piede \"foot\" (cf. Spanish pie, French pied).\n* Preservation of doubled consonants, e.g. > anno \"year\" (cf. Spanish año, French an).\n* Preservation of all Proto-Romance final vowels, e.g. > pace \"peace\" (cf. Romania pace, Spanish paz, French paix), > otto \"eight\" (cf. Romanian opt Spanish ocho, French huit), > feci \"I did\" (cf. Spanish hice, French fis).\n* Preservation of most intertonic vowels (those between the stressed syllable and either the beginning or ending syllable). This accounts for some of the most noticeable differences, as in the forms quattordici and settimana given above.\n* Slower consonant development, e.g. > Italo-Western > foglia \"leaf\" (cf. Romanian foaie, Spanish hoja, French feuille; but note Portuguese folha).","Italian language\n\nCompared with most other Romance languages, Italian has a large number of inconsistent outcomes, where the same underlying sound produces different results in different words, e.g. > lasciare and lassare, > cacciare and cazzare, > sdrucciolare, druzzolare and ruzzolare, > regina and reina, > and, > and. Although in all these examples the second form has fallen out of usage, the dimorphism is thought to reflect the several-hundred-year period during which Italian developed as a literary language divorced from any native-speaking population, with an origin in 12th/13th-century Tuscan but with many words borrowed from languages farther to the north, with different sound outcomes. (The La Spezia–Rimini Line, the most important isogloss in the entire Romance-language area, passes only about 20 miles to the north of Florence.)","Italian language\n\nSome other features that distinguish Italian from the Western Romance languages:\n* Latin becomes rather than.\n* Latin becomes rather than or: > otto \"eight\" (cf. Spanish ocho, French huit).\n* Vulgar Latin becomes cchi rather than: > occhio \"eye\" (cf. Portuguese olho, French oeil <); but Romanian ochi.\n* Final is not preserved, and vowel changes rather than are used to mark the plural: amico, amici \"male friend(s)\", amica, amiche \"female friend(s)\" (cf. Romanian amic, amici,amică, amice, Spanish amigo(s) \"male friend(s)\", amiga(s) \"female friends\"); → tre, sei \"three, six\" (cf. Romanian trei, șase, Spanish tres, seis).","Italian language\n\nStandard Italian also differs in some respects from most nearby Italian languages:\n* Perhaps most noticeable is the total lack of metaphony, though metaphony is a feature characterizing nearly every other Italian language.\n* No simplification of original, (which often became elsewhere).","Italian language\n\nWriting system","Italian language\n\nThe Italian alphabet is typically considered to consist of 21 letters. The letters j, k, w, x, y are traditionally excluded, though they appear in loanwords such as jeans, whisky, taxi, xenofobo, xilofono. The letter has become common in standard Italian with the prefix extra-, although (e)stra- is traditionally used; it is also common to use of the Latin particle ex(-) to mean \"former(ly)\" as in: la mia ex (\"my ex-girlfriend\"), \"Ex-Jugoslavia\" (\"Former Yugoslavia\"). The letter appears in the first name Jacopo and in some Italian place-names, such as Bajardo, Bojano, Joppolo, Jerzu, Jesolo, Jesi, Ajaccio, among others, and in Mar Jonio, an alternative spelling of Mar Ionio (the Ionian Sea). The letter may appear in dialectal words, but its use is discouraged in contemporary standard Italian. Letters used in Foreign words can be replaced with phonetically equivalent native Italian letters and digraphs: , , or for ; or for (including in the standard prefix kilo-); , or for ; , , , or for ; and or for . * The acute accent is used over word-final to indicate a stressed front close-mid vowel, as in perché \"why, because\".","Italian language\n\nIn dictionaries, it is also used over to indicate a stressed back close-mid vowel (azióne). The grave accent is used over word-final to indicate a front open-mid vowel, as in tè \"tea\". The grave accent is used over any vowel to indicate word-final stress, as in gioventù \"youth\". Unlike , a stressed final is always a back open-mid vowel (andrò), making unnecessary outside of dictionaries. Most of the time, the penultimate syllable is stressed. But if the stressed vowel is the final letter of the word, the accent is mandatory, otherwise it is virtually always omitted. Exceptions are typically either in dictionaries, where all or most stressed vowels are commonly marked. Accents can optionally be used disambiguate words that differ only by stress, as for prìncipi \"princes\" and princìpi \"principles\", or àncora \"anchor\" and ancóra \"still/yet\". For monosyllabic words, the rule is different: when two identical monosyllabic words with different meanings exist, one is accented and the other is not (example: è \"is\", e \"and\"). * The letter distinguishes ho, hai, ha, hanno (present indicative of avere \"to have\") from o (\"or\"), ai (\"to the\"), a (\"to\"), anno (\"year\"). In the spoken language, the letter is always silent.","Italian language\n\nThe in ho additionally marks the contrasting open pronunciation of the . The letter is also used in combinations with other letters. No phoneme exists in Italian. In nativized foreign words, the is silent. For example, hotel and hovercraft are pronounced and respectively. (Where existed in Latin, it either disappeared or, in a few cases before a back vowel, changed to: traggo \"I pull\" ← Lat. .)\n* The letters and can symbolize voiced or voiceless consonants. symbolizes or depending on context, with few minimal pairs. For example: zanzara \"mosquito\" and nazione \"nation\". symbolizes word-initially before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (), and when doubled; it symbolizes when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants. Intervocalic varies regionally between and, with being more dominant in northern Italy and in the south. * The letters and vary in pronunciation between plosives and affricates depending on following vowels. The letter symbolizes when word-final and before the back vowels . It symbolizes as in chair before the front vowels . The letter symbolizes when word-final and before the back vowels . It symbolizes as in gem before the front vowels .","Italian language\n\nOther Romance languages and, to an extent, English have similar variations for . Compare hard and soft C, hard and soft G. (See also palatalization.)\n* The digraphs and indicate or preserve hardness ( and) before . The digraphs and indicate or preserve softness ( and) before . For example:","Italian language\n\nNote: is silent in the digraphs ch (digraph)|, gh (digraph)|; and is silent in the digraphs and before unless the is stressed. For example, it is silent in ciao and cielo, but it is pronounced in farmacia and farmacie.","Italian language\n\nItalian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for,,,, which are always geminate, and, which is always single.\nGeminate plosives and affricates are realized as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and are realized as lengthened continuants. There is only one vibrant phoneme but the actual pronunciation depends on context and regional accent. Generally one can find a flap consonant in unstressed position whereas is more common in stressed syllables, but there may be exceptions. Especially people from the Northern part of Italy (Parma, Aosta Valley, South Tyrol) may pronounce as,, or.","Italian language\n\nOf special interest to the linguistic study of Italian is the gorgia toscana, or \"Tuscan Throat\", the weakening or lenition of certain intervocalic consonants in the Tuscan language.","Italian language\n\nThe voiced postalveolar fricative is only present in loanwords: for example, garage.","Italian language\n\nAssimilation","Italian language\n\nItalian phonotactics do not usually permit verbs and polysyllabic nouns to end with consonants, excepting poetry and song, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds.","Italian language\n\nGrammar","Italian language\n\nItalian grammar is typical of the grammar of Romance languages in general. Cases exist for pronouns (nominative, oblique, accusative, dative), but not for nouns.","Italian language\n\nThere are two genders (masculine and feminine), however there is a number of nouns that change their gender from the singular to plural, having a masculine singular and a feminine plural, and thus are sometimes considered neuter (those are derived from neuter Latin nouns). An instance of neuter gender also exists in pronouns of the third person singular.","Italian language\n\nNouns, adjectives, and articles inflect for gender and number (singular and plural).","Italian language\n\nThe order of words in the phrase is relatively free compared to most European languages. The position of the verb in the phrase is highly mobile. Word order has a lesser grammatical function in Italian than in English. Adjectives are sometimes placed before their noun and sometimes after. Subject nouns generally come before the verb. Italian is a null-subject language, subjective pronouns are usually dropped, their presence implied by verbal inflections. Noun objects come after the verb, as do pronoun objects after imperative verbs and infinitives, but otherwise pronoun objects come before the verb.","Italian language\n\nThere are numerous contractions of prepositions with subsequent articles. There are numerous productive suffixes for diminutive, augmentative, pejorative, attenuating etc., which are also used to create neologisms. There are 27 pronouns, grouped in clitic and tonic pronouns.","Italian language\n\nThere are three regular sets of verbal conjugations, and various verbs are irregularly conjugated. Within each of these sets of conjugations, there are four simple (one-word) verbal conjugations by person/number in the indicative mood (present tense; past tense with imperfective aspect, past tense with perfective aspect, and future tense), two simple conjugations in the subjunctive mood (present tense and past tense), one simple conjugation in the conditional mood, and one simple conjugation in the imperative mood. Corresponding to each of the simple conjugations, there is a compound conjugation involving a simple conjugation of \"to be\" or \"to have\" followed by a past participle. \"To have\" is used to form compound conjugation when the verb is transitive (\"Hai detto\", \"hai fatto\": you have said, you have made), while \"to be\" is used when the verb is intransitive (\"Sei andato\", \"sei stato\": you have gone, you have been). \"To be\" may be used with transitive verbs, but in such a case it makes the verb passive (\"Sei detto\", \"Sei fatto\": you are said, you are made). This rule is not absolute, and some exceptions do exist.","Italian language\n\nExamples","Italian language\n\nConversation","Italian language\n\nNumbers","Italian language\n\nDays of the week","Italian language\n\nMonths of the year","Italian language\n\nSample texts","Italian language\n\nThere is a recording of Dante's Divine Comedy read by Lino Pertile available online.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo (15 April 14522 May 1519), was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. He has been variously called the father of paleontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter and tank, he epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nMany historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the \"Universal Genius\" or \"Renaissance Man\", an individual of \"unquenchable curiosity\" and \"feverishly inventive imagination\". According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history, and \"his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and remote\". Marco Rosci notes that while there is much speculation regarding his life and personality, his view of the world was logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unorthodox for his time.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nBorn out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait and The Last Supper the most reproduced religious painting of all time, their fame approached only by Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived.There are 15 significant artworks which are ascribed, either in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art historians. This number is made up principally of paintings on panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper and two works which are in the early stages of preparation. There are a number of other works that have also been variously attributed to Leonardo. Nevertheless, these few works, together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull, also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded. A number of Leonardo's most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics, but he did not publish his findings and they had no direct influence on later science.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nToday, Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLife","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nChildhood, 1452–1466","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was born on 15 April 1452 (Old Style) \"at the third hour of the night\" in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence.His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in Leonardo da Vinci, p. 83 He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina, a peasant.It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East \"or at least, from the Mediterranean\". According to Alessandro Vezzosi, head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is claimed to be supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint as reported by The evidence, as stated in the article, is that 60% of people of Middle Eastern origin share the pattern of whirls found on the reconstructed fingerprint.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe article also states that the claim is refuted by Simon Cole, associate professor of criminology, law and society at the University of California at Irvine: \"You can't predict one person's race from these kinds of incidences, especially if looking at only one finger.\" See also Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – \"da Vinci\" simply meaning \"of Vinci\"; his full birth name was \"Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci\", meaning \"Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci\". The inclusion of the title \"ser\" indicated that Leonardo's father was a gentleman.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLittle is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother, and from 1457 lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children. When Leonardo was sixteen (1468), his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, who also died without children. Piero's legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo (who gave birth to six children: Antonio, Giulian, Maddalena, Lorenzo, Violante and Domenico) and his fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani (who bore him another six children: Margherita, Benedetto, Pandolfo, Guglielmo, Bartolomeo and Giovanni).","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn all Leonardo had twelve half-siblings, who were much younger than him (the last was born when Leonardo was forty years old) and with whom he had very few contacts, but they caused him difficulty after his father's death in the dispute over the inheritance.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains: he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture. Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters, tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Milan. Meanwhile, having made a profit, Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which he gave to the peasant.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nVerrocchio's workshop, 1466–76","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, whose bottega (workshop) was \"one of the finest in Florence\". He apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills, including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling.The \"diverse arts\" and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nMuch of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. On close examination, the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched-up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint, with the landscape, the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo. Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nBy 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him. Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on 5 August 1473.This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi, Drawing No. 8P.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nProfessional life, 1476–1513","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nFlorentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence. From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts. In 1478, he left Verrocchio's studio and was no longer resident at his father's house. One writer, the \"Anonimo\" Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence, a Neo-Platonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers that the Medici had established. In January 1478, he received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio; in March 1481, he received a second independent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto. Neither commission was completed, the second being interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1482, Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a most talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent Leonardo to Milan, bearing the lyre as a gift, to secure peace with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. At this time Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could also paint.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus, for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Family. Between 1493 and 1495, Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was employed on many different projects for Ludovico, including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions, designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza, Ludovico's predecessor. Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it. The monument remained unfinished for several years, which was not unusual for Leonardo. In 1492, the clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the \"Gran Cavallo\".Verrocchio's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico. Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting; however, Michelangelo insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it. In November 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAt the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the invading French troops used the life-size clay model for the Gran Cavallo for target practice. With Ludovico Sforza overthrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, fled Milan for Venice,della Chiesa, p.85 where he was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack. On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that \"men and women, young and old\" flocked to see it \"as if they were attending a great festival\".","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503, and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina. In Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of David.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan. Many of his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco d'Oggiono.D'Oggiono is known in part for his contemporary copies of the Last Supper. At this time he may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of Charles II d'Amboise, the acting French governor of Milan. A wax model survives, and if genuine, is the only example of Leonardo's sculpture.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504, and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father's estate. By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila.della Chiesa, p.86","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nOld age, 1513–1519","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nFrom September 1513 to 1516, under Pope Leo X, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time. In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan. On 19 December, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna. Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. In 1516, he entered François' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, now a public museum, near the king's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo died at Clos Lucé, on 2 May 1519. Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari records that the king held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Ménageot and other French artists, as well as by Angelica Kauffman, may be legend rather than fact.On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey from Clos Lucé. This has been taken as evidence that King François cannot have been present at Leonardo's deathbed. However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points out that the edict was not signed by the king. Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. In accordance with his will, sixty beggars followed his casket.This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers would have been awarded an established mourner's fee in the terms of Leonardo's will. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards, his brothers who received land, and his serving woman who received a black cloak \"of good stuff\" with a fur edge.The black cloak, of good quality material, was a ready-made item from a clothier, with the fur trim being an additional luxury. The possession of this garment meant that Leonardo's house keeper could attend his funeral \"respectably\" attired at no expense to herself. Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Château d'Amboise, in France.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nSome 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: \"There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher.\"","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nRelationships and influences","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nFlorence: Leonardo's artistic and social background","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nFlorence at the time of Leonardo's youth was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture. Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466, the year that Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello, died. The painter Uccello, whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting, was a very old man. The painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi, sculptor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio, Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino da Fiesole, whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni.Rosci, Leonardo, chapter 1, the historical setting, pp.9–20","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello's contemporaries, Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Alberti's treatise De Pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nMassaccio's \"Expulsion from the Garden of Eden\" depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade, which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting. The humanist influence of Donatello's \"David\" can be seen in Leonardo's late paintings, particularly John the Baptist.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nA prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family. Leonardo's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing idiosyncratic departures, particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was. He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the Academy of the Medici. Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family, and thus his success as a painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops. They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThese three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with Perugino's employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1476, during the time of Leonardo's association with Verrocchio's workshop, the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing from Northern Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly affect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others. In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who worked exclusively in oils, traveled north on his way to Venice, where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting, quickly making it the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later to visit Venice.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLike the two contemporary architects Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici (il Magnifico), who was three years older, and his younger brother Giuliano, who was slain in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478. Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nWith Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost. Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola. Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal, \"The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me.\" While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan, it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAlthough usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born. Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo died, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nPersonal life","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nWithin Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his \"outstanding physical beauty\", \"infinite grace\", \"great strength and generosity\", \"regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind\", as described by Vasari, as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others. One such aspect was his respect for life, evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit, according to Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing them.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance. They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella. While on a journey that took him through Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait, now lost.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nBeyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud. Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi. Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well-known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal. Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAssistants and pupils","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nGian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or Il Salaino (\"The Little Unclean One\" i.e., the devil), entered Leonardo's household in 1490. After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him \"a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton\", after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes. Nevertheless, Leonardo treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the next thirty years. Salai executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo \"taught him a great deal about painting\", his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and Boltraffio. In 1515, he painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa, known as Monna Vanna. Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student. He travelled to France with Leonardo and remained with him until Leonardo's death. Melzi inherited the artistic and scientific works, manuscripts, and collections of Leonardo and administered the estate.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nPainting","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nDespite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter and on a handful of works, either authenticated or attributed to him that have been regarded as among the masterpieces.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThese paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques which he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology, his interest in physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and the Virgin of the Rocks.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nEarly works","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop, both of which are Annunciations. One is small, long and high. It is a \"predella\" to go at the base of a larger composition, in this case a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a much larger work, long. In both these Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, such as in Fra Angelico's two well-known pictures of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn the smaller picture, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. In the larger picture, however, Mary is not submissive. The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise. This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but with confidence. In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nPaintings of the 1480s","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work which was also of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Two of the three were never finished, and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment. One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in the Wilderness. Bortolon associates this picture with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary: \"I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die.\"","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAlthough the painting is barely begun, the composition can be seen and it is very unusual. Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.Wasserman, pp.104–6 Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene. But in 1482 Leonardo went off to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece, already constructed. Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. In this scene, as painted by Leonardo, John recognizes and worships Jesus as the Christ. The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water. While the painting is quite large, about , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished, one which remained at the chapel of the Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away to France.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nBut the Brothers did not get their painting, or the de Predis their payment, until the next century.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nPaintings of the 1490s","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. It shows specifically the moment when Jesus has just said \"one of you will betray me\". Leonardo tells the story of the consternation that this statement caused to the twelve followers of Jesus.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time. This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nWhen finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as \"completely ruined\". Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface which was subject to mold and to flaking. Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art, countless copies being made in every medium from carpets to cameos.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nPaintings of the 16th century","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAmong the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or \"la Gioconda\", the laughing one. In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called \"sfumato\" or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari, who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute, said that \"the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the original\".","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nOther characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details, the dramatic landscape background in which the world seems to be in a state of flux, the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but laid on much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. Vasari expressed the opinion that the manner of painting would make even \"the most confident master... despair and lose heart.\" The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape which Wasserman describes as \"breathtakingly beautiful\" and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nMurals","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's The Battle of Anghiara was commissioned in 1505, but was lost. All that remains is a copy by Rubens, but Maurizio Seracini is convinced it can still be found and has spent a lifetime searching for it. He was allowed to drill some pilot holes in a mural in the Salone dei Cinquecento, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, and his team did find evidence of an oil painting underneath.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nDrawings","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was not a prolific painter, but he was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper.\nHis earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAmong his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre, a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London. This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nOther drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as \"caricatures\" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them. There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salai, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called \"Grecian profile\".The \"Grecian profile\" has a continuous straight line from forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues. These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior. Salai is often depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi conspiracy.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nWith dispassionate integrity Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nObservation and invention","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nJournals and notes","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nRenaissance humanism recognized no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work. These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science), made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's writings are mostly in mirror-image cursive. The reason may have been more a practical expediency than for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it is probable that it was easier for him to write from right to left.Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experience difficulty pushing the pen from left to right across the page.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nHis notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and architecture.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThese notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes, distributed by friends after his death—have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus, and British Library in London which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online. The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed once a year in different cities around the world.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's notes appear to have been intended for publication because many of the sheets have a form and order that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for example, the heart or the human fetus, is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet. This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in the case of pages being mixed up or destroyed. Why they were not published within Leonardo's lifetime is unknown.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nScientific studies","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's approach to science was an observational one: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book De divina proportione, published in 1509.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIt appears that from the content of his journals he was planning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis 'D' Aragon's secretary in 1517. Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin. According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as \"the precursor of French academic thought on art\".","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nWhile Leonardo's experimentation followed clear scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Frtijof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a Renaissance Man, his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAnatomy","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Andrea del Verrocchio, who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject. As an artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAs a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words towards a treatise on anatomy. These papers were left to his heir, Francesco Melzi, for publication, a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing. It was left incomplete at the time of Melzi's death more than 50 years later, with only a small amount of the material on anatomy included in Leonardo's Treatise on painting, published in France in 1632. During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer who made a number of drawings from them.