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This market-leading text continues to provide students and instructors with sound, consistently structured explanations of the mathematical concepts. Designed for a two-term course, the new Seventh Edition retains the features that have made Algebra and Trigonometry a complete solution for both students and instructors: interesting applications, cutting-edge design, and innovative technology combined with an abundance of carefully written exercises.
As part of the market-leading Graphing Approach series by Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards, Algebra and Trigonometry algebra and trigonometry courses that require the use of a graphing calculator, includes a moderate review of algebra to help students entering the course with weak algebra skills.
Designed specifically for the non-math major who will be using calculus in business, economics, or life and social science courses, Calculus: An Applied Approach, 7/e, addresses students' weak math skills through added structure and guidance on how to study math. Special student-success-oriented sections include chapter-opening Strategies for Success; What You Should Learn--and Why You Should Learn It; Section Objectives; Chapter Summaries and Study Strategies; Try Its; Study Tips; and Warm-Up exercises. In addition the text presents Algebra Tips at point of use and Algebra Review at the end of each chapter. A strong support package includes the CL MATHSpace CD-ROM--which further emphasizes algebra review--and Instructional DVDs that allow students to review material outside of class.
With the same design and feature sets as the market leadingPrecalculus,7/e, this new addition to the Larson/Hostetler Precalculus series provides both students and instructors with sound, consistently structured explanations of the mathematical concepts. Designed for a two-term course, this text contains the features that have madePrecalculusa complete solution for both students and instructors: interesting applications, cutting-edge design, and innovative technology combined with an abundance of carefully written exercises. In addition to a brief algebra review and the core precalculus topics,Precalculus with Limitscovers analytic geometry in three dimensions and introduces concepts covered in calculus. Side-by-side Example Solutionsfor select examples include multiple problem solving approaches-such as algebraic, graphical, and numerical-to appeal to a variety of teaching and learning styles. Checkpointsafter each Example/Solution refer students to similar drills in the Section Exercises, allowing students to practice and reinforce the concepts they just learned. Answers to Checkpoints are included at the back of the book. New!Vocabulary Checksopen every set of Section Exercises. This review of mathematical terms, formulas, and theorems provides regular assessment and reinforcement of students' understanding of algebraic language and concepts. Exercise Setshave been carefully analyzed and revised to improve the categorization of problems frombasic skill-buildingtochallenging;improve the pairing of similar odd- and even-numbered exercises; update all real data; and add real-life and real-data applications. New!Make a Decisionapplications-presented throughout the text at the end of selected exercise sets-are based on large sets of real data. These extended modeling applications give students the opportunity to use all the mathematical concepts and techniques they've learned and apply them to large sets of real date-analyzing it, graphing it, and making conjectures about its behavior. These applications are featured in Eduspace and the Online Learning Center in an interactive format. Eduspace, powered by Blackboard,Houghton Mifflin's online learning environment, brings your students quality online homework, tutorials, multimedia, and testing that correspond to thePrecalculus with Limitstext. This content is paired with the recognized course management tools of Blackboard.
With the same design and feature sets as the market leading Precalculus, 7/e, this new addition to the Larson/Hostetler Precalculus series provides users with sound, consistently structured explanations of the mathematical concepts. This book contains the features that have made Precalculus a complete solution for usersAs part of the market-leadingGraphing ApproachSeries by Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards,Precalculus with Limits: A Graphing Approach,4 Accessibility to students is achieved through careful writing and design, including same-page examples and solutions, which maximize the readability of the text. Similarly, side-by-side solutions show algebraic, visual, and numeric representations of the mathematics to support students' various learning styles. TheLibrary of Functionsthread throughout the text provides a definition and list of characteristics for each elementary function and compares newly introduced functions to those already presented to increase students' understanding of these important concepts. Technology Supportnotes provided at point-of-use throughout the text guide students to theTechnology Support Appendix,where they can learn how to use specific graphing calculator features to enhance their understanding of the concepts presented. Houghton Mifflin'sEduspaceonline classroom management tool offers instructors the option to assign homework and tests online, provides tutorial support for students needing additional help, and includes the ability to grade any of these assignments automatically.
Written by the author, this manual offers step-by-step solutions for all odd-numbered text exercises as well as Chapter and Cumulative tests. In addition to Chapter and Cumulative tests, the manual also provides practice tests and practice test answers.
This market-leading book continues to provide students and instructors with sound, consistently structured explanations of the mathematical concepts. Designed for a one-term course that prepares users to study calculus, the new Eighth Edition retains the features that have made Trigonometry a complete solution for users: interesting applications, cutting-edge design, and innovative technology combined with an abundance of carefully written exercises.
This text introduces trigonometry first with a unit circle approach and then with the right triangle. As the best-selling text in the field, Trigonometry provides unparalleled exercises, motivating real-life applications, a supportive pedagogical design, and innovative ancillaries and resources, making it a complete solution for both students and instructors. Model It real-life applications in nearly every text section are multi-part exercises that require students to generate and analyze mathematical models. First referenced in the Why You Should Learn It at the beginning of each section, these interesting applications illustrate why it is important to learn the concepts in each section. Proofs in Mathematics shows the proofs of selected theorems and demonstrates different proof techniques. For added convenience, in the Sixth Edition these proofs have been moved from an appendix to the end of relevant chapters. P. S. Problem Solving, at the conclusion of each chapter, features a collection of thought-provoking and challenging exercises that further explore and expand upon the concepts of the chapter. These exercises have unique characteristics that set them apart from traditional algebra and trigonometry exercises. A wealth of student success tools includes: How to Study This Chapter, a chapter-opening study guide that includes What you should learn (section-opening objectives), Important Vocabulary, a list of Study Tools, and a list of Additional Resources to help the student prepare for the chapter; Why you should learn it, a section-opening, real-life application or a reference to other branches of mathematics, illustrating the relevance of the section's content; and What did you learn?, a concise chapter summary organized by section. These objectives are correlated to the chapter Review Exercises to help students prepare for exams. Eduspace is Houghton Mifflin's online learning tool. Powered by Blackboard, Eduspace is a customizable, powerful and interactive platform that provides instructors with text-specific online courses and content. The Larson/Hostetler Trigonometry course features algorithmic exercises and test bank content in question pools |
SM6E Points of Inflexion Part 2. This video fleshes out the theory of the last video, Part 1 on Points of Inflexion with some practical examples of working through the maths associated with them. 18 more words
SM6E. Points of Inflexion Part 1. This video introduces and examines points of inflexion and their behaviour. It was prepared for Year 12 Specialist Mathematics students in the State of Victoria, Australia. |
welcome
The Math Resource Lab is an open laboratory that provides mathematical resources to both students and faculty. Students may use the lab as an additional resource to learn valuable math skills. In addition, faculty volunteers in the lab sharpen their teaching skills and develop a closer working relationship with their students. |
treats all of the most commonly used theories of the integral. After motivating the idea of integral, we devote a full chapter to the Riemann integral and the next to the Lebesgue integral. Another chapter compares and contrasts the two theories. The concluding chapter offers brief introductions to the Henstock integral, the Daniell integral, the Stieltjes integral, and other commonly used integrals. The purpose of this book is to provide a quick but accurate (and detailed) introduction to all aspects of modern integration theory. It should be accessible to any student who has had calculus and some exposure to upper division mathematics.
Table of Contents: Introduction / The Riemann Integral / The Lebesgue Integral / Comparison of the Riemann and Lebesgue Integrals / Other Theories of the Integral less |
- Students' Book 5: Answer Book 1 2 3 4 (Essential Numeracy):
Each book covers Number, Algebra, Shape, Space and Measures, and Handling Data. Suitable for class or homework use, they feature uncluttered layout with easy to follow examples. It can be used alongside any maths course, and includes broad range of questions to improve performance. [via]
More editions of Essential Skills in Maths: Answer Book 5 (Essential Numeracy):
Each book covers Number, Algebra, Shape, Space and Measures, and Handling Data. This title is suitable for class or homework use. It offers an uncluttered layout, with easy-to-follow examples. It can be used alongside any maths course. It offers a broad range of questions to improve performance. [via]
More editions of Essential Skills in Maths, Book 1, Book 3 (Essential Numeracy):
Developed for the Edexcel specifications, Key Maths for GCSE Summary and Practice is an extension of the highly popular range of resources for mathematics at Key Stage 4. Written by leading authors, these resources provide full summaries of all key concept and skill areas as well as rigorous practice for examinations. [via]
This work is available for the Foundation, Intermediate and Higher tiers. These books are an invaluable aid for use throughout the course or as a revision and summary book in preparation for examinations. It contains pages of exam questions with worked solutions and hints and tips from a Chief Examiner for Edexcel. [via]
More editions of Key Maths GCSE: Summary and Practice (Key Maths for GCSE):
The Pack includes mapping to the specification, and detailed teaching notes for each chapter with examiners' hints and tips. Coursework guidance, project suggestions and information sources to assist with coursework preparation are all provided. A range of free resources are available on our dedicated Statistics website, providing additional support for this subjectThis is a class/home based resource that targets numeracy skills in particular number work and practice. It includes materials that provide opportunities to work on structured or open ended activities both in and outside the classroom. It includes suggestions for ICT support. [via] |
This is the eBook of the printed book and may not include any media, website access codes, or print supplements that may come packaged with the bound book.
College Mathematics, Ninth Edition, is designed for students in a broad range of career programs requiring a solid understanding of basic math, elementary algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. The authors introduce topics using a step-by-step "spiral" learning approach and reinforce them with numerous examples and applications. Throughout the text, examples are presented in both symbolic and narrative form, and all concepts are applied to careers and professions. |
Game Theory: A Simple Introduction offers an accessible guide to its basic principles and applications.
Understand a game matrix, prisoners' dilemma, Nash equilibrium, and the power of asymmetric information.
Explore examples looking at free riders, global governance, long-term relationships, competing corporations, advertisers and their customers, along with familiar hawk-dove and chicken game.
"Algebra, Trigonometry, and Statistics" helps in explaining different theorems and formulas within the three branches of mathematics. Use this guide in helping one better understand the properties and rules within Algebra, Trigonometry, and Statistics.
The integral (or antiderivative) has long been used to determine the area under a curve, but finding the antiderivative can be a challenge. Other methods of integration can be cumbersome and give only a crude estimate of the actual area. Standard-slope integration is a fast, easy, and accurate method of numerical integration with results that are on par with those of classical integration methodsHow can we restructure the calendar so that days no longer 'leap' around month to month and year to year, and so that seasons don't shift through the months of the calendar? This book answers that question.
There's an important distinction between a calendar and time. A calendar is a tool; durations of time are what the tool measuresPierre de Fermat, the famous French Renaissance mathematician who gave us Fermat's Last Theorem, left no mathematical records so far as the English-speaking world is concerned. This is because he wrote in Latin. Here for the first time are two of his early works restoring the lost geometry treatise of Apollonius of Perga as well as Fermat's own expansion of plane loci into 3D |
Geometry I is a quick reference book for standard X. This application help students to learn Similarity and Circles.. Download it for FREE and start studyingGeometry is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with the properties of configurations of geometric objects - points, (straight) lines, and circles being the most basic of these. Although the word geometry derives from the Greek geo (earth) and metron (measure), which points to its practical roots.
The introduction of coordinates by René Descartes and the concurrent development of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since geometric figures, such as plane curves, could now be represented analytically, i.e., with functions and equations. This played a key role in the emergence of infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century. Furthermore, the theory of perspective showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the origin of projective geometry. The subject of geometry was further enriched by the study of intrinsic structure of geometric objects that originated with Euler and Gauss and led to the creation of topology and differential geometry.
Keywords : When geometry the focus tends to be on shapes and solids, then moves to properties and relationships of shapes and solids and as abstract thinking progresses, geometry becomes much more about analysis and reasoning.
The application will be updated on the regular basis to include the new rules and the terms being introduced by new generations of mathematicians.
Going further, the application has a potential to include the links to the informative websites, to integrate with the social networking websites and thus to become a complete Geometry bible.
Learn math anywhere on your mobile device or tablet or Google TV. Once the application is installed, you do not need internet access. This application teaches you pre-algebra geometric figures in an easy to understand fashion. Each point is described by a highly experienced math tutor. Download our other applications on math as well. Happy learningIntroduction : Brick to Brick is an fun and addictive puzzle game. The main goal of this game is to fill the wall complete by dragging and dropping given bricks shapes in empty space. That's it.. Puzzle Solved..! Brick Objective you it carefully. Brick to Brick has a simple user interface, and high resolution graphics. Brick to Brick is a fun app that will entertain you. Play till you solve all puzzle walls! Features: Two game modes: Relax mode and challenge mode 150 Unique Brain Storming puzzles Time of Game play – Around 3 to 4 Hours (Complete 60 levels) Graphics – Classic and high resolution graphics Keeps track of all the levels you have cleared. Undo action that will help you to get puzzle solved, when you stuck. Enable to enhance logic and visual skill of player
Connecting Dots is an application specially designed and created for beginners in school to understand the chronology of numbers and connecting them. The connected dots will create an identification picture along with some interesting animated scenes of the object.
Brick to Brick is an fun and addictive puzzle game. The main goal of this game is to fill the wall complete by dragging and dropping given bricks shapes in empty space. That's it.. Puzzle Solved..!
Brick
Objective play carefully. Brick to Brick has a simple user interface, and high resolution graphics. Brick to Brick is a fun app that will entertain you. Play till you solve all puzzle walls!
Features: * Two game modes: Relax mode and challenge mode * Unique Brain Storming puzzles * Time of Game play – Around 3 to 4 Hours (Complete all levels) * Graphics – Classic and high resolution graphics * Keeps track of all the levels you have cleared. * Undo action that will help you to get puzzle solved, when you stuck. * Enable to enhance logic and visual skill of player |
Using Excel to Individualise Basic Mathematics Assignments
Executive Summary
This paper sets out a method for creating and marking individualised mathematics assessments for students based on their ID numbers. It therefore provides a means for setting assessed coursework questions that give students the incentive to put in the practice needed to master mathematical techniques without the risk of collusion between students. A marking grid can then be constructed using only basic Excel skills. The method is explained here in the context of basic mathematical techniques applied to economics, but it can also be applied to other academic disciplines that involve numerical problems. |
iv Teacheru0027s Guide to Using the Chapter 7 Resource Masters The Fast File Chapter Resource system allows you to conveniently file the resources you use most often.
A. ABOUT THIS TEST 1. What is the PSSA? The Pennsylvania System of School Assessment (PSSA) in Mathematics is a test given to students in the fifth, eighth, and ...
Notes to the Teacher Objectives Correlation Presents the North Carolina objectives for Geometry and lists the items related to each objective that appear in the Pre ...
Integrated Algebra 1 is a new text for high school algebra that continues the approach that has made Amsco a leader in presenting mathematical ideas in a contemporary ... |
Rosanne Proga
Bibliography:
Rosanne Proga
ISBN:
9780534947583
Publisher:
Brooks/Cole Pub Co
Publication Date:
1995
Binding:
Softcover
Synopsis: This book uses a practical approach to arithmetic and beginning algebra and assumes no prior knowledge of mathematics. By thoroughly explaining various mathematical techniques, Proga helps students understand why a technique works so they'll remember how to use it. Well-known for its flexibility and complete coverage of arithmetic and algebra topics, Proga's text is perfectly suited for a combination arithmetic-elementary algebra course, for either an arithmetic or an algebra course, or for a two-term course sequence.
Rosanne Proga |
Description:Beginning with the definition of a polynomial, polynomial multiplication and degree of polynomial products are introduced. Special products and factoring cubics are presented before modeling with polynomials is discussed.
Beginning with the definition of a polynomial, polynomial multiplication and degree of polynomial products are introduced. Special products and factoring cubics are presented before modeling with polynomials is discussed. |
Book is Water Damaged, but it is still fully readable. ACCEPTABLE with noticeable wear to cover and pages. Binding intact. We offer a no hassle guarantee on all our items. Orders ...are generally shipped no later than next business day. We offer a no hassle guarantee on all our items.Read moreShow Less
More About
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Overview
Mathematics in Our World is designed for mathematics survey courses for non-science majors. The text covers a variety of topics designed to foster interest in and show the applicability of mathematics. The book is written by our successful statistics author, Allan Bluman. His easy-going writing style and step-by-step approach make this text very readable and accessible to lower-level students. The text contains many pedagogical features designed to both aid the student and instill a sense that mathematics is not just adding and subtract |
This algebra lesson from Illuminations lets students gain experience solving problems using systems of equations. The example problem provided has one solution, but multiple variations may be used to derive the answer....
This interdisciplinary lesson ties earth science concepts in with algebra. The forest-fire danger rating index is applied to a mathematical model. Students will learn real-world meaning of the intercepts and slope in...
This unit from Illuminations focuses on collecting data and using technology to find functions to describe the data collected. Students will learn to use a calculator to find the curve of best fit for a set of data and...
This learning object from Wisc-Online covers trade discount word problems. The lesson teaches a method of solving these problems which requires students to memorize only one equation. Example problems are included. |
9780495389613
ISBN:
0495389617
Edition: 4 Pub Date: 2008 Publisher: Cengage Learning
Summary: Algebra can be like a foreign language. But one text delivers an interpretation you can fully understand. Building a conceptual foundation in the "language of algebra," iNTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA, 4e provides an integrated learning process that helps you expand your reasoning abilities as it teaches you how to read, write, and think mathematically. Packed with real-life applications of math, it blends instructional approac...hes that include vocabulary, practice, and well-defined pedagogy with an emphasis on reasoning, modeling, communication, and technology skills. The authors' five-step problem-solving approach makes learning easy. More student-friendly than ever, the text offers a rich collection of student learning tools, including Enhanced WebAssign online learning system. With ELEMENTARY AND INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA, 4e, algebra makes sense!
Tussy, Alan S. is the author of Elementary and Intermediate Algebra (with CengageNOW Printed Access Card), published 2008 under ISBN 9780495389613 and 0495389617. Five hundred forty six Elementary and Intermediate Algebra (with CengageNOW Printed Access Card) textbooks are available for sale on ValoreBooks.com, two hundred ninety four used from the cheapest price of $0.98, or buy new starting at $59Buffalo, NYShipping:Standard, ExpeditedComments:ALTERNATE EDITION: Used - Hardcover. This is a TEACHERS EDITION copy. The cover and binding my list this and this is... [more] Used - Hardcover. This is a TEACHERS EDITION copy. The cover and binding my list this and this is the only difference from the standard version, the content is the same. Ships [more]
[less]
ISBN-13:9780495389613
ISBN:0495389617
Edition:4th
Pub Date:2008 Publisher:Cengage Learning
Valore Books is the top book store for cheap Elementary and Intermediate Algebra (with CengageNOW Printed Access Card) rentals, or used and new condition books available to purchase and have shipped quickly. |
mediate Algebra: An Applied Approach
As in previous editions, the focus in INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA remains on the Aufmann Interactive Method (AIM). Students are encouraged to be active ...Show synopsisAs in previous editions, the focus in INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA remains on the Aufmann Interactive Method (AIM). Students are encouraged to be active participants in the classroom and in their own studies as they work through the How To examples and the paired Examples and You Try It problems. Student engagement is crucial to success. Presenting students with worked examples, and then providing them with the opportunity to immediately solve similar problems, helps them build their confidence and eventually master the concepts. Simplicity is key in the organization of this edition, as in all other editions. All lessons, exercise sets, tests, and supplements are organized around a carefully constructed hierarchy of objectives. Each exercise mirrors a preceding objective, which helps to reinforce key concepts and promote skill building. This clear, objective-based approach allows students to organize their thoughts around the content, and supports instructors as they work to design syllabi, lesson plans, and other administrative documents. New features like Focus on Success, Apply the Concept, and Concept Check add an increased emphasis on study skills and conceptual understanding to strengthen the foundation of student success. The Ninth Edition also features a new design, enhancing the Aufmann Interactive Method and making the pages easier for both students and instructors to follow. Available with InfoTrac Student Collections http: //gocengage.com/infotrac365402Good. Paperback. May include moderately worn cover, writing,...Good. Paperback. May include moderately worn cover, writing, markings or slight discoloration. SKU: 9781133365402New. Brand New Annotated Edition or Teacher Edition: Same exact...New. Brand New Annotated Edition or Teacher Edition: Same exact as student version plus may contain notes or answers. Fast Shipping |
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Introductory Non-Euclidean Geometry by Henry Parker Manning This fine and versatile introduction begins with the theorems common to Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry, and then it addresses the specific differences that constitute elliptic and hyperbolic geometry. 1901 edition.
Advanced Trigonometry by C. V. Durell, A. Robson This volume is a welcome resource for teachers seeking an undergraduate text on advanced trigonometry. Ideal for self-study, this book offers a variety of topics with problems and answers. 1930 edition. Includes 79 figures.
Product Description:
ometric (circular) functions, appears in parallel columns for comparison. A concluding chapter introduces natural logarithms and presents analytic expressions for the hyperbolic functions. The second book, Configuration Theorems, requires only the most elementary background in plane and solid geometry. It discusses several interesting theorems on collinear points and concurrent lines, showing their applications to several practical geometric problems, and thus introducing certain fundamental concepts of projective geometry. Equivalent and Equidecomposable Figures, the final book, discusses the mathematical conditions of dissecting a given polyhedron into a finite number of pieces and reassembling them into another given polyhedron |
Problems and Solutions
Each problem/solution theme concludes with a step-by-step demonstration in a chosen medium to pull all the points covered in the theme together in ...Show synopsisEach problem/solution theme concludes with a step-by-step demonstration in a chosen medium to pull all the points covered in the theme together in |
9814271144
9789814271141
Problems of Number Theory in Mathematical Competitions:Number theory is an important research field of mathematics. In mathematical competitions, problems of elementary number theory occur frequently. These problems use little knowledge and have many variations. They are flexible and diverse. In this book, the author introduces some basic concepts and methods in elementary number theory via problems in mathematical competitions. Readers are encouraged to try to solve the problems by themselves before they read the given solutions of examples. Only in this way can they truly appreciate the tricks of problem-solving.
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Rent Problems of Number Theory in Mathematical Competitions 1st edition today, or search our site for Hong-Bing textbooks. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by World Scientific Publishing Company, Incorporated. |
Online Math Coaching for Bank POLearn from an experienced Instructor for Mathematics Competitive Exams
Learn Reasoning, Quantititave Aptitude and Computer Knowledge
About the Course
Language of Instruction: English
Course Description
This course comprises of recordings and LIVE classes. The recorded classes will help you get started as soon as you enroll in this course and will help you understand the concepts behind common Mathematics questions clearly. All learning material is presented in an easily understandable and all the learned concepts will be effectively remembered. This enables the learner to be more efficient in their answering questions from Mathematics and helps to improve their rank in the final merit list.
This course focus mostly on Bank PO aptitude paper. Focus is on aptitude from very basics in and out to an extent that no other Bank PO course provides so much thorough knowledge about the basics. Once basics are clear you'll be able to clear Bank PO exam without any special preparation.
It has been noticed that many students of IBPS who learned basics of aptitude through this course were able to clear Bank PO successfully in their very first attempt.
Since concept of aptitude is taught from a very basic and correct approach, you will be able to solve any difficult problems on your own. This course will be more useful for any exam having aptitude as a component of syllabus like Bank po, other entrance exam, campus recruitment etc.
This course is ideal for people preparing for Bank PO, SSC, LIC, State Service Exam, Railways and other government exams
Why you should enroll in this course:
Experience best quality teaching with crystal clear teaching right from the basics
You will find it easy to learn and apply the learned concepts in the new problems of your own
The course comprises of these topics: reasoning, quantitative aptitude and computer knowledge - hence, you experience complete coverage of Mathematics
This is an online based course, and the students can study any time, anywhere and any number of revision is possible
What's in the box:
50 hours of recorded classes
5 hours of LIVE online classes
You can get started as soon as you enroll in this course with the recorded class videos! You can also revise these recorded videos as well as recordings of online courses as many times as you want. And, you do this at a very economical price!
About the Instructor
IAS Teacher General studies CSAT Tamil nadu, India
Alex is an Engineering graduate with a strong and solid experience in teaching and research in teaching General Studies and Mathematics for various entrance exams for 10 years. Two of his courses for IAS are Bestselling on WizIQ. |
Study groups and workshops can be arranged for STEM students; visit the lab for specific details.
The STEM Center is also a place for instructors to spend their office hours and interact with their students and anyone working in the lab. Come and meet your current or future instructor today!
The tutoring lab is equipped with new computers students can use to work with interactive online programs for math and science such as MyMathLab, MyLabsPlus, WebAssign, etc.. Minitab, Mathematica, and MathType are also available.
The STEM Experience ~ from our students point of view
Click on the picture to see what our students say about the STEM program
Math 112, Prealgebra
Math 238, Calc. for Bus. & Social Science I
Math 115, Elementary Algebra
Math 240, Trigonometry
Math 121, Geometry
Math 245, College Algebra
Math 123A,B,C, Elem & Inter Algebra I, II, III
Math 260, Precalculus
Math 129A,B, Precollege Math I, II
Math 265, 266, 267, Calculus I, II, III
Math 137, Pre-Statistics Algebra
Math 270, Linear Algebra
Math 125, Intermediate Algebra
Math 275, Ordinary Diff. Equations
Math 215, Principles of Mathematics I
Math 227, Statistics
Math and Science Textbooks and calculators available (to be used in the lab only) |
For students in college-level math courses, revisiting algebra can be a challenge, and learning for it the first time can prove to be tricky as well. This website, created by Professor John Miller of the City College of...
You don't have to be Will Shortz to create a great crossword puzzle, and this handy desktop crossword publisher will help users on their way to puzzle nirvana. With this application, users can enter the words and clues,...
This site is a collection of architectural specifications, network and signaling protocols, and technical papers related to virtually every aspect of VoIP. Detailed articles and standards information are regularly...
The West Point Bridge Design Contest Web site has a number of educational resources for middle and high school students. The main feature is the bridge design software, which allows the user to "model, test, and...
Interdisciplinary computer-based activities for differential equations: a database of computer activities illustrating both mathematical concepts and the application of these concepts in a wide variety of disciplines.... |
This algebra lesson from Illuminations helps students learning to graph real world data. Students will collect, graph and analyze data, and choose an appropriate mathematical model for a particular situation. They will...
This algebra lesson from Illuminations lets students gain experience solving problems using systems of equations. The example problem provided has one solution, but multiple variations may be used to derive the answer....
This lesson uses the example of successive discounts at a retail store to demonstrate numeric, algebraic, and graphical representations of compositions of mathematical functions. Students will get the opportunity to...
This math lesson from Illuminations uses squares to represent equivalences involving square- and cube-roots. Students will be able to make and test theories of connections between geometric and numeric representations...
Using the real world example of security cameras, this lesson has students explore properties of polygons. Using this example, students will be able to discover a formula as related to polygons. An activity sheet and... |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
A clear, efficient exposition of this topic with complete proofs and exercises, covering cubic and quartic formulas; fundamental theory of Galois theory; insolvability of the quintic; Galoiss Great Theorem; and computation of Galois groups of cubics and quartics. Suitable for first-year graduate students, either as a text for a course or for study outside the classroom, this new edition has been completely rewritten in an attempt to make proofs clearer by providing more details. It now begins with a short section on symmetry groups of polygons in the plane, for there is an analogy between polygons and their symmetry groups and polynomials and their Galois groups - an analogy which serves to help readers organise the various field theoretic definitions and constructions. The text is rounded off by appendices on group theory, ruler-compass constructions, and the early history of Galois Theory. The exposition has been redesigned so that the discussion of solvability by radicals now appears later and several new theorems not found in the first edition are included.
Editorial Reviews
Booknews
An introductory textbook for first year graduate students with a knowledge of both linear and abstract algebra. Includes complete proofs, exercises, and a history of the 19th century |
Course 0: Math for Computer Science (ArsDigita University) A basic introduction to the Calculus and Linear Algebra. The goal is to make students mathematically literate in preparation for studying a scientific/engineering discipline. The first week covers differential calculus: graphing functions, limits, derivatives, and applying differentiation to real-world problems, such as maximization and rates of change. The second week covers integral calculus: sums, integration, areas under curves and computing volumes... Keywords:ars digita; calculus; linear algebra Downloads: 2,672 |
Master Math: Solving Word Problems (Master Math Series)
Book Description: Students throughout the world fear and dread solving word problems. As students' reading skills have declined, so have their abilities to solve word problems. This book offers solutions to the most standard and non-standard word problems available. It follows the suggestions of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and incorporates the types of problems usually found on standardized math tests (PSAT, SAT, and others). |
Industrial Math Training
CiNet's Industrial Math Training is designed to familiarize participants with mathematical applications that can be used on the job. Participants should be able to interpret measurements that include fractions and decimal values, measurements in English and metric units, and perform mathematical applications involving fractions, decimals, calculate dimensions associated with rectangles, triangles, and circles. |
Introductory and Intermediate Algebra for College Students - With 2 CDS - 3rd edition
Summary: TheBlitzer Algebra Seriescombines KEY TOPICS: Variables, Real Numbers, and Mathematical Models; Linear Equations and Inequ...show morealities in One Variable; Linear Equations in Two Variables; Systems of Linear Equations; Exponents and Polynomials; Factoring Polynomials; Rational Expressions; Basics of Functions; Inequalities and Problem Solving; Radicals, Radical Functions, and Rational Exponents; Quadratic Equations and Functions; Exponential and Logarithmic Functions; Conic Sections and Systems of Nonlinear Equations; Sequences, Series, and the Binomial Theorem. MARKET: for all readers interested in algebraGoodwill Industries S.E. MI Adrian, MI
2008 Hardcover Fair159 |
Offering
9 subjects
including calculus |
Distance Education: Telecourse + Web Course
Information
CRN 23966
From the Instructor:
INFORMATION
ABOUT MTH 65:
MTH 65 is a second term beginning algebra course that focuses on the symbolic algebra skills needed for further course work in mathematics and science. We will use applications, formulas and reasoning skills to write, simplify, solve and graph linear systems and quadratic equations.
In this telecourse, you will watch lessons on Comcast Cable channel 27 (Portland area only)or on your computer via youtube. Each week you will be expected to watch two lessons. Hopefully, you'll find the lessons thorough and comprehensive. Nonetheless, it will be important that you also read the corresponding sections of your textbook and do the suggested practice problems. You will also need to log in to Desire2Learn several times a week as I send announcements via Desire2Learn. The youtube links will also be available in Desire2Learn.
If you just took Mth 60, you should already have the text. We will finish the text we started in Mth 60.
THOUGHTS ABOUT DISTANCE LEARNING AND MATHEMATICS:
It is not easy to learn mathematics via pre-recorded lessons. The time you would spend in class will instead be spent watching the lessons, reading and studying mathematics in your textbook. To be successful in this class, you must be an independent learner.
This course, like other math courses, is time-intensive. Classes like this one typically require about five hours each week watching, pausing and reviewing the lessons (just like attending class) and an additional eight to twelve hours reading the textbook, doing homework, and studying.
Please assess your situation, and determine if you will be able to commit this kind of time to the class. Also think about the type of learner you are. Teleweb courses are a terrific option, especially for independent, self-motivated learners. If this does not describe you, consider why it is you are thinking about taking this type of class, and if it really is a medium that will give you the best chance to succeed. DO NOT TAKE MTH 65 via TELEWEB BECAUSE YOU THINK IT WILL BE EASIER THAN AN ON-CAMPUS CLASS. For many students, it is HARDER via teleweb than on-campus. This is not a self-paced course. There are specific due dates and I do not accept late work.
Course Specific Requirements:
IMPORTANT DETAILS:
There are three proctored paper-and-pencil, no-notes, no-books, (the first without a calculator, the second with a calculator and the final without a calculator). There will be scheduled times to take those exams at the Sylvania Campus, but if you live out of town, you can make arrangements with me to take the exam at an approved college testing center. If you live in the Portland area, you must take the exam at the Sylvania Campus. I do not offer testing at the other PCC campuses. Otherwise, the entire course can be completed from home. The six graded worksheets can be mailed.
MyMathLab is NOT required in this class.
Students with disabilities should notify their instructor if accommodations are needed to take this class. For information about technologies that help people with disabilities in taking Web based distance learning classes please visit the Office for Students with Disabilities website. |
Description
Math Formulary Pro covers all mathematical formulas that are usually used in the school and the university. Where necessary graphics are included to depict and explain the topic better. This Pro Version contains no ads and don't require any permissions. |
Friday, March 6, 2009
When I build materials for class, I draw from a wide variety of sources. Although I'm no fan of textbooks, I think they've come a long way in terms of their supplemental materials. For example, the 2007 Holt textbooks adopted by my former school district have a fairly thorough standard set of materials for every section of every chapter. There's multiple levels of independent practice, review, and ideas for the beginning, middle and end of a lesson. I use the textbook as a helpful guide when deciding the best sequence or as a source for some materials (albeit rarely).
I also do a lot of research online, but I'm growing more and more disenchanted with the paucity of free, quality lesson ideas and ways to find them easily. Most lesson plan or teacher resource databases either charge for access or aren't worth looking at. Perhaps one day I'll invest my time and effort into creating a high quality free database, but that's neither here nor there.
Let's get to the question at hand: what teacher resource books do I use the most? Here are the books that never stay on the bookshelf long enough to collect any dust:
Algebra II Grades 6-8 (Skill Builders) - I just got this other book in the series, as I am now teaching Algebra II, but more than half of this material carries over from the Algebra I book. The benefit, of course, is that you have twice as many problems to draw from when putting together materials.
Power Practice: Pre-Algebra, Gr. 5-8 - I use this mainly in the beginning of the year in Algebra I, when we're reviewing Pre-Algebra and other basic topics. It's a good resource for making connections to prior knowledge when introducing new, more challenging topics as well.
Algebra (The 100+ Series) - I often find myself editing some of the questions or cutting down the thorough, extensive practice problems on each page, but it covers a wide range of topics in great detail.
Geometry (The 100+ Series) - Basic geometry is a huge part of Algebra I in Texas because of the design of state standardized tests, but I've found a whole new life for it as I introduce trigonometry in Algebra II.
Math Bridge: 8th Grade - This is by far my most used (and most effective) resource. It covers so many Algebra I topics clearly and in a variety of ways. including puzzles, word problems and challenging questions.
I know that these books all label themselves as grades 5-8, but those would have to be some of the most advanced 5th graders on the planet. I'd like to think I'm pretty good at this math stuff, but I wouldn't have been able to do half of what's in here when I was in Algebra I in 8th grade (mostly due to lousy teaching). These books are easily challenging enough for most 9th graders, and some of the topics broached within their pages are advanced enough for long after they've passed Algebra I.
Aside from my math books, I still draw inspiration from my favorite social studies resource, American Revolution (Hands-On History). I still create math-related versions of the study guides, posters and other creative projects from a book that served me so well when I still taught US History.
I hope you found this helpful! Please share some of your best resources in the comments |
Algebra Honors (Algebra)
Algebra Honors course is for Mrs. Sullivan's period 5 & 6 classes. The course will follow the Massachusetts State Curriculum Standards for Algebra 1 through solving quadratics equations. Students in this course usually are recommended for one of three levels of Algebra 2 in grade 9. |
Tour the city as we attempt to take an Euler tour of the
bridges and tunnels of New York City. In the process, you
will learn the basics of graph theory and encounter the
Chinese Postman Problem. You will also learn about
Hamiltonian circuits and the the famous Traveling Salesman
Problem. Discover a vibrant and exciting area of discrete
mathematics - graph theory!
What do you mean by infinity? Suppose we had ''infinitely'' many people coming to a picnic. Suppose that every prime numbered visitor brought one slice of bread, every 2n-th visitor who wasn't a prime numbered visitor brought a bottle of peanut butter, and every 2n+1st visitor who wasn't a prime numbered visitor brought a bottle of jelly, and every prime numbered visitor brought one slice of bread, then we'd have just the right amount of everything to feed everyone as many peanut butter jelly sandwiches as they'd like without wasting any food. We'll talk about why this is possible by clarifying how we decide how big any given ''infinity'' really is using a neat trick called the diagonal argument.
Before taking a course in the subject, Calculus seems mysterious and intimidating. However, Calculus deals with some of the most intuitive ideas in mathematics: real systems and how they change. Through examples in physics, algebra, and everyday life, we will seek a conceptual grasp of the central problems in Calculus; limits, differentiation, and integration will each be treated. A special emphasis will be placed on applying Calculus to real-world problems, as well as grounding other fields (particularly physics) in mathematics.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Comfortability with high school algebra. The concepts will be challenging, but they will be presented in an extremely intuitive way to maximize understanding of the processes at work.
Counting things is not always so easy. How many spades can you get by withdrawing 10 from a deck of cards? What is the probability of getting the total sum of 12 by throwing 3 dice? All this can be intriguing and help you understand the world around you in a different way.
I will try to prove three fundamental trigonometry identities. The first one that I will prove is sin^2(angle)+ cos^2 (angle) = 1, and from proving this first one, I will try to prove a second and third trigonometry identity.
When a satellite is launched into orbit, the solar panels must fold up to fit inside
a rocket, but when it gets into orbit, the panels are unfolded. These unfoldings
are done in a rigid way because solar panels can't bend! In this class, we will
discuss the mathematics behind how objects can fold rigidly and the models we use to
understand these foldings.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Good spacial orientation skills are a must for this course!
Genetic Algorithms are algorithms which imitate evolutionary processes allowing for the accurate approximation of solutions to a wide range of problems. These problems can be as simple as finding solutions to equations or as complex as solving the Traveling Salesman Problem, for which no "good" solutions exist. This class will discuss the theory of Genetic Algorithms and their applications in problem solving.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: No prerequisite knowledge is needed or assumed for this class.
This is a chapter from "the proofs from the book" which gathers some very beautiful yet simple proofs from the mathematical world.
A graph is planar if it can be drawn in the plane R^2 without crossing edges. Euler's formula states that:
n-e+f=2 where n,e and f are the number of vertices, edges and faces of the graph, respectively. You'll be surprised to know that this is even true in more generality, as in the torus or R^3. However, we only work in 2 dimensions, and we will prove three interesting application of this formula:
1- The Sylvester-Gallai theorem:
Given any set of n>2 points in the plane, not all on one line, there is always a line contains exactly two of the points.
2- Monochromatic lines:
Given any configuration of "black" and "white" points in the plane, not all on one line, there is always a "monochromatic" line: a line that contains at least two points of one color and none of the other.
3- Pick's theorem:
The area of any (not necessarily convex) polygon Q in R^2 with integral vertices is given by
A(Q)=n_int + 1/2(n_bd)-1,
where n_int and n_bd are the number of integral points in the interior and on the boundary of Q, respectively.
Come learn all you need to know about the night sky and how to get the most out of a star-gazing experience!
I will present a quick and easy introduction to observational astronomy using technology or just a simple planisphere.
I will also try to answer any questions about stellar structure and evolution of the universe!
Can numbers predict and improve your odds of finding a good date? Of course! We shall cover strategies that dramatically raise the odds of finding your sweetheart in such settings as dance clubs, bars, schools or any other place ripe for romantic encounters. In the end, we shall see that even though there isn't a clear cut formula for love, there are strikingly profound predictions we can make with a little math. You will be convinced that Cupid carries a calculator with him! If time permits we shall also look at ways of matching groups of people into happy couples.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Some familiarity with basic probability is recommended.
Geometry has been a wellspring of profound ideas in every branch of mathematics, from number theory to algebra, to analysis, to combinatorics, and even to computation. I will talk about this last connection. Many books, articles and talks have been entitled "What is Geometry?" One is reminded of the parable of the Elephant and the Blind Men. In this lecture, the Computer Scientist joins the Blind Men to probe this Geometric Elephant.
The class will begin with simple ideas and concepts in Economics, and we will quickly go into the concept of indifference curves and budget constraints. Then we will teach the idea of optimization and the use of Lagrangian. After this, we try to drive towards optimizing across two time periods. This is the idea of the discount factor. After this, depending on class performance, we can derive the Sharpe Ratio and Beta, or we can explain the Time Value of Money.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Calculus and basic differentials. The Lagrangian concept is supposed to be Calculus III but can be introduced during the class.
Have you ever been sitting in math class and wondered "When am I ever going to use this?" or "How did we ever come up with this stuff?" Well then, this class will at least try to answer those questions. From likes of Archimedes to recent mathematicians like Mandelbrot and Courant, this class gives a bird's eye view of the context within which modern day mathematics operates and influences the world. Philosophers often place ideas within the context of a period of time, so why shouldn't we, as mathematicians, do the same? Just as human thought flowed from Platonic philosophy to existentialism to post-modernism, so too did mathematics from Euclid to Newton's Calculus to modern day Chaos Theory. The placement of ideas within this historical context helps to illuminate why these mathematical methods were invented in the first place, and what they can help us with on a day to day basis, whether pondering the philosophical truths of this universe or building an econometric model. In essence, uncovering our mathematical past will frame our modern day condition and adjust our expectations for the future of mathematics.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: One should be familiar and comfortable with mathematical reason. High school algebra and pre-calculus would be a big plus, but we will be brushing through everything from basic trigonometry to more complex topics. Really all that is required is a logical mind and willingness to think.
Combinatorial game theory studies games. Which games have winning strategies? Can we describe them? Do games like chess and checkers have optimal strategies?
In this class, we will see how to *prove* that games have optimal strategies, and we will see how to give explicit descriptions of optimal strategies for some very special games.
It's the next best thing to equality - it's equivalence! Join us for the formal mathematical definition of an equivalence relation, and then test out your new knowledge by discerning some motivating examples from a few non-motivating non-examples.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: The willingness to learn from examples, and the ability to make great mistakes. Material will be pulled from many levels of mathematics.
From Leibniz to a Little Big Planet (TM): Using First-Principles Physics to Simulate Complex Motion
Have you ever wondered how character movements in animated movies or video games look so realistic? What concepts in physics, mathematics and computer science are engineers using to create these graphics? It turns out that basic laws of physics, such as velocity and acceleration, can be integrated with computational methods to generate these results. We will begin with a discussion on what derivatives and differential equations are, and how they can be used in modeling the dynamics of movement. Commonly used computational algorithms for solving these equations will be introduced, and we will define areas where these approaches have proven useful, such as providing entertainment and even solving scientific problems.
Classes at the New York Math Circle are problem solving sessions. During this talk I'll discuss a small number of my favorite problems, some from combinatorics, some from probability, and some from geometry. Hopefully we'll solve them all!
What do Phoenician merchants, Claudius Ptolemy, Christopher Columbus, certain brands of vacuum cleaners and the self-driving Google car have in common? All need to navigate under uncertainty or to map the unknown. They guess their next location and correct their predictions thanks to (always noisy) observations of some kind, be it from the North Star, Jupiter's satellites, a compass, a Kinect camera or a laser LIDAR system. They define coordinate systems and piece together small maps. We will see how robots can do this. A little mobile robot will make a guest appearance.
We wish upon them, gaze upon them on a clear night, but what do we really know about stars? Together we will explore exactly how stars are formed, how they die, and everything in between (even their afterlife!). We will talk about the big bang initiating the contents of the universe today, but how the stars do everything else. We'll even discuss how stars can either burn out to be harmless and docile, or turn into super massive black holes. Don't just marvel at their pretty twinkling-- appreciate the delicate physics behind this incredible phenomenon!
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: A high school level understanding of physics is helpful, but not mandatory. Most physics concepts will be quickly reviewed in class. The course will primarily center around abstract concepts and relationships rather than hard numbers.
"A grasshopper can jump up to ten times its size, so a human-sized grasshopper can jump up to 60 feet in the air." Is this true? We'll show, in fact, that it is not, by demonstrating that there are fundamental consequences of size in nature that determine what is physically possible. By using simple mechanical arguments, we will explain, among others: why elephants have such thick legs; why ants can lift so much weight; why human-powered flight is so difficult; and why deep-diving mammals are so large.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Some physics (you need to be familiar with the concepts of force, energy, and power).
Welcome to the Alternate Reality of Frequency Space! Fun with Fourier Series
We spend most of our lives in the physical world, thinking about how various quantities change in space. However, there is another, less intuitive way to think: in terms of frequency! That is, we can decompose a signal into waves of different frequencies and compare their relative strengths. In this course, we will introduce the theory of Fourier series and view some applications in climate science and music, using computers to do big calculations for us!
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: You should know how to integrate basic trigonometric functions like sine and cosine
We will start by describing simple games that students can relate to (e.g. rock, paper, scissors) and gradually explain the abstract formal definition of a game in strategic normal form. We will explore notions such as the Nash Equilibrium and the Price of Anarchy of a Game. We will also be playing some fun games in class that will help students understand how players think and which strategies are good. Putting yourself into other people's shoes is the first thing that you want to do here before you choose your course of action. If students bring laptops we can also play some games online.
Are some parts of calculus troubling you? Perhaps little details (and certain proofs) were glossed over that make you uneasy? Then analysis is the class for you!
We will learn whether or not the real numbers are really just made up, (finally!) see the proof for the Intermediate Value Theorem, and think carefully about integrals! Hopefully by the end of this talk you'll see that math isn't just about getting the exact numbers, but also about saying exactly what you feel.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Familiarity with proofs and high proficiency in calculus is strongly suggested.
Most of you have probably heard about the Fibonacci numbers (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...) and how they are found practically everywhere in nature. But has anyone ever given you a convincing reason why? In this class, we will go through the history of the Fibonacci numbers and see for ourselves their allure through the ages, point out common misconceptions regarding their ubiquity, and finish up by giving a very "rational" reason for their emergence in the context of flower patterns and plant growth. No background necessary!--if you can reason about numbers, then you, too, can learn how nature "knows" math.
The bell curve occurs frequently in nature. Heights, weights, IQs and many other values have a bell shaped distribution. In this class, we will do a hands-on activity and discuss the mathematics behind this surprisingly common phenomenon.
A teacher wants to divide four students into groups. How many such divisions are possible? We will start with this simple counting question, and explore some of its ramifications. Along the way, we will solve more challenging problems and develop a few fantastic formulas.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: Preferably students should be familiar with combinations, the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle and recursive equations.
Computer security is always big news, but it's hard to get started without a proper introduction. This talk will be a brief immersion into one of the most technical areas in information security. We'll quickly cover the basics of C and x86 and talk in depth about memory corruption vulnerabilities on modern platforms. We will analyze several real vulnerabilities and write exploits for them. Many topics will be quickly covered as we discuss arbitrary code execution including: compilers, optimization, reverse engineering, smashing the stack, ASLR, NX, ROP, clowns and sorcery.
I want to give a short talk about the cardinality of the natural numbers and the real numbers, and show the students the diagonal argument. When I was first shown this proof it "blew my mind" and really sparked a long interest in Math, and I hope if I showed it to others, it could inspire them as well. If there is time, I would also go into the density of the rationals and their cardinality as well.
Fractals In the Limit! Exploring Fractals Using Iterated Function Systems.
Fractals are amazing forms that appear throughout the natural and mathematical worlds. How can we understand, define, and create them? In this class we'll look at one way of understanding fractals, as the result of iterated function systems. This will allow us to explore some of the defining features of fractals in more depth. We'll dive into the math behind why Iterated Function systems produce fractals. We'll end up talking about things like the "distance between two pictures", and what a "sequence of pictures" might be. Then, we'll see how Iterated Function Systems produce sequences of pictures that converge to fractals! Awesome.
Length: 1 Hour
Prerequisites: We'll be thinking about things fairly abstractly. Familiarity with sequences and limits is a plus. But we'll also be seeing a lot of neat fractals that require no prerequisites to appreciate.
We have delopved a color grading system in an attempt to indicate the overall difficulty of each talk. A green icon indicates that
anyone with a standard high-school mathematics background should be able to follow. A black icon indicates that the talk will be fast-paced, and that students without extra-curriculuar exposure to more advanced mathematics---through math camps, college courses, competition preparations, and so on---are likely to find the talk challenging. These are the two extremes, and blue and purple icons indicate the midpoints of the difficulty spectrum. It is, of course, impossible to determine the objective difficulty of a talk, and the icons should only be taken as a crude approximation. The best way to figure out whether the talk is at the right level for you is to talk to the lecturer. Instructors' emails are listed on this page, so ask away! |
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About This Activity
Algebraic thinking is an important strand of both the NCTM and the Common Core Math Standards. Yet, for many students, the abstract nature of algebra poses a formidable emotional and conceptual challenge. By providing students with Dr. Borenson's unique visual and kinesthetic approach, they actually understand the concepts and experience success, thereby enhancing their interest in mathematics. In this workshop you will see how Hands-On Equations demystifies the learning of algebra and thereby provides students with a solid foundation for algebraic thinking and for a traditional Algebra 1 |
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with sequences, their definitions, and methods of mathematic induction. The next chapter addresses combinations, and the final chapter examines limits through a series of introductory problems, problems related to the definition of limit, and problems related to the computation of limits. Answers and hints to the test problems are provided, and "road signs" appear in the margins, marking passages requiring particular attention. 1969 edition.
Reprint of the The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969 |
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Foundations of Mathematical & Computational Economics
9780324235838
ISBN:
0324235836
Edition: 1 Pub Date: 2006 Publisher: Thomson Learning
Summary: Economics doesn't have to be a mystery anymore. FOUNDATIONS OF MATHEMATICAL AND COMPUTATION ECONOMICS shows you how mathematics impacts economics and econometrics using easy-to-understand language and plenty of examples. Plus, it goes in-depth into computation and computational economics so you'll know how to handle those situations in your first economics job. Get ready for both the test and the workforce with this ...economics textbook.
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Rotation transforms are used everywhere in computer graphics from rotating pictures in editing software, to providing an arbitrary view of a 3D virtual environment. Although the former is a trivial operation, the latter can be a challenging task.
"Rotation Transforms for Computer Graphics" covers a wide range of mathematical techniques used for rotating points and frames of reference in the plane and 3D space. It includes many worked examples and over 100 illustrations that make it essential reading for students, academics, researchers and professional practitioners.
The book includes introductory chapters on complex numbers, matrices, quaternions and geometric algebra, and further chapters on how these techniques are employed in 2D and 3D computer graphics. In particular, matrix and bivector transforms are developed and evaluated to rotate points in a fixed frame of reference, and vice versa.
From the Publisher: This book provides a comprehensive description of mathematical techniques for rotating points and frames in 2D and 3D computer graphics. Such transforms are notoriously difficult to visualize, which is why the book includes a large number of illustrations.
