results, both so that you can use them now and also to pinpoint them for
yourself if you want to do more investigation later on.
I have already described some relationships of natural growth in Section 3.C. If you want to
understand how e works, you should start by having another look at this before going on.
300 Differentiation
8.B.(a) Even more money – compound interest and exponential growth
In Section 6.C.(h) we looked at how it is possible to make invested money grow faster by
using a system of compound interest so that the new interest is calculated as a percentage
not only of the original amount of money invested, but also of the interest which has so far
been accumulated.
I said there that this updating of interest is usually done either yearly or six-monthly.
Would the shorter time interval make very much difference? We would expect it to make
some difference because there will be some interest at the end of six months. At the end of
the year, you would receive interest on this interest as well as the interest on the original
amount of money which you invested.
If this case, how much better would it be to have an even shorter time interval, say three
monthly?
This is an important question to answer because rates of growth which depend on how
much of a quantity is present at any particular time are very important in many real-life
physical situations.
Rather than returning to the situation of Section 6.C.(h), we will look at a slightly
different picture. It turns out to be particularly interesting to start from the special case of
what happens when the extra amount or interest received at the end of a unit time interval
is equal to the amount originally saved.
Unfortunately, this is an unlikely arrangement for a bank to make, so we shall look at the
following example instead.
Suppose there is a group of cousins who each receive £100 from their wealthy uncle one
Christmas. So strongly does he feel about the virtues of prudence and thrift that he says he
will arrange things so that their savings increase at an equal rate to the amount saved, so that
if the £100 is saved until the following Christmas, he will then add a further £100 to it.
All five cousins decide that they will save their £100.
The first cousin is happy to look forward to receiving the extra £100 the next Christmas,
which will then give him a total of £200.
The second cousin decides to capitalise on her uncle's offer by suggesting that he increase
her savings by a system of compound interest. She will split the year into two halves. Her
uncle will give her £50 at the end of the first half-year, so she will have £150.
Since she will then be saving £150 instead of £100, at the end of the second half-year she
will get an extra £75 instead of just £50, so giving her a total of £225 at the end of the
year.
Her uncle agrees, so we can write this in the same form which we used with compound
interest in Section 6.C.(h).
We have
Start Mid-year End of year
1 1 1 1
£100 → £100 + 2 (£100) → [(£100 + 2 (£100)) + 2 (£100 + 2 (£100))]
or
1 1 1 1
£100 → (1 + 2 ) £100 → [(1 + 2 ) £100 + 2 (1 + 2 ) £100]
which tidies up as
1 1
£100 → (1 + 2 ) £100 → (1 + 2 )2 £100 = £225.
The two steps in her savings are given by the second and third terms of a geometric
1 3
progression (GP) which has a first term of £100 and a common ratio of (1 + 2 ) = 2.
8.B Natural growth and decay: e 301
The third cousin, seeing this calculation, considers that having the interest updated
quarterly would be even more beneficial.
The pattern for her quarterly updates will go
1 1 1 1
£100 → (1 + 4 ) £100 → (1 + 4 )2 £100 → (1 + 4 )3 £100 → (1 + 4 )4 £100
Start 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter End of year
giving her a total at the next Christmas of £244.14 to the nearest penny.
Again, the four steps in the savings are given by a GP, wth a common ratio this time of
1 5
(1 + 4 ) = 4.
How much would the fourth cousin (who negotiates monthly updates) get by the end of
the year?
1
He would get (1 + 12 )12 £100 = £261.30 to the nearest penny.
This time, the twelve steps of the savings are given by a GP which has a common ratio
1 13
of (1 + 12 ) = 12.
The fifth and youngest cousin is keen to see how much she can negotiate to get.
Try estimating for yourself how much you think she might get. What do you think her
best arrangement would be?
She decides to go for the most extreme position and says
'If I am saving as you want, could we not consider that, over the year, the money that you
will give me becomes more and more mine, and so it can really be considered as feeding in
continuously to become part of my savings as the year goes by. And then I shall be getting
a rate of increase equal to the total amount I have saved all the while. Since we are reckoning
here on infinitely small time intervals, I shall do infinitely better than any of my other
cousins!'
Is she right?
If we look at what happens as the time intervals become shorter, we find the
following:
1
Weekly updates would give her a final total of (1 + 52 )52 £100 = £269.26.
1
Daily updates would give her a final total of (1 + 365 )365 £100 = £271.46.
1 8760
Hourly updates would give her (1 + 8760 ) £100 = £271.81.
See for yourself what happens if the interest is updated every minute.
The amounts are increasing, but more and more slowly.
Now we know that the increases for the first four cousins are all coming in definite steps,
and we saw that each scheme was described by a different GP.
The increases given by updates every minute are still described by a GP, this time with
525 600 steps, and a common ratio of
1 525 601
1+ = .
525 600 525 600
The steps are now exceedingly tiny, but they are still there. This GP would give a grand total
at the end of the year of £271.82 to the nearest penny.
When the youngest cousin gets what she wants, the steps will have been smoothed out
to give a continuous growth curve. We know that her £100 will have been multiplied by a
factor of about 2.7182 by the end of the year.
What is this number which is equal to about 2.7182?
302 Differentiation
To find the answer to this, we'll now look at the pattern of her increases as the time
intervals get shorter and shorter. These go
1 1 2 1 n
£100 → 1 + £100 → 1 + £100 → . . . → 1 + £100
n n n
where n is as large a number as we care to think of, as she is breaking her year into infinitely
short time intervals. So she finishes up with
1 n
1+ £100 as n→ .
n
Now, we can do a binomial expansion on
1 n
1+ .
n
We use the formula (B2), from Section 7.A.(e), which starts
n n(n – 1) n(n – 1)(n – 2)
(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + . . .
1! 2! 3!
We have to put x = 1/n, where n is a positive whole number, but a very large one indeed. We
get
n 1 n(n – 1) 1 2 n(n – 1)(n – 2) 1 3
1+ + + +. . .
1! n 2! n 3! n
and, as n becomes larger and larger, n – 1, n – 2, etc. are all relatively close to n.
We are getting nearer and nearer to the series
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +. . .
1! 2! 3! 4!
as the amount by which we must multiply the £100 to find her total savings.
As we go further and further in summing this series, we find that the running sum gets
closer and closer to a value of about 2.71828, so she gets £271.83 to the nearest penny, doing
the best of the cousins, but not dramatically better than her next cousin.
This number, to which the pretty series
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +. . .
1! 2! 3! 4!
converges is extremely important mathematically, and is indeed the famous e.
You can see its value to as many places as your calculator will allow, by putting in 1 and
then pressing e x.
We now have this important result.
1 n 1 1 1
As n → , 1 + →1+ + + + . . . = e.
n 1! 2! 3!
We have found in this section that, when the interest is updated at the end of equal time
intervals, so that the total amount of money is increasing in separate jumps, then these
increasing amounts of money form the terms of a GP (with a different GP for each set of
equal time intervals).
8.B Natural growth and decay: e 303
Figure 8.B.1
However, when the interest is updated continuously, so that the amount of money saved
is increasing smoothly all the while, the result is no longer described by the steps of a GP
but by a smooth growth curve.
You can see these differences in Figure 8.B.1 where I show the growth in the savings of
the second, fourth and youngest cousin.
8.B.(b) What is the equation of this smooth growth curve?
In order to be able to apply the mechanism of this smooth growth curve to other situations,
we need to know what its equation is.
It becomes easier to see what this must be if we look at how the differences between the
graphs are building up at an intermediate point.
For example, after six months we have the following totals.
The first cousin still has £100.
1
The second cousin has (1 + 2 ) £100 = £150.
1 2
The third cousin has (1 + 4 ) £100 = £156.25.
1
The fourth cousin has (1 + 12 )6 £100 = £161.65.
We can emphasise that we are considering a half-yearly interval here by writing
1 1 1 6 1 12 1/2
(1 + 4 )2 = [(1 + 4 )4 ]1/2 and (1 + 12 ) = [(1 + 12 ) ]
so, for example, the fourth cousin has
1 12 1/2
[(1 + 12 ) ] £100 = £161.65.
It then seems reasonable to say that, at the end of the half-year, the fifth cousin would
have
1 1
[(1 + n )n]1/2 £100 = e 1/2 £100 since, as n → , (1 + n )n → e.
Now, the accumulating totals for the first four cousins increase in definite jumps, but the
total for the fifth cousin is increasing smoothly, so it would seem reasonable to say that, after
a time interval of any length t, where t is measured in years, she would have a total of
e t £100.
304 Differentiation
Her smooth growth curve has the equation x = 100 e t where t represents the time interval
along the horizontal axis and x represents her total savings in £ s.
Because the rate of increase of e t is equal to e t itself for any value of t, it must be true
that
d
(e t ) = e t.
dt
This property of e t that its rate of change is always equal to e t itself makes it very
special.
If you tried drawing the sketch in the thinking point of Section 3.C.(e), you should have
found that the gradient of the tangent when x = 1.5 was about the same as the height of the
curve for that value of x.
8.B.(c) Getting numerical results from the natural growth law of x = e t
I have taken the simplest possible form of the natural growth law here, leaving out the 100
which we included for the £100 earlier, to make this section simpler.
Starting from x = e t, see if you can answer the following questions.
1
(1) What is x if (a) t = 2 (b) t = 3 ?
(2) What is t if (a) x = 1 (b) x = 2 (c) x = 4.5?
To help you, I have shown these questions in Figure 8.B.2. (You will need to use your
calculator to get the answers.)
Figure 8.B.2
(1) This is straightforward. Using x = e t, we have
(a) x = e 2 so x = 7.3891 to 4 d.p. using a calculator
(b) x = e 1/3 so x = 1.3956 to 4 d.p.
The first answer corresponds to the amount of money, measured in units of
£100, which the fifth cousin would have after two years (if her uncle leaves the
system of growth unchanged). This would be £738.91. The second answer
1
corresponds to the amount she would have after 3 of a year or 4 months. This is
£139.56.
8.B Natural growth and decay: e 305
(2) This question is a bit more tricky because we want to go back the other way. We
need to use the inverse function which will take us back from x to t.
Because of the way it was obtained, the growth curve is smooth and has no
gaps, so there will be a value of x for any particular value of t.
We define the inverse function by introducing the natural log and saying
if x = e t then t = loge x or ln x.
(Natural logs, that is logs to the base e, are usually written as ln rather than loge .)
This now gives us the answer for question (2)(a) that t = ln 1 = 0 so 1 = e 0 which
agrees with the meaning we gave to the power 0 in Section 1.D.(b).
It also agrees with the starting amount of money of 1 £100 when t = 0.
The answer for question (2)(b) is t = ln 2 = 0.693 to 3 d.p. using a
calculator.
The fifth cousin would have £200 after 0.693 12 = 8.3 months
approximately.
Question (2)(c) has the answer of ln(4.5) = 1.504 to 3 d.p., giving the fifth
1
cousin £450 after approximately 12 years.
If we have a function x = f(t), then we write its inverse function (if it exists) in
the form x = f –1(t).
Here, we have f(t) = e t and f –1 (t) = ln t.
Since doing the function followed by doing the inverse function brings you back
to where you started, we have
f –1 (f(t)) = t and f(f –1 (t)) = t.
For the particular functions of f(t) = e t and f –1 (t) = ln t, this gives us
ln (e t ) = t and e ln t = t.
These equations are extremely useful and are worth surrounding in bright
colour.
I have sketched x = f(t) = e t and x = f –1(t) = ln t in Figure 8.B.3.
Notice the following points here.
The sketch includes negative values of t. If t represents time, then these represent
times before we started doing the measuring.
The value of e t is always greater than zero although, for large negative values of
t, it gets infinitely close to zero.
We can only find the natural log of a positive quantity. (This is true for any log.)
This agrees with 2–3, say, being 1/23 = 1/8.
306 Differentiation
Figure 8.B.3
8.B.(d) Relating ln x to the log of x using other bases
Starting from a similar situation in Section 3.C.(b), we defined the inverse function of
f(x) = 2x as f –1 (x) = log2 x.
It will now be of great practical importance to us to find a rule which will tell us how
to write logs to other bases (in particular, base 10) in terms of logs to base e (or natural
logs).
To find this rule, we will start with some number a and suppose that log10 a = y and
ln a = loge a = x. (In this section on changing bases, I will write the natural logs as loge rather
than ln to emphasise that these are logs to the base e.)
If log10 a = y then a = 10y and if loge a = x then a = e x. (This is what 'base 10' and 'base
e' mean.)
But it must also be possible to write 10 itself as a power of e.
Let's say that 10 = e c. This means that we can say that c = loge 10.
(Using my calculator gives me c = 2.302 585 093 but this is only an approximation to nine
decimal places. Any further rounding off will make it even more inexact so we'll carry on
calling it c for short.)
Now we say that a = 10y = (e c )y = e cy.
But also a = e x so now we have e x = e cy so x = cy.
Putting back what x, y and c are in terms of logs gives us
loge a = (loge 10) (log10 a) or ln a = (ln 10)(log10 a).
It is also worth surrounding this in bright colour.
We now have a rule which makes it possible for us to change a log to base 10 into a
log to base e. (One way of remembering it is to think of it as sort of 'cancelling' the 10.)
Try choosing some particular values for a and than check on your calculator that the rule
does work.