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, and studies muscles and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics. He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published, would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science.Alastair Sooke, Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2013, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/leonardo-da-vinci/10202124/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Anatomy-of-an-artist.html \"Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist\"], accessed 29 July 2013.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nAs an artist, Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage. He also drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness. Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of horses.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nInvestigations","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nDa Vinci performed some very detailed investigations into not only anatomy but also physiology. He attempted to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression. His dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement. He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions. He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles. He also documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver, and it was the heart that defined the circulatory system. He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns. Vesalius published his work on anatomy and physiology in De humani corporis fabrica in 1543.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nEngineering and inventions","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nDuring his lifetime, Leonardo was valued as an engineer. In a letter to Ludovico il Moro, he claimed to be able to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege. When he fled to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. He also had a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked. Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nIn 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720 ft bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople. The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not pursue the project because he believed that such a construction was impossible. Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life, producing many studies including Codex on the Flight of Birds (), as well as plans for several flying machines such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor. The British television station Channel Four commissioned a 2003 documentary Leonardo's Dream Machines. Leonardo's designs for machines such as a parachute, and giant crossbow were interpreted, constructed and tested. Some of those designs proved successes, whilst others fared less well when practically tested.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nFame and reputation","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nLeonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished. Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in.","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nGiorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists, 1568, introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words:","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (\"The Courtier\"), wrote in 1528: \"... Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled ...\" while the biographer known as \"Anonimo Gaddiano\" wrote, : \"His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf...\".","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: \"Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius...\" This is echoed by A. E. Rio who wrote in 1861: \"He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents.\"","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nBy the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: \"There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries.\" \nArt historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: \"Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values.\"","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nThe interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: \"Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe.\"","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nMiscellaneous","Leonardo da Vinci\n\nDavinciite, a recently described mineral recognized in 2011 by the International Mineralogical Association, is named in honor of the artist.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper ( or L'Ultima Cena) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci in the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. It is one of the world's most famous paintings.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe work is presumed to have been commenced around 1495 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of The Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13:21. Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nDue to the methods used, and a variety of environmental factors, as well as intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today, despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe painting","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper measures 460 × and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum. The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum. The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms. The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.) Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498—he did not work on the painting continuously.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date. One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:\n*Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew form a group of three; all are surprised. *Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group of three. Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer. He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near-Eastern expression to \"betray the salt\" meaning to betray one's Master.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nHe is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting. Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus' arrest. The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon. *Jesus\n*Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are the next group of three. Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection. James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation. *Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are the final group of three. Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas. Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose head is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nImportant copies","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nTwo early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact. One accurate copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, with some alterations to the background design, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nMedium","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nFor this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco. He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco cannot be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster. Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone. These techniques were important for Leonardo's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nDamage and restorations","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nBecause the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate. As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake. By 1556 — fewer than sixty years after it was finished — Leonardo's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already \"ruined\" and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that, “…the painting is all ruined.” In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nA first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nDuring World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and-stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nMajor restoration","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe painting's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThis restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic. Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls \"muff-like drapery\".","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper in culture","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nPainting, mosaic, and photography","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nA 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original. The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nModern art","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nSculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nLiterature","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nAuthor Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844:","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nFilm","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nIn Luis Buñuel's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar 'photographs' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it \"blasphemous.\"","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nConspiracy theories","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nThe Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, notably since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nDan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective), was not John the Apostle, but Mary Magdalene. This speculation was repeated in the book The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince as historical fact. These claims have been contested by other writers, such as Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel in The Da Vinci Hoax, as well as by art historians. Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon commented \"If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left, the one with the sort of Bette Midler look about him\".","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nGiovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo's writing, form a musical composition.","The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\n\nNotes"],"string":"[\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language. It is the second-closest to Latin in terms of vocabulary after Sardinian.See Italica 1950: 46 (cf. [http://books.google.com/books?idM0sbAAAAIAAJ&q\\n%22Demonstrates+a+comparative+statistical+method%22 [1]] and [http://books.google.com/books?idM0sbAAAAIAAJ&q\\n%22there+is+a+maximum+of+77+change+points%22 [2]]): “Pei, Mario A. \\\"A New Methodology for Romance Classification.\\\" Word, v, 2 (Aug. 1949), 135–146. Demonstrates a comparative statistical method for determining the extent of change from the Latin for the free and checked accented vowels of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Rumanian, Old Provençal, and Logudorese Sardinian. By assigning 3½ change points per vowel (with 2 points for diphthongization, 1 point for modification in vowel quantity, ½ point for changes due to nasalization, palatalization or umlaut, and −½ point for failure to effect a normal change), there is a maximum of 77 change points for free and checked stressed vowel sounds (11×2×3½=77). According to this system (illustrated by seven charts at the end of the article), the percentage of change is greatest in French (44%) and least in Italian (12%) and Sardinian (8%). Prof. Pei suggests that this statistical method be extended not only to all other phonological, but also to all morphological and syntactical, phenomena.”.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is an official language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, and Istria (in Slovenia and Croatia). It used to have official status in Albania, Malta and Monaco, where it is still widely spoken, as well as in former Italian East Africa and Italian North Africa regions where it plays a significant role in various sectors. Italian is spoken by large expatriate communities in the Americas and by small minorities in places such as Crimea, France (especially in Corsica), Montenegro and Tunisia. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is a major European language, being one of the official languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe and one of the working languages of the Council of Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers (13% of the EU population) and it is spoken as a second language by 14 million EU citizens (3%). Including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries (such as Switzerland and Albania) and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is the main working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and opera. Its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy and is based on Tuscan, which beforehand was a language spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was also influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent, by the Germanic languages of the post-Roman invaders. Unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latin's contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe standard Italian language has a poetic and literary origin in the writings of Tuscan writers of the twelfth century, and, even though the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century, the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. However, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. In fact the earliest surviving texts that can definitely be called Italian (or more accurately, vernacular, as distinct from its predecessor Vulgar Latin) are legal formulae known as the Placiti Cassinesi from the Province of Benevento that date from 960–963, although the Veronese Riddle contains a late form of Vulgar Latin that can be seen as a very early Italian dialect. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early fourteenth century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante's epic poems, known collectively as the Commedia, to which another Tuscan poet Giovanni Boccaccio later affixed the title Divina, were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the \\\"canonical standard\\\" that all educated Italians could understand.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nDante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian often was an official language of the various Italian states predating unification, slowly replacing Latin, even when ruled by foreign powers (such as the Spanish in the Kingdom of Naples, or the Austrians in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia), even though the masses spoke primarily vernacular languages and dialects. Italian was also one of the many recognized languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItaly has always had a distinctive dialect for each city, because the cities, until recently, were thought of as city-states. Those dialects now have considerable variety. As Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. The most characteristic differences, for instance, between Roman Italian and Milanese Italian are the gemination of initial consonants and the pronunciation of stressed \\\"e\\\", and of \\\"s\\\" in some cases: e.g. va bene \\\"all right\\\": is pronounced by a Roman (and by any standard-speaker), by a Milanese (and by any speaker whose native dialect lies to the north of La Spezia–Rimini Line); a casa \\\"at home\\\" is for Roman and standard, for Milanese and generally northern.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn contrast to the Gallo-Italic languages of northern Italy, the Italo-Dalmatian Neapolitan language and its dialects were largely unaffected by the Franco-Occitan influences introduced to Italy, mainly by bards from France, during the Middle Ages but, after the Norman conquest of southern Italy, Sicily became the first Italian land to adopt Occitan lyric moods (and words) in poetry. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are careful not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe economic might and relatively advanced development of Tuscany at the time (Late Middle Ages) gave its language weight, though the Venetian language remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life, and Ligurian (or Genoese) remained in use in maritime trade alongside the Mediterranean. The increasing political and cultural relevance of Florence during the periods of the rise of the Banco Medici, Humanism, and the Renaissance made its dialect, or rather a refined version of it, a standard in the arts.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nRenaissance\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nStarting with the Renaissance, Italian became the language used in the courts of every state in the peninsula. The rediscovery of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia and a renewed interest in linguistics in the sixteenth century, sparked a debate that raged throughout Italy concerning the criteria that should govern the establishment of a modern Italian literary and spoken language. Scholars divided into three factions:\\n* The purists, headed by Venetian Pietro Bembo (who, in his Gli Asolani, claimed the language might be based only on the great literary classics, such as Petrarch and some part of Boccaccio). The purists thought the Divine Comedy not dignified enough, because it used elements from non-lyric registers of the language.\\n* Niccolò Machiavelli and other Florentines preferred the version spoken by ordinary people in their own times.\\n* The courtiers, like Baldassare Castiglione and Gian Giorgio Trissino, insisted that each local vernacular contribute to the new standard.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nA fourth faction claimed the best Italian was the one that the papal court adopted, which was a mix of Florentine and the dialect of Rome. Eventually, Bembo's ideas prevailed, and the foundation of the Accademia della Crusca in Florence (1582–1583), the official legislative body of the Italian language led to publication of Agnolo Monosini's Latin tome Floris italicae linguae libri novem in 1604 followed by the first Italian dictionary in 1612.