Description:
Updated throughout for the latest developments and technologies, this book
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With more than 100 built-in functions, forms to enter matrix and list data, SCalc calculates matrix inversions, LU (QR) decompositions, definite integrals, derivatives and zeros of simple functions. Solve a system of linear equations using QRS operation. Draw 15 graphs/plots, compute 10 commands. Switch to increasingly complex layouts, solve equations and compute special functions.Draw parametric, cartesian and polar graphs. Zoom in and zoom out with a display of scale and zoom level used. Track graph functions. Stretch and compact graphs along the y-axis. Compute commands like integrations, derivatives, maxima and minima along with drawings of results on the graphics screen. Also obtain samples of x-y data of graphs or functions. Using x-y data, curve-fit and plot. Use 3 choice backgrounds and draw with a selection of colors. Compute list functions, exponential functions, statistical, and various special functions. Define your own functions and variables, store them on external SD card and reload them back into internal memory. Do multiple conversions between primary units. Compute properties of simple geometric figures. Install or move the application to an SD card.Choose any previous command from a history list. Read the built-in function list -- upon long pressing the result -- and the helpful summary information to bring the function into input. Use help to determine valid values for the parameters for built-in functions.With recent improvements, swipe left and swipe right on the special function keys to find the keys you want easily. Position the coordinate lines precisely with left and right arrow controls on the graph screen. Find the scale and zoom level upon touch in a floating window display. Pinch with two fingers to zoom in and zoom out of the graphs. To find zero, repeatedly touch the result (R button) on graphics screen. If possible, you can find different zeros each time within a given range.With SCalc , you do not need to visit a help website or usage manual as plenty of easy to read instructions are provided with every step of calculation. These help messages can be turned off once you are familiar with the usage. When there is an error in the input, SCalc highlights the exact location of error in the input. Care has been taken in the design of the interface, so users with or without a keyboard can get the same functionality and ease of use.To use international versions, set the input language for on screen keyboard to be English |
If you are like many homeschooling parents, math is not your favorite subject. Would you like to break out of the textbook mold and explore math through "living" books and activities? Whether you hope to replace your math program or just to supplement it, Denise Gaskins will show you how to turn math into a learning adventure for the whole familyIf you want to learn how to solve algebra problems faster with less effort, then get the "How To Solve Algebra Problems" guide.
In this step-by-step guide, you will discover tips, techniques, and strategies on how to become better at Algebra from an Algebra teacher's perspective.
Today's society is an affluent one. Many people have more money to spend today than in any other period of history. Unfortunately, too many people do not have the ability to handle this money skilfully. Lack of this ability often results in debt, frustration, and heartache.
This book was written by an experienced maths tutor to help parents and carers to be able to tutor their child in general maths. This book contains 14 lesson plans for hourly tuition sessions (which would cost £20-£25 if you paid a tutor)on maths units ranging from basic addition to more advanced ratio questions. Also suitable for adults taking basic or functional skills exams in adult numeracy. |
Your Guide to Learning Algebra!
Welcome Adults of All Ages!
I am so glad that you are here! I think it is fantastic when adults go back and take on the challenge of learning algebra.
Maybe you are going back to college and need to take the entrance exam. Or maybe you just want to "re-learn" or try to develop a better understanding of Algebra!
For whatever reason, you should be proud of yourself and remember, learning algebra is fun too!
So... How Can I Help You?
Your first step should be to take the Algebra Readiness Test. The algebra readiness test will help you to determine if you have the foundation to begin an Algebra 1 curriculum.
Once you've identified your weak areas, you can navigate to the appropriate unit on Algebra-class.com to see step-by-step examples and even try the skill with our practice problems. The Pre-Test will tell you exactly where you need to go to get help. Don't forget to take this important test. Click here to take it now.
If you did pretty well on the Algebra Readiness Test, then you are ready to start Algebra 1.
Since everyone comes from different math backgrounds it is hard for me to tell you exactly where to start. So, in order to find a good starting point based on your skills, I would advise you to:
Start with Unit 1: Solving Equations. On the Solving Equations home page you will find all of the lessons (in order) for the unit. Start with the first lesson and work your way down following the steps below:
Each lesson has example problems and practice problems. Scroll down to the practice problems and try the first two or three. Check your answers with the answer key which always follows the practice problems.
If you got the answers correct, then you can skip this lesson and move onto the next lesson. If you got the answers wrong, then you will need to go back to the beginning of the lesson and start there.
For each lesson, copy the example on your own sheet of paper. Work through the steps on your paper as you read them in the example. This will help you to teach yourself the lesson.
Then retry the practice problems. Once you've gotten all the practice problems correct, you are ready to move onto the next lesson. |
content is OK, but--
the English is atrocious. I understand that the author's first language is not English -- I place the blame on the publisher for not hiring a competent (or, indeed, any) proofreader. There's at least one mistake on every page. Most of the time, it's merely annoying, but often enough, the precise meaning is obscured. This is a problem in a math book. |
Instructional Plan/Activity: Students discussed several properties previously, but today we'll focus specifically on the Distributive Property. It is essential for understanding Algebra I.
27
Tue
Algebra I
Tuesday
FW/CCSS: ACED1
Lesson Obj./Outcome: Introduction to Equations pp. 56-57, problems:
Instructional Plan/Activity: Students will learn what an equation is. They'll practice determining if a given number is or is not a solution to a given equation. They'll also be asked to solve easy equations using mental math.
28
Wed
Algebra I
Wednesday
FW/CCSS: NQ1-3, FIF1,2,3,5, FBF1, ASSE1, NRN3, ACED1, ASSE1a
Lesson Obj./Outcome: Review Study Guide for Chapter 1 Test Tomorrow study over items listed on study guide, get study guide signed
Instructional Plan/Activity: We'll review everything we have discussed in Chapter 1. Students will receive a study guide listing the items that will be tested tomorrow. the test will be worth 100 points and students may receive 5 bonus points if they return tomorrow with their study guide signed.
29
Thu
Algebra I
Thursday
FW/CCSS: NQ1-3, FIF1,2,3,5, FBF1, ASSE1, NRN3, ASSE1a, ACED1
Lesson Obj./Outcome: CHAPTER 1 TEST (100 POINTS)
Materials/Resources: calculator, pencil
Instructional Strategies: none
Differentiation Methods: none
Extension Methods: none
Planned Assessments: T
Assignments/Homework: none
Instructional Plan/Activity: Students will take their test over Chapter 1.
Instructional Plan/Activity: Students will begin Chapter 2 by discussing solving equations using only one step. Some will be so easy that they may be solved mentally and others will require some calculating. Students will learn how to structure their equations now, so that when they have multiple steps, they can keep their work organized and neat. |
The natural numbers have been studied for thousands of years, yet most undergraduate textbooks present number theory as a long list of theorems with little mention of how these results were discovered or why they are important. This book emphasizes the historical development of number theory, describing methods, theorems, and proofs in the contexts... more...
Suitable for researchers and students in science, business, economics, and engineering, this best-selling book provides an introduction to scientific programming, stochastic modeling, and simulation using R. This second edition contains new chapters on ordinary differential equations and Markov chains, including simulation. It also adds material on... more...
Breaking new ground in parallel mesh generation research, this text presents both the theoretical foundations and practical aspects related to the implementation of the methods used on current and emerging architectures within this field. Never before has any other book attempted to exclusively cover this important topic. With over twenty years of... more...
This book shows how the free and open-source R environment can be used as a powerful and comprehensive platform for the kinds of numerical analysis that are traditionally employed by MATLAB ® . With R code fully integrated, the book offers brief descriptions of basic approaches and emphasizes detailed worked examples. It covers functions in the base... more...
The mathematics of ancient Egypt was fundamentally different from our math today. Contrary to what people might think, it wasn?t a primitive forerunner of modern mathematics. In fact, it can?t be understood using our current computational methods. Count Like an Egyptian provides a fun, hands-on introduction to the intuitive and often-surprising... more...
The continuous development and growth of its many branches, both classical and modern, permeates and fertilizes all aspects of applied science and technology, and so has a vital impact on our modern society. This book focus on these aspects. more...
Biometrics, the science of using physical traits to identify individuals, is playing an increasing role in our security-conscious society and across the globe. Biometric authentication, or bioauthentication, systems are being used to secure everything from amusement parks to bank accounts to military installations. Yet developments in this field have... more...
Praise for the First Edition ". . . fills a considerable gap in the numerical analysis literature by providing a self-contained treatment . . . this is an important work written in a clear style . . . warmly recommended to any graduate student or researcher in the field of the numerical solution of partial differential equations." — SIAM... more... |
Book summary
The foundations of mathematics include mathematical logic, set theory, recursion theory, model theory, and Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Professor Wolf provides here a guide that any interested reader with some post-calculus experience in mathematics can read, enjoy, and learn from. It could also serve as a textbook for courses in the foundations of mathematics, at the undergraduate or graduate level. The book is deliberately less structured and more user-friendly than standard texts on foundations, so will also be attractive to those outside the classroom environment wanting to learn about the subject. [via]
Softcover, ISBN 0883850362 Publisher: The Mathematical Association of America, 2005 Used - Like New, Usually ships in 1-2 business days, Pristine, 1st Printing w/full#line of the 2005 Edition - This is a Hardcover Copy! ... I was unable to find another listed anywhere! Book & DJ Unblemished - Unused/Unread/Unmarked - Not Remaindered, Clipped or Ex-Library! Gift-Quality! 3803-110612 |
There are three categories in the Elementary Algebra Test. The first category, operations with integers and rational numbers, includes computation with integers and negative rationals, the use of absolute values, and ordering. The second category is operations with algebraic expressions. It tests your skills in evaluating simple formulas and expressions, and in adding and subtracting monomials and polynomials.
Both these categories include questions about multiplying and dividing monomials and polynomials, evaluating positive rational roots and exponents, simplifying algebraic fractions, and factoring. The third category tests skills in solving equations, inequalities, and word problems.
These questions include solving systems of linear equations, quadratic equations by factoring, verbal problems presented in algebraic context, geometric reasoning, the translation of written phrases into algebraic expressions, and graphing. 12-16 questions are presented. |
® Familiarizes users with MATLAB in just a few hours though self-guided lessons
® Discusses new features and applications in MATLAB 7
® Covers elementary, advanced, and special functions
® Includes numerous new examples and problems
® Supplements any course that uses MATLAB
® Works as a stand-alone tutorial and reference
MATLAB, a software package for high-performance numerical computation and visualization, is one of the most widely used tools in engineering field today. Its broad appeal lies in its interactive environment with hundreds of built-in functions for technical computation, graphics, and animation. In addition, it provides easy extensibility with its own high-level programming language. Enhanced by fun and appealing illustrations,Getting Started with MATLAB 7: A Quick Introduction for Scientists and Engineers employs a casual, accessible writing style that shows users how to enjoy using MATLAB |
I am about to take some college classes and I was really excited about taking number theory but I saw it is an upper level undergrad class (level 4000). However, I think the only prerequisite was college algebra or so. Is this class too difficult for a would be freshman like me? If so, what makes it difficult? Thanks.
P.S. My current level is calculus 1 but I've gone a little beyond on my own |
Analytic Combinatorics [NOOK Book] ...
More About
This Book generality emerge that can be applied in particular to fundamental structures such as permutations, sequences, strings, walks, paths, trees, graphs and maps. This account is the definitive treatment of the topic. The authors give full coverage of the underlying mathematics and a thorough treatment of both classical and modern applications of the theory. The text is complemented with exercises, examples, appendices and notes to aid understanding. The book can be used for an advanced undergraduate or a graduate course, or for self-study.
What People Are SayingEditorial Reviews |
This textbook is the second volume of Anthony W. Knapp's comprehensive introduction to the fundamental concepts and tools in modern abstract algebra. Together with its foregoing companion volume "Basic Algebra" [Basel: Birkhäuser (2006; Zbl 1106.00001)], which was published in the autumn of 2006, the current book is to provide a global view of the subject, thereby particularly emphasizing both its various applications and its ubiquitous role in contemporary mathematics. As the author already pointed out in the preface to the first volume, his leading idea was to give a systematic account of what a budding mathematician needs to know about the principles of modern algebra in order to communicate well with colleagues in all branches of mathematics and related sciences.
This rewarding program was masterly begun in the companion volume "Basic Algebra", where the fundamentals of linear algebra, multilinear algebra, group theory, commutative algebra, field theory, Galois theory, and module theory over noncommutative rings were profoundly developed. As for the author's particular expository guidelines, exemplary didactic principles, and his notorious brilliant style of lucid mathematical writing, we may refer to the review of the first volume (the author, loc. cit.), as these outstanding features, which also characterize the second volume "Advanced Algebra" under review to full extent, have been depicted and appraised there at great length.
In general the present volume assumes knowledge of most of the content of its forerunner "Basic Algebra", either from that book itself or from some comparable source. The more advanced topics treated in the current book mainly point toward algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry, with emphasis on aspects of these subjects that impact fields of mathematics other than algebra. In this vein, the predominant theme is the fundamental and fascinating interrelation between number theory and geometry, where this aspect constantly recurs throughout the book on different levels.
As to the precise contents, the volume under review consists of ten chapters, each of which is subdivided into several sections.
Chapter 1 is titled "Transition to Modern Number Theory" and discusses three classical results of Gauss and Dirichlet that were milestones in the transition from the early number theory of Fermat, Euler, and Lagrange to the algebraic number theory of Kummer, Dedekind, Kronecker, Hermite, and Eisenstein in the second half of the 19th century. Concretely, after an introductory section on the historical background of this transition process, this chapter establishes Gauss's Law of Quadratic-Reciprocity, the theory of binary quadratic forms, and Dirichlet's Theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions, including the basics of quadratic number fields, their units, Dirichlet series, and Euler products.
Chapter 2 is devoted to the theory of finite-dimensional associative algebras, division algebras, and closely related classes of rings. The material covered here is part of what is known as Wedderburn-Artin ring theory, and it comprises the following topics: semisimple rings and Wedderburn's Theorem, rings with chain conditions and Artin's Theorem for simple rings, the Wedderburn-Artin radical and Wedderburn's Main Theorem, semisimplicity and tensor products, the Skolem-Noether Theorem, the Double Centralizer Theorem, Wedderburn's Theorem about finite division rings, and Frobenius's Theorem about real division algebras.
The further study of associative algebras is the subject of Chapter 3, with special emphasis on the Brauer group of a field as a fundamental tool for classifying noncommutative division rings. Group cohomology, the interpretation of the Brauer group in this cohomological context, crossed products, and Hilbert's Theorem 90 tie associative algebras to algebraic number theory, and this link is thoroughly explained in the course of this third chapter.
The rudiments of the subject of general homological algebra are subsequently developed in Chapter 4. Using the digression on group cohomology in the previous chapter as motivation, the author treats the basics of homology theory in the context of "good" categories of modules over a ring, with an extension of the discussion to homological algebra in general Abelian categories in the final section of this chapter. The standard topics in homological algebra, including complexes and additive functors, long exact homology sequences, injective and projective objects, derived functors and their long exact sequences, the functors Ext and Tor and the algebra of Abelian categories, are taken up here to a remarkable extent. Having the methods of cohomology available at this point of the present book means that the reader is well prepared for its use in both algebraic number theory and algebraic geometry, which are the main themes in the remaining six chapters.
Chapter 5 deals with three important theorems in the theory of algebraic number fields and their rings of integers, namely with the Dedekind Discriminant Theorem, the Dirichlet Unit Theorem, and the theorem on the finiteness of the class number of a number field. The direct approach adopted here is generalized in the subsequent Chapter 6 where the reinterpretation in the modern conceptual framework of the theory of "adèles" and "idèles" is provided. In fact, this chapter develops some of the advanced tools for a more penetrating study of algebraic number theory, among which the reader encounters p-adic numbers, discrete valuations, absolute values, completions of fields, Hensel's Lemma, ramification indices and residue class degrees, differents and discriminants, global and local fields, Artin's product formula, the ring of adèles, and the idèle-class group of a global field.
Chapter 7 provides some algebraic background material for the later study of fundamental questions in algebraic geometry. This includes the Hilbert Nullstellensatz, the transcendence degree of an infinite field extension, separable and purely inseparable field extensions, the Krull dimension of a ring, regular and singular points of affine varieties, infinite Galois groups, and profinite groups.
In the following, an introduction to the foundations of algebraic geometry is given from three different points of view.
Chapter 8 basically approaches algebraic geometry in its purely algebraic setting, that is, as a framework to study solutions of simultaneous solutions of polynomial equations in several variables by means of ideal-theoretic and module-theoretic methods. This is done in the light of the theory of projective plane curves and their intersection multiplicities, in the first part, and of the computational approach via Gröbner bases in the sequel. In the final section, these two approaches are combined to derive the crucial Elimination Theorem in its full generality.
Chapter 9 treats the subject of algebraic curves as the classical outgrowth of the complex analysis of compact Riemann surfaces, on the one hand, and of its arithmetic roots on the other. The leading theme is here the strong analogy between one-dimensional function fields and algebraic number fields. While the first sections define divisors and the genus of an arithmetic curve (or of a compact Riemann surface, respectively), the last two sections give a detailed proof of the Riemann-Roch Theorem for such curves and illustrate some of its important applications. The fundamental tool for the author's approach is the theory of discrete valuations (as developed in Chapter 6), through which the parallel between the arithmetic of number fields and the geometry of curves becomes strikingly evident.
The final Chapter 10 turns from curves to general affine and projective algebraic varieties. The topics touched upon here include affine varieties, the concept of geometric (Noether) dimension, projective varieties, rational functions and regular functions, morphisms of affine and projective varieties, rational maps between them, Zariski's Theorem about smooth points, classification questions about irreducible curves, affine varieties defined by monomial ideals, Hilbert polynomials, and intersection properties of projective varieties derived from Hilbert polynomials. The book ends with an informal outlook to algebraic schemes (à la A. Grothendieck), together with a number of hints for further reading in this much more advanced direction, which the keen reader of the current text should be well prepared for, after having sucessfully mastered the study of it.
Each chapter comes with its own detailed introduction, its own historical remarks, and its own collection of carefully selected problems. These problems are intended to play an important role within the entire text, because many of them provide additional, further-going topics enhancing the core material of the book. However, almost all problems are solved in the extra section of hints at the end of the book, which both helps the reader control her or his understanding of the wealth of fundamental material and get acquainted with a large number of additional concepts, methods, theorems, examples, and applications. As in the first volume of this comprehensive textbook, there is a detailed guide for the reader how to use this book, a chart of the main lines of dependence among the single chapters, a list of some items of notation and terminology from the first volume "Basic Algebra", an index of notation for the present volume, and a rich bibliography referring to related textbooks on the subjects discussed in the present book.
All together, this is another outstanding textbook written by the renowned and versatile mathematical researcher, teacher, and author Anthony W. Knapp that reflects his spirit, his devotion to mathematics, and his rich experiences in expository writing at best. |
Rancho Dominguez, CA Precalculus the abstract is the most important part of learning. One cannot understand what the mathematics is trying to show us without understanding what is happening when the operations are being preformed. When one is able to understand what is truly happening when one preforms simple tasks |
Design Science - Design Science, Inc.
Math publishing and presentation tools for the web: MathType, the professional version of Equation Editor, for Windows or Mac; WebEQ, for building interactive math web pages; MathFlow, math publishing for the enterprise; and MathPlayer, to display MathML
...more>>
Developing Function Sense with SAQs - Judah Schwartz
A work in progress, this is an online book on the philosophy of teaching functions in middle and high school algebra. He has come to believe "that approaching algebra through the study of functions using symbolic and graphical representations simultaneouslyA Dice Game - Doug Ensley, Shippensburg University
In this game, two players roll dice repeatedly taking note of who has the higher roll each time. The original number of dice for each person and the number of rolls are set by the user. At the end, the percentage of wins for each player is displayed.
...more>>
A Dictionary of Units - Cleave Books
A summary of units of measurement world-wide (current units and a few of historical interest); conversion factors to the SI (Systeme International); an outline of the SI; its basic defining standards and some of its derived units; all the SI prefixes
...more>> |
With the same design and feature sets as the market leading Precalculus, 7/e, this new addition to the Larson/Hostetler Precalculus series provides users with sound, consistently structured explanations of the mathematical concepts. This book contains the features that have made Precalculus a complete solution for users: interesting applications, cutting-edge design, and innovative technology combined with an abundance of carefully written exercises. In addition to a brief algebra review and the core precalculus topics, PRECALCULUS WITH LIMITS covers analytic geometry in three dimensions and introduces concepts covered in calculus.
As part of the market-leadingGraphing ApproachSeries by Larson, Hostetler, and Edwards,Precalculus with Limits: A Graphing Approach,4/e, provides both students and instructors with a sound mathematics course in an approachable, understandable format. The quality and quantity of the exercises, combined with interesting applications, cutting-edge design, and innovative resources, make teaching easier and help students succeed in mathematics. This edition, intended for precalculus courses that require the use of a graphing calculator, includes a moderate review of algebra to help students entering the course with weak algebra skills. Accessibility to students is achieved through careful writing and design, including same-page examples and solutions, which maximize the readability of the text. Similarly, side-by-side solutions show algebraic, visual, and numeric representations of the mathematics to support students' various learning styles. TheLibrary of Functionsthread throughout the text provides a definition and list of characteristics for each elementary function and compares newly introduced functions to those already presented to increase students' understanding of these important concepts. Technology Supportnotes provided at point-of-use throughout the text guide students to theTechnology Support Appendix,where they can learn how to use specific graphing calculator features to enhance their understanding of the concepts presented. Houghton Mifflin'sEduspaceonline classroom management tool offers instructors the option to assign homework and tests online, provides tutorial support for students needing additional help, and includes the ability to grade any of these assignments automatically.In the Third Edition, we have revised and improved upon many text features designed for this purpose. Our pedagogical approach includes presenting solutions to examples from multiple perspectives-algebraic, graphic, and numeric. The side-by-side format allows students to see that a problem can be solved in more than one way, and to compare the accuracy of the solution methods.
In this new ADVANTAGE SERIES version of David Cohen's PRECALCULUS: WITH UNIT CIRCLE TRIGONOMETRY, THIRD EDITION, Cohen continues to offer a book that is accessible to the student through a careful progression and presentation of concepts, rich problem sets and examples to help explain and motivate concepts, and continual guidance through the challenging work needed to master concepts and skills. This book is identical to PRECALCULUS: A PROBLEMS-ORIENTED APPROACH, Fifth Edition with the exception of the first four chapters on trigonometry. As part of the ADVANTAGE SERIES, this new version will offer all the quality content you've come to expect from Cohen sold to your students at a significantly lower price.
PRECISION MACHINING TECHNOLOGY has been carefully written to align with the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS) Machining Level I Standard and to support achievement of NIMS credentials. This new text carries NIMS' exclusive endorsement and recommendation for use in NIMS-accredited Machining Level I Programs. It's the ideal way to introduce students to the excitement of today's machine tool industry and provide a solid understanding of fundamental and intermediate machining skills needed for successful 21st Century careers. With an emphasis on safety throughout, PRECISION MACHINING TECHNOLOGY offers a fresh view of the role of modern machining in today's economic environment. The text covers such topics as the basics of hand tools, job planning, benchwork, layout operations, drill press, milling and grinding processes, and CNC. The companion Workbook/Shop Manual contains helpful review material to ensure that readers have mastered key concepts and provides guided practice operations and projects on a wide range of machine tools that will enhance their NIMS credentialing success.
Prentice Hall Algebra 1 is focused, organized, and easy to follow. The program shows your students how to read, write, and understand the unique language of mathematics, so that they are prepared for every type of problem-solving and assessment situation.
Applications are handled by creating mathematical models of phenomena in the real world. Students must select a kind of function that fits a given situation, and derive an equation that suits the information in the problem. The equation is then used to predict values of y when x is given or values of x when y is given. Sometimes students must use the results of their work to make interpretations about the real world, such as what "slope" means, or why there cannot be people as small as in Gulliver's Travels. The problems require the students to use many mathematical concepts in the same problem. This is in contrast to the traditional "word problems" of elementary algebra, in which the same one concept is used in many problems.
In grades 10 and 11, you will take the test called the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills, or TARS, in science. The TARS objectives are based on the learning requirements list in the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills, or TEKS. The test includes questions related to objectives for integrated physics and chemistry (IPC) as well as for biology.
This book is designed to enhance review of the concepts, skills, and application of the Physical Setting/Earth Science Core Curriculum that may be tested on the Regents Examination for The Physical Setting: Earth Science. Students can use the book in any order as each topic is independent except for the introduction of vocabulary |
You can print
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A
School Algebra by E.E. White (multiple
formats): This is one of the best
auxiliary textbooks available for Algebra
topics. White's descriptions of how to
handle certain types of problems is second to
none. Be aware that these books cover many
tasks now done with a calculator - such as
manually determining square roots and computing
logarithms using a table, so you will end up
skipping through parts of these older books.
University
Algebra by Webster Wells (multiple
formats): An excellent vintage Algebra
textbook from Webster Wells. Wells'
greatest strength was in offering huge arrays of
exercises for students to work through, and
accurate answer keys at the back of the book so
students can check their work.
Newtonian
Mechanics by A.P. French (multiple
formats): Newtonian mechanics is the first
step in studying physics. (Verified
listing with copyright office at MIT - this
book is available on a "share-alike" basis and
is free to download for reference use by
individuals.) |
Menu for selection of settings appropriate to classroom and study needs, combining statistics and advanced scientific functions.
Helps students explore math and science concepts.
Shows entries on the top line and results on the bottom line.
Entry line scrolling feature.
Allows review of previous entries to look for patterns.
Ideal for general math, algebra 1 and 2, geometry, trigonometry, statistics and science.
Features: TI-Navigator Classroom Learning System- 16 Users TI-Navigator is compatible with TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus families.
Use real-time feedback to instantly assess student understanding with the TI-Navigator System.
Designed to work with TI graphing calculators already in widespread use, the TI-Navigator System provides wireless communication between students' TI graphing calculators and the teachers PC.
It is a great way to get students to experience the benefits of a whole new level of interactive learning.
For teachers, that means more engaged students. For administrators, the TI-Navigator System enables real-time, formative assessment and supports instructional strategies that research shows lead to improved student achievement.
The TI-Navigator system is flexible and can be easily configured to accommodate any sit...
Features: Designed with unique features to allow you to enter more than one calculation, compare results and explore patterns, all on the same screen.
Enter and view calculations in common Math Notation via the MATHPRINT Mode, including stacked fractions, exponents, exact square roots and more.
Quickly view fractions and decimals in alternate forms by using the Toggle Key.
Scroll through previous entries and investigate critical patterns as well as viewing and pasting into a new calculation.
Explore an x, y table of values for a given function, automatically or by entering specific x values.
Features: Touch it - Easy-glide Touchpad operates like a computer with a mouse.
Graph it - The new Scratchpad on the enhanced Home screen allows you to quickly perform calculations and graphs without saving your work.
See it - Split screen allows you to see a math problem in different ways - a graph, equation, table, geometric figure or text.
The student software enables your home computer to function just like the handheld graphing calculator. So you can use the larger screen to easily create, edit and transfer TI-Nspire documents between computer and handheld.
Recharge it - Even though four AAA alkaline batteries are included, you can also choose to purchase the TI-Nspire Rechargeable Battery (sold separately) for extended battery life. It easily charges with the wall adapter that is included in its package, or you can use a USB c... |
First Course in Mathematical Modeling
Offering a solid introduction to the entire modeling process, "A First Course in Mathematical Modeling, 5E, International Edition" delivers an ...Show synopsisOffering a solid introduction to the entire modeling process, "A First Course in Mathematical Modeling, 5E, International Edition" delivers an excellent balance of theory and practice, giving students hands-on experience developing and sharpening their skills in the modeling process. Throughout the book, students practice key facets of modeling, including creative and empirical model construction, model analysis, and model research. The authors apply a proven six-step problem-solving process to enhance students' problem-solving capabilities - whatever their level. Rather than simply emphasizing the calculation step, the authors first ensure that students learn how to identify problems, construct or select models, and figure out what data needs to be collected. By involving students in the mathematical process as early as possible - beginning with short projects - the book facilitates their progressive development and confidence in mathematics and modeling |
eBook & Document Store
How to Succeed in Pre-Algebra: Grades 5-8 (Enhanced eBook)
Give students that extra boost they need to acquire important concepts in specific areas of math. The goal of these how to books is to provide the information and practice necessary to master the math skills established by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Each book is divided into units containing concepts, rules, terms, and formulas, followed by corresponding practice pages.This enhanced eBook gives you the freedom to copy and paste the content of each page into the format that fits your needs. You can post lessons on your class website, make student copies, and more. |
... More Practice Your Skills with Answers as part of the Teaching Resources package for the book, the right to reproduce material for use in his or her own ... DiscoveringAdvancedAlgebra More Practice Your Skills CHAPTER 7 47
Key Curriculum Press Response to Indiana Reviews of DiscoveringAdvancedAlgebra . discussion of the lesson, encouraging student presentations of their findings. ... knowledge to be an effective book by itself w/ no supplemental materials. This would be a great text for a high ability class.
The algebra you find in this book won't look quite like the algebra you may have ... Selected Answers 796 Glossary 848 Index 860 ... DiscoveringAdvanced Algebrawill be a meaningful and rewarding experience.
High School Math Textbook Adoption: Questions & Answers The Bellevue School District has begun the process to adopt a new high school mathematics textbook. ... 1/Geometry/Algebra 2 and Key Curriculum Press DiscoveringAlgebra/Geometry/AdvancedAlgebra. Spring, ...
Algebra 1 Chapter 5 Resource Book Write equations of parallel and perpendicular lines. Vocabulary The converse of a conditional statement interchanges the hypothesis and conclusion. Parallel Lines If two nonvertical lines have the same slope, then they are parallel.
DiscoveringAdvancedAlgebra Textbook 2nd Edition ... graph paper composition book unless instructed otherwise. I expect you to show all your work when appropriate. Homework should be completed and answers checked online prior to class. Late homework is accepted for half credit up
should find the answers to your algebra difficulties in this book. John McCormick . November 5, 2008 . SAMPLE SAMPLE ... And the new concepts are only slightly more advanced than the ones he already knows. ... math students was puzzled by the next chapter in his algebrabook. He was
... thus discovering errors before they become bad habits. You must ... Covered textbook "DiscoveringAdvancedAlgebra" – No stretchy book covers 5. Calculator: TI 83+/84+, ... Students should complete their assignment and check their answers. Make-up Work: 1.
Discovering Math Concepts in Business Mathematics Economics and Finance ... • Why was the Treviso Arithmetic an important book? ... understands and applies basic and advanced properties of functions and algebra; understands the general nature and uses of mathematics
This book is the direct result of the author having tutored algebra students and discovering just what they missed along the way. Whether you're a struggling algebra student, an educator or a parent, you should find the answers to your algebra difficulties ... this book before I started algebra.
Referring back to the book, you would want to identify three: (1) the Industrial Revolution; ... ANSWERS TO MATCH THESE SOCIAL SCIENTISTS WITH THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS 1. d Gerhard Lenski: status inconsistency 2. i C. Wright Mills: power elite
... Critical Friends, DiscoveringAlgebra, and Pre-Advanced Placement. Scott has a Masters of Science in Teaching from Oregon State University. ... Algebra and Geometry: ... You can find selected answers in the back of this book so you can check your progress.
... Critical Friends, DiscoveringAlgebra, and Pre-Advanced Placement. Scott has a Masters of Science in Teaching from Oregon State University. ... 8.1 Algebra: Analyze and ... You can find selected answers in the back of this book so you can check your progress.
ALGEBRA Y TRIGONOMETRIA ... Asking "What makes the math sciences so central?" he answers by quoting Galileo: "The great book of nature can be read only by those ... interaction of the ocean, wind, and boat. They then applied advanced numerical algorithms to solve these equations on high ...
but you may find them at used book stores or web sites, or on eBay. Many of these books are little more than ... ranging from algebra to advanced calculus. ... so students can record their answers as they work. Extensions and extra practices are included at the end of many exercises, ...
the book, the accompanying slides, and the software. Since the solutions manual is distributed electronically, all known errors are immediately fixed and no list of errors is ... Answer 4.5 In the answers below RA refers to Relational Algebra, TRC refers to |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
Numerical linear algebra is one of the most important subjects in the field of statistical computing. Statistical methods in many areas of application require computations with vectors and matrices. This book describes accurate and efficient computer algorithms for factoring matrices, solving linear systems of equations, and extracting eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Although the book is not tied to any particular software system, it describes and gives examples of the use of modern computer software for numerical linear algebra. An understanding of numerical linear algebra requires basic knowledge both of linear algebra and of how numerical data are stored and manipulated in the computer. The book begins with a discussion of the basics of numerical computations, and then describes the relevant properties of matrix inverses, matrix factorizations, matrix and vector norms, and other topics in linear algebra; hence, the book is essentially self- contained. The topics addressed in this book constitute the most important material for an introductory course in statistical computing, and should be covered in every such course. The book includes exercises and can be used as a text for a first course in statistical computing or as supplementary text for various courses that emphasize computations. James Gentle is University Professor of Computational Statistics at George Mason University. During a thirteen-year hiatus from academic work before joining George Mason, he was director of research and design at the world's largest independent producer of Fortran and C general-purpose scientific software libraries. These libraries implement many algorithms for numerical linear algebra. He is a Fellow of the American Statistical Association and member of the International Statistical Institute. He has held several national
Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
From a review:
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION
"Gentle brings to this book (as well as his other recent books on further aspects of statistical computing) his vast knowledge and experience in the mathematics of scientific computing, the practical aspects of software development, and teaching. The presentation is exceptionally clear and well-sign-boarded. ...The writing style, though very precise, conveys a warmth and enthusiasm that will appeal to |
Introduction to Discrete Mathematics with ISETL
Description: Intended for first- or second-year undergraduates, this introduction to discrete mathematics covers the usual topics of such a course, but applies constructivist principles that promote - indeed, require - active participation by the student.More...
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Int dramatically different approach allows students to attempt to discover concepts in a "Socratic" dialog with the computer. The discussion avoids the formal "definition-theorem" |
22-page book is a first of its kind, providing a very active introduction to Calculus with discovery-style instruction and nine student centered decoder-style worksheets. Students are motivated... More > both by the instantaneous feedback and their inevitable success! Teachers love the improvement in comprehension as well as the ease of grading self-checking materials! Students investigate slope and average velocity to form a concept of instantaneous velocity expressed first as limits as x approaches a and then as h approaches 0. Next they derive the power rule, including using expressions with irrational constants, negative powers, roots, etc. Then they build to using the power rule when the base is a linear expression. They informally experience the chain rule and then move to more formal representations. Finally, they are introduced to the product rule, which serves as template for learning additional rules more formally.< Less
This worksheet provides immediate feedback for students as it is self-checking. It is fun and satisfying for students because the answers correspond to images that decode a secret picture. It gives... More > students plentiful opportunities to practice factoring numbers, which will help solidify their mastery of multiplication facts (times tables). You may also be interested in "PUZZLE MATH: Mixed Derivatives" and "PUZZLE MATH: Trigonometry and Logarithms".< |
Summary: These authors understand what it takes to be successful in mathematics, the skills that students bring to this course, and the way that technology can be used to enhance learning without sacrificing math skills. As a result, they have a created a textbook with an overall learning system involving preparation, practice, and review to help students get the most out of the time they put into studying. In sum, Sullivan and Sullivan'sAlgebra and Trigonometry: Enhanced with Graphing Utilit...show moreiesgives students a model for success in mathematics. ...show less
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Math Mammoth Geometry 1 is a self-teaching worktext that gives a thorough view of basic plane geometry, as taught in elementary grades. The emphasis is on learning through drawing.
This hands-on type... More > of learning allows students to draw and thereby learn, making use of certain guided exercises. The idea is that if he can draw it, then he understands it.
Math Mammoth Geometry 1 is a complete unit of geometry and not tied to any specific grade level. It is suitable for 3rd, 4th, and 5th (even sixth) grade. It is also excellent for self-teaching studies even at higher levels where review is needed. Full answers are included.< Less
This workbook is intended to give students a thorough review of 5th grade math. It has both topical as well as mixed (spiral) review worksheets, and includes both topical tests and a comprehensive... More > end-of-the-year test.
The tests can also be used as review worksheets, instead of tests. You can use this workbook to prepare students who are going into 6th grade, or give 5th grade students extra practice with a variety of problems.
Topics covered are: the four operations, large numbers, the calculator, decimals, graphing, statistics, fractions, geometry and problem solving. The content for these is taken from Math Mammoth Grade 5 Complete Curriculum, so this workbook works especially well to prepare students for grade 6 in Math Mammoth. The content follows a typical study for grade 3, so this workbook can be used no matter which math curriculum you follow. Please note this book does not contain lessons or instruction for the topics. It is not intended for initial teaching.< Less
This workbook is intended to give students a thorough review of 6th grade math. It has both topical as well as mixed (spiral) review worksheets, and includes both topical tests and a comprehensive... More > end-of-the-year test. The tests can also be used as review worksheets, instead of tests. You can use this workbook to prepare students who are going into 7th grade, or give 6th grade students extra practice with a variety of problems.
Topics covered are: review of the basic operations, expressions and equations, decimals, ratios, percent, factoring, fractions, integers, geometry and statistics. The content for these is taken from Math Mammoth Grade 6 Complete Curriculum, so this workbook works especially well to prepare students for grade 4 in Math Mammoth. The content follows a typical study for grade 6, so this workbook can be used no matter which math curriculum you follow. Please note this book does not contain lessons or instruction for the topics. It is not intended for initial teaching.< Less |
January 2000:Eric
Weisstein's World of Mathematics - Eric W. Weisstein and Wolfram
Research
A searchable, browseable, comprehensive alphabetical encyclopedia of
math terms, equations, and derivations, with explanations, examples,
references, and much more. In addition to the alphabetical index, a
subject index includes the following categories, each with a number of
subcategories: Algebra, Applied Mathematics, Calculus and Analysis,
Discrete Mathematics, Foundations of Mathematics, Geometry, History and
Terminology, Number Theory, Probability and Statistics, Recreational
Mathematics, and Topology. A hardcover version and a CD-ROM are
available for purchase.
February 2000:CHANCE -
J. Laurie Snell, Mathematics Dept., Dartmouth College
Materials designed to help teach either a "Chance" course or a more
standard introductory probability or statistics course. A Chance course
is a case study quantitative literacy course designed to make students
more informed and critical readers of current news items that use
probability and statistics, as reported in daily newspapers. The site
includes: Chance News, a monthly newsletter with abstracts of articles
from current newspapers and journals, and suggestions for discussion
questions for class use, with an archive; video lectures and audio
discussions of Chance topics; syllabi of previous Chance courses and
articles that have been written about them; a Teacher's Guide and other
materials useful for teaching a Chance course; and links to related
Internet sources for teaching a probability or statistics course.
March 2000:Dynamical Systems
and
Technology - Robert L. Devaney; Dept. of Mathematics, Boston
University
An NSF-sponsored project designed to help secondary school and college
teachers
of mathematics bring contemporary topics in mathematics (chaos,
fractals, dynamics) into the classroom, and to show them how to use
technology effectively in this process. There are several interactive
papers available designed to help teachers understand the mathematics
behind such topics as iterated function systems (the chaos game) and the
Mandelbrot and Julia sets, with some JAVA applets for chaos and
fractals. Features of the site include: JAVA Applets for chaos and
fractals; an interactive paper describing some of the mathematical ideas
behind Tom Stoppard's play, Arcadia; organizational information,
and an online Fractal Quiz, from Boston University's Mathematics Field
Day; animated gifs and QuickTime movies of simple fractals; and
interactive papers on dynamical systems, including The Fractal Geometry
of the Mandelbrot Set, and Chaos in the
Classroom.
May 2000:NCTM Standards (Standards
2000) -
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)
NCTM's Principles and Standards for School Mathematics is the
updated version of the 1989 Standards. The main feature of the site is
the Standards themselves. (The document is also available on CD-Rom,
which comes with the book or may be purchased separately.) The full,
illustrated text is available online, along with a set of Java
illustrations for each chapter. Other features of the site include:
information about the process used in the creation of the
Standards; information on the different formats available and how to
obtain them; previous standards (their full text is available on the
web); and related
resources.
June 2000:Shodor Education Foundation,
Inc.
A non-profit research and education organization dedicated to the
advancement of science and math education, specifically through the use
of modeling and simulation technologies. Interactive middle school
lessons, aligned with curricula, are available through Shodor's Project Interactivate.
For interactive models and curricular materials, the Foundation offers
its MASTER: Modeling and
Simulation Tools for Education Reform resources, such as a galaxy
simulation, simulated annealing, biomedical and environmental models,
and a simulation of Edgar Allen Poe's "Pit and the Pendulum." Also
available are summer and Saturday programs and workshops for kids,
including Explorations in Computational Science for Hearing-Impaired
Students; professional development opportunities through the Shodor
Computational Science Institute; and an online Braille instruction
program.
July 2000:The JASON Project
A year-round scientific expedition designed to excite and engage
students in science and technology, and to motivate and provide
professional development for teachers. The project mounts a two-week
scientific expedition each year. The team conducts research on location,
and while doing so, makes live, interactive broadcasts to participants.
The project's internet component allows teachers and students to
exchange their experiences, data, and ideas with each other and with the
research team; they may also hold live web chats with the team, and view
photos and journals the team has posted. The project provides a rich,
interdisciplinary, standards-based curriculum which gives students the
opportunity to conduct "field research" mirroring the actual research.
Professional development is available through the JASON Project, both in
local
workshops around the country, and through online course offerings. The
workshops emphasize the incorporation of a wide variety of technologies
in their classrooms, and hands-on, inquiry-based learning opportunities
for students, making teachers into "co-learners."
September 2000:Web Units and Lessons - The Math Forum
Multimedia teaching materials from the Math Forum. Created by
collaboration between the Forum and educators, these units combine
hypertext, interaction, multimedia, and e-learning. A sampling: Magic
Squares; Pascal's Triangle; Tangrams; Tessellation Tutorials; Varnelle's
Primary Math - Introduction to Geometry; Geoboards in the Classroom;
Polyhedra in the Classroom; Secondary Math Units; Exploring Data;
Adventures in Statistics; Chameleon Graphing - an introduction to the
coordinate plane; Math to Build On - basic math applied to the
construction trades; Famous Problems in the History of Mathematics;
Geometry Through Art.
October 2000:Animated Math
Glossary - Harcourt School Publishers
A glossary of common mathematical terms for first- through eighth-grade.
The words and definitions vary according to grade level: the same words
defined more abstractly at later levels are defined more concretely at
earlier levels. Each entry has an example or illustration, most of which
are animated. A "Tables" section at the end of the alphabet gives tables
of measurements, units of time, formulas, and symbols, for grades three
and up. Check out the "Math Menu," too, for Harcourt Brace's Math Advantage,
where you can find Java and Shockwave activities for kids, and resources
for parents and teachers.
November 2000:George W. Hart
A playground of polyhedra on the web. Here you'll find: Encyclopedia of
Polyhedra, with over 1000 virtual reality 3-dimensional polyhedra to
explore, as well as Polyhedra in Art History, Zometool constructions,
and making paper models; Pavilion of Polyhedreality, containing
ray-traced images and geometry references (books, websites, and
software); Hart's newly-available book, Zome Geometry, on using
Zome kits in the classroom; a gallery of geometric sculpture; and more.
Topics are easy to follow, and you can dig deep if you're interested.
And the pictures are always pretty.
December 2000:The Guide to Math &
Science Reform - Learner Online; Annenberg/CPB Projects
Interested in education reform? Find reform-based organizations,
research projects, and other resources. Browse the over 1500 entries.
Search by keyword, reform focus, type of technology involved, funding
source, and more. Informative feature articles
are available on the topics of assessment, collaboration, educational
policy and research, funding, preservice education, professional
development, special education, spotlighting education organizations,
teaching strategies, and technology. There is also a calendar of
upcoming conferences. Part of the rich and extensive Learner.org site. |
Physics Union Mathematics
PUM is a physics/physical science curriculum that strongly links middle and high school physics curricula and builds on the intrinsic mathematical reasoning to develop and strengthen students' mathematical concepts at the pre-algebra, algebra and algebra 2 levels. PUM curriculum consists of logically connected modules that allow students to build their conceptual understanding of physics concepts, develop relevant mathematical reasoning and simultaneously learn how to think like scientists. The following modules are developed and are available upon request:
Physics I (these can be used in middle school physical science courses, high school physical science courses, and high school conceptual physics courses): Motion; Forces, Energy, Matter.
Physics II: (can be used in all high school physics courses including AP B): Kinematics, Dynamics, Momentum, Energy, Electrostatic Forces, Electric Fields, DC circuits (circular motion, geometrical optics and magnetism are under development).
PUM modules contain lesson activities, homework questions, daily quiz questions and final tests. They use simple equipment that any school is likely to have. In case of the lack of needed equipment, Rutgers has a small lending library. The modules work with any textbook and can be implemented "as is" or used to supplement any materials that the teacher already uses. Each module contains about 20-25 lessons.
PUM curriculum builds on the philosophy of the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE, Etkina & Van Heuvelen, 2007) and utilizes many activities adapted from The Physics Active Learning Guide (ALG by Van Heuvelen and Etkina and published by Addison-Wesley). ISLE has been a highly successful college physics curriculum. Preliminary research indicates that ISLE students acquire content knowledge better than students in traditionally taught courses and have learning gains competitive with top active engagement programs. In addition ISLE students acquire various science process abilities (Etkina et al., 2006).
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant DRL-0733140. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation (NSF). |
Windows software designed to introduce linear equations and basic algebra, bringing together many of the requirements of the grades 7-10 math curriculum or providing a review of fundamentals for adults. Levels 1-2 include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division facts up to 9, and the decimal concept 0.5; higher levels gradually introduce more terms, integers, double-digit numbers, estimation, rounding, brackets, and fractions. |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
An engagingly-written account of mathematical tools and ideas, this book provides a graduate-level introduction to the mathematics used in research in physics. The first half of the book focuses on the traditional mathematical methods of physics - differential and integral equations, Fourier series and the calculus of variations. The second half contains an introduction to more advanced subjects, including differential geometry, topology and complex variables. The authors' exposition avoids excess rigor whilst explaining subtle but important points often glossed over in more elementary texts. The topics are illustrated at every stage by carefully chosen examples, exercises and problems drawn from realistic physics settings. These make it useful both as a textbook in advanced courses and for self-study.
Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
"The many features that make the book valuable to students and teachers also represent a substantial step toward making modern mathematics a part of the working arsenal of practicing physics. I strongly recommend it to those who feel the need to upgrade their mathematics repertoire."
David Khmelnitskii, Physics Today
Related Subjects
Meet the Author
Michael Stone is a Professor in the Department of Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He has worked on quantum field theory, superconductivity, the quantum Hall effect and quantum computing.
Paul Goldbart is a Professor in the Department of Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he directs the Institute for Condensed Matter Theory. His research ranges widely over the field of condensed matter physics, including soft matter, disordered systems, nanoscience and superconductivity |
Description
The updated guide to the newest graphing calculator from Texas Instruments
The TI-Nspire graphing calculator is popular among high school and college students as a valuable tool for calculus, AP calculus, and college-level algebra courses. Its use is allowed on the major college entrance exams. This book is a nuts-and-bolts guide to working with the TI-Nspire, providing everything you need to get up and running and helping you get the most out of this high-powered math tool.
Texas Instruments' TI-Nspire graphing calculator is perfect for high school and college students in advanced algebra and calculus classes as well as students taking the SAT, PSAT, and ACT exams
This fully updated guide covers all enhancements to the TI-Nspire, including the touchpad and the updated software that can be purchased along with the device
Shows how to get maximum value from this versatile math tool
With updated screenshots and examples, TI-Nspire For Dummies provides practical, hands-on instruction to help students make the most of this revolutionary graphing calculator TI-Nspire for Dummies It was a very good book. I thought it was very informative and gave me lots of advice for my calculator.
A Google User A Google User
Review: TI-Nspire for Dummies I don't know what's more pathetic, that I read a book about using a calculator, or that I thought it was pretty good.
Duffy Pratt Duffy Pratt
User reviews
A Google User A Google User Goodreads
Goodreads
Review: TI-Nspire for Dummies It was a very good book. I thought it was very informative and gave me lots of advice for my calculator |
Job Status
My son needs to get a section of Algebra completed to graduate for High School.
It is an online series of question and answers.
There are 1 simple quiz as far as I can tell:
The final quiz is on Fractions, Decimals and Percents. Most of them are simple questions such as:
6/7 / 9/10 = ?
There are only 14 question which could take a math person experienced with Algebra a very short amount of time.
I would provide you ...
hi, i need someone who understands any one of the topic below:
1) Introduction Real Functions and Graphs is a reminder of the principles underlying the sketching of graphs of functions and other curves.
2) Group Theory (A) Symmetry studies the symmetries of plane figures and solids, including the five 'Platonic solids', and leads to the definition of a group.
3) Linear Algebra Vectors and Conics is an introduction to vectors and to the properties of conic sections.
4) Analysis |
A systematic, research-based introduction to the principles and practice of teaching mathematics at primary school level. This second edition includes new material on middle years, and on numeracy, early numbers and fractions. more... By combining the mathematical history of extrema with contemporary... more...
"This textbook is aimed at newcomers to nonlinear dynamics and chaos, especially students taking a first course in the subject. The presentation stresses analytical methods, concrete examples and geome"Praise for the Second Edition "This book is a systematic, well-written, well-organized text on multivariate analysis packed with intuition and insight . . . There is much practical wisdom in this book that is hard to find elsewhere." —IIE Transactions Filled with new and timely content, Methods of Multivariate Analysis,... more... |
"Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics, I assure you that mine are greater." Einstein, Albert (1879-1955). If you are not Einstein, or are actually having difficulties with mathematics, let this website...
This website, by Tom Henderson of Glenbrook South High School, offers a lesson explaining statics and equilibrium. It is the third in a unit on Forces in Two Dimensions and the previous lessons can be found on the left...
The University of Akron has created these excellent algebra tutorials that review some of the main topics in the discipline. There are ten lessons, which focus on topics like radicals and exponents, basic algebra,...
This resource guides the user through characteristics of circular motion. The same concepts and principles used to describe the motion of an object can also be used to describe and explain the motion of objects in...
This web page, authored and curated by David P. Stern, outlines the math and applications of parallax. Parallax is the shift in the apparent direction to an object when it is viewed from two separated locations. It... |
Precalculus With Unit-Circle Trigonometry - With CD - 4th edition
Summary: David Cohen's PRECALCULUS, WITH UNIT-CIRCLE TRIGONOMETRY, Fourth Edition, focuses on teaching mathematics, using a graphical perspective throughout to provide a visual understanding of college algebra and trigonometry. The author is known for his clear writing style and the numerous quality exercises and applications he includes in his respected texts. In this new edition, graphs, visualization of data, and functions are now introduced much earlier and receive greate...show morer emphasis. Many sections now contain more examples and exercises involving applications and real-life data. While this edition takes the existence of the graphing calculator for granted, the material is arranged so that one can teach the course with as much or as little graphing utility work as he/she wishes. ...show less
Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers. Graphs of the Sine and the Cosine Functions. Graphs of y = A sin(Bx-C) and y = A cos(Bx - C). Simple Harmonic Motion. Graphs of the Tangent and the Reciprocal Functions.
Right-Triangle Applications. The Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines. Vectors in the Plane, a Geometric Approach. Vectors in the Plane, an Algebraic Approach. Parametric Equations. Introduction to Polar Coordinates. Curves in Polar Coordinates.
10. SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS.
Systems of Two Linear Equations in Two Unknowns. Gaussian Elimination. Matrices. The Inverse of a Square Matrix. Determinants and Cramer's Rule. Nonlinear Systems of Equations. Systems of Inequalities.
11. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY.
The Basic Equations. The Parabola. Tangents to Parabolas (Optional). The Ellipse. The Hyperbola. The Focus-Directrix Property of Conics. The Conics in Polar Coordinates. Rotation of Axes.