8.B Natural growth and decay: e 307
Being able to write logs to base 10 in terms of logs to base e (that is, natural logs) will
be very important when we want to find the rates of change of functions of logs to base 10.
We shall see how to do this in Section 8.C.(c).
The rule above can be extended to cover any change of base, say from m to n.
logn a = (logn m) (logm a).
This rule gives us a special case which is sometimes quite useful. If we put n = a and
m = b, we get
1
loga a = 1 = loga b logb a so loga b = .
logb a
We have now seen how logs to other bases can be converted into natural logs. It is
possible to define all other logs and powers in terms of logs and powers of e, and this is done
in the rigorous approach of mathematical analysis. It is then possible to give a meaning to
such unnerving quantities as 2π, for example. Doing this properly is a slow and careful
process. In this book I try to give you enough examples of places where you need to be
careful, to help you to understand why this detailed analysis is done.
8.B.(e) What do we get if we differentiate ln t?
What is the rate of change of x = ln t with respect to t?
That is, what is dx/dt?
dt
If x = ln t then t = ex so = e x.
dx
But it seems reasonable in general to say that
dx 1
=
dt dt/dx
since we can say that the fraction
δx 1
= .
δt δt/δx
Provided that none of the problems talked about in Section 8.A.(f) is present, then when
δt → 0, δx → 0 also, so this step is justified. Now here we have
dt dx 1 1
= ex so = = .
dx dt ex t
This gives us the enormously important result that
dx 1
if x = ln t then = .
dt t
This is another box worth surrounding with bright colour.
308 Differentiation
I should point out here that the letters we use are not important in themselves; they are
just names or tags.
So it is equally true, for example, that
dy 1
if y = f(x) = ln x then = f (x) = .
dx x
8.C Differentiating more complicated functions
Before we start looking at ways of how we can do this, I will collect together in a box all
the functions we can now differentiate. Remember that the letters of the variables can be
changed as you wish. (I have used y, x, t and θ for mine.)
Rates of change we already know
(1) If y = f(x) = ax n then dy/dx = f (x) = nax n – 1.
So if y = ax then dy/dx = a and if y = a then dy/dx = 0 (a stands for any
constant number).
(2) If x = f(t) = sin t then dx/dt = f (t) = cos t.
(3) If x = f(t) = cos t then dx/dt = f (t) = – sin t.
(4) If x = f(t) = e t then dx/dt = f (t) = e t.
(5) If x = f(t) = ln t then dx/dt = f (t) = 1/t.
I have used the letter f for a function here, all through, but of course you can use other
letters if you want.
!
Students sometimes mix up the minus sign in (2) and (3). There are two
ways you can use to remember that the minus sign comes when you
differentiate a cos.
Remember the shape of the first bit of the sin and cos graphs.
The cos graph is going downhill here, so d/dt (cos t) must be – sin t.
Sin Differentiates Plus so Solve Damn Problem.
8.C.(a) The Chain Rule
It is often necessary to be able to find the rate of change of functions which have been built
up from simpler ones. For example, we might have x = f(t) = sin 3t or y = f(x) = (3x 2 + 2)5
or y = f(θ) = sin3 2θ etc. The Chain Rule gives us a way of dealing with all of these.
I will explain how this works by showing you the following four examples.
2
(1) y = (3x 2 + 5)5 (2) x = sin(3t + π/2) (3) y = e x +2
(4) y = ln(2t 2 + 3t)
Each of these is built up from functions which we can easily differentiate.
8.C More complicated functions 309
We can show this in the following way.
(1) y = (3x 2 + 5)5 becomes y = X 5 if we put X = 3x 2 + 5.
(2) x = sin(3t + π/2) becomes y = sin X if we put X = 3t + π/2.
2
(3) y = e x + 2 becomes y = e X if we put X = x 2 + 2.
(4) y = ln(2t 2 + 3t) becomes y = ln X if we put X = 2t 2 + 3t.
In each of these, X stands for a whole lump or chunk which makes a second function.
Taking example (1), we have y as a function not just of x but also of this X which is itself
a function of x.
It is for this reason that the Chain Rule is also known as 'function of a function'.
Being able to write y in this way makes the finding of dy/dx very much simpler because
we can split it into two easy steps.
We justify this by going back to the stage of the very small changes, and saying
δy δy δX
= just using the ordinary rules of fractions.
δx δX δx
Now, provided none of the potential difficulties which we talked about in Section 8.A.(f) are
present at any of the points we are interested in, so that as δx gets very small we also have
δX getting very small, we can say that
δy dy δy dy δX dX
as δx → 0, → , → and → .
δx dx δX dX δx dx
This gives us the following result.
The Chain Rule
dy dy dX
If y is a function of X, and X is a function of x, then = .
dx dX dx
Using this now in each of the four examples which we had above, and changing the letters
when necessary, we get the following results.
dy dy dX
(1) = = (5X 4 ) (6x) = 30x (3x 2 + 5)4
dx dX dx
Notice that I have given the final answer in terms of the original x. You should always do
this.
dx dx dX
(2) = = (cos X)(3) = 3 cos(3t + π/2)
dt dX dt
!
Remember here that π/2 is a constant, and so gives zero when it is
differentiated.
dy dy dX 2
(3) = = (e X )(2x) = 2xe x +2
dx dX dx
310 Differentiation
Using the Chain Rule also gives us the result that d/dt(e –t ) = –e –t. This describes a process
of decay where the rate of change of the substance present at time t is equal to minus the
amount of the substance present at that time. The minus sign shows that this rate of change
is negative, and the amount of the substance present is decreasing.
helpful
You will avoid a lot of mistakes if you remember that if e X is differentiated
hint with respect to X then the answer is e X.
So if you have e something complicated, then e the same something complicated must be
part of your answer when you differentiate.
dy dy dX 1 4t + 3
(4) = = (4t + 3) =
dt dX dt X 2t 2 + 3t
exercise 8.c.1 Try these questions for yourself now.
It is very important to be able to do these differentiations quickly and reliably
because they will be the basic step of many further processes. (In particular, when
you come to use partial differentiation, which involves having functions of more
than one variable, you need to be able to do this process without any worries.)
For this reason, I start off with easy questions and build them up gradually so
that you can get really confident with them.
I think you will find that quite quickly you can work with the X in your head,
just writing down the two multiplied bits and then tidying them up for the final
answer.
Differentiate each of these functions with respect to the letter used in their
description.
(1) y = (2x 2 + 3)4 (2) x = (t 3 + 2)5 (3) y = (3x 2 – 2x)4
2
(4) x = (3t + 4)1/2 (5) y = 3e 4x (6) x = e t + 1
2
(7) y = 2e x + x (8) x = cos(4t + π/3) (9) x = sin t + sin 2t
2
(10) y = sin(x ) 2
(11) y = sin x, which means (sinx)2. Hint: let X = sin x.
3
(12) y = cos x (13) y = ln 4x (14) y = ln(3x + 1) (15) x = ln(2t 2 + 1)
(16) y = cos(5x 2 + π) (17) x = sin(2t 2 + 3) (18) y = ln(sin x)
The next step is to be able to use the Chain Rule more than once in the same question.
With practice on the easy ones (which are then often built into more complicated ones), you
will find this no problem.
Try these ten quickies now, doing the X part in your head.
exercise 8.c.2 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x.
2
(1) y = e 5x (2) y = e –2x (3) y = e x (4) y = ln(2x + 3)
(5) y = ln(1 + x) (6) y = ln(1 – x) (7) y = sin 7x (8) y = cos4 x
(9) y = sin(2x + π) (10) y = cos(3x + 4)
Now we are ready to do the functions of functions of functions. (In fact, you can chain
together as many as you like, with them all folded inside each other like a set of Russian
dollies.)
8.C More complicated functions 311
Here are two examples.
example (1) Find dy/dx for y = sin3 (4x) (which means, of course, y = (sin(4x))3.
We think of this first as y = X 3, with X = sin 4x, and write
dy/dx = (3X 2 )(4 cos 4x) = 12 cos 4x sin2 4x.
The second use of the Chain Rule, on the sin 4x, has become so
automatic that you hardly notice that you are doing it.
example (2) Find dy/dt if y = ln(sin 3t).
Thinking of this as ln X, with X = sin 3t, we can write
1 3 cos 3t
dy/dt = (3 cos 3t) = = 3 cot 3t.
X sin 3t
exercise 8.c.3 Try these now for yourself. Differentiate each function with respect to the letter
used in their description.
(1) y = cos5 2x (2) y = sin3 (4x + 1) (3) x = ln(sin(2t + 3))
3
(4) x = (2 cos 2θ + 5) (5) y = ln(1 + cos x) (6) x = ln(3t + sin2 3t)
2
(7) x = ln(2 + e t + 1 ) (8) y = sin(cos 4x) (9) y = (1 + sin2 t)1/2
2 1/2
(10) y = ln[(1 + sin t) )] (This is easier than it looks. Think!)
8.C.(b) Writing the Chain Rule as F (x) = f (g(x)) g (x)
You may come across the Chain Rule written in the dash notation for functions as above. It
means exactly the same thing as what you have just been doing. I will show you how this
is so by taking an example.
Suppose we want to differentiate y = (3x 2 + 2)4 with respect to x.
Because we are using function notation, we need to label the three functions involved
here with different letters.
I shall let y = F(x) = (3x 2 + 2)4.
Now y is also a function of (3x 2 + 2). (This is what we have been calling X.)
I shall let X = 3x 2 + 2 = g(x), to show that it also is a function of x.
Since y is a function of X, we can also write y = f(X) = f(g(x)). (In this particular example,
y = f(3x 2 + 2).)
Next, it is important to be sure what the dash notation means for a function.
f (x) means the function f(x) differentiated with respect to x,
f (t) means the function f(t) differentiated with respect to t.
f (X) means the function f(X) differentiated with respect to X, even though X is itself a
function of x, so f (g(x)) means the function f(g(x)) differentiated with respect to g(x).
It corresponds to what we have called dy/dX.
So, in this particular example, g (x) = 6x and f (g(x)) = 4(3x 2 + 2)3. So we have
F (x) = [4(3x 2 + 2)3] [6x] = 24x (3x 2 + 2)3.
Use whichever notation you prefer.
8.C.(c) Differentiating functions with angles in degrees or logs to base 10
When we showed that
d
(cos t) = –(sin t)
dx
in Section 8.A.(e) everything ran smoothly because the angle t was in radians.
312 Differentiation
How could we find the slope of the graph of x = cos θ if θ is in degrees? (We know that
we can draw the graph of x = cos θ. The only difference is that the horizontal scale will be
in degrees instead of radians.)
In order to find dx/dθ from x = cos θ we shall first have to convert θ to radians.
From Section 4.D.(a) we have
π πθ
θ° = θ radians, so x = cos
180 180
with the angle now in radians.
We also know from the Chain Rule that, if a is some constant number, and x = cos(aθ),
then dx/dθ = – a sin θ.
Exactly the same principle works here with a = π/180.
πθ dx π πθ π
If x = cos then =– sin =– sin θ
180 dθ 180 180 180
writing the angle again in degrees.
The π/180 is the gearing mechanism or scale factor which lets us have the horizontal
scale in degrees instead of radians.
We can use a similar process to differentiate a function in terms of logs to base ten (or
any other base, but ten is the one you are most likely to want to use).
To do this, we go back to the relationship between logs to base e and logs to base 10
which we found in Section 8.B.(d). This says that
ln a = (ln 10)(log10 a).
So, for example, if we want to find dy/dx for the function y = log10 x, we rewrite this as
ln x
y= .
ln 10
Now 1/ln 10 is just a number, so we have
dy 1 1 1
= = .
dx ln 10 x x ln 10
Here, the 1/(ln 10) is acting as a gearing mechanism or scaling factor which makes the
differentiation work in the slightly altered circumstances of a different base.
We now have the following two rules.
To differentiate functions involving degrees, convert first to radians.
To differentiate functions involving other logs, convert first to natural logs.
8.C.(d) The Product Rule, or 'uv' Rule
The Product Rule moves us a further step on in being able to differentiate functions which
are built up from simpler functions. It is therefore another technique we will need for
practical applications.
As its name suggests, it gives us a way of dealing with two functions which are multiplied
together to give a third function.
For example, suppose we have y = f(x) = 3x 2 sin 2x.
8.C More complicated functions 313
The function f(x) is made up of two functions, u(x) = 3x 2 and v(x) = sin 2x, which are
multiplied together. So we can say y = uv.
If we alter x by a small amount δx then y will also alter by a small amount δy. Also the
two components, u and v, of y will each alter by small amounts since they are also functions
of x. (We are assuming here that none of the complications of Section 8.A.(f) is present.) So
we can say that u alters by the small amount δu and v alters by the small amount δv.
This gives us
y + δy = (u + δu)(v + δv) = uv + v (δu) + u (δv) + (δu)(δv).
But y = uv, so
δy = u (δv) + v(δu) + (δu)(δv).
Dividing all through by δx gives
δy δu δv (δu)(δv)
=v +u + .
δx δx δx (δx)
Now, if we make δx become smaller and smaller, so δx → 0, then δu and δv will also
become very small.
This means that,
(δu)(δv)
as δx → 0, → 0 also.
(δx)
Two very small things multiplied together and then divided by one very small thing give a
very small result. This result will become closer and closer to zero as δx itself becomes
closer and closer to zero, so we now get the result that
δy dy
the limit of as δx → 0 is .