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nModern era\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAn important event that helped the diffusion of Italian was the conquest and occupation of Italy by Napoleon in the early nineteenth century (who was himself of Italian-Corsican descent). This conquest propelled the unification of Italy some decades after, and pushed the Italian language into a lingua franca used not only among clerks, nobility and functionaries in the Italian courts but also in the bourgeoisie.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nContemporary times\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian literature's first modern novel, I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed), by Alessandro Manzoni, further defined the standard by \\\"rinsing\\\" his Milanese \\\"in the waters of the Arno\\\" (Florence's river), as he states in the Preface to his 1840 edition.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAfter unification a huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home languages (\\\"ciao\\\" is derived from Venetian word \\\"s-cia[v]o\\\" (slave), \\\"panettone\\\" comes from Lombard word \\\"panetton\\\" etc.). Only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak the Italian standardized language properly when the nation unified in 1861, centered mainly in northwestern Italy.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nClassification\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is a Romance language, and is therefore a descendant of Vulgar Latin. Standard Italian is based on Tuscan, especially its Florentine dialect, and is therefore an Italo-Dalmatian language, to which Sicilian and the extinct Dalmatian also belong, among a few others.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nUnlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latin's contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive. In particular, among the Romance languages, Italian is the closest to Latin in terms of vocabulary. Lexical similarity is 89% with French, 88% with Catalan, 85% with Sardinian, 82% with Spanish and Portuguese, 78% with Rhaeto-Romance, and 77% with Romanian.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nOne study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin (comparing phonology, inflection, discourse, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation) estimated that among the languages analyzed the distance between Italian and Latin is only higher than that between Sardinian and Latin.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nGeographic distribution\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nEurope\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is an official language of Italy and San Marino and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries' populations. Italian is official, together with French, German and Romansch in Switzerland, with most of the 0.5 million speakers concentrated in the south of the country, in the cantons of Ticino and southern Graubünden (predominately in Italian Grigioni). Italian is the third most spoken language in Switzerland (after German and French), and its use has modestly declined since the 1970s. Italian is also used in administration and official documents in Vatican City.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is widely spoken in Malta, where nearly two-thirds of the population can speak it fluently. Italian served as Malta's official language until 1934, while it is also recognized as an official language in Istria County, Croatia and Slovenian Istria, where there are significant and historic Italian populations.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIt is used as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, a Roman Catholic chivalric order which, while not a nation per se, is still recognized as a sovereign subject of international law.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is also spoken by a minority in Monaco and France (especially in the southeast region of the country).\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAfrica\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nDue to heavy Italian influence during the Italian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies. Although it was the primary language since colonial rule, Italian greatly declined under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, who expelled the Italian Libyan population and made Arabic the sole official language of the country. Nevertheless, Italian is sometimes used in economic sectors in Libya. In Eritrea, Italian is at times used in commerce and the capital city Asmara still has one Italian-language school. Italian was also introduced to Somalia through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during the colonial period but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in the Somali Civil War. Italian is still understood by some elderly and other people. The official languages of the Somali Republic are Somali (Maay and Maxaatiri) and Arabic. The second languages of the Transitional Federal Government are English.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nImmigrant communities\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAlthough over 17 million Americans are of Italian descent, only a little over one million people in the United States speak Italian at home. Nevertheless, an Italian language media market does exist in the country.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn Canada, Italian is the second most spoken non-official language when varieties of Chinese are not grouped together, with over 660,000 speakers (or about 2.1% of the population) according to the 2006 Census.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn Australia, Italian is the second most spoken foreign language after Chinese, with 1.4% of the population speaking it as their home language.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian immigrants to South America have also brought a presence of the language to that continent. Italian is the second most spoken language in Argentina after the official language of Spanish, with over 1 million (mainly of the older generation) speaking it at home, and Italian has also influenced the dialect of Spanish spoken in Argentina and Uruguay, mostly in phonology, as well as the Portuguese prosody of the Brazilian state of São Paulo which itself has 15 million Italian descendants. This form of Spanish is known as Rioplatense Spanish. Italian bilingual speakers can be found in the Southeast of Brazil as well as in the South. The Venetian language, specifically the Vèneto or Talian dialect, is spoken by over 700,000 people in the southern states.\\nIn 2009, the Brazilian city of Serafina Corrêa, in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, gave Talian joint official status, alongside Portuguese.\\nSmaller Italian-speaking minorities on the continent are also found in Venezuela, Paraguay and Ecuador.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language; in fact, Italian is the fourth most frequently taught foreign language in the world.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAccording to the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, every year there are more than 200,000 foreign students who study the Italian language; they are distributed among the 90 Institutes of Italian Culture that are located around the world, or in the 179 Italian schools located abroad, or in the 111 Italian lecturer sections belonging to foreign schools where Italian is taught as a language of culture.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn the United States, Italian is the fourth most taught foreign language after Spanish, French, and German, in that order (or the fifth if American Sign Language is considered). In central-east Europe Italian is first in Montenegro, second in Austria, Croatia, Slovenia, and Ukraine after English, and third in Hungary, Romania and Russia after English and German. But throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught foreign language, after English, French, German, and Spanish.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn the European Union statistics, Italian is spoken as a native language by 13% of the EU population, or 65 million people, mainly in Italy. In the EU, it is spoken as a second language by 3% of the EU population, or 14 million people. Among EU states, the percentage of people able to speak Italian well enough to have a conversation is 66% in Malta, 15% in Slovenia, 14% in Croatia, 8% in Austria, 5% in France and Luxembourg, and 4% in the former West Germany, Greece, Cyprus, and Romania. Italian is also one of the national languages of Switzerland, which is not a part of the European Union. The Italian language is well-known and studied in Albania, another non-EU member, due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to the diffusion of Italian television in the country.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nInfluence and derived languages\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nFrom the late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century, thousands of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and Venezuela, where they formed a physical and cultural presence.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn some cases, colonies were established where variants of regional languages of Italy were used, and some continue to use this regional language. Examples are Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where Talian is used, and the town of Chipilo near Puebla, Mexico; each continues to use a derived form of Venetian dating back to the nineteenth century. Another example is Cocoliche, an Italian–Spanish pidgin once spoken in Argentina and especially in Buenos Aires, and Lunfardo.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nRioplatense Spanish, and particularly the speech of the city of Buenos Aires, has intonation patterns that resemble those of Italian languages, because Argentina has had a continuous large influx of Italian settlers since the second half of the nineteenth century: initially primarily from northern Italy; then, since the beginning of the twentieth century, mostly from southern Italy.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nLingua franca\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nStarting in late medieval times in much of Europe and the Mediterranean, Latin was replaced as the primary commercial language by Italian language variants (especially Tuscan and Venetian). These variants were consolidated during the Renaissance with the strength of Italy and the rise of humanism and the arts.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nDuring that period, Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. It was the norm for all educated gentlemen to make the Grand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus became expected to learn at least some Italian. In England, while the classical languages Latin and Greek were the first to be learned, Italian became the second most common modern language after French, a position it held until the late eighteenth century, when it tended to be replaced by German. John Milton, for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nWithin the Catholic church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents. The primacy of Italian as a language in the Vatican City indicates use, not only within the Holy See, but throughout the world wherever an episcopal seat is present.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian loanwords continue to be used in most languages in matters of art and music (especially opera), in the design and fashion industries, in some sports (football and motorsports) and especially, in culinary terms.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nDialects\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThroughout Italy, regional variations of Standard Italian, called Regional Italian, are spoken. In Italy, almost all Romance languages spoken as the vernacular—other than standard Italian and distantly-related, non-Romance languages spoken in border regions or among immigrant communities—are often imprecisely called \\\"Italian dialects\\\", even though they are quite different, with some belonging to different branches of the Romance language family. The only exceptions to this are Sardinian, Ladin, and Friulian, which the law recognizes as official regional languages. On the other hand, the Corsican language is closely related to Italian.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nRegional differences can be recognized by various factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local language (for example, in informal situations the contraction ' replaces ' in the area of Rome for the infinitive \\\"to go\\\"; and ' is what Venetians say for the infinitive \\\"to go\\\").\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nPhonology\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nNotes:\\n* Between two vowels, or between a vowel and an approximant or liquid ( or), consonants can be either single or geminated. Geminated consonants shorten the preceding vowel (or block phonetic lengthening) and the first geminated element is unreleased. For example, (first one means \\\"fate, destiny\\\" and the second means \\\"fact\\\", see \\\"\\\" and \\\"\\\"). However, are always geminated word-internally. Similarly, nasals, liquids, and sibilants are pronounced slightly longer before medial consonant clusters. * is the only consonant that cannot be geminated. * are denti-alveolar, while are alveolar. * The trill is sometimes reduced to a single vibration when not geminated, but it is not a flap *. * Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of whatever consonant they precede. For example, is realized as. * The distinction between and is neutralized before consonants and at the beginning of words: the former is used before voiceless consonants and before vowels at the beginning of words; the latter is used before voiced consonants (meaning is an allophone of before voiced consonants). The two are only contrasted between two vowels within a word.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAccording to Canepari, though, the traditional standard has been replaced by a modern neutral pronunciation which always prefers when intervocalic, except when the intervocalic s is the initial sound of a word or a morpheme, if the compound is still felt as such: for example, ' ('I foresee', with pre meaning 'before' and sento meaning 'I see') vs. presento ('I present'). There are many words in which dictionaries now indicate that both pronunciations with and with are acceptable. The two phonemes have merged in many regional varieties of Italian, either into (Northern-Central) or (Southern-Central). Geminate can be pronounced as single.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian has a seven-vowel system, consisting of, as well as 23 consonants. Compared with most other Romance languages, Italian phonology is conservative, preserving many words nearly unchanged from Vulgar Latin. Some examples:\\n* Italian ' \\\"fourteen\\\" vita \\\"life\\\" (cf. Romanian viață, Spanish vida, French vie), > piede \\\"foot\\\" (cf. Spanish pie, French pied).\\n* Preservation of doubled consonants, e.g. > anno \\\"year\\\" (cf. Spanish año, French an).\\n* Preservation of all Proto-Romance final vowels, e.g. > pace \\\"peace\\\" (cf. Romania pace, Spanish paz, French paix), > otto \\\"eight\\\" (cf. Romanian opt Spanish ocho, French huit), > feci \\\"I did\\\" (cf. Spanish hice, French fis).\\n* Preservation of most intertonic vowels (those between the stressed syllable and either the beginning or ending syllable). This accounts for some of the most noticeable differences, as in the forms quattordici and settimana given above.\\n* Slower consonant development, e.g. > Italo-Western > foglia \\\"leaf\\\" (cf. Romanian foaie, Spanish hoja, French feuille; but note Portuguese folha).\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nCompared with most other Romance languages, Italian has a large number of inconsistent outcomes, where the same underlying sound produces different results in different words, e.g. > lasciare and lassare, > cacciare and cazzare, > sdrucciolare, druzzolare and ruzzolare, > regina and reina, > and, > and. Although in all these examples the second form has fallen out of usage, the dimorphism is thought to reflect the several-hundred-year period during which Italian developed as a literary language divorced from any native-speaking population, with an origin in 12th/13th-century Tuscan but with many words borrowed from languages farther to the north, with different sound outcomes. (The La Spezia–Rimini Line, the most important isogloss in the entire Romance-language area, passes only about 20 miles to the north of Florence.)\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nSome other features that distinguish Italian from the Western Romance languages:\\n* Latin becomes rather than.\\n* Latin becomes rather than or: > otto \\\"eight\\\" (cf. Spanish ocho, French huit).\\n* Vulgar Latin becomes cchi rather than: > occhio \\\"eye\\\" (cf. Portuguese olho, French oeil <); but Romanian ochi.\\n* Final is not preserved, and vowel changes rather than are used to mark the plural: amico, amici \\\"male friend(s)\\\", amica, amiche \\\"female friend(s)\\\" (cf. Romanian amic, amici,amică, amice, Spanish amigo(s) \\\"male friend(s)\\\", amiga(s) \\\"female friends\\\"); → tre, sei \\\"three, six\\\" (cf. Romanian trei, șase, Spanish tres, seis).\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nStandard Italian also differs in some respects from most nearby Italian languages:\\n* Perhaps most noticeable is the total lack of metaphony, though metaphony is a feature characterizing nearly every other Italian language.\\n* No simplification of original, (which often became elsewhere).\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nWriting system\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe Italian alphabet is typically considered to consist of 21 letters. The letters j, k, w, x, y are traditionally excluded, though they appear in loanwords such as jeans, whisky, taxi, xenofobo, xilofono. The letter has become common in standard Italian with the prefix extra-, although (e)stra- is traditionally used; it is also common to use of the Latin particle ex(-) to mean \\\"former(ly)\\\" as in: la mia ex (\\\"my ex-girlfriend\\\"), \\\"Ex-Jugoslavia\\\" (\\\"Former Yugoslavia\\\"). The letter appears in the first name Jacopo and in some Italian place-names, such as Bajardo, Bojano, Joppolo, Jerzu, Jesolo, Jesi, Ajaccio, among others, and in Mar Jonio, an alternative spelling of Mar Ionio (the Ionian Sea). The letter may appear in dialectal words, but its use is discouraged in contemporary standard Italian. Letters used in Foreign words can be replaced with phonetically equivalent native Italian letters and digraphs: , , or for ; or for (including in the standard prefix kilo-); , or for ; , , , or for ; and or for . * The acute accent is used over word-final to indicate a stressed front close-mid vowel, as in perché \\\"why, because\\\".