12. ROOTS OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS.
The Complex Number System. Division of Polynomials. Roots of Polynomial Equations: The Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. Rational and Irrational Roots. Conjugate Roots and Descartes' Rule of Signs. Introduction to Partial Fractions. More About Partial Fractions.
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Calculus for Dummies
Getting ready for calculus but still feel a bit confused? Have no fear. "Pre-Calculus For Dummies" is an unintimidating, hands-on guide that walks ...Show synopsisGetting ready for calculus but still feel a bit confused? Have no fear. "Pre-Calculus For Dummies" is an unintimidating, hands-on guide that walks you through all the essential topics, from absolute value and quadratic equations to logarithms and exponential functions to trig identities and matrix operations. With the help of this clear, easy-to-use resource, you'll soon precalc isn't as impossible as you thought. Discover how to: Apply the major theorems and formulasUnderstand quadratic, square-root, absolute value, cubic, and cube-root functionsGraph trig functions like a proFlip-flop with inverse functionsFind trig values on the unit circleWork with trig identities and advanced identitiesTackle analytic geometrySolve oblique triangles with the laws of sines and cosinesUse polar coordinates to express points on a planeIdentify function limits and continuityPlace vectors on a coordinate plane.Rotate and shift conic section formsSolve systems with mingling and matrices If "the fun and easy way to learn pre-calc" seems like an oxymoron to you, order "Pre-Calculus For Dummies" today, and get ready to be surprised |
Book summary
This is an accompaniment for economics students who have a limited knowledge of maths, presenting a solved-problem introduction to basic concepts in calculus, differential equations, matrix algebra and linear programming. This new edition contains new chapters on logarithmic differentiation, area under a curve, and a review section for those students whose understanding of maths is very weak. [via] |
books.google.com - Here is a complete self-teaching guide for anyone needing knowledge of math as it applies to engineering and technical fields. ... Math Demystified
About the author (2006)
Stan Gibilisco is the author of several important scientific books, including Understanding Einstein's Theory of Relativity and Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics. While his primary interests are in technical and scientific fields, his passion has always been writing. He has worked as vice president of an electronic company and explains the exciting field of electronics in clear and complete terms. Gibilisco was born on September 26, 1953 in Birmingham, Ala. and educated at the University of Minnesota. |
This lesson is a contextualized math modules for the Integrated Energy and Process Technology faculty. The modules are...
see more
This lesson is a contextualized math modules for the Integrated Energy and Process Technology faculty. The modules are developed to be integrated into courses to help students refresh math skills they will need in order to complete their course work.
OpenAlgebra.com is a free online algebra study guide and problem solver designed to supplement any algebra course. There are...
see more
OpenAlgebra.com is a free online algebra study guide and problem solver designed to supplement any algebra course. There are hundreds of solved problems, video solutions, sample test questions, worksheets, and interactives.
This StAIR (Stand Alone Instructional Resource) was created to help students understand Additive Inverses. This was intended...
see more
This StAIR (Stand Alone Instructional Resource) was created to help students understand Additive Inverses. This was intended for use by middle school students (6th - 7th graders). Students can use this resource by itself without assistance. It includes tutorials on the topic and questions for the students to complete to check their understanding as they work. There are links to videos and additional sites for further explanation and information, if needed.
This is a Stand Alone Instructinal Resource (StAIR) designed to teach and test students on their understanding of different...
see more
This is a Stand Alone Instructinal Resource (StAIR) designed to teach and test students on their understanding of different triangle classifications. It could be used as initial instruction, or as an effective review tool at the end of a unit/lesson on triangle classification.
The objective is to teach the Common Core Standard MCC7.SP.8 in which students must Investigate chance processes and develop,...
see more
The objective is to teach the Common Core Standard MCC7.SP.8 in which students must Investigate chance processes and develop, use, and evaluate probability models. Students must understand that samples spaces can be represented using organized lists, tables, and tree diagrams, use tree diagrams, list and tables to find probability of compound events and understand that all the possible outcomes of a compound event can derive from tree diagrams, lists and tables. |
algebra
Good old school text
If you want a college algebra or advanced algebra 2 text with no fancy colored pictures, "what have you learned" reviews, and wasted wide blank margins, just lots of meaty material and TONS |
A First Course in Complex Analysis
These are the lecture notes of a one-semester undergraduate course which we taught at SUNY Binghamton and San Francisco State.
For many of our students, Complex Analysis is their first rigorous analysis (if not mathematics) class they take, and these
notes reflect this very much. We tried to rely on as few concepts from real analysis as possible. In particular,
series and sequences are treated "from scratch." This also has the (maybe disadvantageous) consequence that power series
are introduced very late in the course.
Copyright 2002-2012 by the authors. All rights reserved.
This book may be
freely reproduced and distributed, provided that it is reproduced in its
entirety from the most recent version. This book may not be altered in any
way, except for changes in format required for printing or other
distribution, without the permission of the authors.
"First, it is neccessary to study the facts, to multiply the number of observations, and then later to search for
formulas that connect them so as thus to discern the particular laws governing a certain class of phenomena.
In general, it is not until after these particular laws have been established that one can expect to discover
and articulate the more general laws that complete theories by bringing a multitude of apparently very diverse
phenomena together under a single governing principle."
Augustin Louis Cauchy |
Mathematics Test. Although you do not need to memorize these formulas, it is a good idea to be familiar with the contents of this page so that ... Formula Sheet. Title: GED Formula Sheet Author: Carin Lovell Created Date: 3/8/2011 12:44:14 PM ...
Every grade level is provided a separate formulachart for reference when necessary. The exact same formulachart is also found in the test booklet at the beginning of the mathematics test. The formula charts have changed over the years.
on the exit level mathematics TAKS test. Griddable questions ask you to measure something or use math to solve a science problem. You will see an example of a ... Yes! A formulachart is provided on page 8 of this study guide. It is identical to the formula
THE MATHEMATICS OF ASTROLOGY DOES HOUSE DIVISION MAKE SENSE? By Kevin Heng Ser Guan Department of Physics National University of Singapore Supervisor: ... We will now derive a formula for V when the angle is φ. Since speed is defined locally,
Probably is mathematics among all sciences the most close to a discovery of harmony (as music among the arts). ... Each formula mentioned here is a reflection of a beautiful Idea. There is no sense in comparing them. One can only enjoy them.
Will the Grade 7 MathematicsFormulaChart be helpful on this problem? Why or why not? 3. How can I determine which variable I want get by itself? 4. What problem-solving strategy or strategies will I use to help solve this problem? 5.
MP.4 Model with mathematics. MP.5 Use appropriate tools strategically. ... might lead them to the general formula for the sum of a geometric series. As they work to solve a problem, mathematically proficient students maintain oversight of the ... Standards for Mathematical Practice Chart.pdf
CMT FormulaChart 3 Organization of CMT Strands by Content Standard 4 Mastery Criteria Map 6 Point Values for Each Standard 8 ... mathematics vocabulary, by grade level, with which all students should be familiar to be successful in mathematics; and |
Sapling Learning is a leading independent on line homework that has been used by hundreds of thousands of students. Sapling learning is a powerful tool for physics and provides content for algebra- and calculus-based introductory physics courses. In addition to numeric and equation based questions, conceptual understanding is measured using sorting, labeling, ranking, multiple choice, and multiple select answer types.
WebAssign is an independent online homework and assessment solution first launched by the physics department at North Carolina State University in 1997. Today, WebAssign reaches over a million students each year. WebAssign empowers faculty to deliver fully customizable assignments and high quality content to their students in an interactive online environment. WebAssign supports College Physics with over 2000 algorithmically-generated problems, most with problem-specific feedback, detailed solutions, and stepped-out tutorial support. Instructors can supplement any WebAssign course with a wide variety of additional assessment content developed, tested, and proven by experts in physics education research to support both the problem-solving and conceptual understanding needs of the course.
Expert TA is committed to building a dynamic online homework grading software for Introductory physics classes with a comprehensive library of original content to supplement a range of texts. Expert TA provides an integrated suite that combines online homework and tutorial modes to enhance student-learning outcomes and meet physics instructors' assessment needs. Expert TA is used by universities, community colleges, and high schools.
The Student Solution Manual is a free download for students. The SSM has full stepped out solutions for every third conceptual question and every sixth problem. Answers to all odd problems will be displayed in the online version when the student clicks the "Answer" link under an odd problem.
Veritas Tutors is a premiere provider of educational products and services Veritas Tutors is also pleased to provide a free and open study guide "How to Succeed in Physics" to teach you essential concepts, provide essential math review, and demonstrate problem solving techniques to help you master physics. Download Now!
Learningpod's goal is to help our community build the largest library of free, online practice questions in the world. We've partnered with OpenStax College to offer free pods (question sets) for the College Physics textbook. You can answer questions, get explanations and track your results. You can also generate quick practice sets (Instapods) on any subject you're interested in. Learn more at
The PowerPoint slides are based on the extensive illustrations from College Physics. They can be edited, incorporated into lecture notes, and you are free to share with anyone in the community. This is a restricted item requiring faculty registration. NOTE: This file is very large and may take some time to download. |
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Elements Of Modern Algebra
Elements of Modern Algebra, 7th Edition
Summary
Succeed in modern algebra with ELEMENTS OF MODERN ALGEBRA! With a user-friendly format, this mathematics text provides you with the tools you need to get a good grade. Strategy boxes give you guidance and explanations about techniques and enable you to become more proficient at constructing proofs. A summary of key words and phrases at the end of each chapter help you master the material. A reference section, symbolic marginal notes, an appendix, and numerous examples help you develop your problem solving skills. |
Course 3 (Grade 8) provides a solid mathematical foundation in order to fully prepare your child for algebra. Students will study solving equations, integers, how to perform operations with rational numbers, use the pythagorean theorum, find the midpoint, examine proportional & nonproportional relationships, use percents and graphs, solve multi-step equations, classify triangles and quadrilaterals, find the surface area and volume of prisms & cylinders, understand slope & functions, add & subtract polynomials, and more
The workbook provides complete daily support for the lesson, and includes a daily notetaking guide, guided problem solving exercises, and additional practice for every lesson. For each chapter vocabulary and study skills are emphasized. The Daily Notebooking Guide is designed to be used while working through the text; each section corresponds to a section in the text, with objectives clearly laid out. Perforated, newsprint-like pages, softcover.
The Teacher Center CD-ROM includes all the tools parents will need to successfully teach this course. This CD-ROM includes the TeacherExpress CD which includes a lesson planner, teacher's edition, and teaching resources, as well as the MindPoint QuizShow CD and the Presentation Express that has lesson PowerPoint Presentations.
This Grade 8 kit includes:
Parent Guide Pamphlet for Homeschoolers
Course 3 Textbook, 746 pages, 12 "chapters" with sub-units.
Course 3 Workbook, 449 pages, softcover.
Teacher's Center CD-ROM
System Requirements for Teacher's Center CD-ROM:
Windows 2000, XP
4X CD-ROM Drive
100 MB hard drive Space
128 MB RAM (256 MB RAM or higher recommended)
Mac Users, please note: the Teacher's Resource DVD-ROM will only work on PowerPC & G4 Macs, and is not supported for new versions. |
Introduces the student to the scope of mathematics as a profession, develops a sense of mathematical curiosity and problem solving skills, identifies and reinforces the student's career choices, and provides a mechanism for regular academic advising. Provides integration with oth...
This course allows students to discover, explore, and apply modern mathematical ideas. Emphasis is placed on using sound reasoning skills, visualizing mathematical concepts, and communicating mathematical ideas effectively. Classroom discussion and group work on challenging pro...
Analytic geometry. Functions and their graphs. Limits and continuity. Derivatives of algebraic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions. Applications of the derivative. Introduction to integrals and their applications.
Transcendental functions and their calculus. Integration techniques. Applications of the integral. Indeterminate forms and improper integrals. Polar coordinates. Numerical series and power series expansions. |
course, designed for Miami Dade Community College, integrates arithmetic and beginning algebra for the undergraduate student. By applying math to real-life situations most students experience during college, the...
The University of Akron has created these excellent algebra tutorials that review some of the main topics in the discipline. There are ten lessons, which focus on topics like radicals and exponents, basic algebra,...
Presented by HippoCampus, a project of the Monterey Institute for Technology and Education, this free online course "is a study of the basic skills and concepts of elementary algebra, including language and operations...
This document from SpaceTEC National Aerospace Technical Education Center presents a core readiness course which will serve to prepare individuals entering the aerospace field. The document is 55 pages and contains... |
Partial Differential Equations for Geometric Design
This volume introduces recent developments of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) in the field of Geometric Design. The text is written with a particular emphasis on computer based design and analysis involving the geometry of physical objects.
The subject of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) which first emerged in the 18th century holds an exciting and special position in the applications relating to the mathematical modelling of physical phenomena. The subject of PDEs has been developed by major names in Applied Mathematics such as Euler, Legendre, Laplace and Fourier and has applications to each and every physical phenomenon known to us e.g. fluid flow, elasticity, electricity and magnetism, weather forecasting and financial modelling. This book introduces the recent developments of PDEs in the field of Geometric Design particularly for computer based design and analysis involving the geometry of physical objects. Starting from the basic theory through to the discussion of practical applications the book describes how PDEs can be used in the area of Computer Aided Design and Simulation Based Design. Extensive examples with real life applications of PDEs in the area of Geometric Design are discussed in the book.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Elementary Mathematics for Geometric Design.
Introduction to Geometric Design.
Introduction to Partial Differential Equations.
Elliptic PDEs for Geometric Design.
Interactive Design.
Parametric Design.
Functional Design.
Other Applications.
Conclusions |
Basic College Mathematics - With CD - 5th edition
Summary: A worktext format for basic college math or arithmetic courses including lecture-based, self-paced, and modular classes.
John Tobey and Jeff Slater are experienced developmental math authors and active classroom teachers. The Tobey approach focuses on building skills one at a time by breaking math down into manageable pieces. This building block organization is a practical approach to basic math skill development that makes it easier for students to unde...show morerstand each topic, gaining confidence as they move through each section. Knowing students crave feedback, Tobey has enhanced the new edition with a "How am I Doing?" guide to math success. The combination of continual reinforcement of basic skill development, ongoing feedback and a fine balance of exercises makes the fifth edition of Tobey/Slater Basic College Mathematics even more practical and accessible.
Features
Chapter Organizers neatly summarize the chapter topics, procedures and corresponding examples all in one place to simplify chapter review.
Develop Your Study Skills boxes throughout remind and encourage students to hone these all-important study skills.
A Mathematics Blueprint for Problem Solving provides a consistent and interactive outline that helps students organize their approach to problem solving. The Blueprint helps students know where to begin, and how to understand the process, plan subsequent steps, and successfully solve applications.
Problem Solving is thorough, integrated throughout and easy to follow with key steps highlighted with the pedagogical use of color.
Putting Your Skills to Work applications provide opportunities to solve real world situations using newly mastered math skills. Students utilize critical thinking skills, analyze and interpret data and solve using situations encountered in daily life.
Math in the Media exercises offer students yet another opportunity to see how the math they are learning applies to the world around them.
Exercises are paired and graded (easy to more difficult) and each exercise set includes Verbal and Writing Skills and Mixed Practice exercises.
A built-in solutions manual offers worked out solutions to the practice problems and reinforces the problem solving process2004 |
Visual Mathematics 1
Visual Mathematics Description
Visual Mathematics is a highly interactive visualization software (containing -at least- 67 modules) addressed to High school, College and University students. This is a very powerful tool that helps to learn and solve problems by the hundreds in a very short time.
Included areas: Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, Analytic Geometry and miscellaneous.
Visual Mathematics, a member of the Virtual Dynamics Mathematics Virtual Laboratory, is an Intuitively-Easy-To-Use software.
Vi... |
More About
This Textbook
Overview
Discovering Higher Mathematics: Four Habits of Highly Effective Mathematicians provides an interactive transition to the abstraction of higher mathematics. Levine stresses the importance of four main themes (or habits), experimentation, conjecture, proof, and generalization, emphasizing them as processes critical to mathematical thinking.
The book presents elementary topics such as number theory, polynomials, combinatorics, and discrete mathematics as useful tools for learning the four main themes. The author encourages experimentation and derivation of results through a series of guided lessons.
Key Features
* Constructed around four key themes: Experimentation, Conjecture, Proof, and Generalization
* Guidelines for effective mathematical thinking, covering a variety of interrelated topics
* Numerous problems and exercises designed to reinforce the key themes
Related Subjects
Meet the Author
Alan Levine is a graduate of the State University of New York at Stony Brook with a degree in Operations Research and Applied Math. Since 1983 he has taught at Franklin and Marshall College. He is the co-author, with George Rosenstein, of Discovering |
An applied approach to calculasDocument Transcript
CHAPTER 0 Review *This chapter consists of review material. It may be used as the first part of the course or later as ajust-in-time review when the content is required. Specific references to this chapter occur throughoutthe book to assist in the review process.
0.1 Real NumbersPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following:OBJECTIVES 1 Classify numbers 2 Evaluate numerical expressions 3 Work with properties of real numbersSetsWhen we want to treat a collection of similar but distinct objects as a whole, we use the idea of a set. Forexample, the set of digits consists of the collection of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. If we use thesymbol D to denote the set of digits, then we can writeIn this notation, the braces { } are used to enclose the objects, or elements, in the set. This method ofdenoting a set is called the roster method . A second way to denote a set is to use set-builder notation,where the set D of digits is written asread as "D is the set of all x such that x is a digit." EXAMPLE 1 Using Set-Builder Notation and the Roster Method (a) E = { x | x is an even digit} = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} (b) O = { x | x is an odd digit} = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}In listing the elements of a set, we do not list an element more than once because the elements of a set aredistinct. Also, the order in which the elements are listed is not relevant. For example, {2, 3} and {3, 2}both represent the same set.If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then we say that A is a subset of B. If two sets Aand B have the same elements, then we say that A equals B. For example, {1, 2, 3} is a subset of {1, 2, 3,4, 5}, and {1, 2, 3} equals {2, 3, 1}.Finally, if a set has no elements, it is called the empty set , or the null set , and is denoted by the symbolØ.
Classification of NumbersIt is helpful to classify the various kinds of numbers that we deal with as sets. The counting numbers, ornatural numbers, are the numbers in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, …}. (The three dots, called an ellipsis , indicatethat the pattern continues indefinitely.) As their name implies, these numbers are often used to countthings. For example, there are 26 letters in our alphabet; there are 100 cents in a dollar. The wholenumbers are the numbers in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, …}, that is, the counting numbers together with 0. The integers are the numbers in the set {…, −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, …}.These numbers are useful in many situations. For example, if your checking account has $10 in it and youwrite a check for $15, you can represent the current balance as −$5.Notice that the set of counting numbers is a subset of the set of whole numbers. Each time we expand anumber system, such as from the whole numbers to the integers, we do so in order to be able to handlenew, and usually more complicated, problems. The integers allow us to solve problems requiring bothpositive and negative counting numbers, such as profit/loss, height above/below sea level, temperatureabove/below 0°F, and so on.But integers alone are not sufficient for all problems. For example, they do not answer the question"What part of a dollar is 38 cents?" To answer such a question, we enlarge our number system to includerational numbers. For example, answers the question "What part of a dollar is 38 cents?" A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a quotient of two integers. The integer a is called the numerator , and the integer b, which cannot be 0, is called the denominator . The rational numbers are the numbers in the set { where a and b, b ≠ 0, are integers}.Examples of rational numbers are , , , , and . Since for any integer a, it follows that theset of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers.Rational numbers may be represented as decimals. For example, the rational numbers , , , andmay be represented as decimals by merely carrying out the indicated division:Notice that the decimal representations of and terminate, or end. The decimal representations ofand do not terminate, but they do exhibit a pattern of repetition. For , the 6 repeats indefinitely;for , the block 06 repeats indefinitely. It can be shown that every rational number may be representedby a decimal that either terminates or is nonterminating with a repeating block of digits, and vice versa.
On the other hand, there are decimals that do not fit into either of these categories. Such decimalsrepresent irrational numbers. Every irrational number may be represented by a decimal that neitherrepeats nor terminates. In other words, irrational numbers cannot be written in the form , where a and b,b ≠ 0, are integers.Irrational numbers occur naturally. For example, consider the isosceles right triangle whose legs are eachof length 1. See Figure 1. The length of the hypotenuse is , an irrational number. FIGURE 1Also, the number that equals the ratio of the circumference C to the diameter d of any circle, denoted bythe symbol π (the Greek letter pi), is an irrational number. See Figure 2. FIGURE 2 Together, the rational numbers and irrational numbers form the set of real numbers.Figure 3 shows the relationship of various types of numbers. FIGURE 3
SOLUTION (a) 10 is the only natural number. (b) −3 and 10 are integers. (c) and 10 are rational numbers. (d) and π are irrational numbers. (e) All the numbers listed are real numbers. NOW WORK PROBLEM 3.ApproximationsEvery decimal may be represented by a real number (either rational or irrational), and every real numbermay be represented by a decimal.The irrational numbers and π have decimal representations that begin as follows:In practice, decimals are generally represented by approximations. For example, using the symbol ≈ (readas "approximately equal to"), we can writeIn approximating decimals, we either round off or truncate to a given number of decimal places. Thenumber of places establishes the location of the final digit in the decimal approximation. Truncation: Drop all the digits that follow the specified final digit in the decimal. Rounding: Identify the specified final digit in the decimal. If the next digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the final digit; if the next digit is 4 or less, leave the final digit as it is. Now truncate following the final digit.
EXAMPLE 3 Approximating a Decimal to Two PlacesApproximate 20.98752 to two decimal places by (a) Truncating (b) RoundingSOLUTIONFor 20.98752, the final digit is 8, since it is two decimal places from the decimal point. (a) To truncate, we remove all digits following the final digit 8. The truncation of 20.98752 to two decimal places is 20.98. (b) To round, we examine the digit following the final digit 8, which is 7. Since 7 is 5 or more, we add 1 to the final digit 8 and truncate. The rounded form of 20.98752 to two decimal places is 20.99. EXAMPLE 4 Approximating a Decimal to Two and Four Places Rounded to Rounded to Truncated to Truncated to Two Decimal Four Decimal Two Decimal Four Decimal Number Places Places Places Places (a) 3.14159 3.14 3.1416 3.14 3.1415 (b) 0.056128 0.06 0.0561 0.05 0.0561 (c) 893.46125 893.46 893.4613 893.46 893.4612
NOW WORK PROBLEM 7.CalculatorsCalculators are finite machines. As a result, they are incapable of displaying decimals that contain a largenumber of digits. For example, some calculators are capable of displaying only eight digits. When anumber requires more than eight digits, the calculator either truncates or rounds. To see how yourcalculator handles decimals, divide 2 by 3. How many digits do you see? Is the last digit a 6 or a 7? If it isa 6, your calculator truncates; if it is a 7, your calculator rounds.There are different kinds of calculators. An arithmetic calculator can only add, subtract, multiply, anddivide numbers; therefore, this type is not adequate for this course. Scientific calculators have all thecapabilities of arithmetic calculators and also contain function keys labelled ln, log, sin, cos, tan, x y , inv,and so on. Graphing calculators have all the capabilities of scientific calculators and contain a screen onwhich graphs can be displayed.For those who have access to a graphing calculator, we have included comments, examples, and exercisesmarked with a , indicating that a graphing calculator is required. We have also included an Appendixthat explains some of the capabilities of a graphing calculator. The comments, examples, andexercises may be omitted without loss of continuity, if so desired.OperationsIn algebra, we use letters such as x, y, a, b, and c to represent numbers. The symbols used in algebra forthe operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are +, −, ·, and /. The words used todescribe the results of these operations are sum, difference, product, and quotient. Table 1 summarizesthese ideas. TABLE 1 Operation Symbol Words Addition a+b Sum: a plus b Subtraction a−b Difference: a minus b Multiplication a· b, (a)· b, a·(b), (a)·(b), ab, (a)b, a(b), (a)(b) Product: a times b Division a/b or Quotient:a divided by bWe generally avoid using the multiplication sign × and the division sign ÷ so familiar in arithmetic. Noticealso that when two expressions are placed next to each other without an operation symbol, as in ab, or inparentheses, as in (a)(b), it is understood that the expressions, called factors , are to be multiplied.We also prefer not to use mixed numbers.When mixed numbers are used, addition is understood; forexample, means . The use of a mixed number may be confusing because the absence of an
operation symbol between two terms is generally taken to mean multiplication. The expression istherefore written instead as 2.75 or as .The symbol =, called an equal sign and read as "equals" or "is," is used to express the idea that thenumber or expression on the left of the equal sign is equivalent to the number or expression on the right. EXAMPLE 5 Writing Statements Using Symbols (a) The sum of 2 and 7 equals 9. In symbols, this statement is written as 2 + 7 = 9. (b) The product of 3 and 5 is 15. In symbols, this statement is written as 3 · 5 = 15. NOW WORK PROBLEM 19.Order of Operations2 Evalute numerical expressionsConsider the expression 2 + 3 · 6. It is not clear whether we should add 2 and 3 to get 5, and then multiplyby 6 to get 30; or first multiply 3 and 6 to get 18, and then add 2 to get 20. To avoid this ambiguity, wehave the following agreement. We agree that whenever the two operations of addition and multiplication separate three numbers, the multiplication operation will be performed first, followed by the addition operation.For example, we find 2 + 3 · 6 as follows: EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Value of an ExpressionEvaluate each expression. (a) 3 + 4 · 5 (b) 8 · 2 + 1
Rules for the Order of Operations 1. Begin with the innermost parentheses and work outward. Remember that in dividing two expressions the numerator and denominator are treated as if they were enclosed in parentheses. 2. Perform multiplications and divisions, working from left to right. 3. Perform additions and subtractions, working from left to right. EXAMPLE 8 Finding the Value of an ExpressionEvaluate each expression. (a) 8 · 2 + 3 (b) 5 · (3 + 4) + 2 (c) (d) 2 + [4 + 2 · (10 + 6)]SOLUTION (a) (b)
(c) (d) NOW WORK PROBLEMS 37 AND 45.Properties of Real NumbersWork with properties of real numbersWe have used the equal sign to mean that one expression is equivalent to another. Four importantproperties of equality are listed next. In this list, a, b, and c represent numbers. 1. The reflexive property states that a number always equals itself; that is, a = a. 2. The symmetric property states that if a = b then b = a. 3. The transitive property states that if a = b and b = c then a = c. 4. The principle of substitution states that if a = b then we may substitute b for a in any expression containing a.Now, let's consider some other properties of real numbers.We begin with an example. EXAMPLE 9 Commutative Properties (a)
(b)This example illustrates the commutative property of real numbers, which states that the order in whichaddition or multiplication takes place will not affect the final result. Commutative Properties (1a) (1b)Here, and in the properties listed next and on pages 10–13, a, b, and c represent real numbers. EXAMPLE 10 Associative Properties (a) (b)The way we add or multiply three real numbers will not affect the final result. So, expressions such as2 + 3 + 4 and 3 · 4 · 5 present no ambiguity, even though addition and multiplication are performed on onepair of numbers at a time. This property is called the associative property . Associative Properties (2a) (2b)
The next property is perhaps the most important. Distributive Property (3a)The distributive property may be used in two different ways. EXAMPLE 11 Distributive Property NOW WORK PROBLEM 63.The real numbers 0 and 1 have unique properties. EXAMPLE 12 Identity Properties (a) 4 + 0 = 0 + 4 = 4 (b) 3 · 1 = 1 · 3 = 3The properties of 0 and 1 illustrated in Example 12 are called the identity properties . Identity Properties (4a) (4b)We call 0 the additive identity and 1 the multiplicative identity.For each real number a, there is a real number − a, called the additive inverse of a, having the followingproperty:
Additive Inverse Property (5a) EXAMPLE 13 Finding an Additive Inverse (a) The additive inverse of 6 is −6, because 6 + (−6) = 0. (b) The additive inverse of −8 is −(−8) = 8, because −8 + 8 = 0.The additive inverse of a, that is, − a, is often called the negative of a or the opposite of a. The use ofsuch terms can be dangerous, because they suggest that the additive inverse is a negative number, which itmay not be. For example, the additive inverse of −3, namely −(−3), equals 3, a positive number.For each nonzero real number a, there is a real number , called the multiplicative inverse of a, havingthe following property: Multiplicative Inverse Property (5b)The multiplicative inverse of a nonzero real number a is also referred to as the reciprocal of a. EXAMPLE 14 Finding a Reciprocal (a) The reciprocal of 6 is , because . (b) The reciprocal of −3 is −3, because . (c) The reciprocal of is , because .
With these properties for adding and multiplying real numbers, we can now define the operations ofsubtraction and division as follows: The difference a − b, also read " a less b" or " a minus b," is defined as (6)To subtract b from a, add the opposite of b to a. If b is a nonzero real number, the quotient , also read as " a divided by b" or "the ratio of a to b," is defined as (7) EXAMPLE 15 Working with Differences and Quotients (a) 8 − 5 = 8 + (−5) = 3 (b) 4 − 9 = 4 + (−9) =−5 (c)For any number a, the product of a times 0 is always 0. Multiplication by Zero (8)For a nonzero number a, we have the following division properties.
(11) EXAMPLE 17 Using the Cancellation Properties (a) If 2x = 6, then (b)NOTE: We follow the common practice of using slash marks to indicate cancellations. Zero-Product Property (12) EXAMPLE 18 Using the Zero-Product PropertyIf 2x = 0, then either 2 = 0 or x = 0. Since 2 ≠ 0, it follows that x = 0. Arithmetic of Quotients (13) (14)
(15) EXAMPLE 19 Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing Quotients (a) (b) (c) NOTE: Slanting the cancellation marks in different directions for different factors, as shown here, is a good practice to follow, since it will help in checking for errors. (d)NOTE: In writing quotients, we shall follow the usual convention and write the quotient in lowest terms;that is, we write it so that any common factors of the numerator and the denominator have been removedusing the cancellation properties, Equation 11. For example,
NOW WORK PROBLEMS 47, 51, AND 61.Sometimes it is easier to add two fractions using least common multiples (LCM). The LCM of twonumbers is the smallest number that each has as a common multiple. EXAMPLE 20 Finding the Least Common Multiple of Two NumbersFind the least common multiple of 15 and 12.To find the LCM of 15 and 12, we look at multiples of 15 and 12.SOLUTION 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, … 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, 84, 96, 108, 120, …The common multiples are in blue. The least common multiple is 60. EXAMPLE 21 Using the Least Common Multiple to Add Two FractionsFind:SOLUTIONWe use the LCM of the denominators of the fractions and rewrite each fraction using the LCM as acommon denominator. The LCM of the denominators (12 and 15) is 60. Rewrite each fraction using 60 asthe denominator. NOW WORK PROBLEM 55.
11. 0.0629112. 0.0538813. 9.998514. 1.000615.16.17.18.In Problems 19–28, write each statement using symbols.19. The sum of 3 and 2 equals 5.20. The product of 5 and 2 equals 10.21. The sum of x and 2 is the product of 3 and 4.22. The sum of 3 and y is the sum of 2 and 2.23. 3 times y is 1 plus 2.
77. Explain why 2(3 · 4) is not equal to (2 · 3) · (2 · 4).78. Explain why is not equal to .79. Is subtraction commutative? Support your conclusion with an example.80. Is subtraction associative? Support your conclusion with an example.81. Is division commutative? Support your conclusion with an example.82. Is division associative? Support your conclusion with an example.83. If 2 = x, why does x = 2?84. If x = 5, why does x2 + x = 30?85. Are there any real numbers that are both rational and irrational? Are there any real numbers that are neither? Explain your reasoning.86. Explain why the sum of a rational number and an irrational number must he irrational.87. What rational number does the repeating decimal 0.9999 … equal?
0.2 Algebra ReviewOBJECTIVES 1 Graph inequalities 2 Find distance on the real number line 3 Evaluate algebraic expressions 4 Determine the domain of a variable 5 Use the laws of exponents 6 Evaluate square roots 7 Use a calculator to evaluate exponents 8 Use scientific notationThe Real Number LineThe real numbers can be represented by points on a line called the real number line . There is a one-to-onecorrespondence between real numbers and points on a line. That is, every real number corresponds to a pointon the line, and each point on the line has a unique real number associated with it.Pick a point on the line somewhere in the center, and label it O. This point, called the origin , corresponds tothe real number 0. See Figure 4. The point 1 unit to the right of O corresponds to the number 1. The distancebetween 0 and 1 determines the scale of the number line. For example, the point associated with the number 2is twice as far from O as 1 is. Notice that an arrowhead on the right end of the line indicates the direction inwhich the numbers increase. Figure 4 also shows the points associated with the irrational numbers and π.Points to the left of the origin correspond to the real numbers −1, −2, and so on. FIGURE 4 The real number associated with a point P is called the coordinate of P, and the line whose points have
been assigned coordinates is called the real number line . NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.The real number line consists of three classes of real numbers, as shown in Figure 5: 1. The negative real numbers are the coordinates of points to the left of the origin O. 2. The real number zero is the coordinate of the origin O. 3. The positive real numbers are the coordinates of points to the right of the origin O. FIGURE 5InequalitiesAn important property of the real number line follows from the fact that, given two numbers (points) a and b,either a is to the left of b, a is at the same location as b, or a is to the right of b. See Figure 6. FIGURE 6If a is to the left of b, we say that " a is less than b" and write a < b. If a is to the right of b, we say that " a is
greater than b" and write a > b. If a is at the same location as b, then a = b. If a is either less than or equal tob, we write a b. Similarly, a ≥ b means that a is either greater than or equal to b. Collectively, the symbols <,>, ≤, and ≥ are called inequality symbols .Note that a < b and b > a mean the same thing. It does not matter whether we write 2 < 3 or 3 > 2.Furthermore, if a < b or if b > a, then the difference b − a is positive. Do you see why? EXAMPLE 1 Using Inequality Symbols (a) 3 < 7 (b) −8 > −16 (c) −6 < 0 (d) −8 < −4 (e) 4 > − 1 (f) 8>0In Example 0.1(a), we conclude that 3 < 7 either because 3 is to the left of 7 on the real number line orbecause the difference 7 − 3 = 4 is a positive real number.Similarly, we conclude in Example 0.1(b) that −8 > −16 either because −8 lies to the right of −16 on the realnumber line or because the difference −8 − (−16) = −8 + 16 = 8, is a positive real number.Look again at Example 0.1. Note that the inequality symbol always points in the direction of the smallernumber.An inequality is a statement in which two expressions are related by an inequality symbol. The expressionsare referred to as the sides of the inequality. Statements of the form a < b or b > a are called strictinequalities , whereas statements of the form a ≤ b or b ≥ a are called nonstrict inequalities . Based on the discussion thus far, we conclude thatWe sometimes read a > 0 by saying that " a is positive." If a ≥ 0, then either a > 0 or a = 0, and we may read
this as "a is nonnegative." NOW WORK PROBLEMS 5 AND 15.1 Graphing InequalitiesWe shall find it useful in later work to graph inequalities on the real number line. EXAMPLE 2 Graphing Inequalities (a) On the real number line, graph all numbers x for which x > 4. (b) On the real number line, graph all numbers x for which x ≤ 5.SOLUTION (a) See Figure 7. Notice that we use a left parenthesis to indicate that the number 4 is not part of the graph. FIGURE 7 (b) See Figure 8. Notice that we use a right bracket to indicate that the number 5 is part of the graph. FIGURE 8 NOW WORK PROBLEM 21.Absolute ValueThe absolute value of a number a is the distance from 0 to a on the number line. For example, −4 is 4 unitsfrom 0; and 3 is 3 units from 0. See Figure 9. Thus, the absolute value of −4 is 4, and the absolute value of 3 is3.
FIGURE 9A more formal definition of absolute value is given next. The absolute value of a real number a, denoted by the symbol | a|, is defined by the rulesFor example, since −4 < 0, the second rule must be used to get |−4| = −(−4) = 4. EXAMPLE 3 Computing Absolute Value (a) |8| = 8 (b) |0| = 0 (c) |−15| = −(−15) = 152 Find distance on the real number lineLook again at Figure 9. The distance from −4 to 3 is 7 units. This distance is the difference 3 − (−4), obtainedby subtracting the smaller coordinate from the larger. However, since |3 − (−4)| = |7| = 7 and|−4 − 3| = |−7| = 7, we can use absolute value to calculate the distance between two points without beingconcerned about which is smaller. If P and Q are two points on a real number line with coordinates a and b, respectively, the distance between P and Q, denoted by d(P, Q), isSince | b − a| = | a − b|, it follows that d(P, Q) = d(Q, P).
EXAMPLE 4 Finding Distance on a Number LineLet P, Q, and R be points on a real number line with coordinates −5, 7, and −3, respectively. Find the distance (a) between P and Q (b) between Q and RSOLUTIONWe begin with Figure 10. FIGURE 10 (a) d(P, Q) = |7 − (−5)| = |12| = 12 (b) d(Q, R) = |−3 − 7| = |−10| = 10 NOW WORK PROBLEM 27.Constants and VariablesAs we said earlier, in algebra we use letters such as x, y, a, b, and c to represent numbers. If the letter used isto represent any number from a given set of numbers, it is called a variable . A constant is either a fixednumber, such as 5 or , or a letter that represents a fixed (possibly unspecified) number.Constants and variables are combined using the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divisionto form algebraic expressions. Examples of algebraic expressions include3 Evaluate algebraic expressionTo evaluate an algebraic expression, substitute for each variable its numerical value.
In working with expressions or formulas involving variables, the variables may be allowed to take on valuesfrom only a certain set of numbers. For example, in the formula for the area A of a circle of radius r, A = πr2,the variable r is necessarily restricted to the positive real numbers. In the expression , the variable x cannottake on the value 0, since division by 0 is not defined. The set of values that a variable may assume is called the domain of the variable . EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Domain of a VariableThe domain of the variable x in the expressionis { x | x ≠ 2}, since, if x = 2, the denominator becomes 0, which is not defined. EXAMPLE 7 Circumference of a CircleIn the formula for the circumference C of a circle of radius r,the domain of the variable r, representing the radius of the circle, is the set of positive real numbers. Thedomain of the variable C, representing the circumference of the circle, is also the set of positive real numbers.In describing the domain of a variable, we may use either set notation or words, whichever is more convenient. NOW WORK PROBLEM 47.Exponents5 Use the laws of exponentsInteger exponents provide a shorthand device for representing repeated multiplications of a real number. Forexample,Additionally, many formulas have exponents. For example, · The formula for the horsepower rating H of an engine is
where D is the diameter of a cylinder and N is the number of cylinders. · A formula for the resistance R of blood flowing in a blood vessel is where L is the length of the blood vessel, r is the radius, and C is a positive constant. If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then the symbol a n represents the product of n factors of a. That is, (1) Here it is understood that a1 = a.Then a2 = a · a, a3 = a · a · a, and so on. In the expression an , a is called the base and n is called theexponent , or power . We read a n as " a raised to the power n" or as " a to the nth power."We usually reada2 as " a squared" and a3 as " a cubed."In working with exponents, the operation of raising to a power is performed before any other operation. Asexamples,Parentheses are used to indicate operations to be performed first. For example,If a ≠ 0, we defineIf a ≠ 0 and if n is a positive integer, then we define
Whenever you encounter a negative exponent, think "reciprocal." EXAMPLE 8 Evaluating Expressions Containing Negative Exponents (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEMS 65 AND 85.The following properties, called the Laws of Exponents , can be proved using the preceding definitions. In thelist, a and b are real numbers, and m and n are integers. Laws of Exponents EXAMPLE 9 Using the Laws of Exponents (a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) NOW WORK PROBLEM 67 EXAMPLE 10 Using the Laws of ExponentsWrite each expression so that all exponents are positive. (a) (b)SOLUTION (a) (b) NOW WORK PROBLEM 77Square Roots6 Evaluate square rootsA real number is squared when it is raised to the power 2. The inverse of squaring is finding a square root. Forexample, since 62 = 36 and (−6)2 = 36, the numbers 6 and −6 are square roots of 36.The symbol , called a radical sign, is used to denote the principal, or nonnegative, square root. Forexample, .
In general, if a is a nonnegative real number, the nonnegative number b, such that b2 = a is the principal square root of a, and is denoted by .The following comments are noteworthy:1. Negative numbers do not have square roots (in the real number system), because the square of any real number is nonnegative. For example, is not a real number, because there is no real number whose square is −4.2. The principal square root of 0 is 0, since 02 = 0. That is, .3. The principal square root of a positive number is positive.4. If c ≥ 0, then . For example, and . EXAMPLE 11 Evaluating Square Roots (a) (b) (c) (d)Examples 0.11(a) and 0.11(b) are examples of square roots of perfect squares, since 64 = 82 and .Notice the need for the absolute value in Example 0.11(d). Since a2 ≥ 0, the principal square root of a2 isdefined whether a > 0 or a < 0. However, since the principal square root is nonnegative, we need the absolutevalue to ensure the nonnegative result.In general, we have
(2) EXAMPLE 12 Using Equation (2) (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 73Calculator UseYour calculator has either the caret key, , or the key, which is used for computations involvingexponents.7 EXAMPLE 13 Exponents on a Graphing CalculatorEvaluate: (2.3)5SOLUTIONFigure 11 shows the result using a TI-83 graphing calculator. FIGURE 11
NOW WORK PROBLEMS 103Scientific NotationMeasurements of physical quantities can range from very small to very large. For example, the mass of aproton is approximately 0.00000000000000000000000000167 kilogram and the mass of Earth is about5,980,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms. These numbers obviously are tedious to write down anddifficult to read, so we use exponents to rewrite each. When a number has been written as the product of a number x, where 1 ≤ x < 10, times a power of 10, it is said to be written in scientific notation.In scientific notation, Converting a Decimal to Scientific Notation To change a positive number into scientific notation: 1. Count the number N of places that the decimal point must be moved in order to arrive at a number x, where 1 ≤ x < 10. 2. If the original number is greater than or equal to 1, the scientific notation is x × 10 N . If the original number is between 0 and 1, the scientific notation is x × 10− N . EXAMPLE 14 Using Scientific NotationWrite each number in scientific notation. (a) 9582 (b) 1.245
(c) 0.285 (d) 0.000561SOLUTION (a) The decimal point in 9582 follows the 2. Thus, we count stopping after three moves, because 9.582 is a number between 1 and 10. Since 9582 is greater than 1, we write (b) The decimal point in 1.245 is between the 1 and 2. Since the number is already between 1 and 10, the scientific notation for it is 1.245 × 100 = 1.245. (c) The decimal point in 0.285 is between the 0 and the 2. We count stopping after one move, because 2.85 is a number between 1 and 10. Since 0.285 is between 0 and 1, we write (d) The decimal point in 0.000561 is moved as follows:
As a result, NOW WORK PROBLEM 109 EXAMPLE 15 Changing from Scientific Notation to a DecimalWrite each number as a decimal. (a) 2.1 × 104 (b) 3.26 × 10−5 (c) 1 × 10−2SOLUTION (a) (b)
(c)On a calculator, a number such as 3.615 × 1012 is usually displayed as NOW WORK PROBLEM 117 EXAMPLE 16 Using Scientific Notation (a) The diameter of the smallest living cell is only about 0.00001 centimeter (cm). Express this number in scientific notation. Source: Powers of Ten, Philip and Phylis Morrison. (b) The surface area of Earth is about 1.97 × 108 square miles. Express the surface area as a whole number. Source: 1998 Information Please Almanac.SOLUTION (a) 0.00001 cm = 1 × 10−5 cm because the decimal point is moved five places and the number is less than 1.
12.In Problems 13–18, write each statement as an inequality.13. x is positive14. z is negative15. x is less than 216. y is greater than −517. x is less than or equal to 118. x is greater than or equal to 2In Problems 19–22, graph the numbers x on the real number line.19. x ≥ −220. x<421. x > −122. x≤7In Problems 23–28, use the real number line below to compute each distance.23. d(C, D)
In Problems 37–46, find the value of each expression if x = 3 and y = − 2.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.45.46.In Problems 47–54, determine which of the value(s) given below, if any, must be excluded from thedomain of the variable in each expression: (a) x = 3 (b) x = 1 (c) x = 0
(d) x = −147.48.49.50.51.52.53.54.In Problems 55–58, determine the domain of the variable x in each expression.55.56.57.
70. (2−1)−371.72.73.74.In Problems 75–84, simplify each expression. Express the answer so that all exponents are positive.Whenever an exponent is 0 or negative, we assume that the base is not 0.75. (8x3)276. (−4x2)−177. (x2 y−1)278. (x−1 y)379.80.81.
94.95. xy96. yx97. Find the value of the expression 2x3 −3x2 + 5x −4 if x = 2. What is the value if x = 1?98. Find the value of the expression 4x3 + 3x2 − x + 2 if x = 1. What is the value if x = 2?99. What is the value of ?100. What is the value of (0.1)3(20)3?In Problems 101–108, use a calculator to evaluate each expression. Round your answer to threedecimal places.101. (8.2)6102. (3.7)5103. (6.1)−3104. (2.2)−5105. (−2.8)6106. −(2.8)6
119. 1.214 × 10−3120. 9.88 × 10−4121. 1.1 × 108122. 4.112 × 102123. 8.1 × 10−2124. 6.453 × 10−1In Problems 125–134, express each statement as an equation involving the indicated variables. Statethe domain of each variable.125. Area of a Rectangle The area A of a rectangle is its length l times its width w.126. Perimeter of a Rectangle The perimeter P of a rectangle is twice the sum of its length l and its width w.127. Circumference of a Circle The circumference C of a circle is πtimes its diameter d.128. Area of a Triangle The area A of a triangle is one-half the base b times its height h.
129. Area of an Equilateral Triangle The area A of an equilateral triangle is times the square of the length x of one side.130. Perimeter of an Equilateral Triangle The perimeter P of an equilateral triangle is 3 times the length x of one side.131. Volume of a Sphere The volume V of a sphere is times π the cube of the radius r.132. Surface Area of a Sphere The surface area S of a sphere is 4 times π times the square of the radius r.133. Volume of a Cube The volume V of a cube is the cube of the length x of a side.134. Surface Area of a Cube The surface area S of a cube is 6 times the square of the length x of a side.135. Manufacturing Cost The weekly production cost C of manufacturing x watches is given by the formula C = 4000 + 2x, where the variable C is in dollars.
(a) What is the cost of producing 1000 watches? (b) What is the cost of producing 2000 watches?136. Balancing a Checkbook At the beginning of the month, Mike had a balance of $210 in his checking account. During the next month, he deposited $80, wrote a check for $120, made another deposit of $25, wrote two checks for $60 and $32, and was assessed a monthly service charge of $5.What was his balance at the end of the month?137. U.S. Voltage In the United States, normal household voltage is 115 volts. It is acceptable for the actual voltage x to differ from normal by at most 5 volts. A formula that describes this is (a) Show that a voltage of 113 volts is acceptable. (b) Show that a voltage of 109 volts is not acceptable.138. Foreign Voltage In other countries, normal household voltage is 220 volts. It is acceptable for the actual voltage x to differ from normal by at most 8 volts. A formula that describes this is (a) Show that a voltage of 214 volts is acceptable. (b) Show that a voltage of 209 volts is not acceptable.139. Making Precision Ball Bearings The FireBall Company manufactures ball bearings for precision equipment. One of their products is a ball bearing with a stated radius of 3 centimeters (cm). Only ball bearings with a radius within 0.01 cm of this stated radius are acceptable. If x is the radius of a ball bearing, a formula describing this situation is
(a) Is a ball bearing of radius x = 2.999 acceptable? (b) Is a ball bearing of radius x = 2.89 acceptable?140. Body Temperature Normal human body temperature is 98.6°F. A temperature x that differs from normal by at least 1.5°F is considered unhealthy. A formula that describes this is (a) Show that a temperature of 97°F is unhealthy. (b) Show that a temperature of 100°F is not unhealthy.141. Does equal 0.333? If not, which is larger? By how much?142. Does equal 0.666? If not, which is larger? By how much?143. Is there a positive real number "closest" to 0?144. Im thinking of a number! It lies between 1 and 10; its square is rational and lies between 1 and 10. The number is larger than π. Correct to two decimal places, name the number. Now think of your own number, describe it, and challenge a fellow student to name it.145. Write a brief paragraph that illustrates the similarities and differences between "less than" (<) and "less than or equal to" (≤).
0.3 Polynomials and Rational ExpressionsOBJECTIVES 1 Recognize special products 2 Factor polynomials 3 Simplify rational expressions 4 Use the LCM to add rational expressionsAs we said earlier, in algebra we use letters to represent real numbers. We shall use the letters at the endof the alphabet, such as x, y, and z, to represent variables and the letters at the beginning of the alphabet,such as a, b, and c, to represent constants. In the expressions 3x + 5 and ax + b, it is understood that x is avariable and that a and b are constants, even though the constants a and b are unspecified. As you willfind out, the context usually makes the intended meaning clear.Now we introduce some basic vocabulary. A monomial in one variable is the product of a constant and a variable raised to a nonnegative integer power; that is, a monomial is of the form where a is a constant, x is a variable, and k ≥ 0 is an integer. The constant a is called the coefficient of the monomial. If a ≠ 0, then k is called the degree of the monomial.Examples of monomials follow: Monomial Coefficient Degree 6x2 6 2 3 3 3 0 Since 3 = 3·1 = 3x0
Monomial Coefficient Degree −5x −5 1 Since −5x = −5x1 x4 1 4 Since x4 = 1· x4Two monomials ax k and bx k with the same degree and the same variable are called like terms . Suchmonomials when added or subtracted can be combined into a single monomial by using the distributiveproperty. For example,The sum or difference of two monomials having different degrees is called a binomial . The sum ordifference of three monomials with three different degrees is called a trinomial . For example, A polynomial in one variable is an algebraic expression of the form (1) where an , an−1,…, a1, a0 are constants,* called the coefficients of the polynomial, n ≥ 0 is an integer, and x is a variable. If an ≠ 0, it is called the leading coefficient , and n is called the degree of the polynomial.The monomials that make up a polynomial are called its terms . If all the coefficients are 0, thepolynomial is called the zero polynomial , which has no degree.Polynomials are usually written in standard form, beginning with the nonzero term of highest degree andcontinuing with terms in descending order according to degree. If a power of x is missing, it is because itscoefficient is zero. Examples of polynomials follow: Polynomial Coefficients Degree 3x2−5 = 3x2 + 0· x + (−5) 3, 0, −5 2
Polynomial Coefficients Degree 8 − 2x + x2 = 1· x2 − 2x + 8 1,−2,8 2 5, 1 3 = 3·1 = 3·x0 3 0 0 0 No degreeAlthough we have been using x to represent the variable, letters such as y or z are also commonly used. 3x4 − x2 + 2 is a polynomial (in x) of degree 4. 9y3 − 2y2 + y − 3 is a polynomial (in y) of degree 3. z5 + π is a polynomial (in z) of degree 5.Algebraic expressions such asare not polynomials. The first is not a polynomial because has an exponent that is not anonnegative integer. Although the second expression is the quotient of two polynomials, the polynomial inthe denominator has degree greater than 0, so the expression cannot be a polynomial.1 Recognize special productsCertain products, which we call special products , occur frequently in algebra. In the list that follows, x,a, b, c, and d are real numbers. Difference of Two Squares (2)
Squares of Binomials, or Perfect Squares (3a) (3b)Miscellaneous Trinomials (4a) (4b)Cubes of Binomials, or Perfect Cubes (5a) (5b)Difference of Two Cubes (6)Sum of Two Cubes (7)
The special product formulas in equations (2), 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b, 5a, 5b, 6, 7 are used often, and their patternsshould be committed to memory. But if you forget one or are unsure of its form, you should be able toderive it as needed. EXAMPLE 1 Using Special Formulas (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 3.2 Factor polynomialsFactoringConsider the following product:The two polynomials on the left are called factors of the polynomial on the right. Expressing a givenpolynomial as a product of other polynomials, that is, finding the factors of a polynomial, is calledfactoring .We shall restrict our discussion here to factoring polynomials in one variable into products of polynomialsin one variable, where all coefficients are integers. We call this factoring over the integers .Any polynomial can be written as the product of 1 times itself or as −1 times its additive inverse. If apolynomial cannot be written as the product of two other polynomials (excluding 1 and −1), then thepolynomial is said to be prime. When a polynomial has been written as a product consisting only of primefactors, it is said to be factored completely. Examples of prime polynomials areThe first factor to look for in a factoring problem is a common monomial factor present in each term ofthe polynomial. If one is present, use the distributive property to factor it out. For example, Polynomial Common Monomial Factor Remaining Factor Factored Form
(f)The technique used in Example 0.2(f) is called factoring by grouping . NOW WORK PROBLEMS 17, 33, AND 69.Rational ExpressionsIf we form the quotient of two polynomials, the result is called a rational expression . Some examples ofrational expressions are (a) (b) (c) (d)Expressions (a), (b), and (c) are rational expressions in one variable, x, whereas (d) is a rational expressionin two variables, x and y.Rational expressions are described in the same manner as rational numbers. Thus, in expression (a), thepolynomial x3 + 1 is called the numerator , and x is called the denominator . When the numerator anddenominator of a rational expression contain no common factors (except 1 and −1), we say that therational expression is reduced to lowest terms, or simplified.3 Simplify rational expressionsA rational expression is reduced to lowest terms by completely factoring the numerator and thedenominator and canceling any common factors by using the cancellation property.