δx dx
This gives us the following.
The Product Rule
dy du dv
=v +u
dx dx dx
In the particular example that we started with, du/dx = 6x and dv/dx = 2 cos 2x so we have
dy/dx = (sin 2x)(6x) + (3x 2 ) (2 cos 2x)
= 6x sin 2x + 6x 2 cos 2x = 6x (sin 2x + x cos 2x).
The Product Rule can also be written in function notation as
if y = uv then y = vu + uv .
This covers the case of y, u and v all being functions of x, or all being functions of any
other letter which it might be convenient to work with.
314 Differentiation
exercise 8.c.4 Try these for yourself, tidying up all the answers as far as possible. Find dy/dx for
each of the following.
(1) y = 7x 2 cos 3x (2) y = e 3x sin 2x (3) y = 4x 5 (x 2 + 3)3
Find dx/dt for each of the following.
(4) x = e 2t + 1 cos (2t + 1) (5) x = 7t 2 ln (2t – 1) (6) x = (t 2 + 1)1/2 sin (2t + π)
(7) Find dy/dx if y = (x 2 + 1)5 e 3x cos 2x.
If you have three functions multiplied together like this, there is no special new
Product Rule which you should use. You just bunch any two of the functions
together and then use the Product Rule twice.
Here, you could say y = [(x 2 + 1)5] [e 3x cos 2x] and go on from there.
In the following questions, you will need to remember that
d 2x d dx
means
dt 2 dt dt
so to find d 2x/dt 2 you differentiate twice.
These questions are included here not just as practice in differentiating but
because, if you have seen them working this way round, they will then be easier
for you to solve when you come to do the opposite process in real-life physical
applications. There you will be starting with the differential equation (that is the
equation which has the terms in d 2x/dt 2 and dx/dt) and finding a solution which
fits it.
dx d 2x
(8) If x = (2 + t)e 3t find (a) and (b) .
dt dt 2
d 2x dx
Show that 2
–6 + 9x = 0.
dt dt
(9) If x = e kt where k stands for some constant number, find (a) dx/dt and
(b) d 2x/dt 2.
d 2x dx
If –2 – 3x = 0 find the two possible values of k.
dt 2 dt
(10) If x = Ae 3t + Be –t, where A and B are standing for constant numbers, show that
d 2x dx
–2 – 3x = 0.
dt 2 dt
(There is a very quick way to do this one; look at your answer to the previous
question.)
dx 1
(11) If x = e –t ln (1 + e t ) show that +x= .
dt 1 + et
8.C.(e) The Quotient Rule or 'u/v' Rule
This rule gives us a good way of differentiating a function which is made up of two simpler
functions written as a fraction.
We start with a function y = f(x) = u/v where u and v are both themselves functions of x.
The following result can then be shown by a very similar argument to the one we used
for the Product Rule in Section 8.C.(d).
8.C More complicated functions 315
The Quotient Rule
u dy v (du/dx) – u (dv/dx)
If y = then =
v dx v2
!
Notice the minus sign in the middle of the Quotient Rule. Because of this it
matters what order the top two bits are written in. This is why I wrote the
Product Rule in the same order. Then 'v comes virst' for both.
Because the Quotient Rule automatically tidies up the answer by putting it
note
over a common denominator, I think that it is easier to use it for a function
like y = f(x) = 2x/(3x – 1), rather than writing this as 2x(3x – 1)–1 and then
using the Product Rule.
Here are two examples of using the Quotient Rule.
example (1) We can use it to find out what the answer is if we differentiate y = tan x
with respect to x. We write
sin x
y = tan x = so u = sin x and v = cos x.
cos x
So
dy (cos x)(cos x) – (sin x)(– sin x) cos2 x + sin2 x
= = .
dx cos2 x cos2 x
But
dy 1
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 so = 2
= sec2 x.
dx cos x
Therefore, we have
d
(tan x) = sec2 x.
dx
x+3
example (2) We will use the Quotient Rule to find dy/dx if y= .
x–2
u=x+3 and v = x – 2 so we get
dy (x – 2)(1) – (x + 3)(1) 5
= =– .
dx (x – 2)2 (x – 2)2
This is undefined when x = 2, but otherwise it will always be negative
since (x – 2)2 must be positive.
316 Differentiation
The value of dy/dx at any particular point of a curve is telling us the
slope of the curve at that point. You can see how it tallies with the
shape of the curve for this particular function because we sketched it in
Section 3.B.(i). We thought there, from the information that we then
had, that this curve should always have a negative slope except where
x = 2 when y itself was undefined. Now we see that this is indeed true!
Knowing dy/dx gives us a rule for finding the slope at any particular
point of the curve. We can see this here by taking a couple of examples
1
of points on this curve, say A, (3,6), and B, (– 4, – 6 ).
dy dy 5
We get at A = –5 and at B =– .
dx dx 36
These gradients agree well with the sketch; we can see that the tangent
at B would be much less steep than the tangent at A.
The Quotient Rule can also be written in function notation like this.
u vu – uv
If y= then y = .
v v2
exercise 8.c.5 Try these questions yourself now.
cos x d
(1) By writing cot x = show that (cot x) = – cosec2 x.
sin x dx
1 d
(2) By writing sec x = or (cos x)–1, show that (sec x) = sec x tan x.
cos x dx
d
(3) Show similarly that (cosec x) = – cosec x cot x.
dx
dx sin t
(4) Find if x = .
dt 1 + cos t
d
(5) Show that (ln(sec x + tan x)) = sec x.
dx
dy e x – e –x
(6) Find if y = .
dx e x + e –x
dy 1+x
(7) Find if y = ln .
dx 1–x
(Think how you can make this one simpler to do!)
dy x 2 sin x
(8) Find if y = .
dx (3 – x)
8.C More complicated functions 317
dy 3x – 2 3
(9) Find if y = with x ≠ – 2.
dx 2x + 3
dy ax + b
(10) Find if y =
dx cx + d
where a, b, c and d are all constant numbers, and x ≠ – d/c. Are there any
values of x which make dy/dx = 0?
Here is a summary of the new useful results we now have. (We also have the box of results
at the beginning of Section 8.C.)
More rates of change we now know
If y = tan x then dy/dx = sec2 x.
If y = cot x then dy/dx = – cosec2 x.
If y = sec x then dy/dx = sec x tan x.
If y = cosec x then dy/dx = – cosec x cot x.
If y = ln(sec x + tan x) then dy/dx = sec x.
It is worth highlighting this box because, when you come to do the process of
differentiation the opposite way round in the next chapter, being able to spot these will be
very helpful to you.
8.D The hyperbolic functions of sinh x and cosh x
Now that we know the Chain, Product and Quotient Rules for differentiation we are able to
look at an interesting extension of the two graphs of y = e x and y = e –x.
8.D.(a) Getting symmetries from e x and e –x
The graph of y = e x is not symmetrical and neither is the graph of y = e –x, and yet the two
graphs shown together have a striking mutual symmetry which is clear from Figure 8.D.1.
This is because each is the mirror image of the other in the y-axis.
Can we exploit this?
318 Differentiation
Figure 8.D.1
If we create a new function by taking the average value of e x and e –x for each value of
x, we shall get the function which I have shown by the dashed line in the sketch. It is called
y = cosh x. The reason for this is that it behaves in many ways like cos x, curious though this
may seem at first sight. Its equation is given by
e x + e –x
y = cosh x = .
2
This function is even, that is, cosh(–x) = cosh x for any particular value of x.
It describes the curve in which a heavy uniform chain hangs under its own weight. It also
describes the sag in a metal tape measure when it is extended, and was used to correct for
this before the invention of electronic measuring devices.
e x + e –x e x – e –x
If y = gives an interesting result, what about y = ?
2 2
We can think of this as finding the average value of e x and – e –x for each value of x.
This gives us the curve shown as a dashed line in Figure 8.D.2.
This function is called sinh x and it is odd. That is, sinh x = – sinh(–x) for any particular
value of x.
We now have the pair of definitions
e x + e –x e x – e –x
cosh x = and sinh x = .
2 2
8.D The hyperbolic functions 319
Figure 8.D.2
Remembering from the rules for powers that
ex e x = e x + x = e 2x
e –x e –x = e –x – x = e –2x
and ex e –x = e x – x = e 0 = 1,
we have
e x + e –x 2 e 2x + e –2x + 2
cosh2 x = (cosh x)2 = = .
2 4
!
cosh2 x is the way in which mathematicians write (cosh x)2. It does not
mean cosh x 2, which is more safely written as cosh(x 2 ). In fact
2 2
2
e x + e –x
cosh(x ) = .
2
It is just the same as cosh x except that the x is replaced by x 2.
We also have
e x – e –x 2 e 2x + e –2x – 2
sinh2 x = = .
2 4
So
cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1.
This is true whatever value we choose for x on the x-axis, so it is an example of an
identity. I described some examples of identities in Section 2.D.(h).
320 Differentiation
Try showing for yourself that cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1, without looking at my working, to
make sure you can do it.
We begin to see now just why cosh x and sinh x have been named in this way. The above
relationship is curiously like the trig identity of cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
8.D.(b) Differentiating sinh x and cosh x
We know that d/dx (e x ) = e x and d/dx (e –x ) = – e –x.
What do we get if we differentiate (a) y = sinh x and (b) y = cosh x with respect to x? Have
a go at doing this for yourself.
This is what you should have.
1 1
d/dx(sinh x) = d/dx (2 (e x – e –x )) = 2 (d/dx (e x ) – d/dx(e –x ))
1
= 2 (e x + e –x ) = cosh x
and, similarly,
d/dx(cosh x) = sinh x.
Again we see that sinh x and cosh x are behaving very similarly to sin x and cos x, though
not quite identically since d/dx(sin x) = cos x but d/dx(cos x) = – sin x.
This seems very strange just now, because we have completely different graphs for these
two pairs of functions. The mystery of this curious set of links becomes solved later on, in
Section 10.C.(b).
Also, just as we did with sin and cos, we can use the Chain Rule to differentiate slightly
more complicated functions involving sinh and cosh. For example,
d d
(sinh 3x) = 3 cosh 3x and (cosh (x 2 + 1)) = 2x sinh (x 2 + 1).
dx dx
8.D.(c) Using sinh x and cosh x to get other hyperbolic functions
Because of the similarities which we have already seen, it makes sense to define further
hyperbolic functions to correspond to the other trig functions, so we say
sinh x e x – e –x
tanh x = = ,
cosh x e x + e –x
1 1 1
cosech x = , sech x = , coth x = .
sinh x cosh x tanh x
Dividing cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1 by cosh2 x gives us
1 – tanh2 x = sech2 x
and dividing cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1 by sinh2 x gives us
coth2 x – 1 = cosech2 x
again similar but not identical results to the two trig rules of
tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x and cot2 x + 1 = cosec2 x.
8.D The hyperbolic functions 321
We can now use the Quotient Rule to find d/dx (tanh x). Writing
sinh x
tanh x = ,
cosh x
we get
(cosh x)(cosh x) – (sinh x)(sinh x) 1
d/dx(tanh x) = = = sech2 x.
cosh2 x cosh2 x
(You can get this same result by working directly with tanh x written in terms of e x and e –x
but this is longer. It was question (6) in Exercise 8.C.5.)
Show for yourself that the following three rules are true.
d
(1) (sech x) = – sech x tanh x
dx
d
(2) (cosech x) = – cosech x coth x
dx
d
(3) (coth x) = – cosech2 x
dx
(The working for these is very similar to the working for the corresponding trig functions
which came in Exercise 8.C.5.)
exercise 8.d.1 (1) If e x = 2, find the values of (a) sinh x, (b) cosh x and (c) tanh x by using their
definitions in terms of e x and e –x.
(2) If x = 0, find the values of (a) sinh x and (b) cosh x. Check that your answers
are believable by looking at the graph sketches of these two functions. What
is tanh x when x = 0?
(3) Differentiate the following with respect to x.
(a) y = cosh 2x (b) y = sinh (3x + 5) (c) y = e 2x sinh 3x
(d) y = tanh 5x (e) y = ln (cosh x) (f ) y = cosh2 3x
8.D.(d) Comparing other hyperbolic and trig formulas – Osborn's Rule
In this section, we look at whether some other rules which are true for trig functions are also
true for hyperbolic functions.
(1) In Section 5.D.(d), we showed that sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A.
Is it true that sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x?
We look at the more complicated side first and see whether it will simplify to
give the other side. Doing this gives us
e x – e –x e x + e –x e 2x – e –2x
2 sinh x cosh x = 2 = = sinh 2x,
2 2 2
so this is another rule which transfers exactly.
322 Differentiation
(2) Investigate for yourself whether the trig rule of cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A has the
corresponding rule for hyperbolic functions of cosh 2x = cosh2 2x – sinh2 2x.
Indeed, could this be so?
I hope you will have seen straight away that it couldn't be so since we know that
cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1. Try finding for yourself what cosh2 x + sinh2 x is equal to.
You should have
e x + e –x 2 e x – e –x 2
cosh2 x + sinh2 x = +
2 2
1
= 4 ((e 2x + 2 + e –2x ) + (e 2x + e –2x – 2))
1
= 2 (e 2x + e –2x ) = cosh 2x.
This time we have the two rules
cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x and cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x.
The different results of (1) and (2) are examples of Osborn's Rule which says that the trig
rules match the corresponding hyperbolic rules exactly, unless the working somewhere
involves two sins or two sinhs multiplied together. In this case, there is a sign change there.
8.D.(e) Finding the inverse function for sinh x
We look now at the function y = sinh x to see whether we can find a function that will take
us back the other way. We'll start by considering a numerical example so that we can see
what is happening here.
Suppose we know that sinh x = 2. What value of x would give this result?
I show this question pictorially in Figure 8.D.3.
Figure 8.D.3
We say that x = sinh–1 2 meaning that x is the number whose sinh is equal to 2.
!
sinh–1 x does not mean 1/sinh x. This would be written as (sinh x)–1.
8.D The hyperbolic functions 323
Using a sequence like INV-HYP-SIN on your calculator should give you the answer of
x = 1.44 to 2 d.p. but how can we show this process actually happening? We have
e x – e –x
sinh x = =2 so e x – e –x = 4.
2
Multiplying through by e x gives e 2x – 1 = 4e x so e 2x – 4e x – 1 = 0.
This is actually a quadratic equation in e x, which we can see by putting e x = m.
This gives us m 2 – 4m – 1 = 0. We now use the formula to get
4± 16 + 4 4±2 5
m= = =2± 5.
2 2
Now, e x = 2 – 5 is not a possible solution, because e x is always positive.
Therefore we have e x = 2 + 5 so x = ln (2 + 5) = 1.44 to 2 d.p.
Having seen what happens with this particular example, we will now see how we can find
a general rule for y = sinh–1 x.
We use exactly the same method that we did with the numerical example. We start with
e x – e –x
y = sinh x = so 2y = e x – e –x so e x – 2y – e –x = 0.
2
Multiplying through by e x gives
e 2x – 2y e x – 1 = 0.
Again, this is a quadratic equation. We see this very nicely by putting m = e x.
Then we have m 2 – 2y m – 1 = 0, and using the formula gives
2y ± 4y 2 + 4 2y ± 2 y 2 + 1
m= so m= =y± y 2 + 1.
2 2
Replacing m by e x gives us
ex = y ± y 2 + 1.
Now, e x is always positive for every x which we can choose on the x-axis. However,
y – y 2 + 1 is always negative since y 2 + 1 > y.
Therefore we cannot have e x = y – y 2 + 1.
This gives us just the single possibility of e x = y + y 2 + 1.
Taking natural logs of both sides of this equation, we get
ln(e x ) = x = ln(y + y 2 + 1).
We now have the rule for finding the original x if we know what y is, but it is giving us x
as a function of y. We can see this from the direction of the arrows in Figure 8.D.4(a) which
shows sinh x = 1 giving x = 0.88, and sinh x = 3 giving x = 1.82 to 2 d.p.
We want a rule which will give us y as a function of x so we interchange x and y.
This gives us the inverse function of
y = sinh–1 x = ln(x + x 2 + 1).
Try feeding in x = 1 and x = 3 to this, so that you can see it actually working.
I show a sketch of this function in Figure 8.D.4(b).
324 Differentiation
Figure 8.D.4
The interchanging of x and y means that, as for every function and its inverse, the graphs
of y = sinh x and y = sinh–1 x are symmetrical about the line y = x.
If you draw your own sketch, showing both y = sinh x and y = sinh–1 x together, you can
see this symmetry.
We can also see graphically in Figure 8.D.4(a) that y = sinh–1 x must be a function
because there is only one value of x which can give a particular value of sinh x, so there will
be no ambiguity when we want to go back the other way.
exercise 8.d.2 To extract as much information as possible from the two graphs above, and from
Section 8.D.(b), try answering the following questions yourself.
(1) What is the gradient of the curve y = sinh x at the origin?
(2) From your answer to (1), what special property does the line y = x have?
(3) From the symmetry of the two graphs, what is the gradient of the curve
y = sinh–1 x at the origin?
8.D.(f ) Can we find an inverse function for cosh x?
Again we start by looking at a numerical example.
If cosh x = 2, what value of x could have given this result?
We see immediately from Figure 8.D.5 that there will be two possible values of x. This
is because cosh(x) = cosh (–x) for all values of x.
Doing the working in exactly the same way as we did for sinh x = 2 in Section 8.D.(e),
we find that e x = 2 ± 3. (Do this for yourself.)
Both these possibilities are positive so they are both possible solutions.
If we take e x = 2 + 3 we get x = ln (2 + 3) = 1.32 to 2 d.p.
If we take e x = 2 – 3 we get x = ln (2 – 3) = –1.32 to 2 d.p.
Figure 8.D.5
8.D The hyperbolic functions 325
Looking at the numbers in these two logs, it may seem surprising to you that they do give
a matching pair of plus and minus answers. We shall see why this is so when we find a
general rule for y = cosh–1 x.
You will find that your calculator only gives you the answer of x = 1.32 to 2 d.p. for
cosh–1 2.
The reason for this is that, just as we saw with the inverse trig functions in Section
5.A.(g), it is much more convenient to arrange things so that we have a single-valued answer
and therefore a function. We can do this here by restricting ourselves to the right-hand side
of the graph so that x ≥ 0. We then get only one possible answer for x from each value of
cosh x.
Now we look for the general rule for cosh–1 x
The procedure is very similar to what we did for sinh–1 x in the last section.
See how far you can get by yourself.
You should have
e x + e –x
y= so 2y = e x + e –x so e x – 2y + e –x = 0
2
so
e 2x – 2y e x + 1 = 0 so m 2 – 2y m + 1 = 0 putting m = e x
so
2y ± 4y 2 – 4 2y ± 2 y 2 – 1
m= = =y± y 2 – 1 = e x.
2 2
Both of these possibilities are positive, so we find that we are getting two possible solutions.
We have
ex = y ± y2 – 1
so, taking natural logs,
x = ln(y ± y 2 – 1).
It is a nuisance having a general formula with this ± in the middle of the log where we can't
easily get at it, so now we use a cunning trick involving the difference of two squares to put
it somewhere better.
It goes like this:
2 2
(y + y 2 – 1)
y– y – 1 = (y – y – 1)
(y + y 2 – 1)
(multiplying top and bottom by the same
thing leaves the value unchanged)
y 2 – (y 2 – 1) 1
= 2
= .
y+ y –1 y+ y2 – 1
Why is this any better?
It is because, if we have ln(1/a), this is the same as ln 1 – ln a, using the second rule of
logs. These rules are listed in Section 3.C.(d).
326 Differentiation
But ln 1 = 0 because e 0 = 1. You can see that this agrees with Figure 8.D.1. So
1
ln(1/a) = – ln a and ln = – ln(y + y 2 – 1).
y+ y2 – 1
This gives us the two solutions that x = ± ln(y + y 2 – 1) and we see now why ln (2 – 3)
= – ln (2 + 3) in the numerical example earlier.
We now have the two possible values for x from a given y value.
Interchanging x and y so that we can write this as a relation for y in terms of x, we
have
y = ± ln (x + x 2 – 1)).
If we restrict the x values by saying x ≥ 0, we have the inverse function of
y = cosh–1 x = ln (x + x 2 – 1)).
This is called the principal inverse function for cosh.
Figure 8.D.6
I show the two functions, y = cosh x and y = cosh–1 x for x ≥ 0 in Figure 8.D.6. Just as
with any inverse pair of functions, they are symmetrical about the line y = x.
8.D.(g) tanh x and its inverse function tanh–1 x
What will the graph of y = tanh x look like? It is not possible to get this one quite so simply
from the graphs of y = e x and y = e –x. We have
sinh x e x – e –x
y = tanh x = = .
cosh x e x + e –x
Try answering the following questions yourself.
(1) What is tanh (0)?
(2) Can you work out the connection between tanh (–x) and tanh (x)?
What will this mean for the graph sketch?
(3) Multiply the top and bottom of the fraction (e x – e –x )/(e x + e –x ) by e –x.
From your answer to this, can you see what happens to the values of tanh x
when x takes very large positive values?
8.D The hyperbolic functions 327
Now try multiplying the top and bottom of the original fraction by e x. Can you
see what will happen to the value of tanh x when x takes large negative values?
(You could check that your ideas are right by choosing some particular large
positive and negative values for x and using your calculator.)
(4) What is the gradient of the curve y = tanh x at the origin?
(You may need to look at Section 8.D.(c) to answer this question.)
(5) See if you can use all the information from your answers to the previous questions
to draw a sketch of the graph for y = tanh x.
You should have the following answers.
(1) tanh (0) = 0 because sinh (0) = 0.
(2) Replacing x by –x gives
e –x – e x e x – e –x
tanh (–x) = =– = – tanh x
e –x + e x e x + e –x
so the left-hand side of the graph will be given by reflecting the right-hand side of
the graph in the y-axis and then turning it upside down. y = tanh x is an odd
function, just like y = tan x. (We drew this in Section 5.A.(e).)
(3) You should get
e –x (e x – e –x ) 1 – e –2x
tanh x = = .
e –x (e x + e – x ) 1 + e –2x
The value of tanh x will become closer and closer to one as the value of x increases
because e –2x becomes extremely small when x takes large positive values.
Similarly, multiplying the top and bottom of the fraction by e x shows that tanh x
gets closer and closer to –1 when x takes large negative values, since e 2x then
becomes extremely small.
(4) d/dx (tanh x) = sech2 x, so the gradient of y = tanh x when x = 0 is 1, because
sech(0) = 1. Also, since sech2 x is positive, the gradient of y = tanh x is always
positive.
(5) Putting all this information together gives us the graph sketch shown in Figure
8.D.7.
The lines y = 1 and y = –1 are horizontal asymptotes for this graph.
I have also drawn on the graph a line showing how we could find the value of
1
x when tanh x = 2.
Figure 8.D.7
328 Differentiation
1
If you use your calculator to find tanh–1 ( 2 ), you will get x = 0.55 to 2 d.p.
We can see from the shape of the graph that each value of tanh x can only come
from one possible value of x, so therefore the function y = tanh x will have an
inverse function. Now we'll find the rule that gives us this. We have
e x – e –x
y = tanh x = x –x
so y(e x + e –x ) = e x – e –x.
e +e
Multiplying all through by e x gives y(e 2x + 1) = e 2x – 1, so
ye 2x + y = e 2x – 1 and y + 1 = e 2x – ye 2x = e 2x(1 – y).
Therefore
1+y
e 2x = .
1–y
Taking logs both sides, we have
1+y 1 1+y
ln(e 2x ) = 2x = ln so x= 2 ln .
1–y 1–y
We now have the rule to get back to the original x if we know y. Use it to check
1
that, if you put y = 2, you do get x = 0.55 to 2 d.p.
Interchanging x and y as before, so that we have this rule as a function of x, we
get the inverse function of
1 1+x
tanh–1 x = 2 ln .
1–x
To give the log of a positive quantity, the possible values of x will have to lie
between –1 and +1.
We can see that this is where the values of x must lie from looking at the graph
sketch of y = tanh–1 x which I have drawn with y = tanh x in Figure 8.D.8.
Figure 8.D.8
8.D The hyperbolic functions 329
I have used the line of symmetry y = x to draw this sketch. I have also used the
answer to Question (4) which was that the gradient of y = tanh x when x = 0 is 1.
This means that y = x is a tangent to both y = tanh x and y = tanh–1 x. It is a very
interesting tangent because it crosses both of the curves, which sort of flex
themselves when x = 0. The line y = x does exactly the same thing with y = sinh x
and y = sinh–1 x at the origin, as you'll see if you draw it in on Figure 8.D.4(a) and
(b). We shall look at points of inflection like this in more detail in Section
8.E.(b).
You may find it helpful here to emphasise the separateness of the two curves by
using two colours on them. Be careful to put the colour correctly on the two
separate halves of each graph! (The tanh graph is a flattened S shape.)
We were able to see from the graph that y = tanh x must have an inverse function, but
suppose we didn't know what the graph looked like? Can we still show that the inverse
relation will be a function?
To do this, we have to show that it isn't possible to get the same value for tanh x from
two different values for x, so that, when we go back the other way, there is only one possible
answer.
In other words, we have to show that the only way that tanh a = tanh b is for a and b to
be themselves equal.
We put tanh a = tanh b so
e a – e –a e b – e –b
=
e a + e –a e b + e –b
and see what happens. Try tidying this up for yourself, and see if you can show that a and
b must be equal.
Multiplying by (e a + e –a )(e b + e –b ) to get rid of fractions, we get
(e a – e –a ) (e b + e –b ) = (e b – e –b ) (e a + e –a )
so
e (a + b) – e (b – a) + e (a – b) – e –(a + b) = e (a + b) – e (a – b) + e (b – a) – e –(a + b)
so
2e (a – b) = 2e (b – a) so a–b=b–a so 2a = 2b and a = b.
We've now shown that the inverse function does exist, without reference to the graph.
!
Remember that it is not true that e a e b = e ab. We must add the powers.
8.D.(h) What's in a name? Why 'hyperbolic' functions?
The mystery of why sinh x and cosh x are called hyperbolic functions has not yet been
explained. This section tells you why this is so.
Suppose we let x = cosh θ and y = sinh θ and then plot the points that we get for different
values of θ on a graph. For example, if θ = 0, we have x = cosh θ = 1 and y = sinh θ = 0,
so one point on this graph will be (1,0).