For example, EXAMPLE 3 Simplifying Rational ExpressionsReduce each rational expression to lowest terms.1.2.3.SOLUTION (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 75.The rules for multiplying and dividing rational expressions are the same as the rules for multiplying anddividing rational numbers. (8)
(9)In using equations (8) and 9 with rational expressions, be sure first to factor each polynomial completelyso that common factors can be canceled. We shall follow the practice of leaving our answers in factoredform. EXAMPLE 4 Finding Products and Quotients of Rational ExpressionsPerform the indicated operation and simplify the result. Leave your answer in factored form. (a) (b)SOLUTION (a)
(b) NOW WORK PROBLEM 53.If the denominators of two rational expressions to be added (or subtracted) are equal, we add (or subtract)the numerators and keep the common denominator. That is, if and are two rational expressions, then (10) EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Sum of Two Rational ExpressionsPerform the indicated operation and simplify the result. Leave your answer in factored form.SOLUTIONIf the denominators of two rational expressions to be added or subtracted are not equal, we can use thegeneral formulas for adding and subtracting quotients.
(11) EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Difference of Two Rational ExpressionsPerform the indicated operation and simplify the result. Leave your answer in factored form.SOLUTIONLeast Common Multiple (LCM)If the denominators of two rational expressions to be added (or subtracted) have common factors, weusually do not use the general rules given by equation (11), since, in doing so, we make the problem morecomplicated than it needs to be. Instead, just as with fractions, we apply the least common multiple(LCM) method by using the polynomial of least degree that contains each denominator polynomial as afactor. Then we rewrite each rational expression using the LCM as the common denominator and useequation (10) to do the addition (or subtraction).To find the least common multiple of two or more polynomials, first factor completely each polynomial.The LCM is the product of the different prime factors of each polynomial, each factor appearing thegreatest number of times it occurs in each polynomial. The next example will give you the idea. EXAMPLE 7 Finding the Least Common MultipleFind the least common multiple of the following pair of polynomials:
SOLUTIONThe polynomials are already factored completely asStart by writing the factors of the left-hand polynomial. (Alternatively, you could start with theone on the right.)Now look at the right-hand polynomial. Its first factor, 4, does not appear in our list, so we insert it:The next factor, x − 1, is already in our list, so no change is necessary. The final factor is(x + 1)3. Since our list has x + 1 to the first power only, we replace x + 1 in the list by (x + 1)3.The LCM isNotice that the LCM is, in fact, the polynomial of least degree that contains x(x − 1)2(x + 1) and4(x − 1)(x + 1)3 as factors.The next example illustrates how the LCM is used for adding and subtracting rational expressions.4 EXAMPLE 8 Using the LCM to Add Rational ExpressionsPerform the indicated operation and simplify the result. Leave your answer in factored form.SOLUTIONFirst, we find the LCM of the denominators.The LCM is (x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 1). Next, we rewrite each rational expression using the LCM as thedenominator.
Now we can add using equation (10).If we had not used the LCM technique to add the quotients in Example 0.8, but decided instead to use thegeneral rule of equation (11), we would have obtained a more complicated expression, as follows:Now we are faced with a more complicated problem of expressing this quotient in lowest terms. It isalways best to first look for common factors in the denominators of expressions to be added or subtractedand to use the LCM if any common factors are found. NOW WORK PROBLEM 57. EXERCISE 0.3 In Problems 1–10, perform the indicated operations. Express each answer as a polynomial written in standard form.
In Problems 75–82, expressions that occur in calculus are given. Reduce each expression tolowest terms.75.76.77.78.79.80.81.82.
0.4 Solving EquationsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Factoring Polynomials (Section 0.3) > Square Roots (Section 0.2) > Zero-Product Property (Section 0.2) > Absolute Value (Section 0.2)OBJECTIVES 1 Solve equations by factoring 2 Solve quadratic equations by factoring 3 Know how to complete the square 4 Solve a quadratic equation by completing the square 5 Solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formulaAn equation in one variable is a statement in which two expressions, at least one containing the variable, are equal. Theexpressions are called the sides of the equation. Since an equation is a statement, it may be true or false, depending on the valueof the variable. Unless otherwise restricted, the admissible values of the variable are those in the domain of the variable. Thoseadmissible values of the variable, if any, that result in a true statement are called solutions , or roots , of the equation. To solvean equation means to find all the solutions of the equation.For example, the following are all equations in one variable, x:The first of these statements, x + 5 = 9, is true when x = 4 and false for any other choice of x. So, 4 is a solution of the equationx + 5 = 9. We also say that 4 satisfies the equation x + 5 = 9, because, when we substitute 4 for x, a true statement results.Sometimes an equation will have more than one solution. For example, the equationhas x = −2 and x = 2 as solutions.Usually, we will write the solution of an equation in set notation. This set is called the solution set of the equation. For example,the solution set of the equation x2 − 9 = 0 is {−3, 3}.Some equations have no real solution. For example, x2 + 9 = 5 has no real solution, because there is no real number whose squarewhen added to 9 equals 5.An equation that is satisfied for every choice of the variable for which both sides are defined is called an identity . For example,the equation
is an identity, because this statement is true for any real number x.Two or more equations that have precisely the same solution set are called equivalent equations .For example, all the following equations are equivalent, because each has only the solution x = 5:These three equations illustrate one method for solving many types of equations: Replace the original equation by an equivalentequation, and continue until an equation with an obvious solution, such as x = 5, is reached. The question, though, is "How do Iobtain an equivalent equation?" In general, there are five ways to do so. Procedures That Result in Equivalent Equations 1. Interchange the two sides of the equation: 2. Simplify the sides of the equation by combining like terms, eliminating parentheses, and so on: 3. Add or subtract the same expression on both sides of the equation: 4. Multiply or divide both sides of the equation by the same nonzero expression: 5. If one side of the equation is 0 and the other side can be factored, then we may use the Zero-Product Property* and set each factor equal to 0:WARNING: Squaring both sides of an equation does not necessarily lead to an equivalent equation.Whenever it is possible to solve an equation in your head, do so. For example:
The solution of 2x = 8 is x = 4. The solution of 3x − 15 = 0 is x = 5.Often, though, some rearrangement is necessary. EXAMPLE 1 Solving an EquationSolve the equation: 3x − 5 = 4SOLUTIONWe replace the original equation by a succession of equivalent equations.The last equation, x = 3, has the single solution 3. All these equations are equivalent, so 3 is the only solution of theoriginal equation, 3x − 5 = 4.Check: It is a good practice to check the solution by substituting 3 for x in the original equation.The solution checks. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 15 AND 21.In the next examples, we use the Zero-Product Property.1 EXAMPLE 2 Solving Equations by FactoringSolve the equations: (a) x2 = 4x (b) x3 − x2 − 4x + 4 = 0
SOLUTION (a) We begin by collecting all terms on one side. This results in 0 on one side and an expression to be factored on the other. The solution set is {0,4}. Check: (b) We group the terms of x3 − x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 as follows: Factor x2 from the first grouping and 4 from the second. This reveals the common factor (x − 1), so we have The solution set is {−2,1,2}. Check: NOW WORK PROBLEM 25.There are two points whose distance from the origin is 5 units, −5 and 5, so the equation will have the solution set {−5,5}.
EXAMPLE 3 Solving an Equation Involving Absolute Value
Solve the equation:SOLUTIONThere are two possibilities:The solution set is {−17,9}.WARNING: Since the absolute value of any real number is nonnegative, equations such as have no solution. NOW WORK PROBLEM 37.Quadratic EquationsA quadratic equation is an equation equivalent to one written in the standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are realnumbers and a ≠ 0.When a quadratic equation is written in the standard form, ax2 + bx + c = 0, it may be possible to factor the expression on theleft side as the product of two first degree polynomials.2 EXAMPLE 4 Solving a Quadratic Equation by FactoringSolve the equation: 2x2 = x + 3SOLUTIONWe put the equation in standard form by adding − x−3 to both sides.The left side may now be factored asso thatThe solution set is { }.When the left side factors into two linear equations with the same solution, the quadratic equation is said to have a repeatedsolution. We also call this solution a root of multiplicity 2, or a double root.
EXAMPLE 5 Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring
Solve the equation: 9x2 − 6x + 1 = 0SOLUTIONThis equation is already in standard form, and the left side can be factored.soThis equation has only the repeated solution . NOW WORK PROBLEM 55.The Square Root MethodSuppose that we wish to solve the quadratic equation (1)where p is a nonnegative number. We proceed as in the earlier examples.We have the following result: (2)When statement 2 is used, it is called the Square Root Method . In statement 2, note that if p > 0 the equation x2 = p has twosolutions, and . We usually abbreviate these solutions as , read as " x equals plus or minus thesquare root of p."For example, the two solutions of the equationareand, since , we haveThe solution set is {−2,2}. NOW WORK PROBLEM 69.
Completing The Square3 Know how to complete the squareWe now introduce the method of completing the square. The idea behind this method is to adjust the left side of a quadraticequation, ax2 + bx + c = 0, so that it becomes a perfect square, that is, the square of a first-degree polynomial. For example,x2 + 6x + 9 and x2 − 4x + 4 are perfect squares becauseHow do we adjust the left side? We do it by adding the appropriate number to the left side to create a perfect square. Forexample, to make x2 + 6x a perfect square, we add 9.Let's look at several examples of completing the square when the coefficient of x2 is 1:Do you see the pattern? Provided that the coefficient of x2 is 1, we complete the square by adding the square of of thecoefficient of x. Procedure for completing a square NOW WORK PROBLEM 73.The next example illustrates how the procedure of completing the square can be used to solve a quadratic equation.4 EXAMPLE 6 Solving a Quadratic Equation by Completing the SquareSolve by completing the square: 2x2 − 12x − 5 = 0SOLUTIONFirst, we rewrite the equation as follows:
Next, we divide both sides by 2 so that the coefficient of x2 is 1. (This enables us to complete the square at the nextstep.)Now complete the square by adding 9 to both sides.The solution set isNOTE: If we wanted an approximation, say rounded to two decimal places, of these solutions, we would use a calculator to get{−0.39,6.39}. NOW WORK PROBLEM 79.5 Solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formulaThe Quadratic FormulaWe can use the method of completing the square to obtain a general formula for solving the quadratic equation.NOTE: There is no loss in generality to assume that a > 0, since if a < 0 we can multiply by −1 to obtain an equivalent equationwith a positive leading coefficient.As in Example 0.6, we rearrange the terms asSince a > 0, we can divide both sides by a to getNow the coefficient of x2 is 1. To complete the square on the left side, add the square of of the coefficient of x; that is, addto both sides. Then (3)Provided that b2 − 4ac ≥ 0, we now can use the Square Root Method to get
What if b2 − 4ac is negative? Then equation (3) states that the left expression (a real number squared) equals the right expression(a negative number). Since this occurrence is impossible for real numbers, we conclude that if b2 − 4ac < 0 the quadraticequation has no real solution.We now state the quadratic formula. Quadratic Formula Consider the quadratic equation If b2 − 4ac < 0, this equation has no real solution. If b2 − 4ac ≥ 0, the real solution(s) of this equation is (are) given by the quadratic formula. (4)The quantity b 2 − 4 ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation, because its value tells us whether the equation hasreal solutions. In fact, it also tells us how many solutions to expect. Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation For a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0: 1. If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two unequal real solutions. 2. If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is a repeated solution, a root of multiplicity 2. 3. If b2 − 4ac < 0, there is no real solution.When asked to find the real solutions, if any, of a quadratic equation, always evaluate the discriminant first to see how many realsolutions there are. EXAMPLE 7 Solving a Quadratic Equation Using the Quadratic Formula
Use the quadratic formula to find the real solutions, if any, of the equationSOLUTIONThe equation is in standard form, so we compare it to ax2 + bx + c = 0 to find a,b, and c.With a = 3, b = −5, and c = 1, we evaluate the discriminant b2 − 4ac.Since b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two real solutions, which can be found using the quadratic formula.The solution set is . EXAMPLE 8 Solving a Quadratic Equation Using the Quadratic FormulaUse the quadratic formula to find the real solutions, if any, of the equationSOLUTIONThe equation, as given, is not in standard form.With a = 3, b = −4, and c = 2, we findSince b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation has no real solution. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 85 AND 91.SUMMARY Procedure for Solving a Quadratic Equation To solve a quadratic equation, first put it in standard form:
116. Show that the product of the roots of a quadratic equation is .117. Find k such that the equation kx2 + x + k = 0 has a repeated real solution.118. Find k such that the equation x2 − kx + 4 = 0 has a repeated real solution.119. Show that the real solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the negatives of the real solutions of the equation ax2 − bx + c = 0. Assume that b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.120. Show that the real solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the reciprocals of the real solutions of the equation cx2 + bx + a = 0.Assume that b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.121. Which of the following pairs of equations are equivalent? Explain. (a) x2 = 9; x = 3 (b) ;x=3 (c) (x − 1)(x − 2) = (x − 1)2; x − 2 = x − 1122. The equation has no solution, yet when we go through the process of solving it we obtain x = −3. Write a brief paragraph to explain what causes this to happen.123. Make up an equation that has no solution and give it to a fellow student to solve. Ask the fellow student to write a critique of your equation.124. Describe three ways you might solve a quadratic equation. State your preferred method; explain why you chose it.125. Explain the benefits of evaluating the discriminant of a quadratic equation before attempting to solve it.126. Make up three quadratic equations: one having two distinct solutions, one having no real solution, and one having exactly one real solution.127. The word quadratic seems to imply four (quad), yet a quadratic equation is an equation that involves a polynomial
of degree 2. Investigate the origin of the term quadratic as it is used in the expression quadratic equation. Write abrief essay on your findings.
0.5 Intervals; Solving InequalitiesPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Real Number Line, Inequalities, Absolute Value (Section 0.2)OBJECTIVES 1 Use interval notation 2 Use properties of inequalities 3 Solve inequalities 4 Solve combined inequalities 5 Solve polynomial and rational inequalitiesSuppose that a and b are two real numbers and a < b. We shall use the notation a < x < b to mean that x isa number between a and b. The expression a < x < b is equivalent to the two inequalities a < x and x < b.Similarly, the expression a ≤ x ≤ b is equivalent to the two inequalities a ≤ x and x ≤ b. The remaining twopossibilities, a ≤ x < b and a < x ≤ b, are defined similarly.Although it is acceptable to write 3 ≥ x ≥ 2, it is preferable to reverse the inequality symbols and writeinstead 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 so that, as you read from left to right, the values go from smaller to larger.A statement such as 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 is false because there is no number x for which 2 ≤ x and x ≤ 1. Finally, wenever mix inequality symbols, as in 2 ≤ x ≥ 3.Intervals1 Use internal notationLet a and b represent two real numbers with a < b. A closed interval, denoted by [ a, b ], consists of all real numbers x for which a ≤ x ≤ b. An open interval, denoted by ( a, b ), consists of all real numbers x for which a < x < b. The half-open, or half-closed, intervals are ( a, b ], consisting of all real numbers x for which a < x ≤ b, and [ a, b ), consisting of all real numbers x for which a ≤ x < b.
In each of these definitions, a is called the left endpoint and b the right endpoint of the interval.The symbol ∞ (read as "infinity") is not a real number, but a notational device used to indicateunboundedness in the positive direction. The symbol −∞ (read as "negative infinity") also is not a realnumber, but a notational device used to indicate unboundedness in the negative direction. Using thesymbols ∞ and −∞, we can define five other kinds of intervals: [a, ∞) consists of all real numbers x for which x ≥ a (a ≤ x < ∞) (a, ∞) consists of all real numbers x for which x > a (a < x < ∞) (−∞, a] consists of all real numbers x for which x ≤ a (−∞ < x ≤ a) (−∞, a) consists of all real numbers x for which x < a (−∞ < x < a) (−∞, ∞) consists of all real numbers x (−∞ < x < ∞)Note that ∞ and −∞ are never included as endpoints, since neither is a real number.Table 2 summarizes interval notation, corresponding inequality notation, and their graphs. TABLE 2 Interval Inequality Graph The open interval (a, b) a<x<b The closed interval [a, b] a≤x≤b The half-open interval [a, b) a ≤ x < b The half-open interval (a, b] a < x ≤ b The interval [a, ∞) x≥a The interval (a, ∞) x>a
EXAMPLE 2 Writing Intervals Using Inequality NotationWrite each interval as an inequality involving x. (a) [1, 4) (b) (2, ∞) (c) [2, 3] (d) (−∞, −3]SOLUTION (a) [1, 4) consists of all numbers x for which 1 ≤ x < 4. (b) (2, ∞) consists of all numbers x for which x > 2 (2 < x < ∞). (c) [2, 3] consists of all numbers x for which 2 ≤ x ≤ 3. (d) (−∞, −3] consists of all numbers x for which x ≤ −3 (−∞ < x ≤ −3). NOW WORK PROBLEMS 1, 7, AND 15.Properties of Inequalities2 Use properties of inequalitiesThe product of two positive real numbers is positive, the product of two negative real numbers is positive,and the product of 0 and 0 is 0. For any real number a, the value of a2 is 0 or positive; that is, a2 isnonnegative. This is called the nonnegative property .For any real number a, we have the following:
Nonnegative Property (1)If we add the same number to both sides of an inequality, we obtain an equivalent inequality. Forexample, since 3 < 5, then 3 + 4 < 5 + 4 or 7 < 9. This is called the addition property of inequalities. Addition Property of Inequalities (2a) (2b)The addition property states that the sense, or direction, of an inequality remains unchanged if the samenumber is added to each side. Now let's see what happens if we multiply each side of an inequality by anon-zero number.Begin with 3 < 7 and multiply each side by 2. The numbers 6 and 14 that result yield the inequality 6 < 14.Begin with 9 > 2 and multiply each side by −4. The numbers −36 and −8 that result yield the inequality−36 < −8.Note that the effect of multiplying both sides of 9 > 2 by the negative number −4 is that the direction ofthe inequality symbol is reversed.We are led to the following general multiplication properties forinequalities: Multiplication Properties for InequalitiesThe multiplication properties state that the sense, or direction, of an inequality remains the same if eachside is multiplied by a positive real number, whereas the direction is reversed if each side is multiplied bya negative real number. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 29 AND 35.
The reciprocal property states that the reciprocal of a positive real number is positive and that thereciprocal of a negative real number is negative. Reciprocal Property for Inequalities (4a) (4b)Solving InequalitiesAn inequality in one variable is a statement involving two expressions, at least one containing thevariable, separated by one of the inequality symbols <, ≤, >, or ≥. To solve an inequality means to find allvalues of the variable for which the statement is true. These values are called solutions of the inequality.For example, the following are all inequalities involving one variable, x:Two inequalities having exactly the same solution set are called equivalent inequalities . As withequations, one method for solving an inequality is to replace it by a series of equivalent inequalities untilan inequality with an obvious solution, such as x < 3, is obtained.We obtain equivalent inequalities byapplying some of the same properties as those used to find equivalent equations. The addition propertyand the multiplication properties form the basis for the following procedures. Procedures That Leave the Inequality Symbol Unchanged 1. Simplify both sides of the inequality by combining like terms and eliminating parentheses: 2. Add or subtract the same expression on both sides of the inequality: 3. Multiply or divide both sides of the inequality by the same positive expression:
Procedures That Reverse the Sense or Direction of the Inequality Symbol 1. Interchange the two sides of the inequality: 2. Multiply or divide both sides of the inequality by the same negative expression.As the examples that follow illustrate, we solve inequalities using many of the same steps that we woulduse to solve equations. In writing the solution of an inequality, we may use either set notation or intervalnotation, whichever is more convenient. EXAMPLE 3 Solving an InequalitySolve the inequality: 4x + 7 ≥ 2x − 3Graph the solution set.SOLUTIONThe solution set is { x | x ≥ −5} or, using interval notation, all numbers in the interval [−5, ∞). See Figure12 for the graph. FIGURE 12
NOW WORK PROBLEM 43.4 EXAMPLE 4 Solving Combined InequalitiesSolve the inequality: −5 < 3x − 2 < 1Graph the solution set.SOLUTIONRecall that the inequalityis equivalent to the two inequalitiesWe will solve each of these inequalities separately.The solution set of the original pair of inequalities consists of all x for whichThis may be written more compactly as { x | − 1 < x < 1}. In interval notation, the solution is (−1, 1). SeeFigure 13 for the graph. FIGURE 13 NOW WORK PROBLEM 63.
EXAMPLE 5 Using the Reciprocal Property to Solve an Inequality
Solve the inequality: (4x − 1)−1 > 0Graph the solution set.SOLUTIONSince and since the Reciprocal Property states that when then a > 0, we haveThe solution set is ; that is, all x in the interval . Figure 14 illustrates thegraph. FIGURE 14 NOW WORK PROBLEM 67.Polynomial and Rational Inequalities5 Solve polynomial and rational inequalitiesThe next four examples deal with polynomial and rational inequalities which are important for solvingcertain types of problems in calculus. EXAMPLE 6 Solving a Quadratic InequalitySolve the inequality x2 + x − 12 > 0, and graph the solution set.SOLUTIONWe factor the left side, obtaining
We then construct a graph that uses the solutions to the equationnamely, x = −4 and x = 3. These numbers separate the real number line into three parts:or, in interval notation, into (−∞, −4), (−4, 3), and (3, ∞). See Figure 15(a). FIGURE 15Now if x < −4, then x + 4 < 0. We indicate this fact about the expression x + 4 by placing minus signs(− − −) to the left of −4. If x > −4, then x + 4 > 0. We indicate this fact about x + 4 by placing plus signs(+ + +) to the right of −4.Similarly, if x < 3, then x − 3 < 0. We indicate this fact about x − 3 by placing minus signs to the left of 3.If x > 3, then x − 3 > 0. We indicate this fact about x − 3 by placing plus signs to the right of 3. See Figure15(b).Now we prepare Figure 15(c). Since we know that the expressions x + 4 and x − 3 are both negative forx < −4, it follows that their product will be positive for x < −4. Since we know that x + 4 is positive andx − 3 is negative for −4 < x < 3, it follows that their product is negative for −4 < x < 3. Finally, since bothexpressions are positive for x > 3, their product is positive for x > 3.We conclude that the product (x + 4)(x − 3) = x2 + x − 12 is positive when x < −4 or when x > 3. Thesolution set is { x | x < −4 or x > 3}. In interval notation the solution consists of the intervals (−∞, −4) or(3, ∞). See Figure 15(d).The preceding discussion demonstrates that the sign of each factor of the expression and, consequently,the sign of the expression itself, is the same on each interval that the real number line was divided into. Analternative, and simpler, approach to obtaining Figure 15(c) would be to select a test number in eachinterval and use it to evaluate the expression to see if it is positive or negative. You may choose anynumber in the interval as a test number. See Figure 16.
FIGURE 16In Figure 16(a) the test numbers we selected, −5, 1, 4, have been circled.We evaluate the expressionx2 + x − 12 at each test number. For x = −5: (−5)2 + (−5) − 12 = 8, a positive number. For x = 1: 12 + 1 − 12 = −10, a negative number. Fox x = 4: 42 + 4 − 12 = 8, a positive number.See Figure 16(b) and 16(c).The rest of Figure 16 is obtained as before.We shall employ the method of using a test number to solve inequalities. Here is another example showingall the details. EXAMPLE 7 Solving a Quadratic InequalitySolve the inequality x2 ≤ 4x + 12, and graph the solution set.SOLUTIONFirst, we rearrange the inequality so that 0 is on the right side:This inequality is equivalent to the one we seek to solve.Next, we set the left side equal to 0 and solve the resulting equation:
The solutions of the equation are −2 and 6, and they separate the real number line into three parts:See Figure 17. FIGURE 17In each part, select a test number.We will choose −3, 1, and 8, which are circled. See Figure 17(a).Next we evaluate the expression x2 − 4x − 12 at each test number. For x = −3: (−3)2 − 4(−3) − 12 = 9, a positive number. For x = 1: 12 − 4(1) − 12 = −15, a negative number. For x = 8: 82 − 4(8) − 12 = 20, a positive number.See Figure 17(c).The expression x2 − 4x − 12 < 0 for −2 < x < 6. However, because the inequality we wish to solve isnonstrict, numbers x that satisfy the equation x2 − 4x + 12 = 0 are also solutions of the inequalityx2 − 4x − 12 ≤ 0. We include −2 and 6, and the solution set of the given inequality is { x | − 2 ≤ x ≤ 6};that is, all x in the interval [−2, 6]. See Figure 17(d). NOW WORK PROBLEM 75. EXAMPLE 8 Solving a Polynomial Inequality
Solve the inequality x4 < x, and graph the solution set.SOLUTIONWe rewrite the inequality so that 0 is on the right side:This inequality is equivalent to the one we wish to solve.We proceed to solve the equation x4 − x = 0 using factoring.The solutions are 0 and 1, since the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0 has no real solution.Next we use 0 and 1 to separate the real number line into three parts:In each part, select a test number.We will choose , and 2. See Figure 18. FIGURE 18Next we evaluate the expression x4 − x at each test number. For x = −1: (−1)4 − (−1) = 2, a positive number. For , a negative number.
For x = 2: 24 − 2 = 14, a positive number.The expression x4 − x < 0 for 0 < x < 1. The solution set is { x | 0 < x < 1}; that is, all x in the interval (0,1). See Figure 19. FIGURE 19We have been solving inequalities by rearranging the inequality so that 0 is on the right side, setting theleft side equal to 0, and solving the resulting equation. The solutions are then used to separate the realnumber line into intervals. But what if the resulting equation has no real solution? In this case we rely onthe following result. Theorem If a polynomial equation has no real solutions, the polynomial is either always positive or always negative.For example, the equationhas no real solutions. (Do you see why? Its discriminant, b2 − 4ac = 25 − 32 = −7, is negative.) The valueof x2 + 5x + 8 is therefore always positive or always negative. To see which is true, we test its value atsome number (0 is the easiest). Because 02 + 5(0) + 8 = 8 is positive, we conclude that x2 + 5x + 8 > 0 forall x. NOW WORK PROBLEM 79.Next we solve a rational inequality. EXAMPLE 9 Solving a Rational InequalitySolve the inequality , and graph the solution set.SOLUTION
We first note that the domain of the variable consists of all real numbers except −2. We rearrange termsso that 0 is on the right side:This inequality is equivalent to the one we wish to solve.For rational expressions we set both the numerator and the denominator equal to 0 to determine thenumbers to use to separate the number line. For this example we use −2 and 1 to divide the number lineinto three parts:Construct Figure 20, using −3, 0, and 2 as test numbers. FIGURE 20We conclude that for x < −2 or for x > 1.However, we want to know where the expression is positive or 0. Since only if x = 1, weconclude that the solution set is { x | x < −2 or x ≥ 1}; that is, all x in the intervals (−∞, −2) or [1, ∞). SeeFigure 21. FIGURE 21In Example 0.9 you may wonder why we did not first multiply both sides of the inequality by x + 2 to
clear the denominator. The reason is that we do not know whether x + 2 is positive or negative and, as aresult, we do not know whether to reverse the sense of the inequality symbol after multiplying by x + 2.However, there is nothing to prevent us from multiplying both sides by (x + 2)2, which is always positive,since x ≠ −2. (Do you see why?)This last expression leads to the same solution set obtained in Example 0.9. NOW WORK PROBLEM 91. EXERCISE 0.5 In Problems 1–6, express the graph shown in color using interval notation. Also express each as an inequality involving x. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
19. [4, ∞)20. (−∞, 2]21. (− ∞, −3)22. (−8, ∞)In Problems 23–28, an inequality is given.Write the inequality obtained by: (a) Adding 3 to each side of the given inequality. (b) Subtracting 5 from each side of the given inequality. (c) Multiplying each side of the given inequality by 3. (d) Multiplying each side of the given inequality by −2.23. 3<524. 2>125. 4 > −326. −3 > −527. .2x + 1 < 228. 1 − 2x > 5
95.96.97.98.99.100.101. Computing Grades In your Economics 101 class, you have scores of 68, 82, 87, and 89 on the first four of five tests. To get a grade of B, the average of the first five test scores must be greater than or equal to 80 and less than 90. Solve an inequality to find the range of the score that you need on the last test to get a B.102. General Chemistry For a certain ideal gas, the volume V (in cubic centimeters) equals 20 times the temperature T (in degrees Celsius). If the temperature varies from 80° to 120°C inclusive, what is the corresponding range of the volume of the gas?103. Real Estate A real estate agent agrees to sell a large apartment complex according to the following commission schedule: $45,000 plus 25% of the selling price in excess of $900,000. Assuming that the complex will sell at some price between $900,000 and $1,100,000 inclusive, over what range does the agents commission vary? How does the commission vary as a percent of selling price?
104. Sales Commission A used car salesperson is paid a commission of $25 plus 40% of the selling price in excess of owner's cost. The owner claims that used cars typically sell for at least owner's cost plus $70 and at most owner's cost plus $300. For each sale made, over what range can the salesperson expect the commission to vary?105. Federal Tax Withholding The percentage method of withholding for federal income tax (2003) states that a single person whose weekly wages, after subtracting withholding allowances, are over $592, but not over $1317, shall have $74.35 plus 25% of the excess over $592 withheld. Over what range does the amount withheld vary if the weekly wages vary from $600 to $800 inclusive? Source: Internal Revenue Service, 2003.106. Federal Tax Withholding Rework Problem 105 if the weekly wages vary from $800 to $1000 inclusive.107. Electricity Rates Commonwealth Edison Company's charge for electricity in May 2003 is 8.275¢ per kilowatt-hour. In addition, each monthly bill contains a customer charge of $7.58. If last summer's bills ranged from a low of $63.47 to a high of $214.53, over what range did usage vary (in kilowatt-hours)? Source: Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago, Illinois, 2003.108. Water Bills The Village of Oak Lawn charges homeowners $27.18 per quarter-year plus $1.90 per 1000 gallons for water usage in excess of 12,000 gallons. In 2003, one homeowner's quarterly bill ranged from a high of $76.52 to a low of $34.78. Over what range did water usage vary? Source: Village of Oak Lawn, Illinois, 2003.109. Markup of a New Car The sticker price of a new car ranges from 12% to 18% higher than the dealer's cost. If the sticker price is $8800, over what range will the dealer's cost vary?110. IQ Tests A standard intelligence test has an average score of 100. According to statistical theory, of the people who take the test, the 2.5% with the highest scores will have scores of more than 1.96σ above the average, where σ (sigma, a number called the standard deviation ) depends on the nature of the test. If σ = 12 for this test and there is (in principle) no upper limit to the score possible on the test, write the interval of possible test scores of the people in the top 2.5%.
111. Make up an inequality that has no solution. Make up one that has exactly one solution.112. The inequality x2 + 1 < −5 has no solution. Explain why.113. Do you prefer to use inequality notation or interval notation to express the solution to an inequality? Give your reasons. Are there particular circumstances when you prefer one to the other? Cite examples.114. How would you explain to a fellow student the underlying reason for the multiplication properties for inequalities (page 54); that is, the sense or direction of an inequality remains the same if each side is multiplied by a positive real number, whereas the direction is reversed if each side is multiplied by a negative real number.
0.6 nth Roots; Rational ExponentsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Exponents, Square Roots (Section 0.2)OBJECTIVES 1 Work with nth roots 2 Simplify radicals 3 Rationalize denominators 4 Solve radical equations 5 Simplify expressions with rational exponentsnth Roots The principal n th root of a number a, symbolized by , where n ≥ 2 is an integer, is defined as follows: where a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0 if n ≥ 2 is even, and a, b are any real numbers if n ≥ 3 is odd.Notice that if a is negative and n is even then is not defined. When it is defined, the principal nth rootof a number is unique.1 Work with nth rootsThe symbol for the principal nth root of a is sometimes called a radical; the integer n is called theindex , and a is called the radicand . If the index of a radical is 2, we call the square root of a andomit the index 2 by simply writing . If the index is 3, we call the cube root of a. EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating Principal nth Roots
(a) (b) (c) (d)These are examples of perfect roots, since each simplifies to a rational number. Notice the absolute valuein Example 0.1(d). If n is even, the principal nth root must be nonnegative. In general, if n ≥ 2 is a positive integer and a is a real number, we have (1a) (1b) NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.Properties of RadicalsLet n ≥ 2 and m ≥ 2 denote positive integers, and let a and b represent real numbers. Assuming that allradicals are defined, we have the following properties: (2a) (2b) (2c)
When used in reference to radicals, the direction to "simplify" will mean to remove from the radicals anyperfect roots that occur as factors. Let's look at some examples of how the preceding rules are applied tosimplify radicals.2 EXAMPLE 2 Simplifying Radicals (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 7. EXAMPLE 3 Combining Like Radicals (a)
(b) NOW WORK PROBLEM 25.RationalizingWhen radicals occur in quotients, it is customary to rewrite the quotient so that the denominator containsno radicals. This process is referred to as rationalizing the denominator.The idea is to multiply by an appropriate expression so that the new denominator contains no radicals. Forexample: If Denominator Contains the Factor Multiply By To Obtain Denminator Free of RadicalsIn rationalizing the denominator of a quotient, be sure to multiply both the numerator and the denominatorby the same expression.3 EXAMPLE 4 Rationalizing DenominatorsRationalize the denominator of each expression.
(a) (b) (c)SOLUTION (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 33.Equations Containing RadicalsWhen the variable in an equation occurs in a square root, cube root, and so on, that is, when it occursunder a radical, the equation is called a radical equation . Sometimes a suitable operation will change aradical equation to one that is linear or quadratic. The most commonly used procedure is to isolate the
most complicated radical on one side of the equation and then eliminate it by raising each side to a powerequal to the index of the radical. Care must be taken, because extraneous solutions may result. Thus,when working with radical equations, we always check apparent solutions. Let's look at an example.4 EXAMPLE 5 Solving Radical EquationsSolve the equation:SOLUTIONThe equation contains a radical whose index is 3.We isolate it on the left side.Now raise each side to the third power (since the index of the radical is 3) and solve.Check: .The solution is x = 6. EXAMPLE 6 Solving Radical EquationsSolve the equation:SOLUTIONThe index of a square root is 2, so we square both sides
There are two apparent solutions that need to be checked.Check:x = −1: is extraneousx = 4:The only solution is x = 4. NOW WORK PROBLEM 41.Rational ExponentsRadicals are used to define rational exponents. If a is a real number and n ≥ 2 is an integer, then (3) provided that exists.Note that if n is even and a < 0, then and a1/n do not exist.5 EXAMPLE 7 Using Equation (3) (a)
(b) (c) (d) If a is a real number and m and n are integers containing no common factors with n ≥ 2, then (4) provided that exists.We have two comments about equation (4):1. The exponent m/ n must be in lowest terms and n must be positive.2. In simplifying a m/n , either or may be used. Generally, taking the root first, as in , is easier. EXAMPLE 8 Using Equation 4 (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 45.
It can be shown that the laws of exponents hold for rational exponents.We use the laws of exponent in thenext example. EXAMPLE 9 Simplifying Expressions with Rational ExponentsSimplify each expression. Express your answer so that only positive exponents occur. Assume that thevariables are positive. (a) (b)SOLUTION (a) (b) NOW WORK PROBLEM 61.The next two examples illustrate some algebra that you will need to know for certain calculus problems. EXAMPLE 10 Writing an Expression as a Single QuotientWrite the following expression as a single quotient in which only positive exponents appear.
SOLUTION NOW WORK PROBLEM 65. EXAMPLE 11 Factoring an Expression Containing Rational ExponentsFactor:SOLUTIONWe begin by looking for factors that are common to the two terms. Notice that 2 and x1/3 are commonfactors. Then, NOW WORK PROBLEM 79. EXERCISE 0.6 In Problems 1–28, simplify each expression. Assume that all variables are positive when they appear.
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.
14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.
27.28.In Problems 29–40, rationalize the denominator of each expression. Assume that all variablesare positive when they appear.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.
72.73.74.75.76.77.78.In Problems 79–90, expressions that occur in calculus are given. Factor each expression.Express your answer so that only positive exponents occur.79.80.
81.82.83.84.85.86.87.88.89.90.
0.7 Geometry ReviewOBJECTIVES 1 Use the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse 2 Know geometry formulasIn this section we review some topics studied in geometry that we shall need for calculus.1 Use the Pythagorean Theorem and its conversePythagorean TheoremThe Pythagorean Theorem is a statement about right triangles. A right triangle is one that contains aright angle, that is, an angle of 90°. The side of the triangle opposite the 90° angle is called thehypotenuse ; the remaining two sides are called legs . In Figure 22 we have used c to represent the lengthof the hypotenuse and a and b to represent the lengths of the legs. Notice the use of the symbol to showthe 90° angle. We now state the Pythagorean Theorem. FIGURE 22 Pythagorean Theorem In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs. That is, in the right triangle shown in Figure 22, (1) EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Hypotenuse of a Right TriangleIn a right triangle, one leg is of length 4 and the other is of length 3. What is the length of the hypotenuse?
SOLUTIONSince the triangle is a right triangle, we use the Pythagorean Theorem with a = 4 and b = 3 to find thelength c of the hypotenuse. From equation (1) we have NOW WORK PROBLEM 3.The converse of the Pythagorean Theorem is also true. Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem In a triangle, if the square of the length of one side equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides, then the triangle is a right triangle. The 90° angle is opposite the longest side. EXAMPLE 2 Verifying That a Triangle Is a Right TriangleShow that a triangle whose sides are of lengths 5, 12, and 13 is a right triangle. Identify the hypotenuse.SOLUTIONWe square the lengths of the sides.Notice that the sum of the first two squares (25 and 144) equals the third square (169). So thetriangle is a right triangle. The longest side, 13, is the hypotenuse. See Figure 23. FIGURE 23
NOW WORK PROBLEM 11. EXAMPLE 3 Applying the Pythagorean TheoremThe tallest inhabited building in the world is the Sears Tower in Chicago*. If the observation tower is 1450feet above ground level, how far can a person standing in the observation tower see (with the aid of atelescope)? Use 3960 miles for the radius of Earth. See Figure 24. FIGURE 24SOLUTIONFrom the center of Earth, draw two radii: one through the Sears Tower and the other to the farthest pointa person can see from the tower. See Figure 25. Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to the right triangle. FIGURE 25
Since 1 mile = 5280 feet, miles. Then we haveA person can see about 47 miles from the observation tower. NOW WORK PROBLEM 37.Geometry Formulas2 Know geometry formulasCertain formulas from geometry are useful in solving calculus problems. We list some of these formulasnext. For a rectangle of length l and width w,
For a triangle with base b and altitude h,For a circle of radius r (diameter d = 2r),For a closed rectangular box of length l, width w, and height h,For a sphere of radius r,
For a right circular cylinder of height h and radius r, NOW WORK PROBLEM 19. EXAMPLE 4 Using Geometry FormulasA Christmas tree ornament is in the shape of a semicircle on top of a triangle. How many squarecentimeters (cm) of copper are required to make the ornament if the height of the triangle is 6 cm and thebase is 4 cm?SOLUTIONSee Figure 26. The amount of copper required equals the shaded area. This area is the sum of the area ofthe triangle and the semicircle. The triangle has height h = 6 and base b = 4. The semicircle has diameterd = 4, so its radius is r = 2. FIGURE 26
About 18.28 cm2 of copper are required. NOW WORK PROBLEM 33. EXERCISE 0.7 In Problems 1–6, the lengths of the legs of a right triangle are given. Find the hypotenuse. 1. a = 5, b = 12 2. a = 6, b = 8 3. a = 10, b = 24 4. a = 4, b = 3 5. a = 7, b = 24 6. a = 14, b = 48 In Problems 7–14, the lengths of the sides of a triangle are given. Determine which are right triangles. For those that are, identify the hypotenuse.
7. 3, 4, 58. 6, 8, 109. 4, 5, 610. 2, 2, 311. 7, 24, 2512. 10, 24, 2613. 6, 4, 314. 5, 4, 715. Find the area A of a rectangle with length 4 inches and width 2 inches.16. Find the area A of a rectangle with length 9 centimeters and width 4 centimeters.17. Find the area A of a triangle with height 4 inches and base 2 inches.18. Find the area A of a triangle with height 9 centimeters and base 4 centimeters.19. Find the area A and circumference C of a circle of radius 5 meters.20. Find the area A and circumference C of a circle of radius 2 feet.
21. Find the volume V and surface area S of a rectangular box with length 8 feet, width 4 feet, and height 7 feet.22. Find the volume V and surface area S of a rectangular box with length 9 inches, width 4 inches, and height 8 inches.23. Find the volume V and surface area S of a sphere of radius 4 centimeters.24. Find the volume V and surface area S of a sphere of radius 3 feet.25. Find the volume V and surface area S of a right circular cylinder with radius 9 inches and height 8 inches.26. Find the volume V and surface area S of a right circular cylinder with radius 8 inches and height 9 inches.In Problems 27–30, find the area of the shaded region.27.28.29.
30.31. How many feet does a wheel with a diameter of 16 inches travel after four revolutions?32. How many revolutions will a circular disk with a diameter of 4 feet have completed after it has rolled 20 feet?33. In the figure shown, ABCD is a square, with each side of length 6 feet. The width of the border (shaded portion) between the outer square EFGH and ABCD is 2 feet. Find the area of the border.34. Refer to the figure above Problem 35. Square ABCD has an area of 100 square feet; square BEFG has an area of 16 square feet.What is the area of the triangle CGF?35. Architecture A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. Find the area of the Norman window shown in the illustration. How much wood frame is needed to enclose the window?
36. Construction A circular swimming pool, 20 feet in diameter, is enclosed by a wooden deck that is 3 feet wide.What is the area of the deck? How much fence is required to enclose the deck?In Problems 37–39, use the facts that the radius of Earth is 3960 miles and 1 mile = 5280 feet.37. How Far Can You See? The conning tower of the U.S.S. Silversides, a World War II submarine now permanently stationed in Muskegon, Michigan, is approximately 20 feet above sea level. How far can you see from the conning tower?38. How Far Can You See? A person who is 6 feet tall is standing on the beach in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and looks out onto the Atlantic Ocean. Suddenly, a ship appears on the horizon. How far is the ship from shore?39. How Far Can You See? The deck of a destroyer is 100 feet above sea level. How far can a person see from the deck? How far can a person see from the bridge, which is 150 feet above sea level?40. Suppose that m and n are positive integers with m > n. If a = m2 − n2, b = 2mn, and c = m2 + n2, show that a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. (This formula can be used to find the sides of a right triangle that are integers, such as 3, 4, 5; 5, 12, 13; and so on. Such triplets of integers are called Pythagorean triples .)
41. You have 1000 feet of flexible pool siding and wish to construct a swimming pool. Experiment with rectangularshaped pools with perimeters of 1000 feet. How do their areas vary? What is the shape of the rectangle with the largest area? Now compute the area enclosed by a circular pool with a perimeter (circumference) of 1000 feet. What would be your choice of shape for the pool? If rectangular, what is your preference for dimensions? Justify your choice. If your only consideration is to have a pool that encloses the most area, what shape should you use?
0.8 Rectangular CoordinatesPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Algebra Review (Section 0.2) > Geometry Review (Section 0.7)OBJECTIVES 1 Use the Distance FormulaWe locate a point on the real number line by assigning it a single real number, called the coordinate of thepoint. For work in a two-dimensional plane, we locate points by using two numbers.We begin with two real number lines located in the same plane: one horizontal and the other vertical.Wecall the horizontal line the x -axis; the vertical line the y-axis; and the point of intersection the origin O.We assign coordinates to every point on these number lines as shown in Figure 27, using a convenientscale. In mathematics, we usually use the same scale on each axis; in applications, a different scale isoften used on each axis. FIGURE 27The origin O has a value of 0 on both the x-axis and the y-axis.We follow the usual convention that pointson the x-axis to the right of O are associated with positive real numbers, and those to the left of O areassociated with negative real numbers. Points on the y-axis above O are associated with positive realnumbers, and those below O are associated with negative real numbers. In Figure 1, the x-axis and y-axisare labeled as x and y, respectively, and we have used an arrow at the end of each axis to denote thepositive direction.The coordinate system described here is called a rectangular or Cartesian * coordinate system . Theplane formed by the x-axis and y-axis is sometimes called the xy-plane , and the x-axis and y-axis arereferred to as the coordinate axes.
Any point P in the xy-plane can then be located by using an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers. Let xdenote the signed distance of P from the y-axis (signed in the sense that, if P is to the right of the y-axis,then x > 0, and if P is to the left of the y-axis, then x < 0); and let y denote the signed distance of P fromthe x-axis. The ordered pair (x, y), also called the coordinates of P, then gives us enough information tolocate the point P in the plane.For example, to locate the point whose coordinates are (−3, 1), go 3 units along the x-axis to the left of Oand then go straight up 1 unit. We plot this point by placing a dot at this location. See Figure 28, in whichthe points with coordinates (−3, 1), (−2, −3), (3, −2), and (3, 2) are plotted. FIGURE 28The origin has coordinates (0, 0). Any point on the x-axis has coordinates of the form (x, 0), and any pointon the y-axis has coordinates of the form (0, y).If (x, y) are the coordinates of a point P, then x is called the x -coordinate , or abscissa, of P, and y is they -coordinate, or ordinate, of P. We identify the point P by its coordinates (x, y) by writing P = (x, y),referring to it as "the point (x, y)," rather than "the point whose coordinates are (x, y)."The coordinate axes divide the xy-plane into four sections, called quadrants , as shown in Figure 29. Inquadrant I, both the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of all points are positive; in quadrant II, x isnegative and y is positive; in quadrant III, both x and y are negative; and in quadrant IV, x is positive andy is negative. Points on the coordinate axes belong to no quadrant. FIGURE 29 NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.
COMMENT: On a graphing calculator, you can set the scale on each axis. Once this has been done, you obtain the viewing rectangle. See Figure 30 for a typical viewing rectangle. You should now read Section A.1, The Viewing Rectangle, in the Appendix. FIGURE 30Distance between Points1 Use the distance formulaIf the same units of measurement, such as inches or centimeters, are used for both the x-axis and they-axis, then all distances in the xy-plane can be measured using this unit of measurement. EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Distance between Two PointsFind the distance d between the points (1, 3) and (5, 6).SOLUTIONFirst we plot the points (1, 3) and (5, 6) as shown in Figure 31(a). Then we draw a horizontal line from (1,3) to (5, 3) and a vertical line from (5, 3) to (5, 6), forming a right triangle, as in Figure 31(b). One leg ofthe triangle is of length 4 and the other is of length 3. By the Pythagorean Theorem, the square of thedistance d that we seek is FIGURE 31
The distance formula provides a straightforward method for computing the distance between two points. Distance Formula The distance between two points P1 = (x1, y1) and P2 = (x2, y2), denoted by d(P1, P2), is (1)That is, to compute the distance between two points, find the difference of the x-coordinates, square it,and add this to the square of the difference of the y-coordinates. The square root of this sum is thedistance. See Figure 32. FIGURE 32 EXAMPLE 2 Finding the Distance between Two PointsFind the distance d between the points (−4, 5) and (3, 2).
SOLUTIONUsing the distance Formula (1), the solution is obtained as follows: NOW WORK PROBLEMS 5 AND 9.The distance between two points P1 = (x1, y1) and P2 = (x2, y2) is never a negative number. Furthermore,the distance between two points is 0 only when the points are identical, that is, when x1 = x2 and y1 = y2.Also, because (x2 − x1)2 = (x1 − x2)2 and (y2 − y1)2 = (y1 − y2)2, it makes no difference whether thedistance is computed from P1 to P2 or from P2 to P1; that is, d(P1, P2) = d(P2, P1).Rectangular coordinates enable us to translate geometry problems into algebra problems, and vice versa.The next example shows how algebra (the distance formula) can be used to solve geometry problems. EXAMPLE 3 Using Algebra to Solve Geometry ProblemsConsider the three points A = (−2, 1), B = (2, 3), and C = (3, 1). (a) Plot each point and form the triangle ABC. (b) Find the length of each side of the triangle. (c) Verify that the triangle is a right triangle. (d) Find the area of the triangle.SOLUTION (a) Points A, B, and C and triangle ABC are plotted in Figure 33. FIGURE 33
(b) (c) To show that the triangle is a right triangle, we need to show that the sum of the squares of the lengths of two of the sides equals the square of the length of the third side. (Why is this sufficient?) Looking at Figure 33, it seems reasonable to conjecture that the right angle is at vertex B. To verify, we check to see whether We find that so it follows from the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem that triangle ABC is a right triangle. (d) Because the right angle is at B, the sides AB and BC form the base and altitude of the triangle. Its area is therefore NOW WORK PROBLEM 19.EXERCISE 0.8In Problems 1 and 2, plot each point in the xy-plane. Tell in which quadrant or on whatcoordinate axis each point lies.
28. Find all points on the y-axis that are 5 units from the point (4, 4).In Problems 29–32, find the length of the line segment. Assume that the endpoints of each linesegment have integer coordinates.29.30.31.32.33. Baseball A major league baseball "diamond" is actually a square, 90 feet on a side (see the figure). What is the distance directly from home plate to second base (the diagonal of the square)?