330 Differentiation
Since cosh2 θ – sinh2 θ = 1, we know that the equation of this graph will be x 2 – y 2 = 1.
This is the equation of the hyperbola which I show below in Figure 8.D.9.
Figure 8.D.9
This graph may look a more familiar shape if you turn it through 45° anticlockwise. The
two dashed lines make this resemblance easier to see.
Actually, only the right-hand side of it is given by x = cosh θ and y = sinh θ. Can you see
why this is? Can you think of a way that we could get the whole graph?
cosh θ can't be negative, and the points on the left-hand side of the graph have negative
values for x.
We could get the whole graph by putting x = sec θ and y = tan θ.
Since sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1, we still have x 2 – y 2 = 1, and we have the left-hand side of the
graph too, since sec θ can take negative values.
In a similar way, x = cos θ and y = sin θ are linked to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. Indeed, it was this
circle which we used to define the sin and cos of angles greater than 90° in Section 5.A.(c).
The variable θ which we have used for this hyperbola and circle is called a parameter.
We can get other curves of the same type by subtly adjusting how we use it. For example,
x = 2 cosh θ and y = 3 sinh θ gives the hyperbola (x/2)2 – (y/3)2 = 1 and x = 5 cos θ with
y = 5 sin θ gives x 2 + y 2 = 25, the circle with centre (0,0) and radius 5 units.
Unbalancing them to give x = 4 cos θ and y = 3 sin θ, say, gives a squashed circle, or
ellipse, with the equation (x/4)2 + (y/3)2 = 1. This is centred at the origin and cuts the axes
at (4, 0), (0, 3), (–4, 0) and (0, –3).
There isn't space to go into this in more detail just now, but you will find that this use
of parameters to describe particular curves is often of great practical use in extracting further
information from relationships between physical quantities.
Finally, you may be thinking that the name 'hyperbolic' isn't the only strange thing about
these functions. Why is there this curious link between them and the trig functions? I'll show
you the reason for this in Section 10.C.(b).
8.D.(i) Differentiating inverse trig and hyperbolic functions
This is something which students quite often find difficult, but if you have worked through
the earlier parts of this section so that you are now happy with what these inverse functions
do, you should find it quite straightforward. We'll look at two examples of differentiation,
and then see how using the Chain Rule makes it possible to get lots of other similar results
very easily.
8.D The hyperbolic functions 331
example (1) How can we find dy/dx if y = sinh– 1 x?
We could set about doing this in two ways.
M ETHOD (1) Let y = sinh– 1 x. Then x = sinh y because this is what the inverse
function of sinh– 1 means. Therefore dx/dy = cosh y.
Now we use the argument of Section 8.B.(e) to say
dx 1
= ,
dy dy/dx
excluding any values of x for which dy/dx = 0.
(It is also possible to do this by implicit differentiation. I show you
this method in Section 8.F.(c).)
Therefore
dy 1
= .
dx cosh y
But cosh2 y = sinh2 y + 1, so
cosh2 y = x 2 + 1 and cosh y = ± x 2 + 1.
But we know that the gradient of y = sinh x is always positive. (How
do we know this? What is d/dx (sinh x)?)
It is cosh x and cosh x is always positive. Therefore
dy 1
= 2
dx x +1
and we have the result that
d 1
(sinh– 1 x) = .
dx x2 + 1
M ETHOD (2) This uses the result which we found in Section 8.D.(e) that
sinh– 1 x = ln (x + x 2 + 1).
Therefore we can say
1
d d 1+ 2 (x 2 + 1)–1/2 (2x)
(sinh– 1 x) = (ln (x + x 2 + 1)) = .
dx dx x + x2 + 1
This doesn't look too good, but it is tidied up amazingly by multiplying
the top and bottom by x 2 + 1. We then get
x2 + 1 + x 1
2 2
= 2
. . . neat!
x + 1 (x + x + 1) x +1
example (2) This time, we differentiate an inverse trig function.
We will find dy/dx if y = tan–1 x (or arctan x as it is also known).
Remember that y = tan–1 x means that y is the angle between –π/2
and π/2 whose tan is x. I explained this in Section 5.A.(i).
332 Differentiation
We start by saying that
dx
x = tan y so = sec2 y.
dy
Then we use the identity tan2 y + 1 = sec2 y to get sec2 y = x 2 + 1, so
dx dy 1
= x2 + 1 and =
dy dx x2 + 1
giving us the result
d 1
(tan–1 x) = 2
.
dx x +1
example (3) This example shows how we can apply the above result.
Suppose we need to find
d
(tan– 1 (2x + 3)).
dx
We don't need to do all the previous working again because 2x + 3 is
itself a function of x. Therefore we can just use the Chain Rule, putting
X = 2x + 3, and remembering that dy/dx = (dy/dX) (dX/dx). (See
Section 8.C.(a) if necessary.)
Here, we have
y = tan–1 (2x + 3) = tan–1 X and X = 2x + 3
so
dy 1 dX
= 2
and = 2.
dX X +1 dx
Therefore
dy 2 2 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
.
dx X +1 (2x + 3) + 1 4x + 12x + 10
In general, we can say that if y = tan– 1 (lump), and the lump is a
function of x, then
d 1 d
(tan– 1 (lump)) = 2
(lump).
dx (lump) + 1 dx
If you think of it this way, you will probably be able to write the answers down straight
away.
We get a particularly useful version of this if we put (lump) = x/a where a is a constant.
This gives us
d –1
x 1 1 a2 1 a
tan = = = .
dx a x 2/a 2 + 1 a x2 + a2 a x2 + a2
8.D The hyperbolic functions 333
This result is very useful for finding some particular kinds of integral, as we shall see in
Section 9.B.(d).
Exactly the same system can be used to differentiate inverse functions of other more
complicated functions.
So, for example, if we have sinh–1 (lump), then
d 1 d
(sinh–1 (lump)) = 2
(lump).
dx (lump) + 1 dx
In particular, if (lump) = x/a, we have
d x 1 1 a 1 1
sinh–1 = = = .
dx a x 2/a 2 + 1 a x2 + a2 a x2 + a2
I have tidied up the first fraction by multiplying it top and bottom by a, remembering that
a put inside a square root must be written a 2.
exercise 8.d.3 (1) By choosing suitable values for a, and using the pair of results
d a d 1
(tan–1 (x/a)) = and (sinh–1 (x/a)) = ,
dx 2
x +a 2
dx 2
x + a2
differentiate the following with respect to x.
x x 3x 2x
(a) tan–1 (b) sinh–1 (c) tan–1 (d) sinh–1
3 5 2 3
(2) Use the Chain Rule to differentiate the following with respect to x.
(a) tan– 1 (5x) (b) sinh–1 (3x) (c) tan–1 (x + 3) (d) tan–1 (3x + 4)
(e) tan– 1 (1 – x) (f ) sinh–1 (2x + 1) (g) sinh–1 (3 – 2x)
x+3 2x + 1 3x + 2
(h) tan– 1 (i) tan– 1 (j) tan– 1
4 3 4
d 1 1 1+x
(3) Show that (tanh– 1 x) = 2
using tanh–1 x = 2 ln .
dx 1–x 1–x
(4) Solve the equation 8 sinh x = 3 sech x.
(5) Find all the possible solutions of the following equations.
(a) 2 sinh2 x – 5 cosh x – 1 = 0 (b) 3 sech2 x + 8 tanh x – 7 = 0
8.E Some uses for differentiation
8.E.(a) Finding the equations of tangents to particular curves
In Section 8.C.(e), we found the gradient of two of the tangents to the curve
y = (x + 3)/(x – 2)
by using the Quotient Rule to find dy/dx for this curve.
Since dy/dx tells us the steepness or gradient of a curve at any given point on it, it makes
it possible for us to find the equation of the tangent to the curve at any point on it, provided
that this is a point where the curve has a tangent, and none of the problems of Section 8.A.(f)
exist.
334 Differentiation
Here are two examples of doing this.
example (1) Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = x 2 – 4x + 3 at the
two points (a) (5,8) and (b) (2, –1).
To find the gradients of the tangents we differentiate y = x 2 – 4x + 3 with respect to x
giving dy/dx = 2x – 4.
!
This gives us the rule to find the gradient of the tangent for any value of x.
It is not the equation of the tangent.
(a) When x = 5, dy/dx = 10 – 4 = 6 so m = 6 for the tangent at (5,8).
Using y – y1 = m(x – x1 ) for the equation of the tangent, from Section 2.B.(f),
we have y – 8 = 6(x – 5), so y = 6x – 22 is the equation of tangent (a).
(b) When x = 2, dy/dx = 0.
What is happening here? Try drawing your own sketch to show how this makes
sense.
If dy/dx = 0, the tangent is horizontal. This tangent is at the lowest point of the curve
y = x 2 – 4x + 3, and its equation is y = –1.
I show a sketch of the curve and these two tangents in Figure 8.E.1.
Figure 8.E.1
example (2) Find the equations of the tangents to the curve y = cos x when
(a) x = π/2, (b) x = π/6 and (c) x = π.
If y = cos x then dy/dx = – sin x so the gradient of tangent (a)
is – sin π/2 = – 1. It touches the curve y = cos x at the point
(π/2, 0) and its equation is y = –1(x – π/2) or y + x = π/2.
1
The gradient of tangent (b) is – sin π/6 = – 2.
(We found the sin, cos and tan of π/6, π/4, and π/3 (that is, 30°, 45°
and 60°), in Section 4.A.(g).)
Tangent (b) touches the curve y = cos x at (π/6, 3/2) and its
1
equation is y – 3/2 = – 2 (x – π/6) or 2y + x = π/6 + 3
1
or y = – 2 x+(π/12 + 3/2).
8.E Some uses for differentiation 335
This looks a little unfriendly, but it is not surprising that the equation of
a tangent to a cos curve should involve numbers like π and 3. The value
of π/12 + 3/2 is 1.13 to 2 d.p. and this agrees with the look of the y
intercept of tangent (b) on the graph sketch which I have drawn below.
The gradient of tangent (c) is – sin π = 0 so this tangent is
horizontal. Its equation is y = –1.
All three tangents are shown here in Figure 8.E.2.
Figure 8.E.2
exercise 8.e.1 Find the equations of the tangents to the curves
(1) y = e x at (a) x = 0 (b) x = 1 and (c) x = 2.
(2) y = tan x at (a) x = 0 and (b) x = π/4.
Draw sketches in each case to show these tangents.
Use one of the results which you have found in (1) to decide how many
solutions there are to the equations (i) x = e x and (ii) 3x = e x.
(3) There is something special about one of the tangents in Example (2) above
and one of the tangents to the curve y = tan x in question (2) in this exercise.
Can you spot what this special property is? There were examples of tangents
with this same property in the previous section, too.
8.E.(b) Finding turning points and points of inflection
A turning point on a curve with the equation y = f(x) is a point at which dy/dx = 0, or
f (x) = 0, writing the same thing in function notation. Turning points are also sometimes called
stationary points, and the values of f(x) where f (x) = 0 are called stationary values.
From the examples which we have just looked at in the previous section we can see that
it will be useful when sketching curves if we can find where the horizontal tangents are, that
is the points where dy/dx = 0. Finding the answer to this will not only help us to draw graph
sketches, but also to extract useful information about physical relationships. (For example,
in Section 2.D.(g), the horizontal tangent is at the point of the curve corresponding to the
highest point reached by the ball, so ds/dt = 0 at this point.)
Sometimes it is also helpful to know what the value of d 2y/dx 2 is for particular values of
x. d 2y/dx 2 means d/dx (dy/dx), so it tells us the rate of change of the rate of change with
respect to x. We used it, but with a different letter, in Section 8.A.(e) when we found d 2x/dt 2
for x = cos t.
336 Differentiation
To help you to understand the different possibilities, I have drawn sketches showing
interesting points on the curves of some simple functions in Figure 8.E.3. You should fill in
your own answers to the questions I have asked you in the table below the drawings.
Figure 8.E.3
dy dy dy2 dy2
Function Value of Is +, – or 0?
dx dx dx2 dx2
(a) y = x 2 at O 2x 0 2 +
(b) y = x 3 at O
(c) y = –x 2 at O
(d) y = tan x at O
(e) y = cos x
(i) at A
(ii) at B
(iii) at C
(iv) at D
(f) y = x 4 at O
8.E Some uses for differentiation 337
Now check your answers to this table. These are given at the back of the book as Table
8.E.2 after the answers to Exercise 8.E.1.
Next, go back to the curves in Figure 8.E.3 and look at what is happening to the steepness
of the curve either side of the marked point in each case, and try answering the following
questions.
(1) Is the slope positive or negative?
(2) Does this sign change as you move through the marked point?
(3) Is the steepness increasing or decreasing as you move through the marked
point?
(4) What happens to the sense of turn of the curve either side of the marked point?
(I have shown this with curved arrows.)
You may find that it helps you to think about what is happening here if you sketch in
some of your own tangents to the curves in my diagrams. (I'd suggest using pencil for this,
then you can do it more experimentally.)
It's important for your understanding here that you do try to answer these questions
yourself. Don't just skip to the next bit to get them answered for you.
Now, we'll look together at what the answers to the four questions above tell us.
We find that the points marked with letters (including the various points at the origin,
marked O in each diagram) fit into three different categories.