34. Little League Baseball The layout of a Little League playing field is a square, 60 feet on a side. How far is it directly from home plate to second base (the diagonal of the square)? Source: Little League Baseball, Official Regulations and Playing Rules, 2003.35. Baseball Refer to Problem 33. Overlay a rectangular coordinate system on a major league310, 15), how far is it from the right fielder to second base? (c) If the center fielder is located at (300, 300), how far is it from the center fielder to third base?36. Little League Baseball Refer to Problem 34. Overlay a rectangular coordinate system on a Little League180, 20), how far is it from the right fielder to second base?
(c) If the center fielder is located at (220, 220), how far is it from the center fielder to third base?37. A Dodge Intrepid and a Mack truck leave an intersection at the same time. The Intrepid heads east at an average speed of 30 miles per hour, while the truck heads south at an average speed of 40 miles per hour. Find an expression for their distance apart d (in miles) at the end of t hours.38. A hot-air balloon, headed due east at an average speed of 15 miles per hour and at a constant altitude of 100 feet, passes over an intersection (see the figure). Find an expression for the distance d (measured in feet) from the balloon to the intersection t seconds later.
0.9 LinesPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Algebra Review (Section 0.2)OBJECTIVES 1 Graph linear equations 2 Find the equation of a vertical line 3 Calculate and interpret the slope of a line 4 Graph a line given a point on the line and the slope 5 Use the point–slope form of a line 6 Find the equation of a horizontal line 7 Find the equation of a line given two points 8 Use the slope–intercept form of a lineGraphs of Linear Equations in Two Variables A linear equation in two variables is an equation of the form (1) where A and B are not both zero.Examples of linear equations are
The graph of an equation is the set of all points (x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the equation. Forexample, (0, 4) is a point on the graph of the equation 3x + 4y = 16, because when we substitute 0 for xand 4 for y in the equation, we getwhich is a true statement.It can be shown that if A, B, and C are real numbers, with A and B not both zero, then the graph of theequationis a line. This is the reason we call it a linear equation.Conversely, any line is the graph of an equation of the form Ax + By = C.Since any line can be written as an equation in the form Ax + By = C, we call this form the generalequation of a line.1 Graph linear equationsGiven a linear equation, we can obtain its graph by plotting two points that satisfy its equation andconnecting them with a line. The easiest two points to plot are the intercepts. For example, the line shownin Figure 34 has the intercepts (0, −4) and (3, 0). FIGURE 34
Intercepts The points at which the graph of a linear equation crosses the axes are called intercepts . The x-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the x-axis; the y-intercept is the point at which the graph crosses the y-axis. Steps for Finding the Intercepts of a Linear Equation To find the intercepts of a linear equation Ax + By = C, with A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0, follow these steps. STEP 1: Let y = 0 and solve for x. This determines the x-intercept of the line. STEP 2: Let x = 0 and solve for y. This determines the y-intercept of the line. EXAMPLE 1Find the intercepts of the equation 2x + 3y = 6. Graph the equation.SOLUTIONStep 1 To find the x-intercept, we need to find the number x for which y = 0. We let y = 0 in the equationand proceed to solve for x:
The x-intercept is (3, 0).Step 2 To find the y-intercept, we let x = 0 in the equation and solve for y:The y-intercept is (0, 2).Since the equation is a linear equation, its graph is a line. We use the two intercepts (3, 0) and (0, 2) tograph it. See Figure 35. FIGURE 35 EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Linear EquationGraph the equation: y = 2x + 5SOLUTIONThis equation can be written asThis is a linear equation, so its graph is a line. The intercepts are (0, 5) and , which youshould verify. For reassurance we'll find a third point. Arbitrarily, we let x = 10. Theny = 2x + 5 = 2(10) + 5 = 25, so (10, 25) is a point on the graph. See Figure 36.
FIGURE 36 x y 0 5 0 10 25 NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.When a line passes through the origin, it has only one intercept. To graph such lines, we need to locate anadditional point on the graph. EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Linear EquationGraph the equation: − x + 2y = 0SOLUTIONThis is a linear equation, so its graph is a line. The only intercept is (0, 0). To locate another point on thegraph, let x = 4. (This choice is arbitrary; any choice of x other than 0 could also be used). Then,
So, y = 2 when x = 4 and (4, 2) is a point on the graph. See Figure 37. FIGURE 37Next we discuss linear equations whose graphs are vertical lines. EXAMPLE 4Graph the equation: x = 3SOLUTIONWe are looking for all points (x, y) in the plane for which x = 3. Since x = 3, no matter what y-coordinateis used, the corresponding x-coordinate always equals 3. Consequently, the graph of the equation x = 3 isa vertical line with x-intercept (3, 0) as shown in Figure 38. FIGURE 38As suggested by Example 0.4, we have the following result:
Equation of a Vertical Line A vertical line is given by an equation of the form where (a, 0) is the x-intercept.2 EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Equation of a Vertical LineFind an equation for the vertical line containing the point (−1, 6).SOLUTIONThe x-coordinate of any point on a vertical line is always the same. Since (−1, 6) is a point on the verticalline, its equation is x = −1. NOW WORK PROBLEM 5(a).Slope of a Line3 Calculate and interpret the slope of a lineAn important characteristic of a line, called its slope, is best defined by using rectangular coordinates. Slope of a Line Let P = (x1, y1) and Q = (x2, y2) be two distinct points. If x1 ≠ x2, the slope m of the nonvertical line L containing P and Q is defined by the formula (2) If x1 = x2, L is a vertical line and the slope m of L is undefined (since this results in division by 0).Figure 39(a) provides an illustration of the slope of a nonvertical line; Figure 39(b) illustrates a verticalline.
FIGURE 39As Figure 39(a) illustrates, the slope m of a nonvertical line may be given asThe change in y is usually denoted by ∆ y, read "delta y," and the change in x is denoted by ∆ x.The slope m of a nonvertical line L measures the amount y changes, ∆ y, as x changes from x1 to x2, ∆ x.This is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x. Then, the slope m is EXAMPLE 6The slope m of the line containing the points (3,−2) and (1, 5) isWe interpret the slope to mean that for every 2-unit change in x, y will change by −7 units. That is, if xincreases by 2 units, then y decreases by 7 units. The average rate of change of y with respect to x is . NOW WORK PROBLEMS 9 AND 13.Two comments about computing the slope of a nonvertical line may prove helpful:
1. Any two distinct points on the line can be used to compute the slope of the line. (See Figure 40 for justification.) FIGURE 40 Triangles ABC and PQR are similar (they have equal angles). So ratios of corresponding sides are proportional. Then: Slope using P and where d(B,C) denotes the distance from B to C and d(A, C) denotes the distance from A to C.2. The slope of a line may be computed from P = (x1, y1) to Q = (x2, y2) or from Q to P because To get a better idea of the meaning of the slope m of a line L, consider the following example. EXAMPLE 7 Finding the Slopes of Various Lines Containing the Same Point (2, 3)Compute the slopes of the line L1, L2, L3, and L4 containing the following pairs of points. Graph all fourlines on the same set of coordinate axes.SOLUTIONLet m1, m2, m3, and m4 denote the slopes of the lines L1, L2, L3, and L4, respectively.Then
The graphs of these lines are given in Figure 41. FIGURE 41As Figure 41 illustrates,1. When the slope m of a line is positive, the line slants upward from left to right (L1).2. When the slope m is negative, the line slants downward from left to right (L2).3. When the slope m is 0, the line is horizontal (L3).4. When the slope m is undefined, the line is vertical (L4). COMMENT: Now read Section A.3, Square Screens, in the Appendix. SEEING THE CONCEPT: On the same square screen, graph the following equations:
See Figure 42. FIGURE 42SEEING THE CONCEPT: On the same square screen, graph the following equations:See Figure 43 FIGURE 43
Figures 42 and 43 illustrate that the closer the line is to the vertical position, the greater the magnitude ofthe slope.The next example illustrates how the slope of a line can be used to graph the line.4 EXAMPLE 8 Graphing a Line When its Slope and a Point Are GivenDraw a graph of the line that contains the point (3, 2) and has a slope of (a) (b)SOLUTION (a) . The fact that the slope is means that for every horizontal movement (run) of 4 units to the right, there will be a vertical movement (rise) of 3 units. If we start at the given point (3, 2) and move 4 units to the right and 3 units up, we reach the point (7, 5). By drawing the line through this point and the point (3, 2), we have the graph. See Figure 44(a). FIGURE 44
(b) The fact that the slope is means that for every horizontal movement of 5 units to the right, there will be a corresponding vertical movement of −4 units (a downward movement). If we start at the given point (3, 2) and move 5 units to the right and then 4 units down, we arrive at the point (8, −2). By drawing the line through these points, we have the graph. See Figure 44(b).Alternatively, we can set so that for every horizontal movement of −5 units (a movement tothe left), there will be a corresponding vertical movement of 4 units (upward). This approach brings us tothe point (−2, 6), which is also on the graph shown in Figure 44(b). NOW WORK PROBLEMS 21.Other Forms of the Equation of a LineLet L be a nonvertical line with slope m and containing the point (x1, y1). See Figure 45. Since any twodistinct points on L can be used to compute its slope, for any other point (x, y) on L, we have FIGURE 45 Point–Slope Form of an Equation of a Line
An equation of a nonvertical line with slope m that contains the point (x1, y1) is (3)5 EXAMPLE 9 Using the Point –Slope Form of a LineAn equation of the line with slope 4 and containing the point (1, 2) can be found by using the point–slopeform with m = 4, x1 = 1, and y1 = 2:See Figure 46. FIGURE 46 NOW WORK PROBLEM 33.6 EXAMPLE 10 Finding the Equation of a Horizontal LineFind an equation of the horizontal line containing the point (3, 2).
SOLUTIONThe slope of a horizontal line is 0. To get an equation, we use the point–slope form with m = 0, x1 = 3, andy1 = 2:See Figure 47 for the graph. FIGURE 47As suggested by Example 0.10, we have the following result: Equation of a Horizontal Line A horizontal line is given by an equation of the form where (0, b) is the y-intercept. NOW WORK PROBLEM 5(b).7 EXAMPLE 11 Finding the Equation of a Line Given Two PointsFind an equation of the line containing the points (2, 3) and (−4, 5). Graph the line.
SOLUTIONSince two points are given, we first compute the slope of the line:We use the point (2, 3) and the fact that the slope to get the point–slope form of the equation ofthe line:See Figure 48 for the graph. FIGURE 48 NOW WORK PROBLEM 37.In the solution to Example 0.11 we could have used the point (−4, 5) instead of the point (2, 3). Theequation that results, although it looks different, is equivalent to the equation we obtained in the example.(Try it for yourself.)The general form of the equation of the line in Example 0.11 can be obtained by multiplying both sides ofthe point–slope equation by 3 and collecting terms:This is the general form of the equation of the line.8 Use the slope–intercept form of a lineAnother useful equation of a line is obtained when the slope m and y-intercept (0, b) are known. In this
case we know both the slope m of the line and a point (0, b) on the line. Then we can use the point–slopeform, Equation (3), to obtain the following equation: Slope–Intercept Form of an Equation of a Line An equation of a line L with slope m and y-intercept (0, b) is (4) SEEING THE CONCEPT: To see the role that the slope m plays in the equation y = mx + b, graph the following lines on the same square screen. See Figure 49.What do you conclude about the lines y = mx + 2? FIGURE 49 SEEING THE CONCEPT: To see the role of the y-intercept b in the equation y = mx + b, graph the following lines on the same square screen.
See Figure 50. What do you conclude about the lines y = 2x + b? FIGURE 50When an equation of a line is written in slope–intercept form, it is easy to find the slope m and y-intercept(0, b) of the line. For example, suppose the equation of the line isCompare it to y = mx + b:The slope of this line is −2 and its y-intercept is (0, 3).Let's look at another example. EXAMPLE 12 Finding the Slope and y-Intercept of a LineFind the slope m and y-intercept (0, b) of the line 2x + 4y = 8. Graph the line.SOLUTIONTo obtain the slope and y-intercept, we transform the equation into its slope–intercept form. To do this,we need to solve for y.
The coefficient of x, , is the slope, and the y-intercept is (0, 2).We can graph the line in either of two ways:1. Use the fact that the y-intercept is (0, 2) and the slope is . Then, starting at the point (0, 2), go to the right 2 units and then down 1 unit to the point (2, 1). Plot these points and draw the line containing them. See Figure 51. FIGURE 512. Locate the intercepts. The y-intercept is (0, 2). To obtain the x-intercept, we let y = 0 and solve for x. When y = 0, we have The intercepts are (4, 0) and (0, 2). Plot these points and draw the line containing them. See Figure 51.NOTE: The second method, locating the intercepts, only produces one point when the line passes throughthe origin. In this case some other point on the line must be found in order to graph the line. Refer back toExample 0.3. NOW WORK PROBLEM 55. EXAMPLE 13 Daily Cost of ProductionA certain factory has daily fixed overhead expenses of $2000, while each item produced costs $100. Findan equation that relates the daily cost C to the number x of items produced each day.
SOLUTIONThe fixed overhead expense of $2000 represents the fixed cost, the cost incurred no matter how manyitems are produced. Since each item produced costs $100, the variable cost of producing x items is 100x.Then the total daily cost C of production isThe graph of this equation is given by the line in Figure 52. Notice that the fixed cost $2000 isrepresented by the y-intercept, while the $100 cost of producing each item is the slope. Alsonotice that, for convenience, a different scale is used on each axis. FIGURE 52SUMMARYThe graph of a linear equation, Ax + By = C, where A and B are not both zero, is a line. In this form it isreferred to as the general equation of a line.1. Given the general equation of a line, information can be found about the line: (a) Let x = 0 and solve for y to find the y-intercept. (b) Let y = 0 and solve for x to find the x-intercept. (c) Place the equation in slope–intercept form y = mx + b to find the slope m and y-intercept (0, b).2. Given information about a line, an equation of the line can be found. The form of the equation to use depends on the given information. See the table below: Given Use Equation
66. 3x + 2y = 067. Find the equation of the horizontal line containing the point (−1,−3).68. Find the equation of the vertical line containing the point (−2, 5).69. Cost of Operating a Car According to the American Automobile Association (AAA), the average cost of operating a standard-sized car, including gasoline, oil, tires, and maintenance increased to $0.122 per mile in 2000. Write an equation that relates the average cost C of operating a standard-sized car and the number x of miles it is driven. Source: AAA Traveler Magazine.70. Cost of Renting a Truck The cost of renting a truck is $280 per week plus a charge of $0.30 per mile driven. Write an equation that relates the cost C for a weekly rental in which the truck is driven x miles.71. Electricity Rates in Illinois Commonwealth Edison Company supplies electricity to residential customers for a monthly customer charge of $7.58 plus 8.275 cents per kilowatt-hour for up to 400 kilowatt-hours. (a) Write an equation that relates the monthly charge C, in dollars, to the number x of kilowatt-hours used in a month, 0 ≤ x ≤ 400. (b) Graph this equation. (c) What is the monthly charge for using 100 kilowatthours? (d) What is the monthly charge for using 300 kilowatthours? (e) Interpret the slope of the line. Source: Commonwealth Edison Company, December 2003.72. Electricity Rates in Florida Florida Power & Light Company supplies electricity to
residential customers for a monthly customer charge of $5.25 plus 6.787 cents per kilowatt-hour for up to 750 kilowatt-hours. (a) Write an equation that relates the monthly charge C, in dollars, to the number x of kilowatt-hours used in a month, 0 ≤ x ≤ 750. (b) Graph this equation. (c) What is the monthly charge for using 200 kilowatt-hours? (d) What is the monthly charge for using 500 kilowatt-hours? (e) Interpret the slope of the line. Source: Florida Power & Light Company, January 2003.73. Weight–Height Relation in the U.S. Army Assume the recommended weight w of females aged 17–20 years in the U.S. Army is linearly related to their height h. If an Army female who is 67 inches tall should weigh 139 pounds and if an Army female who is 70 inches tall should weigh 151 pounds, find an equation that expresses weight in terms of height. Source: Wages of a Car Salesperson Dan receives $375 per week for selling new and used cars at a car dealership in Omaha, Nebraska. In addition, he receives 5% of the profit on any sales he generates.Write an equation that relates Dan's weekly salary S when he has sales that generate a profit of x dollars.75. Cost of Sunday Home Delivery The cost to the Chicago Tribune for Sunday home delivery is approximately $0.53 per newspaper with fixed costs of $1,070,000.Write an equation that relates the cost C and the number x of copies delivered. Source: Chicago Tribune, 2002.76. Disease Propagation Research indicates that in a controlled environment, the number of diseased mice will increase linearly each day after one of the mice in the cage is infected with a particular type of disease-causing germ. There were 8 diseased mice 4 days after the first exposure and 14 diseased mice after 6 days.Write an equation that will give the number of diseased mice after any given number of days. If there were 40 mice in the cage, how long will it take until they are all infected?
77. Temperature Conversion The relationship between Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F) degrees for measuring temperature is linear. Find an equation relating °C and °F if 0°C corresponds to 32°F and 100°C corresponds to 212°F. Use the equation to find the Celsius measure of 68°F.78. Temperature Conversion The Kelvin (K) scale for measuring temperature is obtained by adding 273 to the Celsius temperature. (a) Write an equation relating K and °C. (b) Write an equation relating K and °F (see Problem 77).79. Water Preservation At Harlan County Dam in Nebraska, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation reports that the storage content of the reservoir decreased from 162,400 acre-feet (52.5 billion gallons of water) on November 8, 2002 to 161,200 acre-feet (52.5 billion gallons of water) on December 8, 2002. Suppose that the rate of loss of water remains constant. (a) Write an equation that relates the amount A of water, in billions of gallons, to the time t, in days. Use t = 1 for November 1, t = 2 for November 2, and so on. (b) How much water was in the reservoir on November 20 (t = 20)? (c) Interpret the slope. (d) How much water will be in the reservoir on December 31, 2002 (t = 61)? (e) When will the reservoir be empty? (f) Comment on your answer to part (e). Source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.
80. Product Promotion A cereal company finds that the number of people who will buy one of its products the first month it is introduced is linearly related to the amount of money it spends on advertising. If it spends $400,000 on advertising, then 100,000 boxes of cereal will be sold, and if it spends $600,000, then 140,000 boxes will be sold. (a) Write an equation describing the relation between the amount spent on advertising and the number of boxes sold. (b) How much advertising is needed to sell 200,000 boxes of cereal? (c) Interpret the slope.In Problems 81–88, use a graphing utility to graph each linear equation. Be sure to use aviewing rectangle that shows the intercepts. Then locate each intercept rounded to two decimalplaces.81. 1.2x + 0.8y = 282. −1.3x + 2.7y = 883. 21x − 15y = 5384. 5x − 3y = 8285.86.87.88.
In Problems 93–96, write an equation of each line. Express your answer using either the generalform or the slope–intercept form of the equation of a line, whichever you prefer.93.94.95.96.97. Which of the following equations might have the graph shown. (More than one answer is possible.) (a) 2x + 3y = 6 (b) −2x + 3y = 6 (c) 3x − 4y = −12
(h) y = x + 499. Write the general equation of the x-axis.100. Write the general equation of the y-axis.101. Which form of the equation of a line do you prefer to use? Justify your position with an example that shows that your choice is better than another. Have reasons.102. Can every line be written in slope–intercept form? Explain.103. Does every line have two distinct intercepts? Explain. Are there lines that have no intercepts? Explain.104. What can you say about two lines that have equal slopes and equal y-intercepts?105. What can you say about two lines with the same x-intercept and the same y-intercept? Assume that the x-intercept is not (0, 0).106. If two lines have the same slope, but different x-intercepts, can they have the same y-intercept?107. If two lines have the same y-intercept, but different slopes, can they have the same x-intercept? What is the only way that this can happen?108. The accepted symbol used to denote the slope of a line is the letter m. Investigate the origin
of this symbolism. Begin by consulting a French dictionary and looking up the French wordmonter.Write a brief essay on your findings.
CHAPTER 1 Functions and Their GraphsOn the way home from college, you and a friend decide to stop off in Charlotte, North Carolina.Because you have only one full day to see the sights, you decide that renting a car is the best way to seethe most. But which car rental company should you use? Naturally, the cheapest! But what is thecheapest? Is it the one with unlimited mileage or the one with a better daily rate and a mileage charge?The mathematics of this chapter provides the background for solving this problem. The Chapter Projectat the end of the chapter will help you understand how to make the best decision.A LOOK BACK, A LOOK FORWARDIn Chapter 0 we studied rectangular coordinates and used them to graph linear equations of the form
Ax ≠ By = C, where either A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0. We continue the study of graphing equations in two variableshere. In particular, we look at a special type of equation involving two variables, called a function. Wewill define what a function is, how to graph functions, what properties functions have, and develop a"library" of functions.The word function apparently was introduced by René Descartes in 1637. For him, a function simplymeant any positive integral power of a variable x. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716), who alwaysemphasized the geometric side of mathematics, used the word function to denote any quantityassociated with a curve, such as the coordinates of a point on the curve. Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)employed the word to mean any equation or formula involving variables and constants. His idea of afunction is similar to the one most often seen in courses that precede calculus. Later, the use offunctions in investigating heat flow equations led to a very broad definition, due to Lejeune Dirichlet(1805–1859), which describes a function as a correspondence between two sets. It is his definition thatwe use here.
1.1 Graphs of EquationsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Evaluating Algebraic Expressions (Chapter 0, Section 0.2) > Solving equations (Chapter 0, Section 0.4) > Rectangular coordinates (Chapter 0, Section 0.8) > Lines (Chapter 0, Section 0.9)OBJECTIVES 1 Graph equations by plotting points 2 Find intercepts from a graph 3 Find intercepts from an equation 4 Test an equation for symmetry with respect to the (a) x-axis, (b) y-axis, and (c) originAn equation in two variables, say x and y, is a statement in which two expressions involving x and y areequal. The expressions are called the sides of the equation. Since an equation is a statement, it may be trueor false, depending on the value of the variables. Any values of x and y that result in a true statement aresaid to satisfy the equation.For example, the following are all equations in two variables x and y:The first of these, x2 + y2 = 5, is satisfied for x = 1, y = 2, since 12 + 22 = 1 + 4 = 5. Other choices of x andy also satisfy this equation. It is not satisfied for x = 2 and y = 3, since 22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13 ≠ 5.The graph of an equation in two variables x and y consists of the set of points in the xy-plane whosecoordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation.For example, as we learned in Chapter 0, the graph of any equation of the form Ax + By = C, where eitherA ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0, is a line.Graphs play an important role in helping us to visualize the relationships that exist between two variable
quantities. Figure 1 shows the monthly closing prices of Intel stock from August 31, 2002, through August31, 2003. For example, the closing price on May 31, 2003, was about $21 per share. FIGURE 1 Monthly closing prices of Intel stock, 8/31/02 to 8/31/03. EXAMPLE 1 Determining Whether a Point Is on the Graph of an EquationDetermine if the following points are on the graph of the equation 2x − y = 6. (a) (2, 3) (b) (2, −2)SOLUTION (a) For the point (2, 3), we check to see if x = 2, y = 3 satisfy the equation 2x − y = 6. The equation is not satisfied, so the point (2, 3) is not on the graph. (b) For the point (2, −2), we have The equation is satisfied, so the point (2, −2) is on the graph.
x y = x2 (x,y) 1 1 (1, 1) 2 4 (2, 4) 3 9 (3, 9) 4 16 (4, 16)The graph of the equation shown in Figure 2 does not show all points. For example, the point (5, 25) is apart of the graph of y = x2, but it is not shown. Since the graph of y = x2 could be extended out as far as weplease, we use arrows to indicate that the pattern shown continues. It is important when illustrating a graphto present enough of the graph so that any viewer of the illustration will "see" the rest of it as an obviouscontinuation of what is actually there. This is referred to as a complete graph.One way to obtain a complete graph of an equation is to plot a sufficient number of points on the graphuntil a pattern becomes evident. Then these points are connected with a smooth curve following thesuggested pattern. But how many points are sufficient? Sometimes knowledge about the equation tells us.For example, we learned in Chapter 0 that if an equation is of the form y = mx + b, then its graph is a line.In this case, only two points are needed to obtain the graph.One purpose of this book is to investigate the properties of equations in order to decide whether a graph iscomplete. At first we shall graph equations by plotting a sufficient number of points. Shortly, we shallinvestigate various techniques that will enable us to graph an equation without plotting so many points.Other times we shall graph equations based solely on properties of the equation. COMMENT: Another way to obtain the graph of an equation is to use a graphing utility. Read Section A.2, Using a Graphing Utility to Graph Equations, in the Appendix. EXAMPLE 3 Graphing an Equation by Plotting PointsGraph the equation: y = x3SOLUTIONWe set up Table 2, listing several points on the graph. Figure 3 illustrates some of these points and thegraph of y = x3.
COMMENT: To see the graph of the equation x = y2 on a graphing calculator, you will need to graph two equations: and . See Figure 6. We discuss why a little later in this chapter. FIGURE 6 NOW WORK PROBLEM 45.We said earlier that we would discuss techniques that reduce the number of points required to graph anequation. Two such techniques involve finding intercepts and checking for symmetry.Intercepts2 Find intercepts from a graphThe points, if any, at which a graph crosses or touches the coordinate axes are called the intercepts . SeeFigure 7. The point at which the graph crosses or touches the x-axis is an x-intercept, and the point atwhich the graph crosses or touches the y-axis is a y-intercept. FIGURE 7
EXAMPLE 5 Finding Intercepts from a GraphFind the intercepts of the graph in Figure 8. What are its x-intercepts? What are its y-intercepts? FIGURE 8SOLUTIONThe intercepts of the graph are the pointsThe x-intercepts are (−3, 0), , and (4.5, 0). The y-intercepts are (0, 3), , and (0,−3.5). NOW WORK PROBLEM 11(a).3 Find intercepts from an equationThe intercepts of the graph of an equation can be found from the equation by using the fact that points onthe x-axis have y-coordinates equal to 0, and points on the y-axis have x-coordinates equal to 0. Procedure for Finding Intercepts 1. To find the x-intercept(s), if any, of the graph of an equation, let y = 0 in the equation and solve for x. 2. To find the y-intercept(s), if any, of the graph of an equation, let x = 0 in the equation and solve for y.
Because the x-intercepts of the graph of an equation are those x-values for which y = 0, they are alsocalled the zeros (or roots ) of the equation. EXAMPLE 6 Finding Intercepts from an EquationFind the x-intercept(s) and the y-intercept(s) of the graph of y = x2 − 4. Graph y = x2 − 4.SOLUTIONTo find the x-intercept(s), we let y = 0 and obtain the equationThe equation has the solution set {−2, 2}. The x-intercepts are (−2, 0) and (2, 0).To find the y-intercept(s), we let x = 0 and obtain the equationThe y-intercept is (0, −4).Since x2 ≥ 0 for all x, we deduce from the equation y = x2 − 4 that y ≥ −4 for all x. This information, theintercepts, and the points from Table 4, enable us to graph y = x2 − 4. See Figure 9. FIGURE 9 TABLE 4 x y = x2−4 (x,y)
x y = x2−4 (x,y) −3 5 (−3, 5) −1 −3 (−1, −3) 1 −3 (1, −3) 3 5 (3, 5) NOW WORK PROBLEM 33 (List the Intercepts). COMMENT: For many equations, finding intercepts may not be so easy. In such cases, a graphing utility can be used. Read Section A.5, Using a Graphing Utility to Locate Intercepts and Check for Symmetry in the Appendix, to find out how a graphing utility locates intercepts.SymmetryWe have just seen the role that intercepts play in obtaining key points on the graph of an equation. Anotherhelpful tool for graphing equations involves symmetry, particularly symmetry with respect to the x-axis, they-axis, and the origin. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to the x-axis if, for every point (x, y) on the graph, the point (x, − y) is also on the graph.Figure 10 illustrates the definition. Notice that, when a graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, thepart of the graph above the x-axis is a reflection or mirror image of the part below it, and vice versa. FIGURE 10 Symmetry with respect to the x-axis.
EXAMPLE 7 Points Symmetric with Respect to the x-AxisIf a graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis and the point (3, 2) is on the graph, then the point (3, −2)is also on the graph. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to the y-axis if, for every point (x, y) on the graph, the point (− x, y) is also on the graph.Figure 11 illustrates the definition. Notice that, when a graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, thepart of the graph to the right of the y-axis is a reflection of the part to the left of it, and vice versa. FIGURE 11 Symmetry with respect to the y-axis. EXAMPLE 8 Points Symmetric with Respect to the y-AxisIf a graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis and the point (5, 8) is on the graph, then the point (−5, 8)is also on the graph. A graph is said to be symmetric with respect to the origin if, for every point (x,y) on the graph, the point (− x, − y) is also on the graph.
Figure 12 illustrates the definition. Notice that symmetry with respect to the origin may be viewed in twoways:1. As a reflection about the y-axis, followed by a reflection about the x-axis.2. As a projection along a line through the origin so that the distances from the origin are equal. FIGURE 12 Symmetry with respect to the origin. EXAMPLE 9 Points Symmetric with Respect to the OriginIf a graph is symmetric with respect to the origin and the point (4, 2) is on the graph, then the point (−4,−2) is also on the graph. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 1 AND 11.4 Test an equation for symmetry with respect to the (a) x-axis, (b) y-axis, (c) originWhen the graph of an equation is symmetric with respect to a coordinate axis or the origin, the number ofpoints that you need to plot in order to see the pattern is reduced. For example, if the graph of an equationis symmetric with respect to the y-axis, then, once points to the right of the y-axis are plotted, an equalnumber of points on the graph can be obtained by reflecting them about the y-axis. Because of this, beforewe graph an equation, we first want to determine whether it has any symmetry. The following tests areused for this purpose. Tests for Symmetry To test the graph of an equation for symmetry with respect to the
x-Axis: Replace y by − y in the equation. If an equivalent equation results, the graph of the equation is symmetric with respect to the x-axis. y-Axis: Replace x by − x in the equation. If an equivalent equation results, the graph of the equation is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Origin: Replace x by − x and y by − y in the equation. If an equivalent equation results, the graph of the equation is symmetric with respect to the origin.EXAMPLE 10 Testing an Equation for Symmetry (x = y2) (a) To test the graph of the equation x = y2 for symmetry with respect to the x-axis, we replace y by − y in the equation, as follows: When we replace y by − y, the result is the same equation. The graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis. (b) To test the graph of the equation x = y2 for symmetry with respect to the y-axis, we replace x by − x in the equation: Because we arrive at the equation − x = y2, which is not equivalent to the original equation, we conclude that the graph is not symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (c) To test for symmetry with respect to the origin, we replace x by − x and y by − y: The resulting equation, − x = y2, is not equivalent to the original equation. We conclude that the graph is not symmetric with respect to the origin.
Figure 13(a) illustrates the graph of x = y2. In forming a table of points on the graph of x = y2, we canrestrict ourselves to points whose y-coordinates are positive. Once these are plotted and connected, areflection about the x-axis (because of the symmetry) provides the rest of the graph. FIGURE 13Figures 13(b) and (c) illustrate two other equations, y = x2 and y = x3, that we graphed earlier. Test each ofthese equations for symmetry to verify the conclusions stated in Figures 13(b) and (c). Notice how theexistence of symmetry reduces the number of points that we need to plot. NOW WORK PROBLEM 33 (Test for Symmetry). EXAMPLE 11 Graphing the EquationGraph the equation:Find any intercepts and check for symmetry first.SOLUTIONWe check for intercepts first. If we let x = 0, we obtain a 0 denominator, which is not defined. Weconclude that there is no y-intercept. If we let y = 0, we get the equation , which has no solution.Weconclude that there is no x-intercept. The graph of does not cross or touch the coordinate axes.Next we check for symmetry:x-Axis Replacing y by − y yields , which is not equivalent to .y-Axis Replacing x by − x yields , which is not equivalent to .Origin Origin Replacing x by − x and y by − y yields , which is equivalent to .
The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.Finally, we set up Table 5, listing several points on the graph. Because of the symmetry with respect to theorigin, we use only positive values of x. TABLE 5 x (x,y) 10 3 2 1 1 (1,1) 2 3 10From Table 5 we infer that if x is a large and positive number then is a positive number close to 0.We also infer that if x is a positive number close to 0 then is a large and positive number. Armedwith this information, we can graph the equation. Figure 14 illustrates some of these points and the graphof . Observe how the absence of intercepts and the existence of symmetry with respect to the originwere utilized. FIGURE 14
COMMENT: Look at Figure 14. The line y = 0 (the x-axis) is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph.The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is called a vertical asymptote of the graph.We will discuss asymptotes in moredetail in Chapter 3. COMMENT: Refer to Example 3 in Section A.5 of the Appendix for the graph of using a graphing utility. EXERCISE 1.1 In Problems 1–10, plot each point. Then plot the point that is symmetric to it with respect to (a) the x-axis; (b) the y-axis; (c) the origin. 1. (3,4) 2. (5,3) 3. (−2,1) 4. (4, −2) 5. (1,1) 6. (−1, −1) 7. (−3, −4) 8. (4,0)
9. (0, −3)10. (−3,0)In Problems 11–22, the graph of an equation is given. (a) List the intercepts of the graph. (b) Based on the graph, tell whether the graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, the y-axis, and/or the origin.11.12.13.
14.15.16.17.18.
19.20.21.22.In Problems 23–28, determine whether the given points are on the graph of the equation.23.24.
49. If (a, 2) is a point on the graph of y = 3x + 5, what is a?50. If (2, b) is a point on the graph of y = x2 + 4x, what is b?51. If (a, b) is a point on the graph of 2x + 3y = 6, write an equation that relates a to b.52. If (2, 0) and (0, 5) are point on the graph of y = mx + b, what are m and b?In Problem 53, you may use a graphing utility, but it is not required.53. (a) Graph , and , noting which graphs are the same. (b) Explain why the graphs of and y = | x| are the same. (c) Explain why the graphs of y = x and are not the same. (d) Explain why the graphs of and y = x are not the same.54. Make up an equation with the intercepts (2, 0), (4, 0), and (0, 1). Compare your equation with a friend's equation. Comment on any similarities.55. An equation is being tested for symmetry with respect to the x-axis, the y-axis, and the origin. Explain why, if two of these symmetries are present, the remaining one must also be present.56. Draw a graph that contains the points (−2, −1), (0, 1), (1, 3), and (3, 5). Compare your graph with those of other students. Are most of the graphs almost straight lines? How many are "curved"? Discuss the various ways that these points might be connected.
1.2 FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Intervals (Chapter 0, Section 0.5) > Square Root Method (Chapter 0, Section 0.4) > Evaluating Algebraic Expressions; Domain of a Variable (Chapter 0, Section 0.2) > Solving Inequalities (Chapter 0, Section 0.5)OBJECTIVES 1 Find the value of a function 2 Find the difference quotient of a function 3 Find the domain of a function 4 Solve applied problems involving functionsIn many applications a correspondence (such as an equation) exists between two variables. For example,the relation between the revenue R resulting from the sale of x items selling for $10 each may beexpressed by the equation R = 10x. If we know how many items have been sold, then we can calculate therevenue by using the equation R = 10x. This equation is an example of a function.As another example, suppose that an icicle falls off a building from a height of 64 feet above the ground.According to a law of physics, the distance s (in feet) of the icicle from the ground after t seconds is given(approximately) by the formula s = 64 − 16t2. When t = 0 seconds, the icicle is s = 64 feet above theground. After 1 second, the icicle is s = 64 − 16(1)2 = 48 feet above the ground. After 2 seconds, theicicle strikes the ground. The formula s = 64 − 16t2 provides a way of finding the distance s for any time t(0 ≤ t ≤ 2). There is a correspondence between each time t in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 and the distance s. Wesay that the distance s is a function of the time t because:1. There is a correspondence between the set of times and the set of distances.2. There is exactly one distance s obtained for any time t in the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Let's now look at the definition of a function. Definition of Function Let X and Y be two nonempty sets of real numbers. A function from X into Y is a correspondence that associates with each number in X exactly one number in Y.The set X is called the domain of the function. For each number x in X, the corresponding number y in Yis called the value of the function at x, or the image of x. The set of all images of the numbers in thedomain is called the range of the function. See Figure 15. FIGURE 15Since there may be some numbers in Y that are not the image of any x in X, it follows that the range of afunction is a subset of Y, as shown in Figure 15. EXAMPLE 1 Example of a FunctionConsider the function defined by the equationNotice that for each number x there corresponds exactly one number y. For example, if x = 1, theny = 2(1) − 5 = − 3. If x = 3, then y = 2(3) − 5 = 1. For this reason, the equation is a function. Since werestrict the numbers x to the real numbers between 1 and 6, inclusive, the domain of the function is {x|1 ≤ x ≤ 6}. The function specifies that in order to get the image of x we multiply x by 2 and then subtract5 from this product.Function Notation1 Find the value of a functionFunctions are often denoted by letters such as f, F, g, G, and others. If f is a function, then for eachnumber x in its domain the corresponding image in the range is designated by the symbol f(x), read as " fof x" or as " f at x." We refer to f(x) as the value of f at the number x; f(x) is the number that resultswhen x is given and the function f is applied; f(x) does not mean " f times x." For example, the functiongiven in Example 1.1 may be written as y = f(x) = 2x − 5, 1 ≤ x ≤ 6. Then f(1) = − 3.
Figure 16 illustrates some other functions. Notice that in every function illustrated, for each x in thedomain there is one value in the range. FIGURE 16 (a) f(x) = x2 (b) (c)
(d) G(x) = 3Sometimes it is helpful to think of a function f as a machine that receives as input a number from thedomain, manipulates it, and outputs the value. See Figure 17. FIGURE 17The restrictions on this input/output machine are as follows:1. It only accepts numbers from the domain of the function.2. For each input, there is exactly one output (which may be repeated for different inputs).For a function y = f(x), the variable x is called the independent variable , because it can be assigned anyof the permissible numbers from the domain. The variable y is called the dependent variable , because itsvalue depends on x.Any symbol can be used to represent the independent and dependent variables. For example, if f is thecube function, then f can be given by f(x) = x3 or f(t) = t3 or f(z) = z3. All three functions are the same.Each tells us to cube the independent variable. In practice, the symbols used for the independent anddependent variables are based on common usage, such as using C for cost in business.The independent variable is also called the argument of the function. Thinking of the independentvariable as an argument can sometimes make it easier to find the value of a function. For example, if f isthe function defined by f(x) = x3, then f tells us to cube the argument. For example, f(2) means to cube 2,f (a) means to cube the number a, and f(x + h) means to cube the quantity x + h. EXAMPLE 2 Finding Values of a FunctionFor the function f defined by f(x) = 2x2 − 3x, evaluate
(c) f(x) = x2where m and b are constants.SOLUTION (a) If f(x) = b, then f(x + h) = b and the difference quotient of f is (b) If f(x) = mx + b, then f(x + h) = m(x + h) + b = mx + mh + b and the difference quotient of f is (c) If f(x) = x2, then f(x + h) = (x + h)2 = x2 + 2xh + h2 and the difference quotient of f is NOW WORK PROBLEM 9.Most calculators have special keys that enable you to find the value of certain commonly used functions.For example, you should be able to find the square function f(x) = x2, the square root function, the reciprocal function , and many others that will be discussed later in the book (suchas ln x and log x). Verify the results of Example 1.6, which follows, on your calculator. EXAMPLE 4 Finding Values of a Function on a Calculator (a) (b) (c) COMMENT: Graphing calculators can be used to evaluate any function that you wish. Figure 18
shows the result obtained in Example 1.2(a) on a TI-83 graphing calculator with the function to be evaluated, f(x) = 2x2 − 3x, in Y1.* FIGURE 18Implicit Form of a FunctionIn general, when a function f is defined by an equation in x and y, we say that the function f is givenimplicitly. If it is possible to solve the equation for y in terms of x, then we write y = f(x) and say that thefunction is given explicitly. For example, Implicit Form Explicit Form 3x + y = 5 y = f(x) = −3x + 5 x2 − y = 6 y = f(x) = x2 − 6 xy = 4Not all equations in x and y define a function y = f(x). If an equation is solved for y and two or morevalues of y can be obtained for a given x, then the equation does not define a function. EXAMPLE 5 Determining Whether an Equation Is a functionDetermine if the equation x2 + y2 = 1 is a function.SOLUTIONTo determine whether the equation x2 + y2 = 1 is a function, we need to solve the equation for y.
For values of x between −1 and 1, two values of y result. This means that the equationx2 + y2 = 1 does not define a function. NOW WORK PROBLEM 23. COMMENT: The explicit form of a function is the form required by a graphing calculator. Now do you see why it is necessary to graph some equations in two "pieces"?We list next a summary of some important facts to remember about a function f.SUMMARYImportant Facts about Functions (a) To each x in the domain of f, there is exactly one image f(x) in the range; however, a number in the range can result from more than one x in the domain. (b) f is the symbol that we use to denote the function. It is symbolic of the equation that we use to get from an x in the domain to f(x) in the range. (c) If y = f(x), then the function f is given explicitly; x is called the independent variable, or argument, of f and y is called the dependent variable or the value of f at x.Domain of a Function3 Find the domain of a functionOften the domain of a function f is not specified; instead, only the equation defining the function is given.In such cases, we agree that the domain of f is the largest set of real numbers for which the value f(x) is areal number. The domain of a function f is the same as the domain of the variable x in the expression f(x). EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Domain of a FunctionFind the domain of each of the following functions:
(a) f(x) = x2 + 5x (b) (c)SOLUTION (a) The function f tells us to square a number and then add five times the number. Since these operations can be performed on any real number, we conclude that the domain of f is all real numbers. (b) The function g tells us to divide 3x by x2 − 4. Since division by 0 is not defined, the denominator x2 − 4 can never be 0, so x can never equal −2 or 2. The domain of the function g is { x| x ≠ − 2, x ≠ 2}. (c) The function h tells us to take the square root of 4 − 3t. But only nonnegative numbers have real square roots, so the expression under the square root must be nonnegative. This requires that The domain of h is or the interval . NOW WORK PROBLEM 33.If x is in the domain of a function f, we shall say that f is defined at x, or f(x) exists. If x is not in thedomain of f, we say that f is not defined at x, or f(x) does not exist. For example, if , thenf(0) exists, but f(1) and f (−1) do not exist. (Do you see why?)We have not said much about finding the range of a function. The reason is that when a function isdefined by an equation it is often difficult to find the range. Therefore, we shall usually be content to findjust the domain of a function when only the rule for the function is given. We shall express the domain ofa function using inequalities, interval notation, set notation, or words, whichever is most convenient.Applications
4 Solve applied problems involving functionsWhen we use functions in applications, the domain may be restricted by physical or geometricconsiderations. For example, the domain of the function f defined by f(x) = x2 is the set of all realnumbers. However, if f is used to obtain the area of a square when the length x of a side is known, thenwe must restrict the domain of f to the positive real numbers, since the length of a side can never be 0 ornegative. EXAMPLE 7 Constructing a Cost FunctionThe cost per square foot to build a house is $110. (a) Express the cost C as a function of x, the number of square feet. (b) What is the cost to build a 2000-square-foot house?SOLUTION (a) The cost C of building a house containing x square feet is 110x dollars. A function expressing this relationship is where x is the independent variable and C is the dependent variable. In this setting the domain is { x| x > 0} since a house cannot have 0 or negative square feet. (b) The cost to build a 2000-square-foot house is NOW WORK PROBLEM 49.Observe in the solution to Example 1.7 that we used the symbol C in two ways: it is used to name thefunction, and it is used to symbolize the dependent variable. This double use is common in applicationsand should not cause any difficulty. EXAMPLE 8 Determining the Cost of Removing PollutantsThe cost of eliminating a large part of the pollutants from the atmosphere (or from water) is relativelycheap. However, removing the last traces of pollutants results in a significant increase in cost. A typical
relationship between the cost C, in millions of dollars, for removal and the percent x of pollutant removedis given by the functionSince x is a percentage, the domain of C consists of all real numbers x for which 0 ≤ x ≤ 100. The cost ofremoving 0% of the pollutant isThe cost of removing 50% of the pollutant isThe costs of removing 60% and 70% areandObserve that the cost of removing an additional 10% of the pollutant after 50% had been removed is$1,273,000, while the cost of removing an additional 10% after 60% is removed is $2,000,000.Revenue, Cost, and Profit Functions Revenue is the amount of money derived from the sale of aproduct and equals the price of the product times the quantity of the product that is actually sold. But theprice and the quantity sold are not independent. As the price falls, the demand for the product increases;and when the price rises, the demand decreases.The equation that relates the price p of a quantity bought and the amount x of a quantity demanded iscalled the demand equation . If in this equation we solve for p, we haveThe function d is called the price function and d(x) is the price per unit when x units are demanded. If x isthe number of units sold and d(x) is the price for each unit, the revenue function R(x) is defined asIf we denote the cost function by C(x), then the profit function P(x) is defined as
EXAMPLE 9 Constructing a Revenue Function
No matter how much wheat a farmer can grow, it can be sold at $4 per bushel. Find the price function.What is the revenue function?SOLUTIONSince the price per bushel is fixed at $4 per bushel, the price function isThe revenue function is EXAMPLE 10 Constructing a Revenue FunctionThe manager of a toy store has observed that each week 1000 toy trucks are sold at a price of $5 pertruck.When there is a special sale, the trucks sell for $4 each and 1200 per week are sold. Assuming alinear price function, construct the price function. What is the revenue function?SOLUTIONLet p be the price of each truck and let x be the number sold. If the price function p = d(x) is linear, thenwe know that (x1, p1) = (1000, 5) and (x2, p2) = (1200, 4) are two points on the line p = d(x). The slope ofthe line isUse the point–slope form of the equation of a line:The price function isThe revenue function isThe price function obtained in Example 1.10 is not meant to reflect extreme situations. For example, we
do not expect to sell x = 0 trucks nor do we expect to sell too many trucks in excess of 1500, since evenduring a special sale only 1200 are sold. The price function does represent the relationship between priceand quantity in a certain range—in this case, perhaps 500 < x < 1500. NOW WORK PROBLEM 51.SUMMARYWe list here some of the important vocabulary introduced in this section, with a brief description of eachterm.Function: A relation between two sets of real numbers so that each number x in the first set, the domain,has corresponding to it exactly one number y in the second set.The range is the set of y values of the function for the x values in the domain.A function f may be defined implicitly by an equation involving x and y or explicitly by writing y = f(x).Unspecified domain: If a function f is defined by an equation and no domain is specified, then thedomain will be taken to be the largest set of real numbers for which the equation defines a real number.Function notation: y = f(x)f is a symbol for the function.x is the independent variable or argument.y is the dependent variable.f(x) is the value of the function at x, or the image of x. EXERCISE 1.2 In Problems 1–8, find the following values for each function: (a) f(0) (b) f(1) (c) f(−1) (d) f(− x)
34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43. If f(x) = 2x3 + Ax2 + 4x − 5 and f(2) = 5, what is the value of A?44. If f(x) = 3x2 − Bx + 4 and f(−1) = 12, what is the value of B?45. If and f(0) = 2, what is the value of A? Where is f undefined?46. If and , what is the value of B? Where is f undefined?
47. If and f(4) = 0, what is the value of A? Where is f not defined?48. If , f(2) = 0, and f(1) is undefined, what are the values of A and B?49. Constructing Functions Express the gross salary G of a person who earns $10 per hour as a function of the number x of hours worked.50. Constructing Functions Tiffany, a commissioned salesperson, earns $100 base pay plus $10 per item sold. Express her gross salary G as a function of the number x of items sold.51. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation Express the revenue R = xp as a function of x.52. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation Express the revenue R = xp as a function of x.53. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation Express the revenue R = xp as a function of x.54. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation Express the revenue R = xp as a function of x.55. Wheat Production The amount of wheat planted annually in the United States is given in the table.
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Thousand Acres 77,041 69,881 72,219 72,168 70,349 69,031 Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Thousand Acress 75,105 70,412 65,812 62,714 62,629 If 1990 is taken as year 0, the number (in thousands) of acres of wheat planted in the United States can be approximated by A(t) = − 119t2 + 113t + 73,367. If this function remains valid, project the number (in thousands) of acres of wheat that will be planted in 2010. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.56. Wheat Production Suppose the number (in thousands) of acres of wheat in 2010 is 28,027, which is consistent with the current trend. If, at that time, there is a movement to increase the number of acres of wheat planted annually, and the equation selected to achieve this is A(t) = 28,027 + 200 , how much wheat would be planted in 2020? Assume t = 0 for the year 2010.57. SAT Scores The data for the mathematics scores on the SAT can be approximated by S(t) = − 0.04t3 + 0.43t2 + 0.24t + 506, where t is the number of years since 1994. If the trend continues, what would be the expected score in 2010?
58. Page Design A page with dimensions of 11 inches by 7 inches has a border of uniform width x surrounding the printed matter of the page, as shown in the figure. Write a formula for the area A of the printed part of the page as a function of the width x of the border. Give the domain and range of A.59. Cost of Flying An airplane crosses the Atlantic Ocean (3000 miles) with an airspeed of 500 miles per hour. The cost C (in dollars) per passenger is where x is the ground speed (airspeed ± wind). (a) What is the cost per passenger for quiescent (no-wind) conditions? (b) What is the cost per passenger with a head wind of 50 miles per hour? (c) What is the cost per passenger with a tail wind of 100 miles per hour? (d) What is the cost per passenger with a head wind of 100 miles per hour?60. Cable Installation A cable TV company is asked to provide service to a customer whose house is located 2 miles from the road along which the cable is buried. The nearest connection box for the cable is located 5 miles down the road.
(a) If the installation cost is $100 per mile along the road and $140 per mile off the road, express the total cost C of installation as a function of the distance x (in miles) from the connection box to the point where the cable installation turns off the road. (b) What is the domain of C? (c) Compute the cost for x = 1, x = 2, x = 3, and x = 4.61. Some functions f have the property that f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b) for all real numbers a and b. Which of the following functions have this property? (a) h(x) = 2x (b) g(x) = x2 (c) F(x) = 5x − 2 (d)62. Are the functions f(x) = x − 1 and the same? Explain.63. Investigate when, historically, the use of the function notation y = f(x) first appeared.
1.3 Graphs of Functions; Properties of FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Rectangular Coordinates (Chapter 0, Section 0.8) > Intervals (Chapter 0, Section 0.5) > Slope of a Line (Chapter 0, Section 0.9) > Point–Slope Equation of a Line (Chapter 0, Section 0.9)OBJECTIVES 1 Identify the graph of a function 2 Obtain information from or about the graph of a function 3 Determine even and odd functions from a graph 4 Identify even and odd functions from the equation 5 Use a graph to determine where a function is increasing, is decreasing, or is constant 6 Use a graph to locate local maxima and minima 7 Use a graphing utility to approximate local maxima and minima and to determine where a function is increasing or decreasing 8 Find the average rate of change of a functionIn applications, a graph often demonstrates more clearly the relationship between two variables than, say, an equation or tablewould. For example, Table 6 shows the price per share of Intel stock at the end of each month from 8/31/02 through 8/31/03. If weplot these data using the date as the x-coordinate and the price as the y-coordinate and then connect the points, we obtain Figure 19. FIGURE 19 Monthly closing prices of Intel stock 8/31/02 through 8/31/03.