These are as follows:
(1) At O in diagrams (a) and (f), and at C in (e), we have what is called a local
minimum ('local' because sometimes curves may dip down below this value
somewhere else). At these points, the value of dy/dx is zero because the tangent to
the curve is horizontal. As we pass through these points, the slope of the tangents
changes from negative to positive as the value of x increases. The sense of turn
remains anticlockwise through these points.
(2) At O in diagram (c), and at A in (e) we have what is called a local maximum.
Again, the value of dy/dx is zero at these points. As we pass through these points,
the slope of the tangents changes from positive to negative as the value of x
increases. The sense of turn remains clockwise through these points.
(1) and (2) give the result that
dy
= 0 at any local maximum or minimum.
dx
(3) At O in diagrams (b) and (d), and at B and D in diagram (e), we have points where
the curve flexes itself. These are called points of inflection. The tangent to each
curve at these points crosses the curve there, and the sense of turn changes. At O
in (b) and (d), and at B in (e), it changes from clockwise to anticlockwise, and at
D in (e) it changes from anticlockwise to clockwise.
338 Differentiation
O in (b) is the only one of these points where we also have dy/dx = 0.
Either side of each of these points the slope of the tangents remains either
positive or negative. In the first three cases, the slopes of the tangents first become
flatter as we approach the point and then steeper again once we are through it. This
means that the slope itself has a local minimum at the point concerned. In other
words, d/dx (dy/dx) = d 2y/dx 2 = 0 at each of these points.
In the fourth case, of curve (e) at D, the slope becomes steeper as we approach
D, and then less steep once we have passed D, so this slope has a local maximum
at D. Again, d 2y/dx 2 = 0.
If you find d 2y/dx 2 for the other examples we have met of tangents crossing
curves, you'll see that it is also zero at these points. (You could check for yourself
with y = sin x, y = sinh x and y = tanh x, all at the origin.)
d2y
= 0 at any point of inflection
dx 2
We have seen that d 2y/dx 2 = 0 at any point of inflection.
What will happen to the value of d 2y/dx 2 at a local maximum or minimum?
At each of the local maximum points from (c) and (e), the slope of the curve goes from
positive to negative, so the change in the slope is negative.
In both cases, d 2y/dx 2 is negative at the maximum point.
At the two local minimum points of (a) and (e), the slope of the curve goes from negative
to positive, so the change in the slope is positive.
In both cases, d 2y/dx 2 is positive at the minimum point.
The case of the local minimum in (f) works out a little differently. The slope of the
curve goes from negative to positive, and its rate of change is positive except at the point
O itself.
We have d 2y/dx 2 = 12x 2 = 0 at the point O, although it is positive either side of O.
At O itself, the curve is very blunt because it has its four roots of x = 0 all bunched
together here. This has the effect of making the rate of change of dy/dx at this point (that
is, d 2y/dx 2 ) equal to zero. This effect, which will happen whenever a curve is blunt like
this, makes the rules for testing for maximum and minimum points slightly more
complicated, because it is only sometimes possible to use the sign of d 2y/dx 2 to test which
we've got.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 339
Here is a summary of the above results, so that we can use them to find out how particular
curves will behave.
Finding and classifying turning points and points of inflection
For a point to be a local maximum, dy/dx must be equal to zero. Then use either
Test (1): the gradients of the tangents move through the point in the sequence
+ 0 –, so test the value of dy/dx either side of this point,
or
Test (2): if the value of d 2y/dx 2 is negative at this point, then it is a local
maximum, but if d 2y/dx 2 = 0 then Test (1) must be used.
For a point to be a local minimum, dy/dx must be equal to zero. Then use either
Test (1): the gradients of the tangents move through the point in the sequence
– 0 +, so test the value of dy/dx either side of this point,
or
Test (2): if the value of d 2y/dx 2 is positive at this point, then it is a local
minimum, but if d 2y/dx 2 = 0 then Test (1) must be used.
For a point of inflection,
(1) the value of dy/dx does not change sign as it moves through the point (it may
or may not be equal to zero at the point itself),
and
(2) the value of d 2y/dx 2 at the point must be equal to zero.
8.E.(c) General rules for sketching curves
The tests outlined in this previous section give us useful extra information which we can use
for sketching graphs.
I have already listed informally the other questions which we need to answer in order to
draw a graph sketch in Section 3.B.(i) where we sketched y = (x + 3)/(x – 2). You should look
back at how we built up this sketch before going on.
Now that we can include finding the turning points, I can give you a complete summary
of the questions which you need to answer in order to sketch a curve.
For convenience, I will call this curve y = f(x) but, of course, other letters can be
used.
340 Differentiation
Questions to answer in order to draw a graph sketch
(1) Does the curve cut the y-axis? If so, where? (Try putting x = 0.)
(2) Does the curve cut the x-axis? If so where?
(This is the same as asking if the equation f(x) = 0 has any roots on the
x-axis.)
(3) Are there any values of x which have to be excluded because they would mean
trying to divide by zero?
If so, what are they? (Such values of x will give you vertical asymptotes.
An asymptote is a line which the curve of the graph of the function becomes
closer and closer to.)
What happens to the values of f(x) for values of x just either side of the
forbidden values?
(4) What happens to the values of f(x) when x takes very large positive or
negative values?
(If it gets closer and closer to some fixed limit then this will give you a
horizontal asymptote.)
(5) Are there any turning points? (That is, are there any values of x for which
f (x) or dy/dx = 0?) If so, what are they?
You will need to find the value of f(x) (the stationary value) for each of
these values of x.
Test each turning point to find whether it is a local maximum, local minimum
or point of inflection. (The tests for this are at the end of the previous section.)
You don't usually need to find points of inflection where dy/dx ≠ 0 unless you
are specifically asked to do so.
An example to show these tests in action
We'll draw a sketch of
x–5
y = f(x) = ,
x2 – 9
so we go through answering each of the questions in the list above in turn.
5 5
(1) Putting x = 0 gives f(0) = 9 so the curve y = f(x) cuts the y-axis at the point (0, 9 ).
(2) f(x) = 0 if x – 5 = 0 so if x = 5.
The curve y = f(x) cuts the x-axis at (5,0).
(3) Any value of x which makes x 2 – 9 = 0 must be excluded.
x 2 – 9 = (x + 3) (x – 3) so we can't have x = –3 or x = 3.
The lines x = –3 and x = 3 are vertical asympotes of y = f(x).
Testing with nearby values of x, using a calculator, gives:
The value of f(x) is large and negative if x is just less than –3.
The value of f(x) is large and positive if x is just greater than –3.
The value of f(x) is large and positive if x is just less than +3.
The value of f(x) is large and negative if x is just greater than +3.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 341
(4) The easiest way to see what will happen to y = f(x) = (x – 5)/(x 2 – 9) if x takes very
large positive values, is to divide the top and bottom of the fraction by x 2. This
gives us
x–5 1/x – 5/x 2
y= = .
x2 – 9 1 – 9/x 2
Now, as x becomes very large, each of 1/x, –5/x 2 and –9/x 2 becomes very
small.
We can say that, as x → , each of 1/x, –5/x 2, and –9/x 2 → 0.
0
So we will have y → 1 or 0 as x → .
Exactly the same thing happens for large negative values of x, so the line y = 0
(which is the x-axis – be careful here!) is also an asymptote.
Check with some large values of x on your calculator that the value of y really
is getting close to zero.
You could also look at what is happening entirely experimentally by using your
calculator, but you might then be left with a sneaky feeling that perhaps the curve
does some strange unforeseen wiggle which your calculator hasn't revealed.
Remember that you can't ever prove what a curve will do by testing with numerical
values, but you can certainly prove that it won't do something. It is always wise to
check your ideas of what it does do.
A mistake which students quite often make when graph-sketching is to work
out exact values for some very boring bit of the curve which is almost a straight
line. Then they think that the whole thing is probably a straight line, so getting a
total disaster. The method I have given you here shows you how to find all the
interesting bits.
(5) Differentiating y = f(x), using the Quotient Rule, we get
dy (x 2 – 9)(1) – (x – 5)(2x) 10x – x 2 – 9
= f (x) = =
dx (x 2 – 9)2 (x 2 – 9)2
dy
so =0 if 10x – x 2 – 9 = 0 or x 2 – 10x + 9 = 0.
dx
Factorising gives (x – 1) (x – 9) = 0 so x = 1 or x = 9 for the stationary values.
(You could also find these by using the quadratic formula to solve the
1 4 1
equation.) The two stationary values are f(1) = 2 and f(9) = 72 = 18, so the
1 1
turning points are (1, 2 ) and (9, 18 ).
!
Remember that these turning points are points on the original curve, so that to
find them you must substitute the two values of x which give them into the
equation of the original curve.
Now we want to know whether there are local maximum or minimum points on the
curve.
Finding d 2y/dx 2 is not a pleasant prospect here, so we look at the values of dy/dx or
f (x) either side of x = 1 and x = 9.
342 Differentiation
1
Passing through x = 1, the sequence goes – 0 + giving a local minimum of f(1) = 2. You
can show this here by choosing, say, x = 0 and x = 2 and substituting these values into the
1 7
expression which we have found for dy/dx. These particular values give – 9 and 25,
confirming the sequence of – 0 +.
Similarly, passing through x = 9, the sequence goes + 0 – giving a local maximum
1
of f(9) = 18.
Notice that the value of the local minimum is actually greater than the value of the local
maximum for this curve.
We now have all the information we need to draw the graph sketch. I show this in Figure
8.E.4.
Figure 8.E.4
exercise 8.e.2 Now try sketching the graphs of the following functions yourself.
Students often find graph-sketching difficult, but if you answer all the
questions in my list for each curve, you should find that you can draw the
sketches successfully. You will also understand why the curve behaves as it does,
which won't be the case if you just use a graph-sketching calculator.
x–1 x
(a) y = f(x) = 2
(b) y = g(x) = (c) y = h(x) = x + 4/x
x –4 1 + x2
9
(d) y = p(x) = x – (e) y = f(x) = x 2 e x
x
8.E.(d) Some practical uses of turning points
Being able to find the turning points of a function can have much wider implications than
just making it easier to sketch its graph. In particular, it gives us a method of answering
many practical questions.
Since most of the examples we shall look at together in this section involve the
volumes and surface areas of solid shapes, I am putting in a table here to give some of
these.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 343
A summary of volumes and surface areas of the commonest solids
The four solids are shown in Figure 8.E.5.
Figure 8.E.5
In each formula, V stands for volume and A stands for surface area.
(1) For a closed rectangular box, V = lbh and A = 2lb + 2bh + 2lh.
(2) For a closed cylinder, V = πr 2h and A = 2πr 2 + 2πrh.
1
(3) For a cone, including its base, V = 3πr 2h and A = πrl + πr 2.
4
(4) For a sphere, V = 3πr 3 and A = 4πr 2
A volume must always involve three lengths multiplied together. A surface
note
area must always involve two lengths multiplied together. If you find that
you have an equation for which this isn't true, go back and recheck!
Something has gone wrong somewhere.
example (1) This is typical of the sort of problem which we can now solve. It comes
in two parts.
(a) A manufacturer wishes to construct a metal can to hold a given
volume of liquid. If the can is made entirely of the same thickness
of metal, what is the best ratio of the height of the can to its radius
so that the least amount of metal is used?
(b) To make the construction more rigid, it is decided that it will be
necessary to use a double thickness of metal for the top and bottom
of the can. In order to keep the cost of production to a minimum,
what dimensions should the can now have? Give the answer again in
the form of the best ratio of its height to its radius.
(a) We start by drawing a sketch of the can (which I have done in
Figure 8.E.6, giving it a height of h and a radius of r).
Next, we label the other quantities we shall need to deal with.
,
Let the volume be V the area be A, and the ratio of h/r be x.
344 Differentiation
Figure 8.E.6
Since the can is being made to hold a given quantity of liquid, we
know that V is a fixed quantity. We have V = πr 2 h, and h/r = x, so
V
V = πr 3x and x= .
πr 3
The surface area, A, is made up of the two circular ends of the can
and its curved surface, which would unroll to give a rectangle.
This gives us A = 2πr 2 + 2πrh.
At present, we only know how to differentiate functions with one
variable, but the expression which we have for A involves the two
variables, r and h.
However, we know that the fixed quantity V = πr 2h, so h = V/πr 2.
Substituting this for h gives us
V 2V
A = 2πr 2 + 2πr = 2πr 2 + .
πr 2 r
We've now got A described entirely in terms of the one variable, r.
Since we want a minimum value of A, what should we do next?
We should find dA/dr, and look for values of r which make it equal
to zero. We get:
dA 2V V
= 4πr – =0 if πr 3 =
dr r2 2
so the ratio
h V
=x= = 2.
r V/2
(Remember when you differentiate that both π and V are constants.)
Now we check for certain that this gives a minimum value for A. We
get
d 2A 4V
= 4π +
dr 2 r3
which is positive since the value for r which we have found is positive.
Therefore, we have found the ratio which gives a minimum value for A.
We have found that the surface area is smallest when the radius of
the cylinder is half its height. This means that the vertical cross-section
through the central axis will be a square.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 345
(b) Now that the two ends of the can are to be made from a double
thickness of metal, it seems likely that we should make the can taller
and thinner in order to minimise the amount of metal we use. We will
assume that a double thickness costs twice as much, and take the cost
per unit area of the curved sides of the can to be c. Then the metal in
the two ends will cost 2c per unit area, and we will call the total cost of
the can C.
V and x will have the same equations as before but we will now have
2V
C = 4πr 2 c + 2πrhc = 4πr 2 + c
r
so
dC 2V V
= 8πr – 2 c = 0 if πr 3 = so x = 4.
dr r 4
In the same way as before, this gives a minimum for the cost, so we
have found that the height should now be four times the radius.
We can see how this pair of answers might work out numerically by
taking the particular case of a half-litre can. This makes V = 500 cubic
centimetres.
Then, in case (a) where h = 2r we have 500 = 2πr 3 so r = 4.30 cm
to 2 d.p. and h = 8.60 cm to 2 d.p.
In case (b) where h = 4r we have 500 = 4πr 3 so r = 3.41 cm to 2
d.p. and h = 13.66 cm to 2 d.p.
example (2) What is the volume of the largest cylinder which can be placed inside a
cone of fixed height H and radius R so that it just touches it inside, as I
show in Figure 8.E.7(a)? Is it possible to fill in more than half the space
inside this cone with such a cylinder?
We can see that the possible shape of the cylinder can vary between
a sort of thin pencil to a flat biscuit. The largest possible size will occur
somewhere between these two extremes.
I will call the height of the cylinder h and its radius r.
Then its volume V is given by V = πr 2h and we have to find the
largest possible value of V (which will be in terms of R and H, the
radius and height of the cone), as r and h vary.
Figure 8.E.7
346 Differentiation
Since, at present, we can only differentiate functions with one
variable, we must somehow use the physical relationship of the cone to
the cylinder to find h in terms of r. To see how we can do this, we take
a vertical cross-section along the joint axis of the cone and cylinder
which gives us Figure 8.E.7(b).
We can now use the two similar triangles, ABC and ADE. These
triangles nest into each other, so their sides are in the same proportion.
Therefore
BC AB r H–h
= so =
DE AD R H
so rH = RH – Rh and Rh = RH – rH = H(R – r).
Therefore
H(R – r)
h= .
R
Substituting this for h in the equation V = πr 2h we get
πr 2H(R – r) πHr 3
V= = πHr – 2
.
R R
We can now find dV/dr (remembering that π, H and R are all
constants). We get
dV 3πHr 2 3r
= 2πHr – = πHr 2 – .
dr R R
To find the maximum V, we put dV/dr = 0. Now
3r 3r 2R
πHr 2 – =0 if r=0 or =2 so r= .
R R 3
We can see physically that r = 0 gives us the minimum value of zero for V.
Also, d 2V/dr 2 is negative if r = 2R/3. (Check this for yourself.)
Therefore, this value of r gives us the maximum volume.
How high will this cylinder be? We have
H(R – r) H (R – 2R/3) H
h= = =
R R 3
so it is one third of the height of the cone.
The volume of this cylinder is
2R 2 H 4πR 2 H
π = .
3 3 27
1
The volume of the cone is 3πR 2 H so the proportion of it which is filled by
4 1 4
this largest possible cylinder is ( 27 ) ( 3 ) = 9, that is, less than half of it.
exercise 8.e.3 Try these for yourself.
(1) What is the maximum volume of a square-based open box made by cutting
squares from the corners of a square piece of cardboard with sides 10 cm long,
and then bending up the sides. I'm assuming here that the sides will then be
taped together – you don't have to make allowances for overlap.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 347
(2) What are the dimensions of the largest cylinder which can be placed inside a
sphere of fixed radius R so that its two ends just touch the sphere? Is it
possible to fill more than half of the interior of the sphere this way?
(3) What is the maximum distance from the origin of a particle moving on the x-axis
so that its distance from O is given by the equation x = 3 cos t + 4 sin t?
Before rushing into differentiating here, have a think about how else you
could write 3 cos t + 4 sin t. (Look back at Section 5.D.(f ) if necessary.)
8.E.(e) A clever use for tangents – the Newton–Raphson Rule
This is an ingenious application of the properties of tangents which makes it possible to find
closer and closer approximations to the roots of equations which are too difficult to solve
exactly. (In the United States, the credit for this method is usually given entirely to Isaac
Newton and it is called Newton's method.)
First, I'll explain graphically how it works.
Suppose you have some equation f(x) = 0 which you want to solve, so you want to find
as accurately as possible the point where the curve y = f(x) crosses the x-axis. It may, of
course, do this more than once, but we will look at just one crossing point, where x = a,
say.
In order to start the Newton–Raphson process, we need to have some idea of where a is.
Suppose that by some ingenious method we have been able to find that x = x1 is a value close
to a. Figure 8.E.8(a) shows the curve of f(x) near a and x1 .
Figure 8.E.8
Then, if the curve really looks like my drawing, the tangent to the curve at x = x1 will cut
the x-axis at a point x2 which is closer to the true root a than x1 was.
How can we find out what x2 is, from knowing what y = f(x) and x1 are?
The point P has coordinates (x1 , y1 ), or (x1 , f(x1 )), so we do know some
measurements.
From Figure 8.E.8(b) we can say that the gradient of the tangent at P is f(x1 )/(x1 – x2 ).
But the gradient of any tangent is also given by dy/dx or f (x) at the point concerned. This
means that we know that the gradient of this particular tangent is f (x1 ). (Using f here
instead of dy/dx is very handy as it makes it easier for us to talk about particular gradients.)
We can now say that
f(x1 )
f (x1 ) = .
x1 – x2
348 Differentiation
Next, we need to rearrange this to give us a rule for finding x2 . We get
f(x1 )
(x1 – x2 ) f (x1 ) = f(x1 ) so x1 – x 2 = .
f (x1 )
This gives us
The Newton–Raphson Rule
f(x1 )
x2 = x1 –
f (x1 )
(One of my students gave me a handy way of remembering which way round the last bit
goes. She said 'dashed goes down'.)
If x1 is close to the root x = a, and if the curve is not too wiggly or behaving in other
unexpected ways, then x2 will be closer to a than x1 was. (Sorting out these 'ifs' is what the
subject of mathematical analysis does. It makes it possible to get results like this by
analysing just what properties the curve must have near x = a for the method to work. For
example, we certainly won't want any of the complications described in Section 8.A.(f).)
Having found x2 , we can then repeat the process to get an even better approximation of
x3 to a, and so on, until we have as many decimal places of accuracy as we require.
Next, we will look at how this process works taking some particular examples.
example (1) For my first example, I will take an equation that we can solve exactly,
so that you will be able to see how this process actually gives the right
answer.
Suppose f(x) = x 3 + x 2 – 9x – 9 = (x – 3) (x + 1) (x + 3) so f (x) =
3x 2 + 2x – 9.
I show a picture of f(x) in Figure 8.E.9.
We can see from the factorisation that one of the roots of f(x) = 0 is
x = 3.
We'll take x = 4 as a starting value, and see if the Newton–Raphson
process takes us towards the true root of x = 3. We have
f(x1 ) f(4) 35
x 2 = x1 – =4– = 4 – 47 = 3.26 to 2 d.p.
f (x1 ) f (4)
Figure 8.E.9
8.E Some uses for differentiation 349
f(3.26)
x3 = 3.26 – = 3.024 to 3 d.p. Check this for yourself.
f (3.26)
f(3.024)
x4 = 3.024 – = 3.000 to 3 d.p. Check this one, too.
f (3.024)
In this particular example, the process is working beautifully, and you
can see the successive answers homing in on x = 3.
If we hadn't known where the roots were, we could have used the
changes in sign of f(x) to show us where to look.
Working out some values gives us f(4) = 35, f(2) = – 15, f(0) = – 9,
f(–2) = 5 and f(–4) = – 21.
Looking at the picture of Figure 8.E.9, you can see the sign changing
either side of each root, as the curve crosses the x-axis.
Have we made a brilliant discovery here?
Will we always be able to use this system to find an interval in
which a root must lie? Try deciding for yourself whether the following
two statements are true.
S TATEMENT (1) If f(x) = 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 23x + 12 then f(0) = 12 and f(2) = 30.
Therefore there is no root between x = 0 and x = 2.
(x + 3)
S TATEMENT (2) If f(x) = then f(1) = – 4 and f(3) = 6.
(x – 2)
Therefore f(x) has a root between x = 1 and x = 3.
If you don't agree with these statements, see if you can work out what is really
happening.
Everything you need to be able to do this has already come in this book.
We can see what is really happening in the first case by using the methods of Section
2.E.(a).
We have f(x) = 5x 3 + 6x 2 – 23x + 12, and f(1) = 0, so immediately we know that
statement (1) is false.
What is actually going on?
Since f(1) = 0, we know that (x – 1) is a factor of f(x).
Matching up the end terms gives us
5x 3 + 6x 2 – 23x + 12 = (x – 1) (5x 2 + px – 12).
Matching the terms in x 2 gives us
6x 2 = –5x 2 + px 2 so p = 11.
Now we have
f(x) = (x – 1) (5x 2 + 11x – 12) = (x – 1) (5x – 4)(x + 3).
4
This means that the roots of f(x) = 0 are x = 1, x = 5 and x = –3.
There are two roots in the interval from x = 0 to x = 2. I show a sketch of y = f(x) in
Figure 8.E.10.
350 Differentiation
Figure 8.E.10
4
We would only see the sign change for the roots x = 5 and x = 1 by taking a value between
them. Check for yourself that choosing such a value does make f(x) come out negative.
Statement (2) is wrong for quite a different reason. We drew a picture of this function in
Section 3.B.(i). The sign change here doesn't mean that f(x) has crossed the x-axis between
x = 1 and x = 3. The curve has a jump or discontinuity when x = 2 and gets to the other side
of the x-axis this way.
The two examples above give us two useful rules to remember when looking for
roots.
Rules for using a sign change when looking for roots
(1) If f(x1 ) and f(x2 ) have different signs, there must be at least one root between
x1 and x2 provided that f(x) is continuous from x1 to x2 .
(2) If f(x) is continuous, then a sign-change tells us that there is an odd number of
roots in the interval.
You can think of 'continuous' here as meaning that f(x) can be drawn with a continuous
straight line. The subtle mathematical non-pictorial meaning of this word is described in
courses on mathematical analysis.
Obviously too, in order to be able to use the Newton–Raphson method, we must be able
to differentiate f(x). It mustn't have any of the problems which were described in Section
8.A.(f), in the part where we are working.
example (2) Next, we'll use the Newton–Raphson method to find all the roots of
1
(a) tanh x = 2x and (b) tanh x = 2 x.
How many will there be? Will it be the same number for both (a)
and (b)?
Try sketching what you think will happen, using Section 8.D.(g) if
you need to.
8.E Some uses for differentiation 351
We found in Section 8.D.(g) that y = x is the tangent to y = tanh x at the
origin because d/dx (tanh x) = sech2 x and sech2 (0) = 1.
We can see from this, and from the shape of y = tanh x, that y = 2x will
cut y = tanh x only once, at the origin, so x = 0 is the only solution of (a).
I show a picture of this in Figure 8.E.11.
Figure 8.E.11
1
y = 2 x will cut y = tanh x three times, once at the origin and also at
two other points symmetrically placed either side of the origin because
y = tanh x is odd. (Turn it upside down and it looks the same.) So we just
have one solution to find.
We want the value of x on the right-hand side of the graph for which
1 1
tanh x = 2 x so tanh x – 2 x = 0.
1
We let f(x) = tanh x – 2 x and look for the solution here of f(x) = 0.
1
From the sketch we can see that if x < a then tanh x > 2 x. It looks as
though a may be quite close to 2.
f(2) = – 0.036 to 3 d.p. so the root is to the left of this.
f(1.9) = 0.006 to 3 d.p. The change in sign confirms that the root
lies between 1.9 and 2, since f(x) is continuous.
Since f(1.9) is closer to zero, we'll start with x1 = 1.9.
1 1
We have f(x) = tanh x – 2 x and f (x) = sech2 x – 2. This gives us
0.006237
x2 = 1.9 – = 1.915 to 3 d.p.
–0.414390
3.354578 10–6
x3 = 1.915 – = 1.915 to 3 d.p.
– 0.416813
1
The three solutions of tanh x = 2 x are x = –1.915, x = 0 and x = 1.915,
correct to 3 d.p.
example (3) Show, by drawing a sketch, that sin x = 3 – 2x has just one solution.
Find this solution correct to 3 d.p.
See how far you can get with this one yourself before you look at
my solution.
352 Differentiation
!
You must work in radians here, so set your calculator in radian mode.
We want to solve sin x = 3 – 2x which is the same as
sin x – 3 + 2x = 0.
We let f(x) = sin x – 3 + 2x so f (x) = cos x + 2.
We can see from the sketch of Figure 8.E.12 that the root is less than
3
2. It also looks as though it could be greater than 1.
Figure 8.E.12
f(1) = –0.159 and f(1.5) = 0.997 so there is a root between x = 1 and
x = 1.5 since f(x) is continuous.
Since f(1) is closer to zero, we'll start with x1 = 1. This gives us
–0.159
x2 = x1 – = 1.063.
2.540
–1.81829 10–4
x3 = 1.063 – = 1.063 to 3 d.p.