TABLE 6 Date Closing Price ($) 8/31/02 15.86 9/30/02 13.89 10/31/02 17.30 11/30/02 20.88 12/31/02 15.57 1/31/03 15.70 2/28/03 17.26 3/31/03 16.28 4/30/03 18.37 5/31/03 20.82 6/30/03 20.81 7/31/03 24.89 8/31/03 28.59We can see from the graph that the price of the stock was rising rapidly from 9/30/02 through 11/30/02 and was falling slightly from8/31/02 through 9/30/02. The graph also shows that the lowest price occurred at the end of September, 2002 whereas the highestoccurred at the end of August, 2003. Equations and tables, on the other hand, usually require some calculations and interpretationbefore this kind of information can be "seen."Look again at Figure 19. The graph shows that for each date on the horizontal axis there is only one price on the vertical axis. Thus,
the graph represents a function, although the exact rule for getting from date to price is not given.When a function is defined by an equation in x and y, the graph of the function is the graph of the equation, that is, the set of points(x, y) in the xy-plane that satisfies the equation.For example, the graph of the function f(x) = mx + b is a line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b). Because of this, functions of theform f(x) = mx + b are called linear functions . COMMENT: When we select a viewing rectangle to graph a function, the values of Xmin, Xmax give the domain that we wish to view, while Ymin, Ymax give the range that we wish to view. These settings usually do not represent the actual domain and range of the function.1 Identify the graph of a functionNot every collection of points in the xy-plane represents the graph of a function. Remember, for a function, each number x in thedomain has exactly one image y in the range. This means that the graph of a function cannot contain two points with the samex-coordinate and different y-coordinates. Therefore, the graph of a function must satisfy the following vertical-line test. Vertical-Line Test A set of points in the xy-plane is the graph of a function if and only if every vertical line intersects the graph in at most one point.In other words, if any vertical line intersects a graph at more than one point, the graph is not the graph of a function. EXAMPLE 1 Identifying the Graph of a FunctionWhich of the graphs in Figure 20 are graphs of functions? FIGURE 20SOLUTIONThe graphs in Figures 20(a) and 20(b) are graphs of functions, because every vertical line intersects each graph in at most one point.The graphs in Figures 20(c) and 20(d) are not graphs of functions, because there is a vertical line that intersects each graph in morethan one point. NOW WORK PROBLEM 5.2 Obtain information from or about the graph of a function
If (x, y) is a point on the graph of a function f, then y is the value of f at x; that is, y = f(x). The next example illustrates how toobtain information about a function if its graph is given. EXAMPLE 2 Obtaining Information from the Graph of a FunctionLet f be the function whose graph is given in Figure 21. (a) What is f(0), , and f(3π)? (b) What is the domain of f ? (c) What is the range of f ? (d) List the intercepts. (Recall that these are the points, if any, where the graph crosses or touches the coordinate axes.) (e) How often does the line y = 2 intersect the graph? (f) For what values of x does f(x) = − 4? (g) For what values of x is f(x) > 0? FIGURE 21SOLUTION (a) Since (0, 4) is on the graph of f, the y-coordinate 4 is the value of f at the x-coordinate 0; that is, f(0) = 4. In a similar way, we find that when then y = 0, so . When x = 3π, then y = − 4, so f(3π) = − 4. (b) To determine the domain of f, we notice that the points on the graph of f will have x-coordinates between 0 and 4π, inclusive; and for each number x between 0 and 4π there is a point (x,f(x)) on the graph. The domain of f is { x|0 ≤ x ≤ 4π} or the interval [0, 4π].
(c) The points on the graph all have y-coordinates between −4 and 4, inclusive; and for each such number y there is at least one number x in the domain. The range of f is { y|−4 ≤ y ≤ 4} or the interval [−4, 4]. (d) The intercepts are (0, 4), . (e) Draw the horizontal line y = 2 on the graph in Figure 21. Then we find that it intersects the graph four times. (f) Since (π, −4) and (3π, −4) are the only points on the graph for which y = f(x) = − 4, we have f(x) = − 4 when x = π and x = 3π. (g) To determine where f(x) > 0, we look at Figure 21 and determine the x-values for which the y-coordinate is positive. This occurs on the intervals . Using inequality notation, f(x) > 0 for .When the graph of a function is given, its domain may be viewed as the shadow created by the graph on the x-axis by vertical beamsof light. Its range can be viewed as the shadow created by the graph on the y-axis by horizontal beams of light. Try this techniquewith the graph given in Figure 21. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 3, 13, AND 31(a) AND (b). EXAMPLE 3 Obtaining Information about the Graph of a FunctionConsider the function: (a) Is the point on the graph of f ? (b) If x = − 1, what is f(−1)? What point is on the graph of f ? (c) If f(x) = 2, what is x? What point is on the graph of f ?SOLUTION (a) When x = 1, then The point is on the graph of f; the point is not. (b) If x = − 1, then
The point (−1, −1) is on the graph of f. (c) If f(x) = 2, then If f(x) = 2, then x = − 4. The point (−4, 2) is on the graph of f. NOW WORK PROBLEM 17. EXAMPLE 4 Average Cost FunctionThe average cost of manufacturing x computers per day is given by the functionDetermine the average cost of manufacturing the following: (a) 30 computers in a day. (b) 40 computers in a day. (c) 50 computers in a day. (d) Graph the function . (e) Create a TABLE with TblStart = 1 and ∆Tbl = 1.* Which value of x minimizes the average cost?SOLUTION (a) The average cost of manufacturing x = 30 computers is (b) The average cost of manufacturing x = 40 computers is
(c) The average cost of manufacturing x = 50 computers is (d) See Figure 22 for the graph of . FIGURE 22 (e) With the function in Y1, we create Table 7. We scroll down until we find a value of x for which Y1 is smallest. Table 8 shows that manufacturing x = 41 computers minimizes the average cost at $1231.75 per computer. TABLE 7 TABLE 8 NOW WORK PROBLEM 79.It is easiest to obtain the graph of a function y = f(x) by knowing certain properties that the function has and the impact of theseproperties on the way that the graph will look.We describe next some properties of functions that we will use in subsequentchapters.We begin with intercepts and symmetry. Intercepts If x = 0 is in the domain of a function y = f(x), then the y-intercept of the graph of f is obtained by finding the value of f at 0, which is f (0). The x-intercepts of the graph of f, if there are any, are obtained by finding the solutions of the equation f(x) = 0.
The x-intercepts of the graph of a function f are called the zeros of f.Even and Odd Functions3 Determine even and odd functions from a graphThe words even and odd, when applied to a function f, describe the symmetry that exists for the graph of the function.A function f is even if and only if whenever the point (x, y) is on the graph of f then the point (− x, y) is also on the graph. Usingfunction notation, we define an even function as follows: A function f is even if, for every number x in its domain, the number − x is also in the domain andA function f is odd if and only if whenever the point (x, y) is on the graph of f then the point (− x, − y) is also on the graph. Usingfunction notation, we define an odd function as follows: A function f is odd if, for every number x in its domain, the number − x is also in the domain andRefer to Section 1.1, where the tests for symmetry are explained. The following results are then evident. Theorem A function is even if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. A function is odd if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. EXAMPLE 5 Determining Even and Odd Functions from a GraphDetermine whether each graph given in Figure 23 is the graph of an even function, an odd function, or a function that is neither evennor odd. FIGURE 23
SOLUTIONThe graph in Figure 23(a) is that of an even function, because the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. The function whosegraph is given in Figure 23(b) is neither even nor odd, because the graph is neither symmetric with respect to the y-axis norsymmetric with respect to the origin. The function whose graph is given in Figure 23(c) is odd, because its graph is symmetric withrespect to the origin. NOW WORK PROBLEM 31(d).4 Identify even and odd functions from the equationIn the next example, we use algebraic techniques to verify whether a given function is even, odd, or neither. EXAMPLE 6 Identifying Even and Odd Functions AlgebraicallyDetermine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither. Then determine whether the graph is symmetric withrespect to the y-axis or with respect to the origin. (a) f(x) = x2 − 5 (b) g(x) = x3 − 1 (c) h(x) = 5x3 − x (d) F(x) = | x|SOLUTION (a) To determine whether f is even, odd, or neither, we replace x by − x in f(x) = x2 − 5. Then Since f(− x) = f(x), we conclude that f is an even function, and the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (b) We replace x by − x in g(x) = x3 − 1. Then Since g(− x) ≠ g(x) and g(− x) ≠ − g(x) = − (x3 − 1) = − x3 + 1, we conclude that g is neither even nor odd. The graph is not symmetric with respect to the y-axis nor is it symmetric with respect to the origin. (c) We replace x by − x in h(x) = 5x3 − x. Then Since h(− x) = − h(x), h is an odd function, and the graph of h is symmetric with respect to the origin.
(d) We replace x by − x in F(x) = | x|. Then Since F(− x) = F(x), F is an even function, and the graph of F is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. NOW WORK PROBLEM 57.Increasing and Decreasing Functions5 Use a graph to determine where a function is increasing, is decreasing, or is constantConsider the graph given in Figure 24. If you look from left to right along the graph of the function, you will notice that parts of thegraph are rising, parts are falling, and parts are horizontal. In such cases, the function is described as increasing, decreasing, orconstant, respectively. FIGURE 24 EXAMPLE 7 Determining Where a Function Is Increasing, Decreasing, or Constant from Its GraphWhere is the function in Figure 24 increasing? Where is it decreasing? Where is it constant?SOLUTIONTo answer the question of where a function is increasing, where is it decreasing, and where it is constant, we use strict inequalitiesinvolving the independent variable x, or we use open intervals of x-coordinates. The graph in Figure 24 is rising (increasing) from thepoint (−4, −2) to the point (0, 4), so we conclude that it is increasing on the open interval (−4, 0) or for −4 < x < 0. The graph isfalling (decreasing) from the point (−6, 0) to the point (−4, −2) and from the point (3, 4) to the point (6, 1). We conclude that thegraph is decreasing on the open intervals (−6, −4) and (3, 6) or for −6 < x < − 4 and 3 < x < 6. The graph is constant on the openinterval (0, 3) or for 0 < x < 3.More precise definitions follow: A function f is increasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with x1 < x2, we have f (x1) < f(x2). A function f is decreasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with x1 < x2, we have f (x1) > f (x2). A function f is constant on an open interval I if, for all choices of x in I, the values f(x) are equal.Figure 25 illustrates the definitions. The graph of an increasing function goes up from left to right, the graph of a decreasing function
goes down from left to right, and the graph of a constant function remains at a fixed height. FIGURE 25In Chapter 5 we develop a method for determining where a function is increasing or decreasing using calculus. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 21, 23, 25, AND 31.Local Maximum; Local Minimum6 Use a graph to locate local maxima and minimaWhen the graph of a function is increasing to the left of x = c and decreasing to the right of x = c, then at c the value of f is largest.This value is called a local maximum of f. See Figure 26(a). FIGURE 26When the graph of a function is decreasing to the left of x = c and is increasing to the right of x = c, then at c the value of f is thesmallest. This value is called a local minimum of f. See Figure 26(b). A function f has a local maximum at c if there is an open interval I containing c so that, for all x ≠ c in I, f(x) < f(c). We call f (c) a local maximum of f. A function f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval I containing c so that, for all x ≠ c in I, f(x) > f (c). We call f(c) a local minimum of f.If f has a local maximum at c, then the value of f at c is greater than the values of f near c. If f has a local minimum at c, then thevalue of f at c is less than the values of f near c. The word local is used to suggest that it is only near c that the value f (c) is largestor smallest.
Finding Local Maxima and Local Minima from the Graph of a Function and Determining WhereEXAMPLE 8 the Function Is Increasing, Decreasing, or Constant
Figure 27 shows the graph of a function f. (a) At what number(s), if any, does f have a local maximum? (b) What are the local maxima? (c) At what number(s), if any, does f have a local minimum? (d) What are the local minima? (e) List the intervals on which f is increasing. (f) List the intervals on which f is decreasing. FIGURE 27SOLUTIONThe domain of f is the set of real numbers. (a) f has a local maximum at 1, since for all x close to 1, x ≠ 1, we have f(x) < f (1). (b) The local maximum is f(1) = 2. (c) f has local minima at −1 and at 3. (d) The local minima are f(−1) = 1 and f(3) = 0. (e) The function whose graph is given in Figure 27 is increasing on the interval (−1, 1). It is also increasing for all values of x greater than 3. That is, the function is increasing on the intervals (−1, 1) and (3, ∞) or for −1 < x < 1 and x > 3. (f) The function is decreasing for all values of x less than −1. It is also decreasing on the interval (1, 3). That is, the function is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, −1) and (1, 3) or for x < − 1 and 1 < x < 3. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 27 AND 29.
In Chapter 5, we use calculus to determine the local maxima and the local minima of a function.A graphing utility may be used to approximate these values by using the MAXIMUM and MINIMUM features.*7 Using a Graphing Utility to Approximate Local Maxima and Minima and to Determine Where EXAMPLE 9 a Function Is Increasing or Decreasing (a) Use a graphing utility to graph f(x) = 6x3 − 12x + 5 for −2 < x < 2. Approximate where f has a local maximum and where f has a local minimum. (b) Determine where f is increasing and where it is decreasing.SOLUTION (a) Graphing utilities have a feature that finds the maximum or minimum point of a graph within a given interval. Graph the function f for −2 < x < 2. Using MAXIMUM, we find that the local maximum is 11.53 and it occurs at x = − 0.82, rounded to two decimal places. See Figure 28(a). Using MINIMUM, we find that the local minimum is −1.53 and it occurs at x = 0.82, rounded to two decimal places. See Figure 28(b). (b) Looking at Figures 28(a) and (b), we see that the graph of f is increasing from x = − 2 to x = − 0.82 and from x = − 0.82 to x = 2, so f is increasing on the intervals (−2, −0.82) and (0.82, 2) or for −2 < x < − 0.82 and 0.82 < x < 2. The graph is decreasing from x = − 0.82 to x = 0.82, so f is decreasing on the interval (−0.82, 0.82) or for −0.82 < x < 0.82. FIGURE 28 NOW WORK PROBLEM 69.Average Rate of Change
8 Find the average rate of change of a functionOften we are interested in the rate at which functions change. To find the average rate of change of a function between any twopoints on its graph, we calculate the slope of the line containing the two points. If c is in the domain of a function y = f(x), the average rate of change of f from c to x is defined as (1)Recall that the symbol ∆ y in (1) is the "change in y," and ∆ x is the "change in x." The average rate of change of f is the change in ydivided by the change in x. EXAMPLE 10 Finding the Average Rate of ChangeFind the average rate of change of f(x) = 3x2: (a) From 1 to 3 (b) From 1 to 5 (c) From 1 to 7SOLUTION (a) The average rate of change of f(x) = 3x2 from 1 to 3 is (b) The average rate of change of f(x) = 3x2 from 1 to 5 is (c) The average rate of change of f(x) = 3x2 from 1 to 7 isThe average rate of change of a function has an important geometric interpretation. Look at the graph of y = f(x) in Figure 29. Wehave labeled two points on the graph: (c, f (c)) and (x, f(x)). The line containing these two points is called a secant line ; its slope is
FIGURE 29 Slope of the Secant Line The average rate of change of a function equals the slope of the secant line containing two points on its graph. EXAMPLE 11 Finding the Average Rate of Change of a Function (a) Find the average rate of change of f(x) = 2x2 − 3x from 1 to x. (b) Use this result to find the slope of the secant line containing (1, f (1)) and (2, f (2)). (c) Find an equation of this secant line.SOLUTION (a) The average rate of change of f from 1 to x is (b) The slope of the secant line containing (1, f (1)) and (2, f (2)) is the average rate of change of f from 1 to 2. Using x = 2 in part (a), we obtain msec = 2(2) − 1 = 3. (c) Use the point–slope form to find the equation of the secant line.
NOW WORK PROBLEM 49.EXERCISE 1.3In Problems 1–12, determine whether the graph is that of a function by using the vertical-line test. If it is, use the graph tofind: (a) Its domain and range; (b) The intercepts, if any; (c) Any symmetry with respect to the x-axis, the y-axis, or the origin.1.2.3.4.
5.6.7.8.9.10.
11.12.13. Use the graph of the function f given below to answer parts (a)–(n). (a) Find f(0) and f(−6). (b) Find f(6) and f(11). (c) Is f(3) positive or negative? (d) Is f(−4) positive or negative? (e) For what numbers x is f(x) = 0? (f) For what numbers x is f(x) > 0? (g) What is the domain of f? (h) What is the range of f? (i) What are the x-intercepts? (j) What is the y-intercept?
(k) How often does the line intersect the graph? (l) How often does the line x = 5 intersect the graph? (m) For what values of x does f(x) = 3? (n) For what values of x does f(x) = − 2?14. Use the graph of the function f given below to answer parts (a)–(n). (a) Find f (0) and f (6). (b) Find f (2) and f (−2). (c) Is f (3) positive or negative? (d) Is f (−1) positive or negative? (e) For what numbers is f(x) = 0? (f) For what numbers is f(x) < 0? (g) What is the domain of f ? (h) What is the range of f ? (i) What are the x-intercepts? (j) What is the y-intercept? (k) How often does the line y = − 1 intersect the graph? (l) How often does the line x = 1 intersect the graph?
In Problems 15–20, answer the questions about the given function.15. f(x) = 2x2 − x − 116. f(x) = − 3x2 + 5x17. (a) Is the point (3, 14) on the graph of f ?
(b) If x = 4, what is f(x)? What point is on the graph of f ? (c) If f(x) =18. (a) Is the point on the graph of f ? (b) If x = 0, what is f(x)? What point is on the graph of f ? (c) If ,19. (a) Is the point (−1, 1) on the graph of f ? (b) If x = 2, what is f(x)? What point is on the graph of f ? (c) If f(x) =
20. (a) Is the point on the graph of f ? (b) If x = 4, what is f(x)? What point is on the graph of f ? (c) If f(x) = 1In Problems 21–30, use the graph of the function f given below.21. Is f increasing on the interval (−8, −2)?22. Is f decreasing on the interval (−8, −4)?23. Is f increasing on the interval (2, 10)?24. Is f decreasing on the interval (2, 5)?25. List the interval(s) on which f is increasing.26. List the interval(s) on which f is decreasing.
27. Is there a local maximum at 2? If yes, what is it?28. Is there a local maximum at 5? If yes, what is it?29. List the numbers at which f has a local maximum. What are these local maxima?30. List the numbers at which f has a local minimum. What are these local minima?In Problems 31–38, the graph of a function is given. Use the graph to find: (a) The intercepts, if any (b) Its domain and range (c) The intervals on which it is increasing, decreasing, or constant (d) Whether it is even, odd, or neither31.32.33.
34.35.36.37.38.In Problems 39–42, the graph of a function f is given. Use the graph to find: (a) The numbers, if any, at which f has a local maximum. What are these local maxima? (b) The numbers, if any, at which f has a local minimum. What are these local minima?
39.40.41.42.43. Find the average rate of change of f(x) = − 2x2 + 4 (a) from 0 to 2 (b) from 1 to 3 (c) from 1 to 444. Find the average rate of change of f(x) = − x3 + 1 (a) from 0 to 2 (b) from 1 to 3
(b) from 1 to 1.5 (c) from 1 to 1.1 (d) from 1 to 1.01 (e) from 1 to 1.001 (f) Graph each of the secant lines. Set the viewing rectangle to: Xmin = − 0.5, Xmax = 2.5, Xscl = 0.1, Ymin = − 1, Ymax = 4, Yscl = 0.1. (g) What do you think is happening to the secant lines? (h) What is happening to the slopes of the secant lines? Is there some number they are getting closer to? What is that number?79. Motion of a Golf Ball A golf ball is hit with an initial velocity of 130 feet per second at an inclination of 45° to the horizontal. In physics, it is established that the height h of the golf ball is given by the function where x is the horizontal distance that the golf ball has traveled. (a) Determine the height of the golf ball after it has traveled 100 feet. (b) What is the height after it has traveled 300 feet?
(c) What is the height after it has traveled 500 feet? (d) How far was the golf ball hit? (e) Use a graphing utility to graph the function h = h(x). (f) Use a graphing utility to determine the distance that the ball has traveled when the height of the ball is 90 feet. (g) Create a TABLE with TblStart = 0 and ∆Tbl = 25. (h) To the nearest 25 feet, how far does the ball travel before it reaches a maximum height? What is the maximum height? (i) Adjust the value of ∆Tbl until you determine the distance, to within 1 foot, that the ball travels before it reaches a maximum height.80. Effect of Elevation on Weight If an object weighs m pounds at sea level, then its weight W(in pounds) at a height of h miles above sea level is given approximately by (a) If Amy weighs 120 pounds at sea level, how much will she weigh on Pikes Peak, which is 14,110 feet above sea level? (1 mile = 5280 feet) (b) Use a graphing utility to graph the function W = W (h). Use m = 120 pounds. (c) Create a Table with TblStart = 0 and Tbl = 0.5 to see how the weight W varies as h changes from 0 to 5 miles. (d) At what height will Amy weigh 119.95 pounds? (e) Does your answer to part (d) seem reasonable?81. Constructing an Open Box An open box with a square base is to be made from a square piece of cardboard 24 inches on a side by cutting out a square from each corner and turning up the sides (see the figure).
(a) Express the volume V of the box as a function of the length x of the side of the square cut from each corner. (b) What is the volume if a 3-inch square is cut out? (c) What is the volume if a 10-inch square is cut out? (d) Graph V = V(x). For what value of x is V largest?82. Constructing an Open Box A open box with a square base is required to have a volume of 10 cubic feet. (a) Express the amount A of material used to make such a box as a function of the length x of a side of the square base. (b) How much material is required for a base 1 foot by 1 foot? (c) How much material is required for a base 2 feet by 2 feet? (d) Graph A = A(x). For what value of x is A smallest?83. Minimum Average Cost The average cost of producing x riding lawn mowers is given by (a) Use a graphing utility to graph . (b) Determine the number of riding lawn mowers to produce in order to minimize average cost. (c) What is the minimum average cost?84. Match each function with the graph that best describes the situation. Discuss the reason for your choice.
(a) The cost of building a house as a function of its square footage (b) The height of an egg dropped from a 300-foot building as a function of time (c) The height of a human as a function of time (d) The demand for Big Macs as a function of price (e) The height of a child on a swing as a function of time85. Match each function with the graph that best describes the situation. Discuss the reason for your choice. (a) The temperature of a bowl of soup as a function of time (b) The number of hours of daylight per day over a two-year period (c) The population of Florida as a function of time (d) The distance of a car traveling at a constant velocity as a function of time (e) The height of a golf ball hit with a 7-iron as a function of time86. Draw the graph of a function that has the following characteristics: Domain: all real numbers Range: all real numbers
Intercepts: (0, −3) and (2, 0) A local maximum of −2 is at −1; a local minimum of −6 is at 2. Compare your graph with others. Comment on any differences.87. Redo Problem 86 with the following additional information: Increasing on (−∞, −1), (2, ∞) Decreasing on (−1, 2) Again compare your graph with others and comment on any differences.88. How many x-intercepts can a function defined on an interval have if it is increasing on that interval? Explain.89. Suppose that a friend of yours does not understand the idea of increasing and decreasing functions. Provide an explanation complete with graphs that clarifies the idea.90. Can a function be both even and odd? Explain.91. Describe how you would proceed to find the domain and range of a function if you were given its graph. How would your strategy change if, instead, you were given the equation defining the function?92. Is a graph that consists of a single point the graph of a function? If so, can you write the equation of such a function?93. Define some functions that pass through (0, 0) and (1, 1) and are increasing for x ≥ 0. Begin your list with , 2 y = x, and y = x . Can you propose a general result about such functions?
1.4 Library of Functions; Piecewise-defined FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Square Roots (Chapter 0, Section 0.2) > Absolute Value (Chapter 0, Section 0.2) > nth Roots (Chapter 0, Section 0.6)OBJECTIVES 1 Graph the functions listed in the library of functions 2 Graph piecewise-defined functionsWe now introduce a few more functions to add to our list of important functions. We begin with thesquare root function.In Section 1.1 we graphed the equation x = y2. If we solve the equation for y and restrict y so that y ≥ 0,the equation x = y2, y ≥ 0, can be written as . Figure 30 shows a graph of . FIGURE 30Based on the graph of , we have the following properties: Properties of 1. The domain and range of are the set of nonnegative real numbers.
2. The x-intercept of the graph of is (0, 0). The y-intercept of the graph of is also (0, 0). 3. The function is neither even nor odd. 4. It is increasing on the interval (0, ∞). EXAMPLE 1 Graphing the Cube RootSOLUTION (a) Because the function is odd. The graph of f is symmetric with respect to the origin. (b) Since , the y-intercept is (0, 0). The x-intercept is found by solving the equation f(x) = 0. The x-intercept is also (0, 0).
(c) We use the function to form Table 9 and obtain some points on the graph. Because of the symmetry with respect to the origin, we only need to find points (x, y) for which x ≥ 0. Figure 31 shows the graph of . FIGURE 31 TABLE 9 x (x,y) 0 0 (0,0) ( , ) 1 1 (1, 1) 2 (2, ) 8 2 (8,2)From the results of Example 1.1 and Figure 31, we have the following properties of the cube rootfunction. Properties of 1. The domain and range of are the set of real numbers.
2. The x-intercept of the graph of is (0,0). The y-intercept of the graph of is also (0,0). 3. The function is odd. 4. It is increasing on the interval (−∞,∞). EXAMPLE 2 Graphing the Absolute Value .SOLUTION (a) Because the function is even. The graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (b) Since , the y-intercept is (0,0). The x-intercept is found by solving the equation . So the x-intercept is also (0,0). (c) We use the function to form Table 10 and obtain some points on the graph. Because of the symmetry with respect to the y-axis, we only need to find points (x, y) for which x ≥ 0. Figure 32 shows the graph of .
FIGURE 32 TABLE 10 x (x,y) 0 0 (0, 0) 1 1 (1,1) 2 2 (2, 2) 3 3 (3, 3)From the results of Example 1.2 and Figure 32, we have the following properties of the absolute valuefunction. Properties of 1. The domain of is the set of real numbers; the range is the set of nonnegative real numbers. 2. The x-intercept of the graph of is (0, 0). The y-intercept of the graph of is also (0, 0). 3. The function is even. 4. It is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0). It is increasing on the interval (0, ∞). SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph on a square screen and compare what you see with
Figure 32. Note that some graphing calculators use the symbols abs(x) for absolute value. If your utility has no built-in absolute value function, you can still graph by using the fact that .LIBRARY OF FUNCTIONS1 Graph the functions listed in the library of functionsWe now provide a summary of the key functions that we have encountered. In going through this list, payspecial attention to the properties of each function, particularly to the shape of each graph. Knowing thesegraphs will lay the foundation for later graphing techniques. Linear FunctionSee Figure 33. FIGURE 33 Linear functionThe domain of a linear function is the set of all real numbers. The graph of this function is a nonverticalline with slope m and y-intercept (0, b). A linear function is increasing if m > 0, decreasing if m < 0, andconstant if m = 0. Constant Function
See Figure 34. FIGURE 34 Constant functionA constant function is a special linear function (m = 0). Its domain is the set of all real numbers; its rangeis the set consisting of a single number b. Its graph is a horizontal line whose y-intercept is (0, b). Theconstant function is an even function whose graph is constant over its domain. Identity FunctionSee Figure 35. FIGURE 35 Identity functionThe identity function is also a special linear function. Its domain and range are the set of all real numbers.Its graph is a line whose slope is m = 1 and whose only intercept is (0,0). The line consists of all points forwhich the x-coordinate equals the y-coordinate. The identity function is an odd function that is increasingover its domain. Note that the graph bisects quadrants I and III. Square Function
See Figure 36. FIGURE 36 Square functionThe domain of the square function f is the set of all real numbers; its range is the set of nonnegative realnumbers. The graph of this function is a parabola whose only intercept is (0, 0). The square function is aneven function that is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0) and increasing on the interval (0, ∞). Cube FunctionSee Figure 37. FIGURE 37 Cube functionThe domain and range of the cube function are the set of all real numbers. The only intercept of the graphis (0, 0). The cube function is odd and is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞).
Square root functionSee Figure 38. FIGURE 38 Square root functionThe domain and range of the square root function are the set of nonnegative real numbers. The onlyintercept of the graph is (0, 0). The square root function is neither even nor odd and is increasing on theinterval (0, ∞). Cube Root FunctionSee Figure 39. FIGURE 39 Cube root functionThe domain and the range of the cube root function is the set of all real numbers. The intercept of the
graph is at (0, 0). The cube root function is an odd function that is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞). Reciprocal functionRefer to Example 1.11 for a discussion of the equation . See Figure 40. FIGURE 40 Reciprocal functionThe domain and range of the reciprocal function are the set of all nonzero real numbers. The graph hasno intercepts. The reciprocal function is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) and is an oddfunction. Absolute Value FunctionSee Figure 41. FIGURE 41 Absolute value functionThe domain of the absolute value function is the set of all real numbers; its range is the set ofnonnegative real numbers. The intercept of the graph is at (0, 0). If x ≥ 0, then f(x) = x, and the graph of fis part of the line y = x; if x < 0, then f(x) = − x, and the graph of f is part of the line y = − x. The absolute
value function is an even function; it is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0) and is increasing on the interval(0, ∞).The notation int(x) stands for the largest integer less than or equal to x. For example,This type of correspondence occurs frequently enough in mathematics that we give it a name. Greatest Integer FunctionNOTE: Some books use the notation f(x) = [x] instead of int(x).We obtain the graph of f(x) = int(x) by plotting several points. See Table 11. For values of x, −1 ≤ x < 0,the value of f(x) = int(x) is −1; for values of x, 0 ≤ x < 1, the value of f is 0. See Figure 42 for the graph. FIGURE 42 Greatest integer function TABLE 11 x y = int(x) (x, y) −1 −1 (−1, −1) −1 ( , −1) −1 ( , −1) 0 0 (0, 0)
x y = int(x) (x, y) 0 ( , 0) 0 ( , 0) 0 ( , 0)The domain of the greatest integer function is the set of all real numbers; its range is the set of integers.The y-intercept of the graph is (0, 0). The x-intercepts lie in the interval [0, 1). The greatest integerfunction is neither even nor odd. It is constant on every interval of the form [k, k + 1), for k an integer. InFigure 42, we use a solid dot to indicate, for example, that at x = 1 the value of f is f(1) = 1; we use anopen circle to illustrate that the function does not assume the value of 0 at x = 1.From the graph of the greatest integer function, we can see why it is also called a step function . At x = 0,x = ±1, x = ±2, and so on, this function exhibits what is called a discontinuity; that is, at integer values, thegraph suddenly "steps" from one value to another without taking on any of the intermediate values. Forexample, to the immediate left of x = 3, the y-coordinates are 2, and to the immediate right of x = 3, they-coordinates are 3. COMMENT: When graphing a function, you can choose either the connected mode, in which points plotted on the screen are connected, making the graph appear without any breaks, or the dot mode, in which only the points plotted appear. When graphing the greatest integer function with a graphing utility, it is necessary to be in the dot mode. This is to prevent the utility from "connecting the dots" when f(x) changes from one integer value to the next. See Figure 43. FIGURE 43
The functions that we have discussed so far are basic.Whenever you encounter one of them, you shouldsee a mental picture of its graph. For example, if you encounter the function f(x) = x2, you should see inyour mind's eye a picture like Figure 36. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.Piecewise-defined Functions2 Graph piecewise-defined functionsSometimes a function is defined differently on different parts of its domain. For example, the absolutevalue function f(x) = | x| is actually defined by two equations: f(x) = x if x ≥ 0 and f(x) = − x if x < 0. Forconvenience, we generally combine these equations into one expression asWhen functions are defined by more than one equation, they are called piecewise-defined functions.Let's look at another example of a piecewise-defined function. EXAMPLE 3 Analyzing a Piecewise-Defined FunctionThe function f is defined as (a) Find f(0), f(1), and f(2). (b) Determine the domain of f.
(c) Graph f. (d) Use the graph to find the range of f.SOLUTION (a) To find f(0), we observe that when x = 0 the equation for f is given by f(x) = − x + 1. So we have When x = 1, the equation for f is f(x) = 2. So When x = 2, the equation for f is f(x) = x2. So (b) To find the domain of f, we look at its definition. We conclude that the domain of f is {x| x ≥ −1}, or the interval [−1, ∞). (c) To graph f, we graph "each piece." First we graph the line y = − x + 1 and keep only the part for which −1 ≤ x < 1. Then we plot the point (1, 2) because, when x = 1, f(x) = 2. Finally, we graph the parabola y = x2 and keep only the part for which x > 1. See Figure 44. FIGURE 44 (d) From the graph, we conclude that the range of f is {y| y > 0}, or the interval (0, ∞).
NOW WORK PROBLEM 21. EXAMPLE 4 Cost of ElectricityIn May 2003, Commonwealth Edison Company supplied electricity to residences for a monthly customercharge of $7.58 plus 8.275¢ per kilowatt-hour (kWhr) for the first 400 kWhr supplied in the month and6.574¢ per kWhr for all usage over 400 kWhr in the month. (a) What is the charge for using 300 kWhr in a month? (b) What is the charge for using 700 kWhr in a month? (c) If C is the monthly charge for x kWhr, express C as a function of x.Source: Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago, Illinois, 2003.SOLUTION (a) For 300 kWhr, the charge is $7.58 plus 8.275¢ = $0.08275 per kWhr. That is, (b) For 700 kWhr, the charge is $7.58 plus 8.275¢ per kWhr for the first 400 kWhr plus 6.574¢ per kWhr for the 300 kWhr in excess of 400. That is, (c) If 0 ≤ x ≤ 400, the monthly charge C (in dollars) can be found by multiplying x times $0.08275 and adding the monthly customer charge of $7.58. So, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 400, then C(x) = 0.08275x + 7.58. For x > 400, the charge is 0.08275(400) + 7.58 + 0.06574(x − 400), since x − 400 equals the usage in excess
34.35. .36. .37. Cell Phone Service Sprint PCS offers a monthly cellular phone plan for $39.99. It includes 350 anytime minutes plus $0.25 per minute for additional minutes. The following function is used to compute the monthly cost for a subscriber where x is the number of anytime minutes used. Compute the monthly cost of the cellular phone for the following anytime minutes: (a) 200 (b) 365 (c) 351 Source: Sprint PCS.
38. First-class Letter According to the U.S. Postal Service, first-class mail is used for personal and business correspondence. Any mailable item may be sent as first-class mail. It includes postcards, letters, large envelopes, and small packages. The maximum weight is 13 ounces. The following function is used to compute the cost of mailing a first-class item. where x is the weight of the item in ounces. Compute the cost of mailing the following items first-class: (a) A letter weighing 4.3 ounces (b) A postcard weighing 0.4 ounces (c) A package weighing 12.2 ounces Source: United States Postal Service.39. Cost of Natural Gas In May 2003, the People Gas Company had the following rate schedule for natural gas usage in single-family residences: Monthly service charge $9.45 Per therm service charge $0.36375/therm 1st 50 therms $0.11445/therm Over 50 therms 0.6338/therm Gas charge (a) What is the charge for using 50 therms in a month? (b) What is the charge for using 500 therms in a month?
(c) Construct a function that relates the monthly charge C for x therms of gas. (d) Graph this function. Source: The Peoples Gas Company, Chicago, Illinois, 2003.40. Cost of Natural Gas In May 2003, Nicor Gas had the following rate schedule for natural gas usage in single-family residences: Monthly customer charge $6.45 Distribution charge $0.2012/therm 1st 20 therms $0.1117/therm Next 30 therms $0.0374/therm Over 50 therms $0.7268/therm Gas supply charge (a) What is the charge for using 40 therms in a month? (b) What is the charge for using 202 therms in a month? (c) Construct a function that gives the monthly charge C for x therms of gas. (d) Graph this function. Source: Nicor Gas, Aurora, Illinois, 2003.41. Wind Chill The wind chill factor represents the equivalent air temperature at a standard
wind speed that would produce the same heat loss as the given temperature and wind speed. One formula for computing the equivalent temperature is where y represents the wind speed (in meters per second) and t represents the air temperature (°C). Compute the wind chill for the following: (a) An air temperature of 10°C and a wind speed of 1 meter per second (m/sec). (b) An air temperature of 10°C and a wind speed of 5 m/sec. (c) An air temperature of 10°C and a wind speed of 15 m/sec. (d) An air temperature of 10°C and a wind speed of 25 m/sec. (e) Explain the physical meaning of the equation corresponding to 0 ≤ v < 1.79. (f) Explain the physical meaning of the equation corresponding to v > 20.42. Wind Chill Redo Problem 41(a)–(d) for an air temperature of −10°C43. Federal Income Tax Two 2003 Tax Rate Schedules are given in the accompanying tables. If x equals taxable income and y equals the tax due, construct a function y = f(x) for Schedule X. Revised 2003 Tax Rate Schedules If TAXABLE INCOME The TAX is Then
But Of the Not This Plus Excess Is Over Over Amount This % OverSCHEDULE X—Single $0 $7,000 $0.00 10% $0.00 $7,000 $28,400 $700.00 15% $7,000 $28,400 $68,800 $3,910.00 25% $28,400 $68,800 $143,500 $14,010.00 28% $68,800 $143,500 $311,950 $34,926.00 33% $143,500 $311,950 — $90,514.50 35% $311,950 Source: Internal Revenue Service. If TAXABLE INCOME The TAX is Then But Of the Not This Plus Excess Is Over Over Amount This % OverSCHEDULE Y-1—Married $0 $14,000 $0.00 10% $0.00
If TAXABLE INCOME The TAX is Then But Of the Not This Plus Excess Is Over Over Amount This % Over Filing $14,000 $56,800 $1,400.00 15% $14,000 Jointly or $56,800 $114,650 $7,820.00 25% $56,800 Qualifying $114,650 $174,700 $22,282.50 28% $114,650 Widow(er) $174,700 $311,950 $39,096.50 33% $174,700 $311,950 — $84,389.00 35% $311,95044. Federal Income Tax Refer to the revised 2003 tax rate schedules. If x equals the taxable income and y equals the tax due, construct a function y = f(x) for Schedule Y-1.45. Exploration Graph y = x2. Then on the same screen graph y = x2 + 2, followed by y = x2 + 4, followed by y = x2 − 2. What pattern do you observe? Can you predict the graph of y = x2 − 4? Of y = x2 + 5?46. Exploration Graph y = x2. Then on the same screen graph y = (x − 2)2, followed by y = (x − 4)2, followed by y = (x + 2)2. What pattern do you observe? Can you predict the graph of y = (x + 4)2? Of y = (x − 5)2?47. Exploration Graph y = x2. Then on the same screen graph y = − x2. What pattern do you observe? Now try y = | x| and y = −| x|. What do you conclude?
48. Exploration Graph . Then on the same screen graph . What pattern do you observe? Now try y = 2x + 1 and y = 2(− x) + 1. What do you conclude?49. Exploration Graph y = x3. Then on the same screen graph y = (x − 1)3 + 2. Could you have predicted the result?50. Exploration Graph y = x2, y = x4, and y = x6 on the same screen. What do you notice is the same about each graph? What do you notice that is different?51. Exploration Graph y = x3, y = x5, and y = x7 on the same screen. What do you notice is the same about each graph? What do you notice that is different?52. Consider the equation Is this a function? What is its domain? What is its range? What is its y-intercept, if any? What are its x-intercepts, if any? Is it even, odd, or neither? How would you describe its graph?
1.5 Graphing Techniques: Shifts and ReflectionsOBJECTIVES 1 Graph functions using horizontal and vertical shifts 2 Graph functions using reflections about the x-axis or y-axisAt this stage, if you were asked to graph any of the functions defined by y = x, y = x2, y = x3, ,y = | x|, or , your response should be, "Yes, I recognize these functions and know the general shapesof their graphs." (If this is not your answer, review the previous section, Figures 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,41.)Sometimes we are asked to graph a function that is "almost" like one that we already know how to graph.In this section, we look at some of these functions and develop techniques for graphing them.Collectively, these techniques are referred to as transformations.1 Graph functions using horizontal and vertical shiftsVertical Shifts EXAMPLE 1 Vertical Shift UpUse the graph of f(x) = x2 to obtain the graph of g(x) = x2 + 3.SOLUTIONWe begin by obtaining some points on the graphs of f and g. For example, when x = 0, then y = f(0) = 0and y = g(0) = 3. When x = 1, then y = f(1) = 1 and y = g(1) = 4. Table 12 lists these and a few otherpoints on each graph. We conclude that the graph of g is identical to that of f, except that it is shiftedvertically up 3 units. See Figure 46. FIGURE 46
TABLE 12 y = f(x) y = g(x) x = x2 = x2 + 3 −2 4 7 −1 1 4 0 0 3 1 1 4 2 4 7SEEING THE CONCEPT: On the same screen, graph each of the following functions:Figure 47 illustrates the graphs. You should have observed a general pattern. WithY1 = x2 on the screen, the graph of Y2 = x2 + 1 is identical to that of Y1 = x2, except that itis shifted vertically up 1 unit. Similarly, Y3 = x2 + 2 is identical to that of Y1 = x2, exceptthat it is shifted vertically up 2 units. The graph of Y4 = x2 − 1 is identical to that ofY1 = x2, except that it is shifted vertically down 1 unit.
FIGURE 47We are led to the following conclusion: If a real number k is added to the right side of a function y = f(x), the graph of the new function y = f(x) + k is the graph of f shifted vertically up (if k > 0) or down (if k < 0).Let's look at another example. EXAMPLE 2 Vertical Shift DownUse the graph of f(x) = x2 to obtain the graph of g(x) = x2 − 4.SOLUTIONTable 13 lists some points on the graphs of f and g. Notice that each y-coordinate of g is 4 units less thanthe corresponding y-coordinate of f. The graph of g is identical to that of f, except that it is shifted down 4units. See Figure 48. FIGURE 48
You should have observed the following pattern. With the graph of Y1 = x2 on the screen, the graph of Y2 = (x − 1)2 is identical to that of Y = x2, except that it is shifted horizontally to the right 1 unit. Similarly, the graph of y3 = (x − 3)2 is identical to that of Y1 = x2, except that it is shifted horizontally to the right 3 units. Finally, the graph of Y4 = (x + 2)2 is identical to that of Y1 = x2, except that it is shifted horizontally to the left 2 units.We are led to the following conclusion. If the argument x of a function f is replaced by x − h, h a real number, the graph of the new function y = f(x − h) is the graph of f shifted horizontally left (if h < 0) or right (if h > 0). EXAMPLE 4 Horizontal Shift to the LeftUse the graph of f(x) = x2 to obtain the graph of g(x) = (x + 4)2.SOLUTIONThe function g(x) = (x + 4)2 is basically a square function. Its graph is the same as that of f, except that itis shifted horizontally 4 units to the left. (Do you see why? (x + 4)2 = [x − (−4)]2) See Figure 51. FIGURE 51
NOW WORK PROBLEMS 9 AND 25.Vertical and horizontal shifts are sometimes combined. EXAMPLE 5 Combining Vertical and Horizontal ShiftsGraph the function: f(x) = (x + 3)2 − 5SOLUTIONWe graph f in steps. First, we note that the rule for f is basically a square function, so we begin with thegraph of y = x2 as shown in Figure 52(a). Next, to get the graph of y = (x + 3)2, we shift the graph ofy = x2 horizontally 3 units to the left. See Figure 52(b). Finally, to get the graph of y = (x + 3)2 − 5, weshift the graph of y = (x + 3)2 vertically down 5 units. See Figure 52(c). Note the points plotted on eachgraph. Using key points can be helpful in keeping track of the transformation that has taken place. FIGURE 52
CHECK: Graph Y1 = f(x) = (x + 3)2 − 5 and compare the graph to Figure 52(c).In Example 1.5, if the vertical shift had been done first, followed by the horizontal shift, the final graphwould have been the same. Try it for yourself. NOW WORK PROBLEM 27.Reflections about the x-Axis and the y-Axis2 Graph functions using reflections about the x-axis or y-axis EXAMPLE 6 Reflection about the x-AxisGraph the function: f(x) = − x2SOLUTIONWe begin with the graph of y = x2, as shown in Figure 53. For each point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2, thepoint (x, − y) is on the graph of y = − x2, as indicated in Table 15. We can draw the graph of y = − x2 byreflecting the graph of y = x2 about the x-axis. See Figure 53. FIGURE 53 TABLE 15 x y = x2 y = − x2 −2 4 −4
x y = x2 y = − x2 −1 1 −1 0 0 0 1 1 −1 2 4 −4 When the right side of the function y = f(x) is multiplied by −1, the graph of the new function y = − f(x) is the reflection about the x-axis of the graph of the function y = f(x). NOW WORK PROBLEM 29. EXAMPLE 7 Reflection about the y-AxisGraph the function:SOLUTIONFirst, notice that the domain of f consists of all real numbers x for which − x ≥ 0 or, equivalently, x ≤ 0. Toget the graph of , we begin with the graph of . For each point (x, y) on the graph of , the point (− x, y) is on the graph of . We obtain the graph of by reflectingthe graph of about the y-axis. See Figure 54. FIGURE 54
When the graph of the function y = f(x) is known, the graph of the new function y = f(− x) is the reflection about the y -axis of the graph of the function y = f(x). NOW WORK PROBLEMS 13 AND 37.SUMMARYGRAPHING TECHNIQUESTable 16 summarizes the graphing procedures that we have just discussed.TABLE 16 Functional Change to To Graph: Draw the Graph of f and: f(x) Vertical shifts y = f(x) + k, k > 0 Raise the graph of f by k units. Add k to f(x). y = f(x) − k, k > 0 Lower the graph of f by k units. Subtract k from f(x). Horizontal shifts Shift the graph of f to the left h y = f(x + h), h > 0 Replace x by x + h. units. Shift the graph of f to the right h y = f(x − h), h > 0 Replace x by x − h. units. Reflection about the
Functional Change to To Graph: Draw the Graph of f and: f(x) x-axis Reflect the graph of f about the y = − f(x) Multiply f(x) by −1. x-axis. Reflection about the y-axis Reflect the graph of f about the y = f(− x) Replace x by − x. y-axis.The examples that follow combine some of the procedures outlined in this section to get the requiredgraph. EXAMPLE 8 Determining the Function Obtained from a Series of TransformationsFind the function that is finally graphed after the following three transformations are applied to the graphof y = | x|.1. Shift left 2 units.2. Shift up 3 units.3. Reflect about the y-axis.SOLUTION1. Shift left 2 units: Replace x by x + 2. y = | x + 2|2. Shift up 3 units: Add 3. y = | x + 2| + 33. Reflect about the y-axis: Replace x by − x. y = |− x + 2| + 3 NOW WORK PROBLEM 15.
6.7.8.In Problems 9–14, write the function whose graph is the graph of y = x3 , but is:9. Shifted to the right 4 units10. Shifted to the left 4 units11. Shifted up 4 units12. Shifted down 4 units13. Reflected about the y-axis
14. Reflected about the x-axisIn Problems 15–18, find the function that is finally graphed after the following transformationsare applied to the graph of .15. 1. Shift up 2 units 2. Reflect about the x-axis 3. Reflect about the y-axis16. 1. Reflect about the x-axis 2. Shift right 3 units 3. Shift down 2 units17. 1. Reflect about the x-axis 2. Shift up 2 units 3. Shift left 3 units18. 1. Shift up 2 units 2. Reflect about the y-axis 3. Shift left 3 units19. If (3, 0) is a point on the graph of y = f(x), which of the following must be on the graph of
44. The graph of a function f is illustrated in the figure. (a) Draw the graph of y = | f(x)|. (b) Draw the graph of y = f(| x|).
Chapter 1 ReviewSection You should be able to Review Exercises1.1 1 Graph equations by plotting points 1 2 Find intercepts from a graph 2, 27(b), 28(c), 29(f), 30(f) 3 Find intercepts from an equation 3–10, 53(b)–56(b) 4 Test an equation for symmetry with respect to the (a) x-axis, (b) y-axis, and (c) origin 3–101.2 1 Find the value of a function 11–16, 27(c), 28(b), 69, 70 2 Find the difference quotient of a function 25, 26 3 Find the domain of a function 17–24, 53(a)–56(a) 4 Solve applied problems involving functions 71–781.3 1 Identify the graph of a function 49 2 Obtain information from or about the graph of a function 27–30 3 Determine even and odd functions from a graph 29(e), 30(e) 4 Determine even and odd functions from the equation 31–38 5 Use a graph to determine where a function is increasing, is decreasing, or is constant 29(b), 30(b) 6 Use a graph to locate local maxima and minima 29(c), 30(c) 7 Use a graphing utility to approximate local maxima and minima and to 39–42 determine where a function is increasing or decreasing 8 43–48 Find the average rate of change of a function
Section You should be able to Review Exercises1.4 1 Graph the functions listed in the library of functions 50–52 2 Graph piecewise-defined functions 53(c)–56(c)1.5 1 Graph functions using horizontal and vertical shifts 57–60, 63, 64, 65(c), (d), 66(c), (d) 2 Graph functions using reflections about the x-axis or y-axis 61, 62, 65(a), (b), 66(a), (b)THINGS TO KNOWFunction A relation between two sets of real numbers so that each number x in the first set, the domain, has corresponding to it exactly one number y in the second set. The range is the set of y values of the function for the x values in the domain. x is the independent variable; y is the dependent variable. A function f may be defined implicitly by an equation involving x and y or explicitly by writing y = f(x).Function notation y = f(x) f is a symbol for the function. x is the argument, or independent variable. y is the dependent variable.Domain If unspecified, the domain of a function f is the largest set of real numbers for which f(x) is a real number.Difference quotientof fVertical-line test A set of points in the plane is the graph of a function if and only if every vertical line intersects the graph in at most one point.Even function f f(− x) = f(x) for every x in the domain (− x must also be in the domain).Odd function f f(− x) =− f(x) for every x in the domain (_x must also be in the domain).Increasing function A function f is increasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with x1 < x2, we have f(x1) < f(x2).
Decreasing function A function f is decreasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1 and x2 in I, with x1 < x2, we have f(x1) < f(x2).Constant function A function f is constant on an interval I if, for all choices of x in I, the values of f(x) are equal.Local maximum A function f has a local maximum at c if there is an open interval I containing c so that, for all x ≠ c in I, f(x) < f(c).Local minimum A function f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval I containing c so that, for all x ≠ c in I, f(x) < f(c).Average rate of The average rate of change of f from c to x ischange of a functionLIBRARY OF FUNCTIONSConstant function Linear function Identity functionf(x) = b f(x) = mx + b f(x) = xGraph is a horizontal line with Graph is a line with slope m and y-intercept Graph is a line with slope 1 andy-intercept (0, b). (0, b). y-intercept (0, 0).Square function Cube function Square root functionf(x) = x2 f(x) = x3Graph is a parabola with intercept at(0,0).Cube root function Reciprocal function
Absolute value function Greatest integer functionf(x) = | x| f(x) = int(x)TRUE-FALSE ITEMST F 1. The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers.T F 2. For any function f, it follows thatT F 3. A function can have more than one y-intercept.T F 4. The graph of a function y = f(x) always crosses the y-axis.T F 5. The y-intercept of the graph of the function y = f(x), whose domain is all real numbers, is (0, f (0)).T F 6. To obtain the graph of y = f (x + 2) − 3, shift the graph of y = f(x) horizontally to the right 2 units and vertically down 3 units.FILL IN THE BLANKS 1. If f is a function defined by the equation y = f(x), then x is called _________ the variable and y is the _________ variable. 2. A set of points in the xy-plane is the graph of a function if and only if every _________ line intersects the graph in at most one point.
28. Using the graph of the function g shown below, (a) Find the domain and range of g. (b) Find g(−1). (c) List the intercepts of g. (d) For what value of x does g(x) = −3? (e) Solve g(x) > 0.In Problems 29 and 30, use the graph of the function f to find: (a) The domain and the range of f. (b) The intervals on which f is increasing, decreasing, or constant. (c) The local minima and local maxima. (d) Whether the graph is symmetric with respect to the x axis, the y-axis, or the origin. (e) Whether the function is even, odd, or neither. (f) The intercepts, if any.
In Problems 50–52, sketch the graph of each function. Be sure to label at least three points.50. f(x) = | x|51.52.In Problems 53–56: (a) Find the domain of each function. (b) Locate any intercepts. (c) Graph each function. (d) Based on the graph, find the range.53.54.55.56.
66. For the graph of the function g shown below, draw the graph of: (a) y = g(− x) (b) y = − g(x) (c) y = g(x + 2) (d) y = g(x) + 267. Given that f is a linear function, f(4) = −5 and f(0) = 3, write the equation that defines f.68. Given that g is a linear function with slope = −4 and g(−2) = 2, write the equation that defines g.69. A function f is defined by If f(1) = 4, find A.70. A function g is defined by If g(−1) = 0, find A.71. Volume of a Cylinder The volume V of a right circular cylinder of height h and radius r is V = π r2 h. If the height is twice the radius, express the volume V as a function of r.
72. Volume of a Cone The volume V of a right circular cone is . If the height is twice the radius, express the volume V as a function of r.7374. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 100 units are sold?75. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 15 units are sold?76. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 20 units are sold?
77. Cost of a Drum A drum in the shape of a right circular cylinder is required to have a volume of 500 cubic centimeters. The top and bottom are made of material that costs 6¢ per square centimeter; the sides are made of material that costs 4¢ per square centimeter. [Hint: The volume V of a right circular cylinder of height h and radius r is V = π r2 h.] (a) Express the total cost C of the material as a function of the radius r of the cylinder. (b) What is the cost if the radius is 4 cm? (c) What is the cost if the radius is 8 cm? (d) Graph C = C(r). For what value of r is the cost C least?78. Material Needed to Make a Drum A steel drum in the shape of a right circular cylinder is required to have a volume of 100 cubic feet. [Hint: The surface area S of a right circular cylinder of height h and radius r is S = 2π r2 + 2π rh.] (a) Express the amount A of material required to make the drum as a function of the radius r of the cylinder. (b) How much material is required if the drum is of radius 3 feet? (c) Of radius 4 feet? (d) Of radius 5 feet? (e) Graph A = A(r). For what value of r is A smallest?
Chapter 1 ProjectFor the one-day sightseeing trip to Charlotte, North Carolina, you and your friend decide to rent amid-size car and, naturally, you want to do this as cheaply as possible.You begin by contacting two well-known car rental companies: Avis and Enterprise. Avis offers amid-size car for $64.99 per day with unlimited mileage, so the number of miles you actually drive the carwill not matter. Enterprise, on the other hand, offers a mid-size car for $45.87 per day with 150 free miles,but will charge $0.25 per mile for each mile in excess of 150 miles. Enterprise is the better deal as long asyou drive less than 150 miles, but at what point, if any, will Avis be better? We'll use piecewise-definedfunctions to arrive at the answer.1. Let x denote the number of miles the rental car is driven. Find the function A = A(x) that gives the cost of driving the Avis car x miles. What kind of function will this be?2. Find the function E = E(x) that gives the cost of driving the Enterprise car x miles. Remember that the rule for computing this cost changes when x exceeds 150 miles, so a piecewise function is required.3. Graph the functions A = A(x) and E = E(x) on the same set of axes. At what number of miles does the Avis rental car become a better choice?4. In an effort to find an even better deal, you contact SaveALot Car Rental. They offer a mid-size car for $36.99 per day with 100 free miles, but each mile in excess of 100 will cost $0.30. Find the function S = S(x) that gives the cost of driving the SaveALot car x miles. Graph this function along with A = A(x) and E = E(x).5. Determine the number of miles driven and the companies that minimize the cost of the car rental.6. In one last attempt to save money, you contact USave Car Rental and are offered a mid-size car for $35.99 per day with 50 free miles, but each mile in excess of 50 will cost $0.35. Find the function U = U(x) that gives the cost of driving the USave car x miles. Graph this function along with the other three.7. Determine the mileage and companies that minimize the cost of renting.8. Comment on which car rental company you would use. Be sure to provide reasons. MATHEMATICAL QUESTIONS FROM PROFESSIONAL EXAMS *1. Actuary Exam—Part I What is the range of the function f(x) = x2 with domain (−1, 2]?
CHAPTER 2 Classes of FunctionsAlmost everyday you can pick up a newspaper and read about some prediction. Headlines appear like'World population to increase 46% by 2050'. Or 'Projected growth in population of North America willbe 41.8% over the next 50 years. Of course, predictions like these are important for proper planning andallocation of future resources. But where did these numbers come from? The Chapter Project providesone method of making predictions about future populations.A LOOK BACK, A LOOK FORWARDIn Chapter 1, we began our discussion of functions. We defined domain and range and independent anddependent variables; we found the value of a function and graphed functions. We continued our studyof functions by listing the properties that a function might have, like being even or odd, and we createda library of functions, naming key functions and listing their properties, including their graphs.
In this chapter, we look at four general classes of functions—polynomial functions, rational functions,exponential functions, and logarithmic functions—and examine their properties. Polynomial functionsare arguably the simplest expressions in algebra. For this reason, they are often used to approximateother, more complicated functions. Rational functions are simply ratios of polynomial functions.We begin with a discussion of quadratic functions, a type of polynomial function.
2.1 Quadratic FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Completing the Square (Chapter 0, Section 0.4) > Square Root Method (Chapter 0, Section 0.4) > Quadratic Equations (Chapter 0, Section 0.4) > Geometry Review (Chapter 0, Section 0.7)OBJECTIVES 1 Locate the vertex and axis of symmetry of a quadratic function 2 Graph quadratic functions 3 Find the maximum or the minimum value of a quadratic function 4 Use the maximum or the minimum value of a quadratic function to solve applied problemsA quadratic function is a function that is defined by a second-degree polynomial in one variable. A quadratic function is a function of the form (1) where a, b, and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0. The domain of a quadratic function is the set of all real numbers.Many applications require a knowledge of the properties of the graph of a quadratic function. Forexample, suppose that Texas Instruments collects the data shown in Table 1 that relate the number ofcalculators sold at the price p per calculator. Since the price of a product determines the quantity that willbe purchased, we treat price as the independent variable.
TABLE 1 Price per Number of Calculator, p (Dollars) Number of Calculators, x 60 11,100 65 10,115 70 9,652 75 8,731 80 8,087 85 7,205 90 6,439A linear relationship between the number of calculators and the price p per calculator may be given by theequationThen the revenue R derived from selling x calculators at the price p per calculator isSo the revenue R is a quadratic function of the price p. Figure 1 illustrates the graph of this revenuefunction, whose domain is 0 ≤ p ≤ 140, since both x and p must be nonnegative. Later in this section weshall determine the price p that maximizes revenue. FIGURE 1 Graph of a revenue function: R = −150p2 + 21,000p
A second situation in which a quadratic function appears involves the motion of a projectile. Based onNewton's second law of motion (force equals mass times acceleration, F = ma), it can be shown that,ignoring air resistance, the path of a projectile propelled upward at an inclination to the horizontal is thegraph of a quadratic function. See Figure 2 for an illustration. Later in this section we shall analyze thepath of a projectile. FIGURE 2 Path of a cannonballGraphing Quadratic FunctionsWe know how to graph the quadratic function f(x) = x2. Figure 3 shows the graph of three functions of theform f(x) = ax2, a > 0, for and . Notice that the larger the value of a, the "narrower"the graph, and the smaller the value of a, the "wider" the graph. FIGURE 3
Figure 4 shows the graphs of f(x) = ax2 for a < 0. Notice that these graphs are reflections about the x-axisof the graphs in Figure 3. Based on the results of these two figures, we can draw some general conclusionsabout the graph of f(x) = ax2. First, as | a| increases, the graph becomes narrower, and as | a| gets closer tozero, the graph gets wider. Second, if a is positive, then the graph opens up, and if a is negative, the graphopens down. FIGURE 4The graphs in Figures 3 and 4 are typical of the graphs of all quadratic functions, which we call parabolas. Refer to Figure 5, where two parabolas are pictured. The one on the left opens up and has a lowestpoint; the one on the right opens down and has a highest point. The lowest or highest point of a parabolais called the vertex . The vertical line passing through the vertex in each parabola in Figure 5 is called theaxis of symmetry (sometimes abbreviated to axis) of the parabola. Because the parabola is symmetricabout its axis, the axis of symmetry of a parabola can be used to find additional points on the parabola. FIGURE 5 Graphs of quadratic function, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0
The parabolas shown in Figure 5 are the graphs of a quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0. Noticethat the coordinate axes are not included in the figure. Depending on the values of a, b, and c, the axescould be anywhere. The important fact is that the shape of the graph of a quadratic function will look likeone of the parabolas in Figure 5.A key element in graphing a quadratic function is locating the vertex. To find a formula, we begin with aquadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, and complete the square in x. (2)Suppose that a > 0. If , then the term a . For any othervalue of x, the term will be positive. [Do you see why? is positive forbecause it is a nonzero quantity squared, a is positive, and the product of two positive quantities ispositive.] Because is zero if and is positive if , the value of the function fgiven in (2) will be smallest when . That is, if a > 0, the parabola opens up, the vertex is at , and the vertex is a minimum point.Similarly, if a < 0, the term is zero for and is negative if . In this case thelargest value of f(x) occurs when . That is, if a < 0, the parabola opens down, the vertex is at , and the vertex is a maximum point.We summarize these remarks as follows:
Properties of the Graph of a Quadratic Function Axis of symmetry: the line Parabola opens up if a > 0; the vertex is a minimum point. Parabola opens down if a < 0; the vertex is a maximum point.1 EXAMPLE 1 Locating the Vertex and Axis of SymmetryLocate the vertex and axis of symmetry of the parabola defined by f(x) = −3x2 + 6x + 1. Does it open upor down?SOLUTIONFor this quadratic function, a = −3, b = 6, and c = 1. The x-coordinate of the vertex isThe y-coordinate of the vertex isThe vertex is located at the point (1, 4). The axis of symmetry is the line x = 1. Becausea = −3 < 0, the parabola opens down.2 Graph quadratic functionsThe facts that we gathered in Example 2.1, together with the location of the intercepts, usually provideenough information to graph f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0.The y-intercept is found by finding the value of f at x = 0; that is, by finding f(0) = c.The x-intercepts, if there are any, are found by solving the equationThis equation has two, one, or no real solutions, depending on whether the discriminant b2 − 4ac is
positive, 0, or negative. Depending on the value of the discriminant, the graph of f has x-intercepts asfollows: The x-Intercepts of a Quadratic Function 1. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac > 0, the graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c has two distinct x-intercepts and so will cross the x-axis in two places. 2. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac = 0, the graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c has one x-intercept and touches the x-axis at its vertex. 3. If the discriminant b2 − 4ac < 0, the graph of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c has no x-intercept and so will not cross or touch the x-axis.Figure 6 illustrates these possibilities for parabolas that open up. FIGURE 6 f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a > 0 EXAMPLE 2 Graphing a Quadratic Function Using Its Vertex, Axis, and InterceptsUse the information from Example 2.1 and the locations of the intercepts to graph f(x) = −3x2 + 6x + 1.SOLUTIONIn Example 2.1, we found the vertex to be at (1, 4) and the axis of symmetry to be x = 1. The y-interceptis found by letting x = 0. Since f(0) = 1, the y-intercept is (0, 1). The x-intercepts are found by solving the
equation f(x) = 0. This results in the equationThe discriminant b2 + 4ac = (6)2 − 4(−3)(1) = 36 + 12 = 48 > 0, so the equation has two realsolutions and the graph has two x-intercepts. Using the quadratic formula, we find thatandThe x-intercepts are approximately (−0.15, 0) and (2.15, 0).The graph is illustrated in Figure 7. Notice how we used the y-intercept (0, 1) and the axis of symmetry,x = 1, to obtain the additional point (2, 1) on the graph. FIGURE 7 CHECK: Graph f(x) = − 3x2 + 6x + 1. Use ROOT or ZERO to locate the two x-intercepts and use MAXIMUM to locate the vertex. NOW WORK PROBLEM 9.If the graph of a quadratic function has only one x-intercept or none, it is usually necessary to plot anadditional point to obtain the graph. EXAMPLE 3 Graphing a Quadratic Function Using Its Vertex, Axis, and InterceptsGraph f(x) = x2 − 6x + 9 by determining whether the graph opens up or down. Find its vertex, axis ofsymmetry, y-intercept, and x-intercepts, if any.SOLUTION
For f(x) = x2 − 6x + 9, we have a = 1, b = −6, and c = 9. Since a = 1 > 0, the parabola opens up. Thex-coordinate of the vertex isThe y-coordinate of the vertex isSo the vertex is at (3, 0). The axis of symmetry is the line x = 3. Since f(0) = 9, the y-intercept is(0, 9). Since the vertex (3, 0) lies on the x-axis, the graph touches the x-axis at the x-intercept.By using the axis of symmetry and the y-intercept (0, 9), we can locate the additional point (6,9) on the graph. See Figure 8. FIGURE 8 NOW WORK PROBLEM 17. EXAMPLE 4 Graphing a Quadratic Function Using Its Vertex, Axis, and InterceptsGraph f(x) = 2x2 + x + 1 by determining whether the graph opens up or down. Find its vertex, axis ofsymmetry, y-intercept, and x-intercepts, if any.SOLUTIONFor f(x) = 2x2 + x + 1, we have a = 2, b = 1, and c = 1. Since a = 2 > 0, the parabola opens up. Thex-coordinate of the vertex isThe y-coordinate of the vertex is
So the vertex is at . The axis of symmetry is the line . Since f(0) = 1, they-intercept is (0, 1). The x-intercept(s), if any, obey the equation 2x2 + x + 1 = 0. Since thediscriminant b2 − 4ac = (1)2 − 4(2)(1) = −7 < 0, this equation has no real solutions, andtherefore the graph has no x-intercepts. We use the point (0, 1) and the axis of symmetry to locate the additional point on the graph. See Figure 9. FIGURE 9 NOW WORK PROBLEM 21.SUMMARY Steps for Graphing a Quadratic Function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 STEP 1: Determine the vertex, . STEP 2: Determine the axis of symmetry, . STEP 3: Determine the y-intercept by finding f(0) = c. STEP 4: Evaluate the discriminant b2 − 4ac. (a) If b2 − 4ac > 0, then the graph of the quadratic function has two x-intercepts, which are found by solving the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. (b) If b2 − 4ac = 0, the vertex is the x-intercept.
(c) If b2 − 4ac < 0, there are no x-intercepts. STEP 5: Determine an additional point if b2 − 4ac ≤ 0 by using the y-intercept and the axis of symmetry. STEP 6: Plot the points and draw the graph.Quadratic ModelsWhen a mathematical model leads to a quadratic function, the properties of this quadratic function canprovide important information about the model. For example, for a quadratic revenue function, we canfind the maximum revenue; for a quadratic cost function, we can find the minimum cost.To see why, recall that the graph of a quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola with vertex at . This vertex is the highest point on the graph if a < 0 and the lowest point on the graphif a > 0. If the vertex is the highest point, (a < 0), then is the maximum value of f. If the vertexis the lowest point, (a > 0), then is the minimum value of f.This property of the graph of a quadratic function enables us to answer questions involving optimization(finding maximum or minimum values) in models involving quadratic functions.3 EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Maximum or Minimum Value of a Quadratic FunctionDetermine whether the quadratic functionhas a maximum or minimum value. Then find the maximum or minimum value.SOLUTIONWe compare f(x) = x2 − 4x + 7 to f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. We conclude that a = 1, b = −4, and c = 7. Sincea > 0, the graph of f opens up, so the vertex is a minimum point. The minimum value occurs atThe minimum value is
NOW WORK PROBLEM 29.4 EXAMPLE 6 Maximizing RevenueThe marketing department at Texas Instruments has found that, when certain calculators are sold at aprice of p dollars per unit, the revenue R (in dollars) as a function of the price p isWhat unit price should be established in order to maximize revenue? If this price is charged, what is themaximum revenue?SOLUTIONThe revenue R isThe function R is a quadratic function with a = −150, b = 21,000, and c = 0. Because a < 0, thevertex is the highest point of the parabola. The revenue R is therefore a maximum when theprice p isThe maximum revenue R isSee Figure 10 for an illustration. FIGURE 10
NOW WORK PROBLEM 37. EXAMPLE 7 Maximizing the Area Enclosed by a FenceA farmer has 2000 yards of fence to enclose a rectangular field. What is the largest area that can beenclosed?SOLUTIONFigure 11 illustrates the situation. The available fence represents the perimeter of the rectangle. If ℓ is thelength and w is the width, then (3)The area A of the rectangle isTo express A in terms of a single variable, we solve equation (3) for w and substitute the resultin A = ℓ w. Then A involves only the variable ℓ. [You could also solve equation (3) for ℓ andexpress A in terms of w alone. Try it!]Then the area A isNow, A is a quadratic function of ℓ. FIGURE 11
Since a < 0, the vertex is a maximum point on the graph of A. The maximim value occurs atThe maximum value of A isThe largest area that can be enclosed by 2000 yards of fence in the shape of a rectangle is250,000 square yards.Figure 12 shows the graph of A(ℓ) = − ℓ2 + 1000ℓ. FIGURE 12 NOW WORK PROBLEM 43. EXAMPLE 8 Analyzing the Motion of a ProjectileA projectile is fired from a cliff 500 feet above the water at an inclination of 45° to the horizontal, with amuzzle velocity of 400 feet per second. In physics, it is established that the height h of the projectileabove the water is given by
where x is the horizontal distance of the projectile from the base of the cliff. See Figure 13. FIGURE 13 (a) Find the maximum height of the projectile. (b) How far from the base of the cliff will the projectile strike the water?SOLUTION (a) The height of the projectile is given by a quadratic function. We are looking for the maximum value of h. Since the maximum value is obtained at the vertex, we compute The maximum height of the projectile is (b) The projectile will strike the water when the height is zero. To find the distance x traveled, we need to solve the equation We use the quadratic formula with
We discard the negative solution and find that the projectile will strike the water at a distance of about 5458 feet from the base of the cliff.SEEING THE CONCEPT: GraphUse MAXIMUM to find the maximum height of the projectile, and use ROOT or ZERO tofind the distance from the base of the cliff to where the projectile strikes the water.Compare your results with those obtained in Example 2.8. TRACE the path of theprojectile. How far from the base of the cliff is the projectile when its height is 1000 ft?1500 ft? NOW WORK PROBLEM 47.EXERCISE 2.1In Problems 1–8, match each graph to one the following functions without using a graphingutility.1. f(x) = x2 − 12. f(x) = − x2 − 13. f(x) = x2 − 2x + 14. f(x) = x2 + 2x + 15. f(x) = x2 − 2x + 2
(F) (G) (H)In Problems 9–26, graph each quadratic function by determining whether its graph opens up ordown and by finding its vertex, axis of symmetry, y-intercept, and x-intercepts, if any. Determinethe domain and the range of the function. Determine where the function is increasing and whereit is decreasing.9. f(x) = x2 + 2x10. f(x) = x2 − 4x
35. (a) Find a quadratic function whose x-intercepts are −3 and 136. (a) Find a quadratic function whose x-intercepts are −5 and 337. Maximizing Revenue Suppose that the manufacturer of a gas clothes dryer has found that, when the unit price is p dollars, the revenue R (in dollars) is What unit price should be established for the dryer to maximize revenue? What is the maximum revenue?38. Maximizing Revenue The John Deere company has found that the revenue from sales of
heavy-duty tractors is a function of the unit price p that it charges. If the revenue R is what unit price p should be charged to maximize revenue? What is the maximum revenue?39 (c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue? (d) What price should the company charge to maximize revenue?40. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 100 units are sold? (c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue? (d) What price should the company charge to maximize revenue?
41. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 15 units are sold? (c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue? (d) What price should the company charge to maximize revenue?42. Demand Equation The price p and the quantity x sold of a certain product obey the demand equation (a) Express the revenue R as a function of x. (b) What is the revenue if 20 units are sold? (c) What quantity x maximizes revenue? What is the maximum revenue? (d) What price should the company charge to maximize revenue?43. Enclosing a Rectangular Field David has available 400 yards of fencing and wishes to enclose a rectangular area. (a) Express the area A of the rectangle as a function of the width x of the rectangle.
(b) For what value of x is the area largest? (c) What is the maximum area?44. Enclosing a Rectangular Field Beth has 3000 feet of fencing available to enclose a rectangular field. (a) Express the area A of the rectangle as a function of x, where x is the length of the rectangle. (b) For what value of x is the area largest? (c) What is the maximum area?45. Enclosing the Most Area with a Fence A farmer with 4000 meters of fencing wants to enclose a rectangular plot that borders on a river. If the farmer does not fence the side along the river, what is the largest area that can be enclosed? (See the figure.)46. Enclosing the Most Area with a Fence A farmer with 2000 meters of fencing wants to enclose a rectangular plot that borders on a straight highway. If the farmer does not fence the side along the highway, what is the largest area that can be enclosed?47. Analyzing the Motion of a Projectile A projectile is fired from a cliff 200 feet above the water at an inclination of 45° to the horizontal, with a muzzle velocity of 50 feet per second. The height h of the projectile above the water is given by
where x is the horizontal distance of the projectile from the base of the cliff. (a) How far from the base of the cliff is the height of the projectile a maximum? (b) Find the maximum height of the projectile. (c) How far from the base of the cliff will the projectile strike the water? (d) Using a graphing utility, graph the function h, 0 ≤ x ≤ 200. (e) When the height of the projectile is 100 feet above the water, how far is it from the cliff?48. Analyzing the Motion of a Projectile A projectile is fired at an inclination of 45° to the horizontal, with a muzzle velocity of 100 feet per second. The height h of the projectile is given by where x is the horizontal distance of the projectile from the firing point. (a) How far from the firing point is the height of the projectile a maximum? (b) Find the maximum height of the projectile. (c) How far from the firing point will the projectile strike the ground? (d) Using a graphing utility, graph the function h, 0 ≤ x ≤ 350. (e) When the height of the projectile is 50 feet above the ground, how far has it traveled horizontally?
49. Constructing Rain Gutters A rain gutter is to be made of aluminum sheets that are 12 inches wide by turning up the edges 90°. What depth will provide maximum cross-sectional area, allowing the most water to flow?50. Norman Windows A Norman window has the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle of diameter equal to the width of the rectangle (see the figure). If the perimeter of the window is 20 feet, what dimensions will admit the most light (maximize the area)? Hint: Circumference of a circle = 2π r; area of a circle = π r2, where r is the radius of the circle.51. Constructing a Stadium A track and field playing area is in the shape of a rectangle with semicircles at each end (see the figure). The inside perimeter of the track is to be 400 meters. What should the dimensions of the rectangle be so that the area of the rectangle is a maximum?
52. Architecture A special window has the shape of a rectangle surmounted by an equilateral triangle (see the figure). If the perimeter of the window is 16 feet, what dimensions will admit the most light? Hint: Area of an , where x is the length of a side of the triangle.53. Hunting The function H(x) = − 1.01x2 + 114.3x + 451.0 models the number of individuals who engage in hunting activities whose annual income is x thousand dollars. (a) What is the income level for which there are the most hunters? Approximately how many hunters earn this amount? (b) Using a graphing utility, graph H = H(x). Are the number of hunters increasing or decreasing for individuals earning between $20,000 and $40,000? Source: National Sporting Goods Association.54. Advanced Degrees The function models the percentage of the U.S. population whose age is given by x that have earned an advanced degree (more than a bachelor's degree) in March 2000.
(a) What is the age for which the highest percentage of Americans have earned an advanced degree? What is the highest percentage? (b) Using a graphing utility, graph P = P(x). Is the percentage of Americans that have earned an advanced degree increasing or decreasing for individuals between the ages of 40 and 50? Source: U.S. Census Bureau.55. Male Murder Victims The function models the number of male murder victims who are x years of age (20 ≤ x ≤ 90). (a) Use the model to approximate the number of male murder victims who are x = 23 years of age. (b) At what age is the number of male murder victims 1456? (c) Using a graphing utility, graph M = M(x). (d) Based on the graph obtained in part (c), describe what happens to the number of male murder victims as age increases. Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation.56. Health Care Expenditures The function models the percentage of total income that an individual that is x years of age spends on health care. (a) Use the model to approximate the percentage of total income an individual 45 years of age spends on health care.
(b) At what age is the percentage of income spent on health care 10%? (c) Using a graphing utility, graph H = H(x). (d) Based on the graph obtained in part (c), describe what happens to the percentage of income spent on health care as individuals age. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.57. Chemical Reactions A self-catalytic chemical reaction results in the formation of a compound that causes the formation ratio to increase. If the reaction rate V is given by where k is a positive constant, a is the initial amount of the compound, and x is the variable amount of the compound, for what value of x is the reaction rate a maximum?58. Calculus: Simpson's Rule The figure shows the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c. Suppose that the points (− h, y0), (0, y1), and (h, y2) are on the graph. It can be shown that the area enclosed by the parabola, the x-axis, and the lines x = − h and x = h is Show that this area may also be given by59. Use the result obtained in Problem 58 to find the area enclosed by f(x) = −5x2 + 8, the x-axis, and the lines x = −1 and x = 1.60. Use the result obtained in Problem 58 to find the area enclosed by f(x) = 2x2 + 8, the x-axis, and the lines x = −2 and x = 2.
61. Use the result obtained in Problem 58 to find the area enclosed by f(x) = x2 + 3x + 5, the x-axis, and the lines x = −4 and x = 4.62. Use the result obtained in Problem 58 to find the area enclosed by f(x) = − x2 + x + 4, the x-axis, and the lines x = −1 and x = 1.63. A rectangle has one vertex on the line y = 10 − x, x > 0, another at the origin, one on the positive x-axis, and one on the positive y-axis. Find the largest area A that can be enclosed by the rectangle.64. Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are odd integers. If x is an integer, show that f(x) must be an odd integer. Hint: x is either an even integer or an odd integer.65. Make up a quadratic function that opens down and has only one x-intercept. Compare yours with others in the class. What are the similarities? What are the differences?66. On one set of coordinate axes, graph the family of parabolas f(x) = x2 + 2x + c for c = −3, c = 0, and c = 1. Describe the characteristics of a member of this family.67. On one set of coordinate axes, graph the family of parabolas f(x) = x2 + bx + 1 for b = −4, b = 0, and b = 4. Describe the general characteristics of this family.68. State the circumstances under which the graph of a quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c has no x-intercepts.69. Why does the graph of a quadratic function open up if a > 0 and down if a < 0?70. Refer to Example 2.6. Notice that if the price charged for the calculators is $0 or $140 the revenue is $0. It is easy to explain why revenue would be $0 if the priced charged is $0, but how can revenue be $0 if the price charged is $140?
Power Functions; Polynomial Functions; Rational 2.2 FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Polynomials (Chapter 0, Section 0.3) > Graphing Techniques (Chapter 1, Section 1.5) > Domain of a Function (Chapter 1, Section 1.2)OBJECTIVES 1 Know the properties of power functions 2 Graph functions using shifts and/or reflections 3 Identify polynomial functions and their degree 4 Find the end behavior of a polynomial function 5 Find the domain of a rational functionWe begin by discussing power functions, a special kind of polynomial.Power Functions A power function of degree n is a function of the form (1) where a is a real number, a ≠ 0, and n > 0 is an integer.In other words, a power function is a function that is defined by a single monomial.The graph of a power function of degree 1, f(x) = ax, is a straight line, with slope a, that passes through
the origin. The graph of a power function of degree 2, f(x) = ax2, is a parabola, with vertex at the origin,that opens up if a > 0 and down if a < 0.1 Know the properties of power functionsWe begin with power functions of even degree of the form f(x) = x n , n ≥ 2 and n even. The domain of f isthe set of all real numbers, and the range is the set of nonnegative real numbers. Such a power function isan even function (do you see why?), so its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Its graph alwayscontains the origin and the points (−1, 1) and (1, 1).If n = 2, the graph is the familiar parabola y = x2 that opens up, with vertex at the origin. If n ≥ 4, thegraph of f(x) = x n , n even, will be closer to the x-axis than the parabola y = x2, if −1 < x < 1, and fartherfrom the x-axis than the parabola y = x2, if x < −1 or if x > 1. Figure 14(a) illustrates this conclusion.Figure 14(b) shows the graphs of y = x4 and y = x8 for comparison. FIGURE 14From Figure 14, we can see that as n increases the graph of f(x) = x n , n ≥ 2 and n even, tends to flattenout near the origin and to increase very rapidly when x is far from 0. For large n, it may appear that thegraph coincides with the x-axis near the origin, but it does not; the graph actually touches the x-axis onlyat the origin (see Table 2). Also, for large n, it may appear that for x < −1 or for x > 1 the graph is vertical,but it is not; it is only increasing very rapidly in these intervals. If the graphs were enlarged many times,these distinctions would be clear. TABLE 2 x = 0.1 x = 0.3 x = 0.5 f(x) = x8 10−8 0.0000656 0.0039063 f(x) = x20 10−20 3.487 · 10−11 0.000001 f(x) = x40 10−40 1.216 · 10−21 9.095 · 10−13
SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph Y1 = x4, Y2 = x8, and Y3 = x12 using the viewing rectangle −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −4 ≤ y ≤ 16. Then graph each again using the viewing rectangle −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. See Figure 15. TRACE along one of the graphs to confirm that for x close to 0 the graph is above the x-axis and that for x > 0 the graph is increasing. FIGURE 15Properties of Power Functions, f(x) = x n , n Is an Even Integer1. The domain is the set of all real numbers. The range is the set of nonnegative real numbers.2. The graph always contains the points (0, 0), (1, 1), and (−1, 1).3. The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis; the function is even.4. As the exponent n increases in magnitude, the graph becomes more vertical when x < − 1 or x > 1; but for x near the origin, the graph tends to flatten out and lie closer to the x-axis.
Now we consider power functions of odd degree of the form f(x) = x n , n ≥ 3 and n odd. The domain andrange of f are the set of real numbers. Such a power function is an odd function (do you see why?), so itsgraph is symmetric with respect to the origin. Its graph always contains the origin and the points (−1, −1)and (1, 1).The graph of f(x) = x n when n = 3 has been shown several times and is repeated in Figure 16. If n ≥ 5, thegraph of f(x) = x n , n odd, will be closer to the x-axis than that of y = x3, if −1 < x < 1, and farther fromthe x-axis than that of y = x3, if x < −1 or if x > 1. Figure 17 also illustrates this conclusion. FIGURE 16Figure 16 shows the graph of y = x5 and the graph of y = x9 for further comparison. FIGURE 17It appears that each graph coincides with the x-axis near the origin, but it does not; each graph actuallytouches the x-axis only at the origin. Also, it appears that as x increases the graph becomes vertical, but itdoes not; each graph is increasing very rapidly.
SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph Y1 = x3, Y2 = x7, and Y3 = x11 using the viewing rectangle −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, −16 ≤ y ≤ 16. Then graph each again using the viewing rectangle −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1. See Figure 18. TRACE along one of the graphs to confirm that the graph is increasing and only touches the x-axis at the origin. FIGURE 18To summarize: Properties of Power Functions, f(x) = x n , n Is an Odd Integer 1. The domain and range are the set of all real numbers. 2. The graph always contains the points (0, 0), (1, 1), and (−1, −1). 3. The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin; the function is odd. 4. As the exponent n increases in magnitude, the graph becomes more vertical when x < −1 or x > 1; but for x near the origin, the graph tends to flatten out and lie closer to the x-axis.
2 EXAMPLE 1 Graphing Functions Using Shifts and/or ReflectionsGraph the function f(x) = − x3 + 1SOLUTIONWe begin with the power function y = x3. See Figure 19 for the steps. FIGURE 19 NOW WORK PROBLEMS 1 AND 5.Polynomial FunctionsPolynomial functions are among the simplest expressions in algebra. They are easy to evaluate: onlyaddition and repeated multiplication are required. Because of this, they are often used to approximateother, more complicated functions. In this section, we investigate characteristics of this important class offunction. A polynomial function is a function of the form (2) where an , an−1, …, a1, a0 are real numbers and n is a nonnegative integer. The domain of a polynomial function consists of all real numbers.
A polynomial function is a function whose rule is given by a polynomial in one variable. The degree of apolynomial function is the degree of the polynomial in one variable, that is, the largest power of x thatappears.3 EXAMPLE 2 Identifying Polynomial Functions and Their DegreeDetermine which of the following are polynomial functions. For those that are, state the degree; for thosethat are not, tell why not. (a) f(x) = 2 − 3x4 (b) (c) (d) F(x) = 0 (e) G(x) = 8 (f) H(x) = −2x3(x − 1)2SOLUTION (a) f is a polynomial function of degree 4. (b) g is not a polynomial function. The variable x is raised to the ½ power, which is not a nonnegative integer. (c) h is not a polynomial function. It is the ratio of two polynomials, and the polynomial in the denominator is of positive degree. (d) F is the zero polynomial function; it is not assigned a degree.
(e) G is a nonzero constant function, a polynomial function of degree 0 since G(x) = 8 = 8x0. (f) H(x) = −2x3 (x − 1)2 = −2x3(x2 − 2x + 1) = −2x5 + 4x4 − 2x3. So H is a polynomial function of degree 5. Do you see how to find the degree of H without multiplying out? NOW WORK PROBLEMS 11 AND 15.We have already discussed in detail polynomial functions of degrees 0, 1, and 2. See Table 3 for asummary of the properties of the graphs of these polynomial functions.TABLE 3 Degree Form Name Graph No f(x) = 0 Zero function The x-axis degree 0 f(x) = a0, a0 ≠ 0 Constant Horizontal line with y-intercept (0, a0) function 1 f(x) = a1 x + a0, Linear Nonvertical, nonhorizontal line with slope a1 a1 ≠ 0 function and y-intercept (0, a0) 2 f(x) = a2 x2 + a1 Quadratic Parabola: Graph opens up if a2 > 0; graph opens x + a0, a2 ≠ 0 function down if a2 < 0. The y intercept is (0, a0).One of the objectives of this book is to analyze the graph of a polynomial function. You will learn that thegraph of every polynomial function is both smooth and continuous. By smooth, we mean that the graphcontains no sharp corners or cusps; by continuous, we mean that the graph has no gaps or holes and canbe drawn without lifting pencil from paper. Later we use calculus to define these concepts more carefully.See Figures 20(a) and (b). FIGURE 20
Figure 21 shows the graph of a polynomial function with four x-intercepts. Notice that at the x-interceptsthe graph must either cross the x-axis or touch the x-axis. Consequently, between consecutive x-interceptsthe graph is either above the x-axis or below the x-axis. Notice also that the graph has two local maximaand two local minima. In Chapter 5 we will use calculus to locate the local maxima and minima ofpolynomial functions so that we can draw a complete graph. FIGURE 21The behavior of the graph of a function for large values of x, either positive or negative, is referred to asits end behavior.For polynomial functions, we have this important result. End Behavior For large values of x, either positive or negative, the graph of the polynomial resembles the graph of the power function
4 EXAMPLE 3 Finding the End Behavior of a Polynomial Function (a) For large values of x, the graph of the polynomial function resembles that of the power function . (b) For large values of x, the graph of the polynomial function resembles that of the power function . NOW WORK PROBLEM 25.Look back at Figures 14 and 16. Based on the above theorem and the previous discussion on powerfunctions, the end behavior of a polynomial can only be of four types. See Figure 22. FIGURE 22 End behaviorFor example, consider the polynomial function . The graph of f willresemble the graph of the power function for large values of x, either positive or negative. Thegraph of f will look like Figure 22(b) for large values of x.
Rational FunctionsRatios of integers are called rational numbers. Similarly, ratios of polynomial functions are called rationalfunctions. A rational function is a function of the form where p and q are polynomial functions and q is not the zero polynomial. The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers except those for which the denominator q is 0.5 EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Domain of a Rational Function (a) The domain of consists of all real numbers x except −5, that is, . (b) The domain of consists of all real numbers x except −2 and 2, that is, . (c) The domain of consists of all real numbers. (d) The domain of consists of all real numbers. (e) The domain of consists of all real numbers x except 1, that is, .It is important to observe that the functions
are not equal, since the domain of R is and the domain of f is all real numbers.If is a rational function and if p and q have no common factors, then the rational function Ris said to be in lowest terms. For a rational function in lowest terms, the zeros, if any, of thenumerator are the x-intercepts of the graph of R and so will play a major role in the graph of R. The zerosof the denominator of R [that is, the numbers x, if any, for which ], although not in the domain ofR, also play a major role in the graph of R. We will discuss this role in Chapter 3. NOW WORK PROBLEM 31. EXERCISE 2.2 1. Name three points on the graph of the power function . 2. Name three points on the graph of the power function . 3. The graph of the power function is symmetric with respect to the _________ . 4. The graph of the power function is symmetric with respect to the _________ . In Problems 5–10, graph each function using shifts and/or reflections. Be sure to label at least three points. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9.10.In Problems 11–22, determine which functions are polynomial functions. For those that are,state the degree. For those that are not, tell why not.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.
21.22.In Problems 23–28, find the power function that the graph of f resembles for large values of x.That is, find the end behavior of each polynomial function.23.24.25.26.27.28.In Problems 29–40, find the domain of each rational function.29.30.31.
32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41. Union Membership The percentage of the labor force who are union members is given below for 1930–2000.
Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Percentage 11.6 26.9 31.5 31.4 27.3 21.9 16.1 13.2This data can be modeled by the polynomial functionwhere t is the number of years since 1930. (a) Use u(t) to find the percentage of union membership in 2000. (b) Find u(75). Write a sentence explaining what it means.Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
2.3 Exponential FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Exponents (Chapter 0, Section 0.2 and Section 0.6) > Average Rate of Change (Chapter 1, Section 1.3) > Graphing Techniques (Chapter 1, Section 1.5) > Solving Equations (Chapter 0, Section 0.4)OBJECTIVES 1 Evaluate exponents 2 Graph exponential functions 3 Define the number e 4 Solve exponential equations1 Evaluate exponentsIn Chapter 0, Section 0.6, we give a definition for raising a real number a to a rational power. Based on thatdiscussion, we gave meaning to expressions of the formwhere the base a is a positive real number and the exponent r is a rational number.But what is the meaning of , where the base a is a positive real number and the exponent x is an irrationalnumber? Although a rigorous definition requires advanced methods, the basis for the definition is easy tofollow: Select a rational number r that is formed by truncating (removing) all but a finite number of digits fromthe irrational number x. Then it is reasonable to expect thatFor example, take the irrational number . Then, an approximation to iswhere the digits after the hundredths position have been removed from the value for π. A better approximationwould be
where the digits after the hundred-thousandths position have been removed. Continuing in this way, we canobtain approximations to to any desired degree of accuracy.Most calculators have an key or a caret key for working with exponents. To evaluate expressions ofthe form , enter the base a, then press the key (or the key), enter the exponent x, and press(or ). EXAMPLE 1 Using a Calculator to Evaluate Powers of 2Using a calculator, evaluate: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)SOLUTION (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.
It can be shown that the Laws of Exponents hold for real exponents. Laws of Exponents If s, t, a, and b are real numbers, with a > 0 and b > 0, then (1)We are now ready for the follwing definition: An exponential function is a function of the form where a is a positive real number (a > 0) and a ≠ 1. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.We exclude the base a = 1 because this function is simply the constant function . We also needto exclude the bases that are negative, because, otherwise, we would have to exclude many values of x fromthe domain, such as and and . [Recall that , andso on, are not defined in the system of real numbers.]COMMENT: It is important to distinguish a power function an integer, from an exponentialfunction real. In a power function, the base is a variable and the exponent is aconstant. In an exponential function, the base is a constant and the exponent is a variable.Some examples of exponential functions areNotice that in each example, the base is a constant and the exponent is a variable.You may wonder what role the base a plays in the exponential function . We use the followingExploration to find out.
x 0 2 1 5 2 8 3 11 (c) In Table 4 we notice that each value of the exponential function could be found by multiplying the previous value of the function by the base, a = 2. For example, and so on. Put another way, we see that the ratio of consecutive outputs is constant for unit increases in the inputs The constant equals the value of the base of the exponential function a. For example, for the function , we notice that and so on. From Table 5 we see that ratios of consecutive outputs of g(x) = 3x + 2 are not constant. For example, Instead, because g(x) = 3x + 2 is a linear function, for unit increases in the input, the outputs increase by fixed amount equal to the value of the slope, 3.The conclusions reached in the Exploration lead to the following theorem. For an exponential function , if x is any real number, then
PROOF: NOW WORK PROBLEM 11.Graphs of Exponential FunctionsFirst, we graph the exponential function .2 EXAMPLE 2 Graphing an Exponential FunctionGraph the exponential function:SOLUTIONThe domain of consists of all real numbers. We begin by locating some points on the graph of , as listed in Table 6.Since for all x, the range of f is the interval x ∞). From this, we conclude that the graph has no TABLE 6 (0,x-intercepts, and, in fact, the graph will lie above the x-axis. As Table 6 indicates, the y-intercept is 1. Table 6also indicates that as x becomes unbounded in the negative direction, the value of get closer andcloser to 0. This means that the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote to the graph as x becomes −10unbounded in the negative direction.* This gives us the end behavior of the graph for x large and negative.To determine the end behavior for x large and positive, look again at Table 6. As x becomes unbounded in the −3positive direction, grows very quickly, causing the graph of to rise very rapidly. It isapparent that f is an increasing function. −2Using all this information, we plot some of the points from Table 6 and connect them with a smooth,continuous curve, as shown in Figure 23. −1 FIGURE 23 0 1
As we shall see, graphs that look like the one in Figure 23 occur very frequently in a variety of situations. Forexample, look at the graph in Figure 24, which illustrates the closing price of a share of Harley Davidson stock.Investors might conclude from this graph that the price of Harley Davidson is behaving exponentially; that is,the graph exhibits rapid, or exponential, growth. FIGURE 24We shall have more to say about situations that lead to exponential growth later. For now, we continue to seekproperties of exponential functions.The graph of in Figure 23 is typical of all exponential functions that have a base larger than 1. Suchfunctions are increasing functions. Their graphs lie above the x-axis, pass through the point (0, 1), andthereafter rise rapidly as x becomes unbounded in the positive direction. As x becomes unbounded in thenegative direction, the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote. Finally, the graphs are smooth andcontinuous, with no corners or gaps.Figure 25 illustrates the graphs of two more exponential functions whose bases are larger than 1. Notice thatfor the larger base the graph is steeper when x > 0 and is closer to the x-axis when x < 0. FIGURE 25
SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph and compare what you see to Figure 23. Clear the screen and graph and and compare what you see to Figure 25. Clear the screen and graph and . What viewing rectangle seems to work best?The following list summarizes the information that we have about . Properties of the Exponential Function 1. The domain is the set of all real numbers; the range is the set of positive real numbers. 2. There is no x-intercept; the y-intercept is (0, 1). 3. The x-axis (y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote as x becomes unbounded in the negative direction. 4. , is an increasing function. 5. The graph of f contains the points (0, 1), (1, a),and . 6. The graph of f is smooth and continuous, with no corners or gaps. See Figure 26. FIGURE 26
Now we consider when 0 < a < 1. EXAMPLE 3 Graphing an Exponential FunctionGraph the exponential function:SOLUTIONThe domain of consists of all real numbers. As before, we locate some points on the graph bycreating Table 7. Since for all x, the range of f is the interval (0, ∞). The graph lies above the x-axisand so has no x-intercepts. The y-intercept is (0, 1). As x becomes unbounded in the negative direction,f(x)=(½) x grows very quickly. As x becomes unbounded in the positive direction, the values of f (x) approach0. The line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote as x becomes unbounded in the positive direction. It isapparent that f is a decreasing function. Figure 27 illustrates the graph. TABLE 7 x −10 −3 −2 −1
x 0 1 2 3 10 FIGURE 27We could have obtained the graph of from the graph of using a reflection. If , then . The graph of is a reflection about the y-axis of the graph of . See Figures 28(a) and (b). SEEING THE CONCEPT: Using a graphing utility, simultaneously graph (a)
(b) Conclude that the graph of , for a > 0, is the reflection about the y-axis of the graph of .The graph of in Figure 28(b) is typical of all exponential functions that have a base between 0and 1. Such functions are decreasing. Their graphs lie above the x-axis and pass through the point (0,1). Thegraphs rise rapidly as x becomes unbounded in the negative direction. As x becomes unbounded in the positivedirection, the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote. Finally, the graphs are smooth and continuous with no cornersor gaps. FIGURE 28Figure 29 illustrates the graphs of two more exponential functions whose bases are between 0 and 1. Noticethat the choice of a base closer to 0 results in a graph that is steeper when x < 0 and closer to the x-axis whenx > 0. FIGURE 29
SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph and compare what you see to Figure 28(b). Clear the screen and graph and and compare what you see to Figure 29. Clear the screen and graph and . What viewing rectangle seems to work best?The following list summarizes the information that we have about the function . Properties of the Graph of an Exponential Function f(x) = a x , 0 < a < 1 1. The domain is the set of all real numbers; the range is the set of positive real numbers. 2. There is no x-intercept; the y-intercept is (0, 1). 3. The line y = 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote as x become unbounded in the positive direction. 4. f(x) = a x , 0 < a < 1, is a decreasing function. 5. The graph of f contains the points (0, 1), (1, a), and . 6. The graph of f is smooth and continuous, with no corners or gaps. See Figure 30. FIGURE 30
EXAMPLE 4 Graphing Exponential Functions Using Shifts and/or ReflectionsGraph f(x) = 2− x − 3 and determine the domain, range, and horizontal asymptote of f.SOLUTIONWe begin with the graph of y = 2 x . Figure 31 shows the various steps. FIGURE 31As Figure 31(c) illustrates, the domain of f(x) = 2− x − 3 is the interval (− ∞, ∞) and the range is the interval(−3, ∞). The horizontal asymptote of f is the line y = −3. NOW WORK PROBLEM 27.
The Base e3 Define the number eMany applied problems require the use of an exponential function whose base is a certain irrational number,symbolized by the letter e.Let's look now at one way of arriving at this important number e. The number e is defined as the number that the expression (2) approaches as n becomes unbounded in the positive direction. In calculus, this is expressed using limit notation asTable 8 illustrates what happens to the defining expression (2) as n becomes unbounded in the positivedirection. The last number in the last column in the table gives e correct to nine decimal places and is the sameas the entry given for e on your calculator (if expressed correctly to nine decimal places). TABLE 8 n 1 1 2 2 2 0.5 1.5 2.25 5 0.2 1.2 2.48832 10 0.1 1.1 2.59374246 100 0.01 1.01 2.704813829 1,000 0.001 1.001 2.716923932 10,000 0.0001 1.0001 2.718145927
n 100,000 0.00001 1.00001 2.718268237 1,000,000 0.000001 1.000001 2.718280469 1,000,000,000 10−9 1 + 10−9 2.718281827The exponential function f(x) = e x , whose base is the number e, occurs with such frequency in applicationsthat it is usually referred to as the exponential function. Indeed, most calculators have the key or, which may be used to evaluate the exponential function for a given value of x. (Consult your owner's manualif there is no such key.)Now use your calculator to approximate e x for x = −2, x = −1, x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2, as we have done tocreate Table 9. TABLE 9 x ex −2 0.14 −1 0.37 0 1 1 2.72 2 7.39The graph of the exponential function f(x) = e x is given in Figure 32. Since 2 < e < 3, the graph of y = e x liesbetween the graphs of y = 2 x and y = 3 x . Do you see why? (Refer to Figures 23 and 25.) FIGURE 32
SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph Y1 = e x and compare what you see to Figure 32. Use eVALUEate or TABLE to verify the points on the graph shown in Figure 32. Now graph Y2 = 2 x and Y3 = 3 x on the same screen as Y1 = e x . Notice that the graph of Y1 = e x lies between these two graphs. EXAMPLE 5 Graphing Exponential Functions Using Shifts and/or ReflectionsGraph f(x) = − e x + 1 and determine the domain, range, and horizontal asymptote of f.SOLUTIONWe begin with the graph of y = e x . Figure 33 shows the various steps. FIGURE 33
As Figure 33(c) illustrates, the domain of f(x) = − e x + 1 is the interval (− ∞, ∞) and the range is the interval(−∞, 1). The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 1. NOW WORK PROBLEM 31.Exponential EquationsEquations that involve terms of the form a x , a > 0, a ≠ 1, are often referred to as exponential equations.Such equations can sometimes be solved by appropriately applying the Laws of Exponents and statement (3)below. (3)To use property (3), each side of the equality must be written with the same base.4 EXAMPLE 6 Solving an Exponential EquationSolve: 3 x + 1 = 81SOLUTION
Since 81 = 34, we can write the equation asNow we have the same base, 3, on each side, so we can apply property (3) to obtain NOW WORK PROBLEM 35. EXAMPLE 7 Solving an Exponential EquationSolve:SOLUTIONWe use Laws of Exponents first to get the base e on the right side.As a result,The solution set is {−3, 1}.ApplicationMany applications involve the exponential function. Let's look at one. EXAMPLE 8 Exponential ProbabilityBetween 9:00 PM and 10:00 PM cars arrive at Burger King's drive-thru at the rate of 12 cars per hour (0.2 carper minute). The following formula from probability can be used to determine the probability that a car willarrive within t minutes of 9:00 PM.