2.48625
so the solution is x = 1.063 radians correct to 3 d.p.
exercise 8.e.4 For each of the following, draw a sketch to help you decide where the roots of the
following equations might lie, and then use the Newton–Raphson process to find
these roots correct to 3 d.p.
1
(1) 2x 3 – 3x 2 + 6x + 1 = 0 (2) e x = 3 – x, (3) (a) sinh x = 2 x (b) sinh x = 2x
8.F Implicit differentiation
8.F.(a) How implicit differentiation works, using circles as examples
How could we find the rate of change of y with respect to x if we have a relation between
them which does not give y described in terms of x? Let's look at two examples.
example (1) Suppose we are given the equation x 2 + y 2 = 25.
This is the equation of the circle whose centre is at the origin and
whose radius is five units. (See Section 4.C.(d) if necessary.)
8.F Implicit differentiation 353
The relationship here between x and y is called implicit, because we
don't have it in the form of y given as some expression in x.
We can easily draw a sketch of this circle, and we can see how steep the
curve looks at any point on it by sketching the tangent at that point.
(Indeed, we can actually find this slope, using the property of the tangent
being perpendicular to the radius, as we did in Section 4.C.(f).)
But how can we find dy/dx for this circle? Developing a technique to do
this will make it possible for us to find dy/dx for other curves where we
have no alternative method of finding the gradient.
One possibility would be to start by rearranging its equation so that we
have y 2 = 25 – x 2.
What is y? Can you see a possible complication here?
We have y = ± 25 – x 2. This is not a function because there are two
possible values of y for each possible value of x. These possible values of x
lie between –5 and +5 inclusive.
We can see exactly what is happening in Figure 8.F.1.
Figure 8.F.1
The equation y = + 25 – x 2 gives the top half of the circle.
The equation y = – 25 – x 2 gives the bottom half of the circle, and each
of these are functions.
Differentiating these square roots would not be very pleasant. We
therefore argue that it would seem reasonable to go through the equation
x 2 + y 2 = 25 differentiating it term by term with respect to x in just the
same way that we differentiated the equation y = x 2 – 4x + 3 term by term
to give dy/dx = 2x – 4 in Section 8.E.(a).
(The equation y = x 2 – 4x + 3 gives y explicitly in terms of x.)
The problem that we have with this new equation is that we shall need to
differentiate y 2 with respect to x.
We can do this by using the Chain Rule. We know that y 2 differentiated
with respect to y is 2y, and we then multiply this answer by dy/dx.
We are saying that
d d dy dy
(y 2 ) = (y 2 ) = 2y .
dx dy dx dx
354 Differentiation
Now, differentiating x 2 + y 2 = 25 term by term with respect to x gives us
dy dy dy x
2x + 2y =0 so 2y = –2x and =– .
dx dx dx y
How does this result fit in with the particular examples shown on Figure
8.F.1?
4
At the point (4,3), dy/dx = – 3.
This agrees with what we know the gradient of the tangent here must be,
3
because the gradient of the radius to this point is 4. The tangent is
4
perpendicular to the radius so its gradient is – 3. (This uses m1 m2 = –1 from
Section 2.B.(h).)
In fact, at any point on this circle with coordinates (x, y), the gradient of
the radius is y/x and the gradient of the tangent is – x/y. We can see here that
geometry and calculus both give us the same result.
This extends to special cases like the gradient at the point (0, –5) which is
zero, and the gradient at the point (–5, 0) where dy/dx is undefined. Clearly
from the diagram this must be so, because the tangent here is vertical.
example (2) Suppose this time that we want to find dy/dx for the implicit equation
x 2 – 6x + y 2 – 4y = 12.
What kind of curve does this give?
This equation can be written in the form (x – 3)2 + (y – 2)2 = 25.
It describes the circle whose centre is at (3,2) and whose radius is 5 units.
We drew this particular circle in Section 4.C.(f) and found the gradients
and equations of some of its tangents. This will help us now to see what is
happening geometrically, and so to be able to make sense of some of the
answers which we get by calculus.
To find dy/dx for this circle we again differentiate its equation term by
term, remembering that y differentiated with repect to x is simply dy/dx. We
get
dy dy
2x – 6 + 2y –4 = 0.
dx dx
!
Remember that differentiating a number gives zero, so d/dx (12) = 0. It doesn't
change so its rate of change is zero.
Tidying up gives
dy dy 6 – 2x 3–x
(2y – 4) = 6 – 2x so = =
dx dx 2y – 4 y–2
dividing top and bottom of this fraction by 2. Always simplify when you can.
We can now see how this ties in with the gradients of the four tangents
which we already found for this particular circle in Section 4.C.(f).
The points of contact of these tangents are (7,5), (–1, –1), (3,7) and (8,2).
Try using dy/dx yourself here to find the gradients of these four tangents.
Use Figure 4.C.11 in Section 4.C.(f) to sort out what is happening if some of
your results seem rather curious.
8.F Implicit differentiation 355
Substituting in these pairs of values for x and y in turn, we get
dy 4 dy 4
at (7,5) is – 3 and at (–1, –1) is also – 3 .
dx dx
(We can see that this is right on Figure 4.C.11. The gradients of the two
3
radii to the points of contact are both 4.)
dy/dx at (3,7) is zero and the tangent there is horizontal.
!
When you find that the gradient of the tangent at the point (8,2) is dy/dx = –5/0,
don't be tempted to cross your fingers and say that this is zero as many students
do! dy/dx at (8,2) is undefined because the tangent is vertical.
Using Figure 4.C.11 we have seen geometrically that the answers which
we have found by differentiating do make sense.
Also, from this same diagram, we can see that the gradient of the radius to
the point (x, y) on this circle is (y – 2)/(x – 3).
Therefore, using m1 m2 = –1, the gradient of the tangent at this point is
x–3 3–x
– =
y–2 y–2
which is exactly what we get by differentiating.
exercise 8.f.1 Find dy/dx for the circle whose equation is
x 2 + 16x + y 2 – 4y – 101 = 0.
Use this result to find the gradient of the tangents to this circle at the four
points with coordinates (4, –3), (–3, 14), (–8, –11) and (–21, 2).
Draw a sketch of this circle showing these four tangents.
Check your results with the answers to Exercise 4.C.3 which find these same
gradients without differentiating.
8.F.(b) Using implicit differentiation with more complicated relationships
What will we do if we have a curve whose equation has a term with x and y multiplied
together? Let's look at an example.
example (1) Suppose we have the equation 2x 2 + xy – y 2 = 5.
In order to differentiate xy with respect to x we use the Product Rule
because we have the two variables x and y multiplied together. (See
Section 8.C.(d) if necessary.)
This gives us
d dy dy
(xy) = y(1) + x =y+x .
dx dx dx
So differentiating 2x 2 + xy – y 2 = 5 with respect to x gives
dy dy
4x + y + x – 2y = 0.
dx dx
356 Differentiation
So
dy dy –4x – y 4x + y
(x – 2y) = –4x – y or = ,=
dx dx x – 2y 2y – x
multiplying top and bottom of the fraction by –1 to make it easier to handle.
11
At the point (2,3) on this curve, (check that it is!), we have dy/dx = 4
giving the slope of the tangent here, and therefore the gradient of the
curve at this point.
We can find the equation of this tangent using y – y1 = m(x – x1 )
11
from Section 2.B.(f). It is y – 3 = 4 (x – 2) or 4y = 11x – 10.
As students sometimes find this process slightly tricky, I shall give you another example
which needs the use of the Product Rule.
example (2) Find dy/dx for the equation 2x 3 – 3x 2y + 5xy 2 + 2y 3 = 6 and hence find
the gradient of the tangent at the point (1,1).
I think it is easier if you take the numbers outside as factors for the
terms involving the Product Rule, particularly if they are negative, as it
is easy to lose one of the minus signs otherwise.
I shall start by showing the equation split up in a working sort of
way as follows:
2x 3 – 3([x 2] [y]) + 5 ([x] [y 2]) + 2y 3 = 6.
Now, differentiating all through with respect to x we get
dy
6x 2 – 3([y] [2x] + [x 2] [dy/dx]) + 5([y 2] [1] + [x] [2y dy/dx]) + 6y 2 = 0.
dx
Tidying up, we get
dy dy dy
6x 2 – 6xy – 3x 2 + 5y 2 + 10xy + 6y 2 =0
dx dx dx
so
dy
(6y 2 + 10xy – 3x 2 ) = 6xy – 5y 2 – 6x 2
dx
dy 6xy – 5y 2 – 6x 2
= .
dx 6y 2 + 10xy – 3x 2
The slope of the tangent at the point (1,1), i.e. the gradient of the curve
at that point, is given by
dy 6–5–6 5
= =– .
dx 6 + 10 – 3 13
Try this similar example for yourself now.
example (3) Find dy/dx for the curve given by the equation 3x 3 + 7x 2y – 3xy 2 + 2y 3 = 21.
Hence find the gradient of the tangent at the point (1, 2) on this curve.
!
Make sure that you haven't started off your answer with 'dy/dx =' because this
is not at all what you mean.
8.F Implicit differentiation 357
What you are doing here is differentiating the whole expression with
respect to x, so your answer should only start with 'dy/dx =' if the
original equation starts in the form 'y ='.
Setting out the given equation in a working sort of way as I did in the
last example gives
3x 3 + 7 ([x 2][y]) – 3 ([x][y 2]) + 2y 3 = 21.
(You don't have to do this step, but if you are at all unsure about
keeping track of where you are then I think it will help you.)
Differentiating this expression term by term with respect to x gives
dy dy dy
9x 2 + 7 |
Edexcel GCSE Modular Mathematics Higher Unit 3
Edexcel GCSE Mathematics - The teacher's choice. We've worked closely with Edexcel for many years to provide resources that you know and trust, which ...Show synopsisEdexcel GCSE Mathematics - The teacher's choice. We've worked closely with Edexcel for many years to provide resources that you know and trust, which is why you can be confident our endorsed Edexcel GCSE Mathematics course is the best solution for the two-tier specification. Each Student Book is delivered in colour giving clarity to different concepts through artwork and diagrams. Worked examples, practice exercises and examiners tips ensure students are fully prepared for their exams. An experienced author team, including Senior Examiners, means you can trust that the specification is covered to ensure exam success.Hide synopsis Edexcel GCSE Mathematics for 2006.. Full |
Search ResultsMathematics for A- and AS level is a series of three texts designed for use with any advanced level maths course. The texts are combinations of individual units from the highly successful SMP 16 19 Mathematics course. The material has been arranged for ease of use in a variety of learning…
Finally... She's written The Book on Dragons. Anne McCaffrey is as renowned for her knowledge of dragons as she is for her New York Times bestselling novels. In this beautifully designed hardcover, McCaffrey focuses her attention on the fantastical creature's existence throughout history.…
Cover all the basics with this complete resource for drawing media, techniques, subjects, history, and aesthetics. Comprehensive content allows you to focus on individual media, specific subjects or both.
Bank closings, soup kitchens, bread lines, unemployed workers begging for work--these images defined the 1930s and ''40s in America. For African Americans the era was a study in contrasts: black workers had the highest unemployment rate at a time when black leaders held important positions inFully updated with accounts of recent research and developments, this book looks at psychology within recognizable everyday situations, introducing some of the fundamental ideas and controversies in psychology.
SMP 11-16 is a mathematics course for secondary schools which emphasises the relationship between mathematics and the world around us. These are the worksheets for Books A4, A5 and A6 in the Amber series. The Amber series is for those pupils who find the Green series too difficult, although it is… |
ISBN13:978-0618247509 ISBN10: 0618247505 This edition has also been released as: ISBN13: 978-0030256714 ISBN10: 0030256712
Summary: Ostebee and Zorn provide concrete strategies that help students understand and master concepts in calculus. This user-friendly text continues to help students interact with the main calculus objects (functions, derivatives, integrals, etc.) not only symbolically but also, where appropriate, graphically and numerically. Ostebee/Zorn strikes an appropriate balance among these points of view, without overemphasizing any of them. New exercises, examples, and much more ha...show moreve added tremendously to this great book.
NAVIGATING CALCULUS, a new CD-ROM, is being released along with the second edition. The CD contains a variety of useful tools, and resources, including a powerful graphing calculator utility, a glossary with examples, and many live activities that deepen students' encounters with calculus ideas. The CD is keyed closely to the book's table of contents.
Any treatment of calculus involves many choices among competing alternatives: how and when to treat limits, which applications to include, what to prove, etc. To explain the authors' views on such matters, they've established an FAQ site at: ...show less
Functions, Calculus Style Graphs A Field Guide to Elementary Functions Amount Functions and Rate Functions: The Idea of the Derivative Estimating Derivatives: A Closer Look The Geometry of Derivatives The Geometry of Higher-Order Derivatives Chapter Summary Interlude: Zooming in on Differences
Areas and Integrals The Area Function The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Finding Antiderivatives by Substitution Finding Antiderivatives Using Tables and Computers Approximating Sums: The Integral as a Limit Working with Approximating Sums Chapter Summary Interlude: Mean Value Theorems and IntegralsellBackYourBook Aurora, IL
0618247505ierra Nevada Books Reno, NV
Biggest little used bookstore in the world247509-5-0 |
books.google.com - This volume presents modern algebra from first principles and is accessible to undergraduates or graduates. It combines standard materials and necessary algebraic manipulations with general concepts that clarify meaning and importance. This conceptual approach to algebra starts with a description of... |
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