(a) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 5 minutes of 9 PM (that is, before 9:05 PM). (b) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 30 minutes of 9 PM (before 9:30 PM). (c) What value does F approach as t becomes unbounded in the positive direction? (d) Graph F(t) = 1 − e−0.2t , t > 0. Use eVALUEate or TABLE to compare the values of F at t = 5 [part (a)] and at t = 30 [part (b)]. (e) Within how many minutes of 9 PM will the probability of a car arriving equal 50%?Hint:Use TRACE or TABLE.SOLUTION (a) The probability that a car will arrive within 5 minutes is found by evaluating F(t) at t = 5. We conclude that there is a 63% probability that a car will arrive within 5 minutes. (b) The probability that a car will arrive within 30 minutes is found by evaluating F(t) at t = 30. There is a 99.75% probability that a car will arrive within 30 minutes. (c) As time passes, the probability that a car will arrive increases. The value that F
approaches can be found by letting t become unbounded in the positive direction. Since , it follows that e−0.2t approaches 0 as t becomes unbounded in the positive direction. Thus, F approaches 1 as t becomes unbounded in the positive direction. (d) See Figure 34 for the graph of F. (e) Within 3.5 minutes of 9 PM, the probability of a car arriving equals 50%. FIGURE 34 NOW WORK PROBLEM 63.SUMMARYProperties of the Exponential Functionf(x) = a x , Domain: the interval (−∞, ∞); Range: the interval (0, ∞); x-intercept: none; y-intercept: (0, 1)a>1 horizontal asymptote: the line y = 0 (the x-axis), as x becomes unbounded in the negative direction increasing; smooth; continuous See Figure 26 for a typical graph.f(x) = a x , Domain: the interval (−∞, ∞); Range: the interval (0, ∞); x-intercept: none; y-intercept: (0, 1)0<a<1 horizontal asymptote: the line y = 0 (the x-axis), as x becomes unbounded in the positive direction decreasing; smooth; continuous See Figure 30 for a typical graph.If a u = a v ,then u = v. EXERCISE 2.3
55.56.57. Optics If a single pane of glass obliterates 3% of the light passing through it, then the percent p of light that passes through n successive panes is given approximately by the function (a) What percent of light will pass through 10 panes? (b) What percent of light will pass through 25 panes?58. Atmospheric Pressure The atmospheric pressure p on a balloon or airplane decreases with increasing height. This pressure, measured in millimeters of mercury, is related to the number of kilometers h above sea level by the function (a) Find the atmospheric pressure at a height of 2 kilometers (over 1 mile). (b) What is it at a height of 10 kilometers (over 30,000 feet)?
59. Space Satellites The number of watts w provided by a space satellite's power supply after a period of d days is given by the function (a) How much power will be available after 30 days? (b) How much power will be available after 1 year (365 days)?60. Healing of Wounds The normal healing of wounds can be modeled by an exponential function. If A0 represents the original area of the wound and if A equals the area of the wound after n days, then the function describes the area of the wound on the nth day following an injury when no infection is present to retard the healing. Suppose that a wound initially had an area of 100 square millimeters. (a) If healing is taking place, how large will the area of the wound be after 3 days? (b) How large will it be after 10 days?61. Drug Medication The function can be used to find the number of milligrams D of a certain drug that is in a patient's bloodstream h hours after the drug has been administered. How many milligrams will be present after 1 hour? After 6 hours?
62 students will have heard the rumor after 3 days?63. Exponential Probability Between 12:00 PM and 1:00 PM, cars arrive at Citibank's drive-thru at the rate of 6 cars per hour (0.1 car per minute). The following formula from probability can be used to determine the probability that a car will arrive within t minutes of 12:00 PM: (a) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 10 minutes of 12:00 PM (that is, before 12:10 PM). (b) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 40 minutes of 12:00 PM (before 12:40 PM). (c) What value does F approach as t becomes unbounded in the positive direction? (d) Graph F using your graphing utility. (e) Using TRACE, determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 50%.64. Exponential Probability Between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM, cars arrive at Jiffy Lube at the rate of 9 cars per hour (0.15 car per minute). The following formula from probability can be used to determine the probability that a car will arrive within t minutes of 5:00 PM: (a) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 15 minutes of 5:00 PM (that is, before 5:15 PM).
(b) Determine the probability that a car will arrive within 30 minutes of 5:00 PM (before 5:30 PM). (c) What value does F approach as t becomes unbounded in the positive direction? (d) Graph F using your graphing utility. (e) Using TRACE, determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 60%.65. Poisson Probability Between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM, cars arrive at McDonald's drive-thru at the rate of 20 cars per hour. The following formula from probability can be used to determine the probability that x cars will arrive between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM. where (a) Determine the probability that x = 15 cars will arrive between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM. (b) Determine the probability that x = 20 cars will arrive between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM.66. Poisson Probability People enter a line for the Demon Roller Coaster at the rate of 4 per minute. The following formula from probability can be used to determine the probability that x people will arrive within the next minute. where (a) Determine the probability that x = 5 people will arrive within the next minute.
(b) Determine the probability that x = 8 people will arrive within the next minute.67. Depreciation The price p of a Honda Civic DX Sedan that is x years old is given by (a) How much does a 3-year-old Civic DX Sedan cost? (b) How much does a 9-year-old Civic DX Sedan cost?68. Learning Curve Suppose that a student has 500 vocabulary words to learn. If the student learns 15 words after 5 minutes, the function approximates the number of words that the student will learn after t minutes. (a) How many words will the student learn after 30 minutes? (b) How many words will the student learn after 60 minutes?
69. Alternating Current in a RL Circuit The equation governing the amount of current I (in amperes) after time t (in seconds) in a single RL circuit consisting of a resistance R (in ohms), an inductance L (in henrys), and an electromotive force E (in volts) is (a) If E = 120 volts, R = 10 ohms, and L = 5 henrys, how much current I1 is flowing after 0.3 second? After 0.5 second? Ater 1 second? (b) Graph the function I = I1(t), measuring I along the y-axis and t along the x-axis. (c) What is maximum current? (d) If E = 120 volts, R = 5 ohms, and L = 10 henrys, how much current I2 is flowing after 0.3 second? After 0.5 second? After 1 second? (e) Graph the function I = I2(t) on the same screen as I1(t). (f) What is the maximum current?70. Alternating Current in a RC Circuit The equation governing the amount of current I (in amperes) after time t (in microseconds) in a single RC circuit consisting of a resistance R (in ohms), a capacitance C (in microfarads), and an electromotive force E (in volts) is (a) If E = 120 volts, R = 2000 ohms, and C = 1.0 microfarad, how much current I1 is flowing initially (t = 0)? After 1000 microseconds? After 3000 microseconds?
(b) Graph the function I = I1(t), measuring I along the y-axis and t along the x-axis. (c) What is the maximum current? (d) If E = 120 volts, R = 1000 ohms, and C = 2.0 microfarads, how much current I2 is flowing initially? After 1000 microseconds? After 3000 microseconds? (e) Graph the function I = I2(t) on the same screen as I1(t). (f) What is the maximum current?71. Another Formula for e Use a calculator to compute the values of for n = 4, 6, 8, and 10. Compare each result with e. Hint: 1! = 1, 2! = 2·1, 3! = 3·2·1,72. Another Formula for e Use a calculator to compute the first five values of the expression. The first one is 2 + 1 = 3; the second one is . Compare the values to e.73. Difference Quotient If f(x) = a x , show that
74. If f (x) = a x , show that f(A + B) = f(A)· f(B).75. If f(x) = a x , show that .76. If f(x) = a x , show that .77. Relative Humidity The relative humidity is the ratio (expressed as a percent) of the amount of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount that it can hold at a specific temperature. The relative humidity, R, is found using the following formula: where T is the air temperature (in °F) and D is the dew point temperature (in °F). (a) Determine the relative humidity if the air temperature is 50° Fahrenheit and the dew point temperature is 41° Fahrenheit. (b) Determine the relative humidity if the air temperature is 68° Fahrenheit and the dew point temperature is 59° Fahrenheit. (c) What is the relative humidity if the air temperature and the dew point temperature are the same?78. Historical Problem Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) conjectured that the function for x = 1, 2, 3,…, would always have a value equal to a prime number. But Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783) showed that this formula fails for x = 5. Use a calculator to determine the prime numbers produced by f for x = 1, 2, 3, 4. Then show that f(5) = 641 × 6,700,417, which is not prime.Problems 79 and 80 provide definitions for two other functions.79. The hyperbolic sine function, designated by sinh x, is defined as
(a) Show that f(x) = sinh x is an odd function. (b) Graph f(x) = sinh x using a graphing utility.80. The hyperbolic cosine function, designated by cosh x, is defined as (a) Show that f(x) = cosh x is an even function. (b) Graph f(x) = cosh x using a graphing utility. (c) Refer to Problem 79. Show that, for every x, .81. The bacteria in a 4-liter container double every minute. After 60 minutes the container is full. How long did it take to fill half the container? Explain your reasoning.82. Explain in your own words what the number e is. Provide at least two applications that require the use of this number.83. Do you think that there is a power function that increases more rapidly than an exponential function whose base is greater than 1? Explain.84. As the base a of an exponential function f(x) = a x , a > 1, increases, what happens to the behavior of its graph for x > 0? What happens to the behavior of the graph for x < 0?85. The graphs of and are identical. Why?
2.4 Logarithmic FunctionsPREPARING FOR THIS SECTION Before getting started, review the following: > Solving Inequalities (Chapter 0, Section 0.5) > Slope of a Line (Chapter 0, Section 0.9) > Vertical Line Test (Chapter 1, Section 1.3) > Graphing Techniques (Chapter 1, Section 1.5)OBJECTIVES 1 Change exponential expressions to logarithmic expressions 2 Change logarithmic expressions to exponential expressions 3 Evaluate logarithmic functions 4 Find the domain of a logarithmic function 5 Graph logarithmic functions 6 Solve logarithmic equationsWe begin with the exponential functionIf we interchange the variables x and y, we obtain the equationLets compare the graphs of these two equations. For example, the point (1, 3) is on the graph ofand the point (3, 1) is on the graph of . Also, the point (0,1) is on the graph of and the point(1, 0) is on the graph of . In general, if the point (a, b) is on the graph of , then the point (b,a) will be on the graph of . See Figure 35.
FIGURE 35Notice in Figure 35 that we show the line y = x. You should see that the graphs of and aresymmetric with respect to the line y = x, a fact we shall not prove. This means we could have obtained thegraph of , by reflecting the graph of about the line y = x.Look again at Figure 35. We see from the graph of the equation that it is the graph of a function.(Do you see why? Apply the Vertical Line Test.) We call this function a logarithmic function. Thegeneral definition is given next. The logarithmic function to the base a, where a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is denoted by (read as " y is the logarithm to the base a of x") and is defined by The domain of the logarithmic function is x > 0.A logarithm is merely a name for a certain exponent. EXAMPLE 1 Relating Logarithms to Exponents (a) If , then . For example, is equivalent to 9 = 32. (b) If , then . For example, is equivalent to .1
SOLUTION (a) If , then . (b) If , then . (c) If , then . NOW WORK PROBLEM 13.To find the exact value of a logarithm, we write the logarithm in exponential notation and use the fact thatif then .3 EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Exact Value of a Logarithmic ExpressionFind the exact value of (a) (b)SOLUTION (a) Therefore, .
(b) Therefore, . NOW WORK PROBLEM 25.The domain of a logarithmic function consists of the positive real numbers, so the argument of alogarithmic function must be greater than zero.4 EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Domain of a Logarithmic FunctionFind the domain of each logarithmic function (a) (b) (c)SOLUTION (a) The domain of F consists of all x for which x − 5 > 0, that is, all x > 5, or using interval notation, (5, ∞). (b) The domain of g is restricted to Solving this inequality, we find that the domain of g consists of all x between −1 and 1, that is, −1 < x < 1, or using interval notation, (−1, 1).
(c) Since , provided that x ≠ 0, the domain of h consists of all nonzero real numbers, or using interval notation, (−∞, 0) or (0, ∞). NOW WORK PROBLEMS 37 AND 43.Graphs of Logarithmic Functions5 Graph of Logarithmic functionsAs we said earlier, we can obtain the graph of x = a y , a > 0, a ≠ 1, or equivalently the graph of , by reflecting the graph of y = a x about the line y = x. For example, to graph , graphy = 2 x and reflect it about the line y = x. See Figure 36. FIGURE 36To graph , graph and reflect it about the line y = x. See Figure 37. FIGURE 37
The graph of the logarithmic function is the reflection about the line y = x of the graph of the xexponential function y = a , as shown in Figures 38 and 39. FIGURE 38 FIGURE 39 NOW WORK PROBLEM 51.The graphs in Figures 38 and 39 lead to the following result. Properties of the Graph of a Logarithmic Function 1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers; the range is all real numbers. 2. The x-intercept of the graph is (1, 0) There is no y-intercept.
3. The line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote of the graph. 4. A logarithmic function is decreasing if 0 < a < 1 and is increasing if a > 1. 5. The graph of f contains the points (1, 0), (a, 1), and . 6. The graph is smooth and continuous, with no corners or gaps.If the base of a logarithmic function is the number e, then we have the natural logarithm function. Thisfunction occurs so frequently in applications that it is given a special symbol, ln (from the Latin,logarithmus naturalis). That is, (1)We can obtain the graph of y = ln x by reflecting the graph of y = e x about the line y = x. See Figure 40. FIGURE 40Using a calculator with an key, we can obtain other points on the graph of f(x) = ln x. See Table 10.
TABLE 10 x ln x 0.5 −0.69 2 0.69 3 1.10 SEEING THE CONCEPT: Graph Y1 = e x and Y2 = ln x on the same square screen. Use eVALUEate to verify the points on the graph given in Figure 41. Do you see the symmetry of the two graphs with respect to the line y = x? EXAMPLE 6 Graphing Logarithmic Functions Using Shifts and/or ReflectionsGraph f(x) = −ln(x + 2) by starting with the graph of y = ln x. Determine the domain, range, and verticalasymptote of f.SOLUTIONThe domain of f consists of all x for whichso the domain is .To obtain the graph of , we use the steps illustrated in Figure 41. FIGURE 41
The range of is the interval (−∞, ∞), and the vertical asymptote is x=−2. [Do yousee why? The original asymptote (x = 0) is shifted to the left 2 units.] NOW WORK PROBLEM 63.If the base of a logarithmic function is the number 10, then we have the common logarithm function. Ifthe base a of the logarithmic function is not indicated, it is understood to be 10. Thus,We can obtain the graph of y = log x by reflecting the graph of y = 10 x about the line y = x. See Figure 42. FIGURE 42
Logarithmic EquationsEquations that contain logarithms are called logarithmic equations . Care must be taken when solvinglogarithmic equations. Be sure to check each apparent solution in the original equation and discard anythat are extraneous. In the expression logaM , remember that a and M are positive and a ≠ 1.Some logarithmic equations can be solved by changing from a logarithmic expression to an exponentialexpression.6 EXAMPLE 7 Solving a Logarithmic EquationSolve: (a) (b)SOLUTION (a) We can obtain an exact solution by changing the logarithm to exponential form CHECK: (b) We can obtain an exact solution by changing the logarithm to exponential form. The base of a logarithm is always positive. As a result, we discard −8; the only solution is 8.
CHECK: . EXAMPLE 8 Using Logarithms to Solve Exponential EquationsSolve:SOLUTIONWe can obtain an exact solution by changing the exponential equation to logarithmic form. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 71 AND 83. EXAMPLE 9 Alcohol and DrivingThe concentration of alcohol in a persons blood is measurable. Recent medical research suggests that therisk R (given as a percent) of having an accident while driving a car can be modeled by the equationwhere x is the variable concentration of alcohol in the blood and k is a constant. (a) Suppose that a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.04
(d) If the law asserts that anyone with a risk of having an accident of 20% or more should not have driving privileges, at what concentration of alcohol in the blood should a driver be arrested and charged with a DUI (Driving Under the Influence)?SOLUTION (a) For a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.04 and a risk of 10%, we let x = 0.04 and R = 10 in the equation and solve for k. (b) Using k = 12.77 and x = 0.17 in the equation, we find the risk R to be For a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.17, the risk of an accident is about 52.6%. (c) Using k = 12.77 and R = 100 in the equation, we find the concentration x of alcohol in the blood to be
For a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.22, the risk of an accident is 100%. (d) Using k = 12.77 and R = 20 in the equation, we find the concentration x of alcohol in the blood to be A driver with a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.094 or more (9.4%) should be arrested and charged with DUI.[ NOTE: Most states use 0.08 or 0.10 as the blood alcohol content at which a DUI citation is given.]SUMMARY Properties of the Logarithmic Function Domain: the interval (0, ∞); Range: the interval (−∞, ∞); x-intercept: (1, 0); y-intercept: none; vertical asymptote: x = 0 (y-axis); increasing. See Figure 43 for a typical graph. FIGURE 43
15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.In Problems 25–36, find the exact value of each logarithm without using a calculator.25.26.27.
28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.In Problems 37–44, find the domain of each function.37.38.39.40.
41.42.43.44.In Problems 45–48, use a calculator to evaluate each expression. Round your answer to threedecimal places.45.46.47.48.49. Find a so that the graph of contains the point (2, 2).50. Find a so that the graph of contains the point .In Problems 51–54, graph each logarithmic function.51.
87. log3(x2 + 1) = 288. log5(x2 + x + 4) = 289. log28 x = −390. log33 x = −191. Chemistry The pH of a chemical solution is given by the formula where is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter. Values of pH range from 0 (acidic) to 14 (alkaline). Distilled water has a pH of 7. (a) What is the pH of a solution for which is 0.1? (b) What is the pH of a solution for which is 0.01? (c) What is the pH of a solution for which is 0.001? (d) What happens to pH as the hydrogen ion concentration decreases? (e) Determine the hydrogen ion concentration of an orange (pH = 3.5). (f) Determine the hydrogen ion concentration of human blood (pH = 7.4).92. Diversity Index Shannons diversity index is a measure of the diversity of a population. The diversity index is given by the formula
where p1 is the proportion of the population that is species 1, p2 is the proportion ofthe population that is species 2, and so on.The distribution of race in the United States in 2000 was as follows: Race Proportion American Indian or Native Alaskan 0.014 Asian 0.041 Black or African American 0.128 Hispanic 0.124 Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 0.003 White 0.690 Source: U.S. Census Bureau. (a) Compute the diversity index of the United States in 2000. (b) The largest value of the diversity index is given by Hmax = log(S), where S is the number of categories of race. Compute Hmax. (c) The evenness ratio is given by where 0 ≤ EH ≤ 1. If EH = 1, there is complete evenness. Compute the evenness ratio for the United States. (d) Obtain the distribution of race for the United States in 1990 from the Census Bureau. Compute Shannons diversity index. Is the United States becoming more diverse? Why?
93. Atmospheric Pressure The atmospheric pressure p on a balloon or an aircraft decreases with increasing height. This pressure, measured in millimeters of mercury, is related to the height h (in kilometers) above sea level by the formula. (a) Find the height of an aircraft if the atmospheric pressure is 320 millimeters of mercury. (b) Find the height of a mountain if the atmospheric pressure is 667 millimeters of mercury.94. Healing of Wounds The normal healing of wounds can be modeled by an exponential function. If A0 represents the original area of the wound and if A equals the area of the wound after n days, then the formula describes the area of the wound on the nth day following an injury when no infection is present to retard the healing. Suppose that a wound initially had an area of 100 square millimeters. (a) If healing is taking place, how many days should pass before the wound is one-half its original size? (b) How long before the wound is 10% of its original size?95. Exponential Probability Between 12:00 PM and 1:00 PM, cars arrive at Citibanks drive-thru at the rate of 6 cars per hour (0.1 car per minute). The following formula from statistics can be used to determine the probability that a car will arrive within t minutes of 12:00 PM. (a) Determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 50%.
(b) Determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 80%. (c) Is it possible for the probability to equal 100%? Explain.96. Exponential Probability Between 5:00 PM and 6:00 PM, cars arrive at Jiffy Lube at the rate of 9 cars per hour (0.15 car per minute). The following formula from statistics can be used to determine the probability that a car will arrive within t minutes of 5:00 PM. (a) Determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 50%. (b) Determine how many minutes are needed for the probability to reach 80%.97. Drug Medication The formula can be used to find the number of milligrams D of a certain drug that is in a patients bloodstream h hours after the drug has been administered. When the number of milligrams reaches 2, the drug is to be administered again. What is the time between injections?98 days will elapse before 450 students have heard the rumor?99. Current in an RL Circuit The equation governing the amount of current I (in amperes) after time t (in seconds) in a simple RL circuit consisting of a resistance R (in ohms), an inductance L (in henrys), and an electromotive force E (in volts) is
If E = 12 volts, R = 10 ohms, and L = 5 henrys, how long does it take to obtain a current of 0.5 ampere? Of 1.0 ampere?100. Learning Curve Psychologists sometimes use the function to measure the amount L learned at time t. The number A represents the amount to be learned, and the number k measures the rate of learning. Suppose that a student has an amount A of 200 vocabulary words to learn. A psychologist determines that the student learned 20 vocabulary words after 5 minutes. (a) Determine the rate of learning k. (b) Approximately how many words will the student have learned after 10 minutes? (c) After 15 minutes? (d) How long does it take for the student to learn 180 words?101. U.S. Population According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the United States is projected to be 298,710,000 on January 1, 2010. Suppose this projection is correct, but after January 1, 2010, the population grows according to P(t) = 298,710,000 = 10,000,000 log t. Project the population, to the nearest thousand, on January 1, 2020. Hint: t = 1 corresponds to the year 2010.102. U.S. Population A reasonable projection for the population of the United States on January 1, 2025, is 336,566,000. (a) If 2025 is taken as year 1, and the formula for year 2025 onward that represents a new trend in the population growth is P(t) = 336,566,000 + 8,000,000 log t, what would be the population in 2045?
(b) Is this higher or lower than the current U.S. Census Bureaus estimate of 363,077,000?Loudness of Sound Problems 103–106 use the following discussion: The loudness L(x),measured in decibels, of a sound of intensity x, measured in watts per square meter, is defined as , where watt per square meter is the least intense sound that a humanear can detect.Determine the loudness, in decibels, of each of the following sounds.103. Normal conversation: intensity of x = 10−7 watt per square meter.104. Heavy city traffic: intensity of x = 10−3 watt per square meter.105. Amplified rock music: intensity of 10−1 watt per square meter.106. Diesel truck traveling 40 miles per hour 50 feet away: intensity 10 times that of a passenger car traveling 50 miles per hour 50 feet away whose loudness is 70 decibels.Problems 107 and 108 use the following discussion: The Richter scale is one way of convertingseismographic readings into numbers that provide an easy reference for measuring themagnitude M of an earthquake. All earthquakes are compared to a zero-level earthquake whoseseismographic reading measures 0.001 millimeter at a distance of 100 kilometers from theepicenter. An earthquake whose seismographic reading measures x millimeters has magnitudeM(x) given bywhere is the reading of a zero-level earthquake the same distance from its epicenter.Determine the magnitude of the following earthquakes.107. Magnitude of an Earthquake Mexico City in 1985: seismographic reading of 125,892 millimeters 100 kilometers from the center.108. Magnitude of an Earthquake San Francisco in 1906: seismographic reading of 7943 millimeters 100 kilometers from the center.
109. Alcohol and Driving The concentration of alcohol in a persons blood is measurable. Suppose that the risk R (given as a percent) of having an accident while driving a car can be modeled by the equation where x is the variable concentration of alcohol in the blood and k is a constant. (a) Suppose that a concentration of alcohol in the blood of 0.06 (d) If the law asserts that anyone with a risk of having an accident of 15% or more should not have driving privileges, at what concentration of alcohol in the blood should a driver be arrested and charged with a DUI? (e) Compare this situation with that of Example 2.1. If you were a lawmaker, which situation would you support? Give your reasons.110. Is there any function of the form y = xα , 0 < α < 1, that increases more slowly than a logarithmic function whose base is greater than 1? Explain.111. In the definition of the logarithmic function, the base a is not allowed to equal 1. Why?112. Critical Thinking In buying a new car, one consideration might be how well the price of the car holds up over time. Different makes of cars have different depreciation rates. One way to compute a depreciation rate for a car is given here. Suppose that the current prices of a certain Mercedes automobile are as follows: Age in Years
New 1 2 3 4 5 $38,000 $36,600 $32,400 $28,750 $25,400 $21,200(a) Use the formula New = Old(e Rt ) to find R, the annual depreciation rate, for a specific time t.(b) When might be the best time to trade in the car?(c) Consult the NADA ("blue") book and compare two like models that you are interested in. Which has the better depreciation rate?
2.5 Properties of LogarithmsOBJECTIVES 1 Work with the properties of logarithms 2 Write a logarithmic expression as a sum or difference of logarithms 3 Write a logarithmic expression as a single logarithm 4 Evaluate logarithms whose base is neither 10 nor e1 Work with the properties of logarithmsLogarithms have some very useful properties that can be derived directly from the definition and the lawsof exponents. EXAMPLE 1 Establishing Properties of Logarithms (a) Show that loga 1 = 0. (b) Show that loga a = 1.SOLUTION (a) This fact was established when we graphed y = loga x (see Figure 25). To show the result algebraically, let y = loga 1. Then (b) Let y = loga a. Then
To summarize: Properties of Logarithms In the properties given next, M and a are positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1, and r is any real number. The number loga M is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain M. That is, (1) The logarithm to the base a of a raised to a power equals that power. That is, (2)The proof uses the fact that x = ay and y = loga x are equivalent.PROOF: Since x = a y and y = loga x are equivalent, we haveNow let x = M to obtain equation (1).To prove 2, we use the fact that x = a y and y = loga x are equivalent. Then,
Now let y = r to obtain equation (2). EXAMPLE 2 Using Properties (1) and (2) (a) (b) (c) NOW WORK PROBLEM 3.Other useful properties of logarithms are given below. Properties of Logarithms In the following properties M, N, and a are positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1, and ris any real number. The Log of a Product Equals the Sum of the Logs (3) The Log of a Quotient Equals the Difference of the Logs (4) The Log of a Power Equals the Product of the Power and the Log (5)We shall derive properties (3) and (5) and will leave the derivation of property (4) as an exercise (seeProblem 95).PROOF OF PROPERTY (3) Let A = loga M and let B = loga N. These expressions are equivalent tothe exponential expressions
NowPROOF OF PROPERTY (5) Let A = loga M. This expression is equivalent toNow NOW WORK PROBLEM 7.Logarithms can be used to transform products into sums, quotients into differences, and powers intofactors. Such transformations prove useful in certain types of calculus problems.2 EXAMPLE 3 Writing a Logarithmic Expression as a Sum of LogarithmsWrite , as a sum of logarithms. Express all powers as factors.SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4 Writing a Logarithmic Expression as a Difference of LogarithmsWriteas a difference of logarithms. Express all powers as factors.SOLUTION Writing a Logarithmic Expression as a Sum and Difference of EXAMPLE 5 LogarithmsWriteas a sum and difference of logarithms. Express all powers as factors.SOLUTIONCAUTION: In using properties (3) through (5), be careful about the values that the variable may
assume. For example, the domain of the variable for loga x is x > 0 and for loga (x − 1) it is x > 1. If weadd these functions, the domain of the sum function is x > 1. That is, the equalityis true only for x > 1. NOW WORK PROBLEM 39.Another use of properties (3) through (5) is to write sums and/or differences of logarithms with the samebase as a single logarithm.3 EXAMPLE 6 Writing Expressions as a Single LogarithmWrite each of the following as a single logarithm. (a) (b) (c)SOLUTION (a) (b)
(c)WARNING: A common error made by some students is to express the logarithm of a sum as the sum oflogarithms.Another common error is to express the difference of logarithms as the quotient of logarithms.A third common error is to express a logarithm raised to a power as the product of the powertimes the logarithm. NOW WORK PROBLEM 45.Two other properties of logarithms that we need to know are given next. Properties of Logarithms In the following properties, M, N, and a are positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1. (6) (7)When property (6) is used, we start with the equation M = N and say "take the logarithm of both sides" to
obtain .Using a Calculator to Evaluate Logarithms with Bases Other Than 10 or eLogarithms to the base 10, common logarithms, were used to facilitate arithmetic computations before thewidespread use of calculators. Natural logarithms, that is, logarithms whose base is the number e, remainvery important because they arise frequently in the study of natural phenomena.Common logarithms are usually abbreviated by writing log, with the base understood to be 10, just asnatural logarithms are abbreviated by ln, with the base understood to be e.Most calculators have both and keys to calculate the common logarithm and natural logarithmof a number. Lets look at an example to see how to approximate logarithms having a base other than 10or e.4 EXAMPLE 7 Approximating Logarithms Whose Base Is Neither 10 Nor eApproximate log27. Round the answer to four decimal places.SOLUTIONLet y = log27. ThenExample 2.7 shows how to approximate a logarithm whose base is 2 by changing to logarithms involvingthe base e. In general, we use the Change-of-Base Formula. Change-of-Base Formula If a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1, and M are positive real numbers, then (8)
PROOF: We derive this formula as follows: Let y = loga M. ThenSince calculators have keys only for and , in practice the Change-of-Base Formula uses eitherb = 10 or b = e. That is, (9) EXAMPLE 8 Using the Change-of-Base FormulaApproximate: (a) log589 (b)Round answers to four decimal places.SOLUTION (a) or
(b) or COMMENT: To graph logarithmic functions when the base is different from e or 10 requires the Change-of-Base Formula. For example, to graph y = log2 x, we would instead graph . Try it. NOW WORK PROBLEMS 11 AND 59.SUMMARYProperties of LogarithmsIn the summary that follows, a > 0, a ≠ 1, and b > 0, b ≠ 1; also,M > 0 and N > 0. Definition means Properties of logarithms If M = N, then loga M = loga N.
If loga M = loga N, then M = N. Change-of-Base FormulaEXERCISE 2.5In Problems 1–10, use properties of logarithms to find the exact value of each expression. Donot use a calculator.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.
24.In Problems 25–44, write each expression as a sum and/or difference of logarithms. Expresspowers as factors.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.
36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.In Problems 45–58, write each expression as a single logarithm.45.
46.47.48.49.50.51.52.53.54.55.56.57.58.
In Problems 59–66, use the Change-of-Base Formula and a calculator to evaluate eachlogarithm. Round your answer to three decimal places.59.60. log5 1861.62.63.64.65.66.In Problems 67–72, graph each function using a graphing utility and the Change-of-BaseFormula.67.68.69.70.
71.72.In Problems 73–82, express y as a function of x. The constant C is a positive number.73.74.75.76.77.78.79.80.81.82.83. Find the value of .
84. Find the value of .85. Find the value of .86. Find the value of .87. Show that .88. Show that .89. Show that .90. Difference Quotient if , show that .91. If , show that .92. If , show that .93. If , show that .94. If , show that .95. Show that , where a, M, and N are positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1.96. Show that , where a and N are positive real numbers, with a ≠ 1.
97. Graph and on your graphing utility. Are they equivalent? What might account for any differences in the two functions?
2.6 Continuously Compounded InterestOBJECTIVES 1 Use the compound interest formula 2 Find the present value of a dollar amount 3 Find the time required to double an investment 4 Find the rate of interest needed to double an investmentSuppose a principal P is to be invested at an annual rate of interest r, which is compounded n times peryear. The interest earned on a principal P at each compounding period is then . The amount A after 1year with 1 compoundings per year (annually) 2 compoundings per year (semiannually) 4 compoundings per year (quarterly) n compoundings per year per yearWhat happens to the amount A after 1 year if the number of times, n, that the interest is compounded peryear gets larger and larger? The answer turns out to involve the number e.Rewrite the expression for A as follows:To simplify the calculation, let
We substitute to getAs n gets larger and larger, so does k and, since approaches e as k becomes unbounded in thepositive direction, it follows thatThat is, no matter how often the interest is compounded during the year, the amount after 1 year has thedefinite ceiling Pe r . When interest is compounded so that the amount after 1 year is Pe r , we say that theinterest is compounded continuously.For example, the amount A due to investing $1000 for 1 year at an annual rate of 10% compoundedcontinuously isThe formula A = Pe r gives the amount A after 1 year resulting from investing a principal P at the annualrate of interest r compounded continuously. Compound Interest Formula–Continuous Compounding The amount A due to investing a principal P for a period of t years at the annual rate of interest r compounded continuously is (1)1 EXAMPLE 1 Using the Compound Interest FormulaIf $1000 is invested at 10% compounded continuously, how much is in the account (a) after 3 years (b) after 5 years
SOLUTION (a) If $1000 is invested at 10% compounded continuously, the amount A after 3 years is (b) After 5 years the amount A is NOW WORK PROBLEM 1.The Compound Interest Formula states that a principal P earning an annual rate of interest r compoundedcontinuously will, after t years, be worth the amount A, whereIf we solve for P, we obtain (2)In this formula P is called the present value of the amount A. In other words, P is the amount that mustbe invested now in order to accumulate the amount A in t years.2 EXAMPLE 2 Computing the Present Value of $10,000How much money should be invested now at 8% per annum compounded continuously, so that after 2years the amount will be $10,000?SOLUTION
In this problem we want to find the principal P needed now to get the amount A = $10,000 after t = 2years. That is, we want to find the present value of $10,000. We use formula (2) with r = .08:If you invest $8521.44 now at 8% per annum compounded continuously, you will have $10,000after 2 years. NOW WORK PROBLEM 5.3 EXAMPLE 3 Finding the Time Required to Double an InvestmentFind the time required to double an investment if the rate of interest is 5% compounded continuously.SOLUTIONIf P is the principal invested, it will double when the amount A = 2P. We use the Compound InterestFormula (1).It will take almost 14 years to double an investment at 5% compounded continuously. NOW WORK PROBLEM 15. EXAMPLE 4 Finding the Rate of Interest to Double an InvestmentFind the rate of interest required to double an investment in 8 years if the interest is compoundedcontinuously.SOLUTIONIf P is the principle invested, it will double when the amount A = 2P. We use the Compound InterestFormula (1).
It will require an interest rate of about 8.7% compounded continuously to double an investmentin 5 years. NOW WORK PROBLEM 13. EXERCISE 2.6 In Problems 1–4, find the amount if: 1. $1000 is invested at 4% compounded continuously for 3 years. 2. $100 is invested at 6% compounded continuously for 1½ years. 3. $500 is invested at 5% compounded continuously for 3 years. 4. $200 is invested at 10% compounded continuously for 10 years. In Problems 5–8, find the principal needed now to get each amount. 5. To get $100 in 6 months at 4% compounded continuously. 6. To get $500 in 1 year at 6% compounded continuously. 7. To get $500 in 1 year at 7% compounded continuously. 8. To get $800 in 2 years at 5% compounded continuously.
9. If $1000 is invested at 2% compounded continuously, what is the amount after 1 year? How much interest is earned?10. If $2000 is invested at 5% compounded continuously, what is the amount after 5 years? How much interest is earned?11. If a bank pays 3% compounded continuously, how much should be deposited now to have $5000 (a) 4 years later? (b) 8 years later?12. If a bank pays 2% compounded continuously, how much should be deposited now to have $10,000 (a) 5 years later? (b) 10 years later?13. What annual rate of interest compounded continuously is required to double an investment in 3 years?14. What annual rate of interest compounded continuously is required to double an investment in 10 years?15. Approximately how long will it take to triple an investment at 10% compounded continuously?16. Approximately how long will it take to triple an investment at 9% compounded continuously?
17. What principal is needed now to get $1000 in 1 year at 9% compounded continuously? How much should be invested to get $1000 in 2 years? |
Course Content and Outcome Guide for ALC 95B
Course Number:
ALC 95B
Course Title:
Math 95 Lab - 1 credit a review of individually chosen topics in Intermediate Algebra (Math 95). Requires a minimum of 30 hours in the lab. Completion of this course does not meet prerequisite requirements for other math courses.
Intended Outcomes for the course
Upon successful completion of this course students will be able to:
,
,
Choose and perform accurate intermediate-level algebraic computations in a variety of situations with and without a calculator.
Outcome Assessment Strategies
Assessment shall include at least two of the following measures: ,1. Tests ,2. Attendance ,3. Portfolios ,4. Individual student conference
Course Content (Themes, Concepts, Issues and Skills)
Intermediate Algebra (MTH 95) ,Themes: ,Functions and function notation ,Functions represented as graphs, tables, equations and in words ,Connection between symbolic and graphical representations ,Algebraic simplification of expressions and solving of equations ,Problem solving and modeling, interpreting results in practical terms ,Language of graphs ,Skills: ,Calculator (integrated throughout the course) ,Use the home screen carry out arithmetic operations ,Use the calculator's table feature to explore functions ,Graph functions ,. Input the appropriate window settings to view the graph ,. Use calculation tools ,Value ,Zero ,Maximum ,Minimum ,ntersect ,Understand that the calculator has limitations ,Functions ,Understand and apply the definition of function ,Determine whether one quantity is a function of another algebraically, graphically, numerically and within real life ,contexts by applying the definition of a function ,Domain ,. Understand the definition of domain (the set of all possible inputs) ,Determine the domain of functions represented graphically, algebraically, numerically and verbally ,Represent the domain in both interval and set notation, where appropriate ,Apply unions and intersections (€œand€ and €œor€) when finding and stating the domain of functions ,Understand how the context of a function used as a model can limit the domain ,Range ,. Understand the definition of range (set of all possible outputs) ,. Determine the range of functions represented graphically, numerically and verbally ,. Represent the range in interval and set notation, where appropriate ,Function notation ,Evaluate functions with given inputs using function notation where functions are represented graphically, algebraically, ,numerically and verbally (e.g. evaluate ) ,Algebraically simplify and distinguish between different examples such as , , ,and ,nterpret in the appropriate context e.g. interpret where models a real-world function ,Solve function equations where functions are represented graphically, algebraically, numerically and verbally (i.e. ,solve for and solve for where and should include but not be limited to linear ,functions, quadratic functions, and absolute value functions) ,Solve function inequalities algebraically (i.e. , , and where and are ,linear functions and and where is an absolute value function) ,Solve function inequalities graphically (i.e. , , and where and should ,include but not be limited to linear functions, and for quadratic and absolute value functions) ,Graphs of functions ,Use the language of graphs and understand how to present answers to questions based on the graph (i.e. read the ,value of an intersection to solve an equation and understand that is a number not a point) ,Determine function values, solve equations and inequalities, and find domain and range given a graph ,Apply function notation to prerequisite skill of finding linear equations given two ordered pairs ,Quadratics ,Recognize a quadratic equation given in standard form, vertex form and factored form ,Solve quadratic equations by completing the square ,Find complex solutions to quadratic equations by the quadratic formula or by completing the square ,Understand the graphical implications (i.e. when there is a complex number as a solution to a quadratic equation) ,nterpret the meaning in the context of an application ,Quadratic functions in vertex form ,Graph a parabola after obtaining the vertex form of the equation by completing the square ,Given a quadratic function in vertex form or as a graph, observe the vertical shift and horizontal shift of the graph ,Connect graphing via vertex form with the prerequisite graphing methods (i.e. axis of symmetry, horizontal intercepts, ,vertex formula, vertical intercept, points found by symmetry) ,Determine the domain and range of quadratic functions algebraically and graphically ,Applications ,Understanding in context: given a quadratic function in algebraic or graphical form find and interpret, including units, ,the meaning of the: ,Vertex as a maximum or minimum ,Vertical intercept ,Zeroes/horizontal intercepts/roots ,nputs and outputs of functions (e.g. and ) ,Clearly define variables including appropriate units ,State conclusions to applied problems in complete sentences including appropriate units ,Explore quadratic functions graphically using the graphing calculator. Convey results using function notation. Examine ,the following features: ,. Vertex ,. Vertical intercept ,. Horizontal intercepts ,Radical Functions ,Understand nth roots ,Determine the domain of radical functions with both even and odd roots algebraically and graphically ,Determine the range graphically ,Understand radicals as expressions with rational exponents and vice versa ,Use rational exponents to simplify radical expressions (See addendum) ,Practice prerequisite skills of exponents rules in the context of rational exponents ,Rationalize denominators so students can recognize equivalent expressions (e.g. ) ,Solve radical equations algebraically and graphically ,. Verify solutions algebraically ,Understand that extraneous solutions found algebraically do not appear as solutions on the graph ,. Solve literal radical equations for a specified variable ,Calculator ,. Approximate radicals as powers with rational exponents ,. Find the domain and range of radical functions ,. Solve radical equations graphically ,. Use graphical solutions to check the validity of algebraic solutions ,Rational Functions ,Determine the domain of rational functions algebraically and graphically ,Simplify rational functions, understanding that domain conditions lost during simplification MUST be noted ,Rewrite rational expressions by ,. Canceling factors common to the numerator and denominator ,. Multiplying ,. Dividing using both and notation ,Simplify the following cases where a, b, c, d represent real numbers, linear polynomials or quadratic polynomials: ,, and . (See addendum) ,. Adding ,. Subtracting ,. Simplifying complex rational expressions ,he following forms of complex rational expressions shall be simplified: , , , and ,where , , , , , and represent real numbers, linear polynomials in one variable, or quadratic ,polynomials in one variable. (See addendum.) ,Solve rational equations ,. Check solutions algebraically ,Solve literal rational equations for a specified variable ,. Introduce variables with subscripts ,Applications ,. Solve distance, rate and time problems involving rational terms using well defined variables and stating conclusions ,in complete sentences including appropriate units ,. Solve problems involving work rates using well defined variables and stating conclusions in complete sentences ,including appropriate units ,Addendum ,Functions should be studied symbolically, graphically, numerically and verbally. ,As much as possible, instructors should present functions that model real-world problems and relationships to ,address the content outlined on this CCOG. ,Function notation is emphasized and should be used whenever it is appropriate in the course. ,Students should be required to use proper mathematical language and notation. This includes using equal signs ,appropriately, labeling and scaling the axes of graphs appropriately, using correct units throughout the problem ,solving process, conveying answers in complete sentences when appropriate, and in general, using the required ,symbols correctly. ,Students should understand the fundamental differences between expressions and equations including their ,definitions and proper notations. ,All mathematical work should be organized so that it is clear and obvious what techniques the student employed to ,find his answer. Showing scratch work in the middle of a problem is not acceptable. ,Since technology is used throughout the course, there is a required calculator packet for students that gives ,directions for several graphing calculators. The students should understand the limitations of calculator€"i.e. when ,the calculator gives misleading information. Examples of the calculator€™s limitations include the following: when ,finding horizontal intercepts, the calculator sometimes gives something like y = 3E-13; the calculator rounds to 12 or ,fewer decimal places; some calculators appear to show vertical asymptotes on the graphs of rational functions; it ,appears that the graph of touches the x axis; the calculator does not show holes on rational function ,graphs; the calculator cannot handle very large numbers, e.g. etc. ,For dividing rational expressions as in 5.3.3 and 5.3.3.1, focus on examples where the letters represent real ,numbers and linear polynomials. E.g. , , and . ,Exploration of difficult rational exponents, as in 4.5, should be limited. Basic understanding is essential and a deep ,understanding takes more than one course to develop. Examples should be limited to one or two variables, keeping ,things as simple as possible while covering all possibilities. E.g. , , , . ,As much as possible, instructors should present functions that model real-world problems and relationships to ,address the content outlined on this CCOG. ,In 3.3.1, when solving applications of quadratic equations, a complex solution should be interpreted as the graph ,never reaching a particular real world y-value. ,For simplifying complex rational expressions as in 5.3.6.1, a major emphasis shall be placed on cases where ,, , , , , and (as above) represent real numbers, linear polynomials in one variable. For ,example, or would be good examples. |
books.google.co.uk - Besides being an important area of math for everyday use, algebra is a passport to studying subjects like calculus, trigonometry, number theory, and geometry, just to name a few. To understand algebra is to possess the power to grow your skills and knowledge so you can ace your courses and possibly pursue... II For Dummies |
Louise Huttner of Burlington County College designed this activity to help students learn and practice their calculus skills. Students will collect data on the monthly temperature of a city. They will then graph and... |
Book Description--This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.Editorial Reviews
About the Author
Allan G. Bluman is Professor of Mathematics at Community College of Allegheny County, near Pittsburgh. For the McKeesport and New Kensington Campuses of Pennsylvania State University, he has taught teacher-certification and graduate education statistics courses. Prior to his college teaching, he taught mathematics at a junior high school.
Professor Bluman received his B.S. from California State College in California, Penn.; his M.Ed. from the University of Pittsburgh; and, in 1971, his Ed.D., also from the University of Pittsburgh. His major field of study was mathematics education.
In addition to Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach, Third Edition, and Elementary Statistics: A Brief Version, the author has published several professional articles and the Modern Math Fun Book (Cuisenaire Publishing Company). He has spoken and presided at national and local mathematics conferences and has served as newsletter editor for the Pennsylvania State Mathematics Association of Two-Year Colleges. He is a member of the American Statistical Association, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, and the Mathematics Council of Western Pennsylvania. Al Bluman is married and has two children. His hobbies include writing, bicycling, and swimming.
--This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.
This is a must have text for anyone trying to learn stats. I am currently in a stats class. The text assigned was mostly theoretical with very little real world explanations and examples. I panicked! I started looking for supplementary material so that I could understand this topic. I was swayed by the reviews of this book. Please take a minute and review them for the fifth edition. The reviews rave about the book. So I bought it, despite the cost. I am so thankful that I did. I am beginning to understand statistics and even enjoy it. I'm finding myself looking forward to my study times so I can learn more. I give all the credit to this book. The author uses real world examples that I can relate to, has lots of examples and reasons why you would use one statistic over another. The other thing I like is that there are lots of exercises for practice that include the answers in the back. I say BUY IT! You won't regret it, I promise.
I evaluated this book for possible use in the basic statistics class that I teach at the college level. When conducting such evaluations, I consider the following points essential:
*) Does it cover the appropriate material?
*) Is the material presented in the order that I prefer or one that I can adapt to my needs?
*) Is the text understandable, can the students read and understand it on their own?
My minimal list of appropriate material includes:
*) Basic probability.
*) The normal distribution.
*) Confidence intervals.
*) Hypothesis testing using the z and t tests.
*) Hypothesis testing with proportions.
*) Testing the difference between means and proportions.
*) Correlation and regression.
*) Chi-square tests.
*) Analysis of variance.
All of these topics are covered in this book. Nonparametric statistics are also examined. The order of coverage matches the previous list, which also conforms to the order that I prefer.
I also found the text understandable, although a bit thicker than I prefer. This can be attributed to the inclusion of sections on how to use technology to compute the statistical values. The problems are solved using Minitab, TI-83 or 84 and Excel. The only technology I use in my class is a simple calculator, so these sections are superfluous to me.
At the end, I decided not to adopt this text, While I consider it to be well done and suitable in all ways, I will continue to use a smaller book that does not have the "Using technology" sections. Given the consistent sameness of basic statistics texts, adoption decisions are made based on such simple and often minor differences.
I owned the 5th edition for school and accidentally returned it. Wow that was a big mistake. I got the 6th edition and it just was a relief that I had found it. Probably more expensive than I really wanted to spend, but it was worth it. So, now I'm doing a self-study and I'm enjoying the book tremendously! |
Using and Understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative Reasoning Approach (5th Edition)
Book Description: Using and Understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative Reasoning Approach, Fifth Edition increases readers' mathematical literacy so that they better understand the mathematics used in their daily lives, and can use math effectively to make better decisions every day. Contents are organized with that in mind, with engaging coverage in sections like Taking Control of Your Finances, Dividing the Political Pie, and a full chapter about Mathematics and the Arts. Note: This is the standalone book, if you want the book with the Access Card please order the ISBN below: 0321727746 / 9780321727749 Using and Understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative Reasoning Approach with MathXL (12-month access) * Package consists of 0201716305 / 9780201716306 MathXL -- Valuepack Access Card (12-month access) 0321652797 / 9780321652799 Using and Understanding Mathematics: A Quantitative Reasoning Approach |
Mathematics for College Physics
9780131414273
ISBN:
0131414275
Pub Date: 2003 Publisher: Prentice Hall PTR
Summary: Designed for concurrent self-study or remedial math work for students in introductory courses, this text is ideal for students who find themselves unable to keep pace because of a lack of familiarity with necessary mathematical tools. It not only shows them clearly how mathematics is directly applied to physics, but discusses math anxiety in general and how to overcome it. Instead of a rigorous development of the con...cepts of mathematics (as is found in a typical math book), the text describes the various mathematical concepts and tools (including algebra, trigonometry, geometry, vectors, and statistics) and their direct use in solving physics problems. Almost all sections end with worked-out examples and exercises directly from introductory physics.
Das, Biman is the author of Mathematics for College Physics, published 2003 under ISBN 9780131414273 and 0131414275. Three hundred sixty nine Mathematics for College Physics textbooks are available for sale on ValoreBooks.com, one hundred forty used from the cheapest price of $0.74, or buy new starting at $42 |
Maths GCSE by distance learning - The Course
The Maths GCSE course gently guides the student through basic mathematical skills, progressing onto more advanced material as the student's skills and abilities develop. The Maths GCSE course is divided into two parts: the first is for all students; the second is for those who will be taking the Higher tier of the examination.
Each lesson begins with a set of clearly stated objectives and an explanation of its place in the overall programme of study.
Effective learning is encouraged through frequent activities and self-assessment questions.
There are thirteen tutor-marked assignments and a practice exam paper.
The course covers the entire syllabus in 13 modules, with a 14th on the examination.
Key Topics
The Maths GCSE course covers the following Key Topics as well as many others. The full list can be found in the Introduction to the Maths GCSE course.
Numbers, money and measurement
Algebra
Geometry
Statistics and Probability
Indices and inequalities
Graphs
The Maths GCSE Syllabus
Our Maths GCSE course prepares students for AQA GCSE Mathematics syllabus AQA 4365 for examination in June 2014 onwards. We have chosen this syllabus as the most suited to distance learning.
Assessment for 2014 is by two written papers. Paper 1 (non-calculator) is worth 40% and Paper 2 (calculator) is worth 60% .
A complete Maths GCSE Course
The Maths GCSE syllabus has two tiers, Foundation and Higher. The Foundation level allows students to achieve grades between G - C and the Higher tier allows students to achieve grades D – A*. Unlike many, Oxford Open Learning's Maths GCSE Course is split into these two tiers. Once you have completed the work required to enter for the Foundation tier, you can choose whether to go on and study for the Higher tier and achieve a higher grade, all for the same fee!
Special Requirements
A reasonable level of proficiency in arithmetical skills is assumed.
Successful Maths GCSE students
Many of our students take on the GCSE in order to go into teaching. Others go on to study a Maths A level course with us. There is a full overview of the three Maths A level courses offered by Oxford Open Learning. |
This eBook introduces the topic of inequalities, the meaning of the inequality symbols, how to rearrange and solve inequalities as well as the use of inequalities and number lines and the use of inequalities in graphs.
A Unit Study to use while Reading the novel.
This unit study DOES NOT include the novel.
This unit study offers many wonderful activities to use while having students read the book. There are between 6 and 10 lessonsThis eBook introduces the subject of circle and circle geometry, introduces the equation of a circle, explores circle geometry, examines tangential lines to circles and their properties and equations, as well as exploring arc-length and sector area of circles where angles are represented in radians. Further, we include some elementary questions for the student to enjoyComputer instruction books are at #002-006 at the library, internet website books at #025.04 or HQ755, QA76.5 and TK5105. In libraries with the Dewey Decimal System, go to 000, right where the nonfiction books start. There might also be computer books at #303.483, #384, #621.4, #808.02 and LB2369 or HM221, TK5105-TK7887The purpose of this book is to share with the reader a practical approach to and methodology for unbundling corporate management that will assist business leaders in improving their company's results and provide corporate executives with an employee empowerment management model |
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Product Description:
groups, and more. Exercises and problems appear throughout the text. 1967 |
TI InterActive! is a new product that enables high school and college teachers and students to easily investigate ideas in mathematics and science. The purpose of this workbook is to introduce algebra... More: lessons, discussions, ratings, reviews,...
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