\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nIn dictionaries, it is also used over to indicate a stressed back close-mid vowel (azióne). The grave accent is used over word-final to indicate a front open-mid vowel, as in tè \\\"tea\\\". The grave accent is used over any vowel to indicate word-final stress, as in gioventù \\\"youth\\\". Unlike , a stressed final is always a back open-mid vowel (andrò), making unnecessary outside of dictionaries. Most of the time, the penultimate syllable is stressed. But if the stressed vowel is the final letter of the word, the accent is mandatory, otherwise it is virtually always omitted. Exceptions are typically either in dictionaries, where all or most stressed vowels are commonly marked. Accents can optionally be used disambiguate words that differ only by stress, as for prìncipi \\\"princes\\\" and princìpi \\\"principles\\\", or àncora \\\"anchor\\\" and ancóra \\\"still/yet\\\". For monosyllabic words, the rule is different: when two identical monosyllabic words with different meanings exist, one is accented and the other is not (example: è \\\"is\\\", e \\\"and\\\"). * The letter distinguishes ho, hai, ha, hanno (present indicative of avere \\\"to have\\\") from o (\\\"or\\\"), ai (\\\"to the\\\"), a (\\\"to\\\"), anno (\\\"year\\\"). In the spoken language, the letter is always silent.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe in ho additionally marks the contrasting open pronunciation of the . The letter is also used in combinations with other letters. No phoneme exists in Italian. In nativized foreign words, the is silent. For example, hotel and hovercraft are pronounced and respectively. (Where existed in Latin, it either disappeared or, in a few cases before a back vowel, changed to: traggo \\\"I pull\\\" ← Lat. .)\\n* The letters and can symbolize voiced or voiceless consonants. symbolizes or depending on context, with few minimal pairs. For example: zanzara \\\"mosquito\\\" and nazione \\\"nation\\\". symbolizes word-initially before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (), and when doubled; it symbolizes when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants. Intervocalic varies regionally between and, with being more dominant in northern Italy and in the south. * The letters and vary in pronunciation between plosives and affricates depending on following vowels. The letter symbolizes when word-final and before the back vowels . It symbolizes as in chair before the front vowels . The letter symbolizes when word-final and before the back vowels . It symbolizes as in gem before the front vowels .\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nOther Romance languages and, to an extent, English have similar variations for . Compare hard and soft C, hard and soft G. (See also palatalization.)\\n* The digraphs and indicate or preserve hardness ( and) before . The digraphs and indicate or preserve softness ( and) before . For example:\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nNote: is silent in the digraphs ch (digraph)|, gh (digraph)|; and is silent in the digraphs and before unless the is stressed. For example, it is silent in ciao and cielo, but it is pronounced in farmacia and farmacie.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for,,,, which are always geminate, and, which is always single.\\nGeminate plosives and affricates are realized as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and are realized as lengthened continuants. There is only one vibrant phoneme but the actual pronunciation depends on context and regional accent. Generally one can find a flap consonant in unstressed position whereas is more common in stressed syllables, but there may be exceptions. Especially people from the Northern part of Italy (Parma, Aosta Valley, South Tyrol) may pronounce as,, or.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nOf special interest to the linguistic study of Italian is the gorgia toscana, or \\\"Tuscan Throat\\\", the weakening or lenition of certain intervocalic consonants in the Tuscan language.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe voiced postalveolar fricative is only present in loanwords: for example, garage.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nAssimilation\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian phonotactics do not usually permit verbs and polysyllabic nouns to end with consonants, excepting poetry and song, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nGrammar\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nItalian grammar is typical of the grammar of Romance languages in general. Cases exist for pronouns (nominative, oblique, accusative, dative), but not for nouns.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThere are two genders (masculine and feminine), however there is a number of nouns that change their gender from the singular to plural, having a masculine singular and a feminine plural, and thus are sometimes considered neuter (those are derived from neuter Latin nouns). An instance of neuter gender also exists in pronouns of the third person singular.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nNouns, adjectives, and articles inflect for gender and number (singular and plural).\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThe order of words in the phrase is relatively free compared to most European languages. The position of the verb in the phrase is highly mobile. Word order has a lesser grammatical function in Italian than in English. Adjectives are sometimes placed before their noun and sometimes after. Subject nouns generally come before the verb. Italian is a null-subject language, subjective pronouns are usually dropped, their presence implied by verbal inflections. Noun objects come after the verb, as do pronoun objects after imperative verbs and infinitives, but otherwise pronoun objects come before the verb.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThere are numerous contractions of prepositions with subsequent articles. There are numerous productive suffixes for diminutive, augmentative, pejorative, attenuating etc., which are also used to create neologisms. There are 27 pronouns, grouped in clitic and tonic pronouns.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThere are three regular sets of verbal conjugations, and various verbs are irregularly conjugated. Within each of these sets of conjugations, there are four simple (one-word) verbal conjugations by person/number in the indicative mood (present tense; past tense with imperfective aspect, past tense with perfective aspect, and future tense), two simple conjugations in the subjunctive mood (present tense and past tense), one simple conjugation in the conditional mood, and one simple conjugation in the imperative mood. Corresponding to each of the simple conjugations, there is a compound conjugation involving a simple conjugation of \\\"to be\\\" or \\\"to have\\\" followed by a past participle. \\\"To have\\\" is used to form compound conjugation when the verb is transitive (\\\"Hai detto\\\", \\\"hai fatto\\\": you have said, you have made), while \\\"to be\\\" is used when the verb is intransitive (\\\"Sei andato\\\", \\\"sei stato\\\": you have gone, you have been). \\\"To be\\\" may be used with transitive verbs, but in such a case it makes the verb passive (\\\"Sei detto\\\", \\\"Sei fatto\\\": you are said, you are made). This rule is not absolute, and some exceptions do exist.\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nExamples\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nConversation\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nNumbers\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nDays of the week\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nMonths of the year\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nSample texts\",\n \"Italian language\\n\\nThere is a recording of Dante's Divine Comedy read by Lino Pertile available online.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo (15 April 14522 May 1519), was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. He has been variously called the father of paleontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter and tank, he epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nMany historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the \\\"Universal Genius\\\" or \\\"Renaissance Man\\\", an individual of \\\"unquenchable curiosity\\\" and \\\"feverishly inventive imagination\\\". According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history, and \\\"his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and remote\\\". Marco Rosci notes that while there is much speculation regarding his life and personality, his view of the world was logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unorthodox for his time.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nBorn out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait and The Last Supper the most reproduced religious painting of all time, their fame approached only by Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived.There are 15 significant artworks which are ascribed, either in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art historians. This number is made up principally of paintings on panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper and two works which are in the early stages of preparation. There are a number of other works that have also been variously attributed to Leonardo. Nevertheless, these few works, together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull, also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded. A number of Leonardo's most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics, but he did not publish his findings and they had no direct influence on later science.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nToday, Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLife\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nChildhood, 1452–1466\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was born on 15 April 1452 (Old Style) \\\"at the third hour of the night\\\" in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence.His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in Leonardo da Vinci, p. 83 He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina, a peasant.It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East \\\"or at least, from the Mediterranean\\\". According to Alessandro Vezzosi, head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is claimed to be supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint as reported by The evidence, as stated in the article, is that 60% of people of Middle Eastern origin share the pattern of whirls found on the reconstructed fingerprint.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe article also states that the claim is refuted by Simon Cole, associate professor of criminology, law and society at the University of California at Irvine: \\\"You can't predict one person's race from these kinds of incidences, especially if looking at only one finger.\\\" See also Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – \\\"da Vinci\\\" simply meaning \\\"of Vinci\\\"; his full birth name was \\\"Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci\\\", meaning \\\"Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci\\\". The inclusion of the title \\\"ser\\\" indicated that Leonardo's father was a gentleman.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLittle is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother, and from 1457 lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children. When Leonardo was sixteen (1468), his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, who also died without children. Piero's legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo (who gave birth to six children: Antonio, Giulian, Maddalena, Lorenzo, Violante and Domenico) and his fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani (who bore him another six children: Margherita, Benedetto, Pandolfo, Guglielmo, Bartolomeo and Giovanni).\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn all Leonardo had twelve half-siblings, who were much younger than him (the last was born when Leonardo was forty years old) and with whom he had very few contacts, but they caused him difficulty after his father's death in the dispute over the inheritance.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains: he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture. Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters, tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Milan. Meanwhile, having made a profit, Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which he gave to the peasant.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nVerrocchio's workshop, 1466–76\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, whose bottega (workshop) was \\\"one of the finest in Florence\\\". He apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills, including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling.The \\\"diverse arts\\\" and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nMuch of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. On close examination, the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched-up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint, with the landscape, the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo. Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nBy 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him. Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on 5 August 1473.This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi, Drawing No. 8P.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nProfessional life, 1476–1513\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nFlorentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence. From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts. In 1478, he left Verrocchio's studio and was no longer resident at his father's house. One writer, the \\\"Anonimo\\\" Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence, a Neo-Platonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers that the Medici had established. In January 1478, he received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio; in March 1481, he received a second independent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto. Neither commission was completed, the second being interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1482, Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a most talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent Leonardo to Milan, bearing the lyre as a gift, to secure peace with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. At this time Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could also paint.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus, for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Family. Between 1493 and 1495, Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was employed on many different projects for Ludovico, including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions, designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza, Ludovico's predecessor. Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it. The monument remained unfinished for several years, which was not unusual for Leonardo. In 1492, the clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the \\\"Gran Cavallo\\\".Verrocchio's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico. Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting; however, Michelangelo insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it. In November 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAt the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the invading French troops used the life-size clay model for the Gran Cavallo for target practice. With Ludovico Sforza overthrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, fled Milan for Venice,della Chiesa, p.85 where he was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack. On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that \\\"men and women, young and old\\\" flocked to see it \\\"as if they were attending a great festival\\\".\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503, and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina. In Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of David.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan. Many of his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco d'Oggiono.D'Oggiono is known in part for his contemporary copies of the Last Supper. At this time he may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of Charles II d'Amboise, the acting French governor of Milan. A wax model survives, and if genuine, is the only example of Leonardo's sculpture.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504, and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father's estate. By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila.della Chiesa, p.86\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nOld age, 1513–1519\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nFrom September 1513 to 1516, under Pope Leo X, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time. In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan. On 19 December, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna. Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. In 1516, he entered François' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, now a public museum, near the king's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo died at Clos Lucé, on 2 May 1519. Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari records that the king held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Ménageot and other French artists, as well as by Angelica Kauffman, may be legend rather than fact.On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey from Clos Lucé. This has been taken as evidence that King François cannot have been present at Leonardo's deathbed. However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points out that the edict was not signed by the king. Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. In accordance with his will, sixty beggars followed his casket.This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers would have been awarded an established mourner's fee in the terms of Leonardo's will. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards, his brothers who received land, and his serving woman who received a black cloak \\\"of good stuff\\\" with a fur edge.The black cloak, of good quality material, was a ready-made item from a clothier, with the fur trim being an additional luxury. The possession of this garment meant that Leonardo's house keeper could attend his funeral \\\"respectably\\\" attired at no expense to herself. Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Château d'Amboise, in France.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nSome 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: \\\"There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher.\\\"\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nRelationships and influences\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nFlorence: Leonardo's artistic and social background\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nFlorence at the time of Leonardo's youth was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture. Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466, the year that Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello, died. The painter Uccello, whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting, was a very old man. The painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi, sculptor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio, Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino da Fiesole, whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni.Rosci, Leonardo, chapter 1, the historical setting, pp.9–20\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello's contemporaries, Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Alberti's treatise De Pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nMassaccio's \\\"Expulsion from the Garden of Eden\\\" depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade, which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting. The humanist influence of Donatello's \\\"David\\\" can be seen in Leonardo's late paintings, particularly John the Baptist.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nA prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family. Leonardo's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing idiosyncratic departures, particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was. He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the Academy of the Medici. Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family, and thus his success as a painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops. They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThese three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with Perugino's employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1476, during the time of Leonardo's association with Verrocchio's workshop, the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing from Northern Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly affect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others. In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who worked exclusively in oils, traveled north on his way to Venice, where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting, quickly making it the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later to visit Venice.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLike the two contemporary architects Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici (il Magnifico), who was three years older, and his younger brother Giuliano, who was slain in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478. Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nWith Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost. Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola. Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal, \\\"The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me.\\\" While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan, it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAlthough usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born. Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo died, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nWithin Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his \\\"outstanding physical beauty\\\", \\\"infinite grace\\\", \\\"great strength and generosity\\\", \\\"regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind\\\", as described by Vasari, as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others. One such aspect was his respect for life, evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit, according to Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing them.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance. They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella. While on a journey that took him through Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait, now lost.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nBeyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud. Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi. Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well-known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal. Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAssistants and pupils\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nGian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or Il Salaino (\\\"The Little Unclean One\\\" i.e., the devil), entered Leonardo's household in 1490. After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him \\\"a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton\\\", after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes. Nevertheless, Leonardo treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the next thirty years. Salai executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo \\\"taught him a great deal about painting\\\", his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and Boltraffio. In 1515, he painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa, known as Monna Vanna. Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student. He travelled to France with Leonardo and remained with him until Leonardo's death. Melzi inherited the artistic and scientific works, manuscripts, and collections of Leonardo and administered the estate.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nPainting\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nDespite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter and on a handful of works, either authenticated or attributed to him that have been regarded as among the masterpieces.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThese paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques which he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology, his interest in physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and the Virgin of the Rocks.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nEarly works\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop, both of which are Annunciations. One is small, long and high. It is a \\\"predella\\\" to go at the base of a larger composition, in this case a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a much larger work, long. In both these Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, such as in Fra Angelico's two well-known pictures of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn the smaller picture, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. In the larger picture, however, Mary is not submissive. The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise. This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but with confidence. In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nPaintings of the 1480s\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work which was also of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Two of the three were never finished, and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment. One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in the Wilderness. Bortolon associates this picture with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary: \\\"I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die.\\\"\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAlthough the painting is barely begun, the composition can be seen and it is very unusual. Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.Wasserman, pp.104–6 Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene. But in 1482 Leonardo went off to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece, already constructed. Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. In this scene, as painted by Leonardo, John recognizes and worships Jesus as the Christ. The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water. While the painting is quite large, about , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished, one which remained at the chapel of the Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away to France.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nBut the Brothers did not get their painting, or the de Predis their payment, until the next century.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nPaintings of the 1490s\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. It shows specifically the moment when Jesus has just said \\\"one of you will betray me\\\". Leonardo tells the story of the consternation that this statement caused to the twelve followers of Jesus.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time. This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nWhen finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as \\\"completely ruined\\\". Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface which was subject to mold and to flaking. Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art, countless copies being made in every medium from carpets to cameos.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nPaintings of the 16th century\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAmong the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or \\\"la Gioconda\\\", the laughing one. In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called \\\"sfumato\\\" or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari, who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute, said that \\\"the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the original\\\".\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nOther characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details, the dramatic landscape background in which the world seems to be in a state of flux, the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but laid on much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. Vasari expressed the opinion that the manner of painting would make even \\\"the most confident master... despair and lose heart.\\\" The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape which Wasserman describes as \\\"breathtakingly beautiful\\\" and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nMurals\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's The Battle of Anghiara was commissioned in 1505, but was lost. All that remains is a copy by Rubens, but Maurizio Seracini is convinced it can still be found and has spent a lifetime searching for it. He was allowed to drill some pilot holes in a mural in the Salone dei Cinquecento, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, and his team did find evidence of an oil painting underneath.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nDrawings\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was not a prolific painter, but he was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper.\\nHis earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAmong his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre, a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London. This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nOther drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as \\\"caricatures\\\" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them. There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salai, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called \\\"Grecian profile\\\".The \\\"Grecian profile\\\" has a continuous straight line from forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues. These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior. Salai is often depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi conspiracy.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nWith dispassionate integrity Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nObservation and invention\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nJournals and notes\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nRenaissance humanism recognized no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work. These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science), made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's writings are mostly in mirror-image cursive. The reason may have been more a practical expediency than for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it is probable that it was easier for him to write from right to left.Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experience difficulty pushing the pen from left to right across the page.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nHis notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and architecture.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThese notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes, distributed by friends after his death—have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus, and British Library in London which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online. The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed once a year in different cities around the world.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's notes appear to have been intended for publication because many of the sheets have a form and order that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for example, the heart or the human fetus, is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet. This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in the case of pages being mixed up or destroyed. Why they were not published within Leonardo's lifetime is unknown.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nScientific studies\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's approach to science was an observational one: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book De divina proportione, published in 1509.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIt appears that from the content of his journals he was planning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis 'D' Aragon's secretary in 1517. Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin. According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as \\\"the precursor of French academic thought on art\\\".\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nWhile Leonardo's experimentation followed clear scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Frtijof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a Renaissance Man, his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAnatomy\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Andrea del Verrocchio, who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject. As an artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAs a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words towards a treatise on anatomy. These papers were left to his heir, Francesco Melzi, for publication, a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing. It was left incomplete at the time of Melzi's death more than 50 years later, with only a small amount of the material on anatomy included in Leonardo's Treatise on painting, published in France in 1632. During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer who made a number of drawings from them.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, and studies muscles and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics. He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published, would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science.Alastair Sooke, Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2013, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/leonardo-da-vinci/10202124/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Anatomy-of-an-artist.html \\\"Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist\\\"], accessed 29 July 2013.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nAs an artist, Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage. He also drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness. Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of horses.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nInvestigations\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nDa Vinci performed some very detailed investigations into not only anatomy but also physiology. He attempted to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression. His dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement. He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions. He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles. He also documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver, and it was the heart that defined the circulatory system. He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns. Vesalius published his work on anatomy and physiology in De humani corporis fabrica in 1543.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nEngineering and inventions\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nDuring his lifetime, Leonardo was valued as an engineer. In a letter to Ludovico il Moro, he claimed to be able to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege. When he fled to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. He also had a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked. Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nIn 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720 ft bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople. The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not pursue the project because he believed that such a construction was impossible. Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life, producing many studies including Codex on the Flight of Birds (), as well as plans for several flying machines such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor. The British television station Channel Four commissioned a 2003 documentary Leonardo's Dream Machines. Leonardo's designs for machines such as a parachute, and giant crossbow were interpreted, constructed and tested. Some of those designs proved successes, whilst others fared less well when practically tested.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nFame and reputation\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nLeonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished. Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in.\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nGiorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists, 1568, introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words:\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (\\\"The Courtier\\\"), wrote in 1528: \\\"... Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled ...\\\" while the biographer known as \\\"Anonimo Gaddiano\\\" wrote, : \\\"His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf...\\\".\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: \\\"Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius...\\\" This is echoed by A. E. Rio who wrote in 1861: \\\"He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents.\\\"\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nBy the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: \\\"There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries.\\\" \\nArt historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: \\\"Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values.\\\"\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nThe interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: \\\"Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe.\\\"\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nMiscellaneous\",\n \"Leonardo da Vinci\\n\\nDavinciite, a recently described mineral recognized in 2011 by the International Mineralogical Association, is named in honor of the artist.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper ( or L'Ultima Cena) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci in the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. It is one of the world's most famous paintings.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe work is presumed to have been commenced around 1495 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of The Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13:21. Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nDue to the methods used, and a variety of environmental factors, as well as intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today, despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe painting\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper measures 460 × and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum. The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum. The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms. The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.) Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498—he did not work on the painting continuously.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date. One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:\\n*Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew form a group of three; all are surprised. *Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group of three. Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer. He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near-Eastern expression to \\\"betray the salt\\\" meaning to betray one's Master.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nHe is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting. Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus' arrest. The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon. *Jesus\\n*Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are the next group of three. Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection. James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation. *Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are the final group of three. Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas. Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose head is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nImportant copies\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nTwo early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact. One accurate copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, with some alterations to the background design, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nMedium\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nFor this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco. He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco cannot be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster. Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone. These techniques were important for Leonardo's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nDamage and restorations\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nBecause the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate. As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake. By 1556 — fewer than sixty years after it was finished — Leonardo's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already \\\"ruined\\\" and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that, “…the painting is all ruined.” In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nA first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nDuring World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and-stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nMajor restoration\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe painting's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThis restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic. Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls \\\"muff-like drapery\\\".\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper in culture\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nPainting, mosaic, and photography\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nA 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original. The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nModern art\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nSculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nAuthor Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844:\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nIn Luis Buñuel's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar 'photographs' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it \\\"blasphemous.\\\"\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nConspiracy theories\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nThe Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, notably since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nDan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective), was not John the Apostle, but Mary Magdalene. This speculation was repeated in the book The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince as historical fact. These claims have been contested by other writers, such as Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel in The Da Vinci Hoax, as well as by art historians. Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon commented \\\"If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left, the one with the sort of Bette Midler look about him\\\".\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nGiovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo's writing, form a musical composition.\",\n \"The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)\\n\\nNotes\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1580,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2492"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which is Italy's longest river?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Po"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["p o","po disambiguation","po"],"string":"[\n \"p o\",\n \"po disambiguation\",\n \"po\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Italy\n\nItaly (), officially the Italian Republic (), is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe.The Italian peninsula is geographically located in Southern Europe, while North Italy can be placed partly or totally in Central Europe. Due to cultural, political and historical reasons, Italy is a Western European country. Italy covers an area of 301338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate or Mediterranean climate; due to its shape, it is often referred to in Italy as lo Stivale (the Boot). With 61 million inhabitants, it is the third most populous EU member state. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino and Vatican City.","Italy\n\nSince classical times, ancient Phoenicians and Greeks, Etruscans, and Celts have inhabited the south, centre and north of the Italian Peninsula respectively, with various Italic peoples dispersed throughout Italy alongside other ancient Italian tribes and Greek, Carthaginian, and Phoenician colonies. The Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually spread throughout Italy, assimilating and conquering other nearby civilizations and forming the Roman Republic. Rome ultimately emerged as the dominant power, conquering much of the ancient world and becoming the leading cultural, political, and religious centre of Western civilisation. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the global distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity and the Latin script.","Italy\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, Italy suffered sociopolitical collapse amid calamitous barbarian invasions, but by the 11th century, numerous rival city-states and maritime republics rose to great prosperity through shipping, commerce, and banking, and even laid the groundwork for capitalism. These independent city-states and regional republics, acting as Europe's main port of entry for Asian and Near Eastern imported goods, often enjoyed a greater degree of democracy in comparison to the monarchies and feudal states found throughout Europe at the time, though much of central Italy remained under the control of the theocratic Papal States, while Southern Italy remained largely feudal, partially as a result of a succession of Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, and Bourbon conquests of the region.","Italy\n\nThe Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, and art with the start of the modern era. Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists, and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo, and Machiavelli. Explorers from Italy such as Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, and Giovanni da Verrazzano discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery. Nevertheless, Italy's importance as a hub of commercial and political power significantly waned with the opening of trade routes from the New World, as New World imports and trade routes became more influential in Europe and bypassed the East Asian and Mediterranean trade routes that the Italian city-states had dominated. Furthermore, the Italian city-states constantly engaged one another in bloody warfare, with this tension and violent rivalry culminating in the Italian Wars of the 15th and 16th centuries, a series of wars and foreign invasions that left the Italian states vulnerable to annexation by neighboring European powers.","Italy\n\nItaly would remain politically fragmented and fall prey to conquest, occupation, and general foreign domination by European powers such as France, Spain, and Austria, subsequently entering a long period of decline.","Italy\n\nBy the mid-19th century, a rising movement in support of Italian nationalism and Italian independence from foreign control lead to a period of revolutionary political upheaval known as the Risorgimento, which sought to bring about a rebirth of Italian cultural and economic prominence by liberating and consolidating the Italian peninsula and insular Italy into an independent and unified nation-state. After various unsuccessful attempts, the Italian Wars of Independence, the Expedition of the Thousand and the capture of Rome resulted in the eventual unification of the country, now a great power after centuries of foreign domination and political division. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the new Kingdom of Italy rapidly industrialized, especially in the so-called Industrial Triangle of Milan, Turin and Genoa in the north, and soon acquired a small colonial empire. However, the southern areas of the country remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialization, fueling a large and influential diaspora. Despite being one of the main victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil, leading the way to the rise of a Fascist dictatorship in 1922.","Italy\n\nThe subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in military defeat, economic destruction, and a civil war following the rise of the Italian resistance movement. In the years that followed, Italy abolished the Italian monarchy, reinstated democracy, enjoyed a prolonged economic boom, and, despite periods of sociopolitical turmoil (e.g. Anni di piombo, Mani pulite, Second Mafia War and Maxi Trial), became one of the world's most developed nations.","Italy\n\nItaly has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and eighth largest economy in the world. It has a very high level of human development and enjoys the highest life expectancy in the EU. Italy plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, with a number of academics considering the country to be both a regional power and a great power. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the member of numerous international institutions, including the UN, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the WTO, the G7/G8, G20, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Council of Europe, Uniting for Consensus, and many more. As a reflection of its vast cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is one of the most visited countries.","Italy\n\nEtymology","Italy\n\nThe assumptions on the etymology of the name \"Italia\" are very numerous and the corpus of the solutions proposed by historians and linguists is very wide.Alberto Manco, Italia. Disegno storico-linguistico, 2009, Napoli, L'Orientale, ISBN 978-88-95044-62-0 According to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from ,OLD, p. 974: \"first syll. naturally short (cf. Quint.Inst.1.5.18), and so scanned in Lucil.825, but in dactylic verse lengthened metri gratia.\" was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning \"land of young cattle\" (cf. Lat vitulus \"calf\", Umb vitlo \"calf\"). The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides.","Italy\n\nThe name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula (modern Calabria: province of Reggio, and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia). But by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name \"Italia\" to a larger region, but it was during the reign of Emperor Augustus (end of the 1st century BC) that the term was expanded to cover the entire peninsula until the Alps.","Italy\n\nHistory","Italy\n\nPrehistory and antiquity","Italy\n\nExcavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Paleolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. The Ancient peoples of pre-Roman Italy – such as the Umbrians, the Latins (from which the Romans emerged), Volsci, Oscans, Samnites, Sabines, the Celts, the Ligures, and many others – were Indo-European peoples; the main historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European heritage include the Etruscans, the Elymians and Sicani in Sicily and the prehistoric Sardinians, which includes the Nuragic civilization. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible non-Indo-European origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni, known for their rock carvings.","Italy\n\nBetween the 17th and the 11th centuries BC Mycenaean Greeks established contacts with Italy and in the 8th and 7th centuries BC Greek colonies were established all along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula became known as Magna Graecia. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily.","Italy\n\nRome, a settlement around a ford on the river Tiber conventionally founded in 753 BC, grew over the course of centuries into a massive empire, stretching from Britain to the borders of Persia, and engulfing the whole Mediterranean basin, in which Greek and Roman and many other cultures merged into a unique civilisation. The Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world. In a slow decline since the third century AD, the Empire split in two in 395 AD. The Western Empire, under the pressure of the barbarian invasions, eventually dissolved in 476 AD, when its last Emperor was deposed by the Germanic chief Odoacer, while the Eastern half of the Empire survived for another thousand years.","Italy\n\nMiddle Ages","Italy\n\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy was seized by the Ostrogoths, followed in the 6th century by a brief reconquest under Byzantine Emperor Justinian. The invasion of another Germanic tribe, the Lombards, late in the same century, reduced the Byzantine presence to a rump realm (the Exarchate of Ravenna) and started the end of political unity of the peninsula for the next 1,300 years. The Lombard kingdom was subsequently absorbed into the Frankish Empire by Charlemagne in the late 8th century. The Franks also helped the formation of the Papal States in central Italy. Until the 13th century, Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy, with most of the Italian city-states siding for the former (Ghibellines) or for the latter (Guelphs) from momentary convenience.","Italy\n\nIt was during this chaotic era that Italian towns saw the rise of a peculiar institution, the medieval commune. Given the power vacuum caused by extreme territorial fragmentation and the struggle between the Empire and the Holy See, local communities sought autonomous ways to maintain law and order. In 1176 a league of city-states, the Lombard League, defeated the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano, thus ensuring effective independence for most of northern and central Italian cities. In coastal and southern areas, the maritime republics, the most notable being Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi, heavily involved in the Crusades, grew to eventually dominate the Mediterranean and monopolise trade routes to the Orient.","Italy\n\nIn the south, Sicily had become an Islamic emirate in the 9th century, thriving until the Italo-Normans conquered it in the late 11th century together with most of the Lombard and Byzantine principalities of southern Italy. Through a complex series of events, southern Italy developed as a unified kingdom, first under the House of Hohenstaufen, then under the Capetian House of Anjou and, from the 15th century, the House of Aragon. In Sardinia, the former Byzantine provinces became independent states known as Giudicati, although some parts of the island were under Genoese or Pisan control until the Aragonese conquered it in the 15th century. The Black Death pandemic of 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing perhaps one third of the population. However, the recovery from the plague led to a resurgence of cities, trade and economy which allowed the bloom of Humanism and Renaissance, that later spread in Europe.","Italy\n\nEarly Modern","Italy\n\nIn the 14th and 15th centuries, northern-central Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states, the rest of the peninsula being occupied by the larger Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, referred to here as Naples. Though many of these city-states were often formally subordinate to foreign rulers, as in the case of the Duchy of Milan, which was officially a constituent state of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire, the city-states generally managed to maintain de facto independence from the foreign sovereigns that had seized Italian lands following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The strongest among these city-states gradually absorbed the surrounding territories giving birth to the Signorie, regional states often led by merchant families which founded local dynasties. War between the city-states was endemic, and primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. Decades of fighting eventually saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerged as the dominant players that agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries.","Italy\n\nThis peace would hold for the next forty years.","Italy\n\nThe Renaissance, a period of vigorous revival of the arts and culture, originated in Italy thanks to a number of factors, as the great wealth accumulated by merchant cities, the patronage of its dominant families like the Medici of Florence, and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Conquest of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.Encyclopædia Britannica, Renaissance, 2008, O.Ed.Har, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World, Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997, Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45088-2\nThe Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. The ideas and ideals of the Renaissance soon spread into Northern Europe, France, England and much of Europe. In the meantime, the discovery of the Americas, the new routes to Asia discovered by the Portuguese and the rise of the Ottoman Empire, all factors which eroded the traditional Italian dominance in trade with the East, caused a long economic decline in the peninsula.","Italy\n\nFollowing the Italian Wars (1494 to 1559), ignited by the rivalry between France and Spain, the city-states gradually lost their independence and came under foreign domination, first under Spain (1559 to 1713) and then Austria (1713 to 1796). In 1629–1631, a new outburst of plague claimed about 14% of Italy's population. In addition, as the Spanish Empire started to decline in the 17th century, so did its possessions in Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Milan. In particular, Southern Italy was impoverished and cut off from the mainstream of events in Europe. In the 18th century, as a result of the War of Spanish Succession, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power, while the House of Savoy emerged as a regional power expanding to Piedmont and Sardinia. In the same century, the two-century long decline was interrupted by the economic and state reforms pursued in several states by the ruling élites. During the Napoleonic Wars, northern-central Italy was invaded and reorganised as a new Kingdom of Italy, a client state of the French Empire, while the southern half of the peninsula was administered by Joachim Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, who was crowned as King of Naples.","Italy\n\nThe 1814 Congress of Vienna restored the situation of the late 18th century, but the ideals of the French Revolution could not be eradicated, and soon re-surfaced during the political upheavals that characterised the first part of the 19th century.","Italy\n\nItalian unification","Italy\n\nThe birth of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful war was declared on Austria. The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in liberating Lombardy.","Italy\n\nIn 1860–61, general Giuseppe Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily, allowing the Sardinian government led by the Count of Cavour to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861. In 1866, Victor Emmanuel II allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annex Venetia. Finally, as France during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War of 1870 abandoned its garrisons in Rome, the Italians rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal States.","Italy\n\nThe Piedmontese Albertine Statute of 1848, extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. The government of the new kingdom took place in a framework of parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberal forces. In 1913, male universal suffrage was adopted. As Northern Italy quickly industrialised, the South and rural areas of North remained underdeveloped and overpopulated, forcing millions of people to migrate abroad, while the Italian Socialist Party constantly increased in strength, challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment. Starting from the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing Somalia, Eritrea and later Libya and the Dodecanese under its rule.","Italy\n\nItaly, nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, in 1915 joined the Allies into the war with a promise of substantial territorial gains, that included western Inner Carniola, former Austrian Littoral, Dalmatia as well as parts of the Ottoman Empire. The war was initially inconclusive, as the Italian army get struck in a long attrition war in the Alps, making little progress and suffering very heavy losses. Eventually, in October 1918, the Italians launched a massive offensive, culminating in the victory of Vittorio Veneto. The Italian victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later.","Italy\n\nDuring the war, more than 650,000 Italian soldiers and as many civilians died and the kingdom went to the brink of bankruptcy. Under the Peace Treaties of Saint-Germain, Rapallo and Rome, Italy obtained most of the promised territories, but not Dalmatia (except Zara), allowing nationalists to define the victory as \"mutilated\". Moreover, Italy annexed the Hungarian harbour of Fiume, that was not part of territories promised at London but had been occupied after the end of the war by Gabriele D'Annunzio.","Italy\n\nFascist Regime","Italy\n\nThe socialist agitations that followed the devastation of the Great War, inspired by the Russian Revolution, led to counter-revolution and repression throughout Italy. The liberal establishment, fearing a Soviet-style revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini. In October 1922 the Blackshirts of the National Fascist Party attempted a coup (the \"March on Rome\") which failed but at the last minute, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to proclaim a state of siege and appointed Mussolini prime minister. Over the next few years, Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties, thus forming a dictatorship. These actions attracted international attention and eventually inspired similar dictatorships such as Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain.","Italy\n\nIn 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, resulting in an international alienation and leading to Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations; Italy allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan and strongly supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish civil war. In 1939, Italy annexed Albania, a de facto protectorate for decades. Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940. After initially advancing in British Somaliland and Egypt, the Italians were defeated in East Africa, Greece, Russia and North Africa.","Italy\n\nAfter the attack on Yugoslavia by Germany and Italy, suppression of the Yugoslav Partisans resistance and attempts to Italianization resulted in the Italian war crimes and deportation of about 25,000 people to the Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere. After the war, due to the Cold war, a long period of censorship, disinterest and denial occurred about the Italian war crimes and the Yugoslav's foibe killings. Meanwhile, about 250,000 Italians and anti-communist Slavs fled to Italy in the Istrian exodus.","Italy\n\nAn Allied invasion of Sicily began in July 1943, leading to the collapse of the Fascist regime and the fall of Mussolini on 25 July. On 8 September, Italy surrendered. The Germans shortly succeeded in taking control of northern and central Italy. The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war, as the Allies were slowly moving up from the south.","Italy\n\nIn the north, the Germans set up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a Nazi puppet state with Mussolini installed as leader. The post-armistice period saw the rise of a large anti-fascist resistance movement, the Resistenza. Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered. Nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died in the conflict, and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century.","Italy\n\nRepublican Italy","Italy\n\nItaly became a republic after a referendum held on 2 June 1946, a day celebrated since as Republic Day. This was also the first time that Italian women were entitled to vote. Victor Emmanuel III's son, Umberto II, was forced to abdicate and exiled. The Republican Constitution was approved on 1 January 1948. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy of 1947, most of Julian March was lost to Yugoslavia and, later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all its colonial possessions, formally ending the Italian Empire.","Italy\n\nFears in the Italian electorate of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on 18 April 1948, when the Christian Democrats, under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, obtained a landslide victory. Consequently, in 1949 Italy became a member of NATO. The Marshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the \"Economic Miracle\". In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), which became the European Union (EU) in 1993.","Italy\n\nFrom the late 1960s until the early 1980s, the country experienced the Years of Lead, a period characterised by economic crisis (especially after the 1973 oil crisis), widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres carried out by opposing extremist groups, with the alleged involvement of US and Soviet intelligence. / / / The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democrat leader Aldo Moro in 1978 and the Bologna railway station massacre in 1980, where 85 people died.","Italy\n\nIn the 1980s, for the first time since 1945, two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers: one liberal (Giovanni Spadolini) and one socialist (Bettino Craxi); the Christian Democrats remained, however, the main government party. During Craxi's government, the economy recovered and Italy became the world's fifth largest industrial nation, gaining entry into the G7 Group. However, as a result of his spending policies, the Italian national debt skyrocketed during the Craxi era, soon passing 100% of the GDP.","Italy\n\nIn the early 1990s, Italy faced significant challenges, as voters – disenchanted with political paralysis, massive public debt and the extensive corruption system (known as Tangentopoli) uncovered by the 'Clean Hands' investigation – demanded radical reforms. The scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: the Christian Democrats, who ruled for almost 50 years, underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded, splitting up into several factions. The Communists reorganised as a social-democratic force. During the 1990s and the 2000s (decade), center-right (dominated by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi) and center-left coalitions (led by university professor Romano Prodi) alternatively governed the country.","Italy\n\nIn the late 2000s, Italy was severely hit by the Great Recession. From 2008 to 2015, the country suffered 42 months of GDP recession. The economic crisis was one of the main problems that forced Berlusconi to resign in 2011. The government of the conservative Prime Minister was replaced by the technocratic cabinet of Mario Monti. Following the 2013 general election, the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta formed a new government at the head of a right-left Grand coalition. In 2014, challenged by the new Secretary of the PD Matteo Renzi, Letta resigned and was replaced by Renzi. The new government started important constitutional reforms such as the abolition of the Senate and a new electoral law.","Italy\n\nGeography","Italy\n\nItaly is located in Southern Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north, Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia, and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed, enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia, in addition to many smaller islands. The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland.","Italy\n\nThe country's total area is 301230 km², of which 294020 km² is land and 7210 km² is water. Including the islands, Italy has a coastline and border of 7600 km on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas (740 km), and borders shared with France (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km) and Switzerland (740 km). San Marino (39 km) and Vatican City (), both enclaves, account for the remainder.","Italy\n\nThe Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone and the Alps form most of its northern boundary, where Italy's highest point is located on Monte Bianco (4,810 m/15,782 ft).Official French maps show the border detouring south of the main summit, and claim the highest point in Italy is Mont Blanc de Courmayeur (4,748 m), but these are inconsistent with an 1861 convention and topographic watershed analysis. The Po, Italy's longest river (652 km/405 mi), flows from the Alps on the western border with France and crosses the Padan plain on its way to the Adriatic Sea.\nThe five largest lakes are, in order of diminishing size: Garda (), Maggiore (, shared with Switzerland), Como (), Trasimeno () and Bolsena ().","Italy\n\nThe country is situated at the meeting point of the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate, leading to considerable seismic and volcanic activity. There are 14 volcanoes in Italy, four of which are active: Etna (the traditional site of Vulcan’s smithy), Stromboli, Vulcano and Vesuvius. Vesuvius is the only active volcano in mainland Europe and is most famous for the destruction of Pompeii and Herculanum. Several islands and hills have been created by volcanic activity, and there is still a large active caldera, the Campi Flegrei north-west of Naples.","Italy\n\nAlthough the country comprises the Italian peninsula and most of the southern Alpine basin, some of Italy's territory extends beyond the Alpine basin and some islands are located outside the Eurasian continental shelf. These territories are the comuni of: Livigno, Sexten, Innichen, Toblach (in part), Chiusaforte, Tarvisio, Graun im Vinschgau (in part), which are all part of the Danube's drainage basin, while the Val di Lei constitutes part of the Rhine's basin and the islands of Lampedusa and Lampione are on the African continental shelf.","Italy\n\nEnvironment","Italy\n\nAfter its quick industrial growth, Italy took a long time to confront its environmental problems. After several improvements, it now ranks 84th in the world for ecological sustainability. National parks cover about five percent of the country. In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's leading producers of renewable energy, ranking as the world’s fourth largest holder of installed solar energy capacity and the sixth largest holder of wind power capacity in 2010. Renewable energies now make up about 12% of the total primary and final energy consumption in Italy, with a future target share set at 17% for the year 2020.","Italy\n\nHowever, air pollution remains a severe problem, especially in the industrialised north, reaching the tenth highest level worldwide of industrial carbon dioxide emissions in the 1990s. Italy is the twelfth largest carbon dioxide producer. \nExtensive traffic and congestion in the largest metropolitan areas continue to cause severe environmental and health issues, even if smog levels have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and 1980s, and the presence of smog is becoming an increasingly rarer phenomenon and levels of sulphur dioxide are decreasing.","Italy\n\nMany watercourses and coastal stretches have also been contaminated by industrial and agricultural activity, while because of rising water levels, Venice has been regularly flooded throughout recent years. Waste from industrial activity is not always disposed of by legal means and has led to permanent health effects on inhabitants of affected areas, as in the case of the Seveso disaster. The country has also operated several nuclear reactors between 1963 and 1990 but, after the Chernobyl disaster and a referendum on the issue the nuclear program was terminated, a decision that was overturned by the government in 2008, planning to build up to four nuclear power plants with French technology. This was in turn struck down by a referendum following the Fukushima nuclear accident.","Italy\n\nDeforestation, illegal building developments and poor land-management policies have led to significant erosion all over Italy's mountainous regions, leading to major ecological disasters like the 1963 Vajont Dam flood, the 1998 Sarno and 2009 Messina mudslides.","Italy\n\nClimate","Italy\n\nThanks to the great longitudinal extension of the peninsula and the mostly mountainous internal conformation, the climate of Italy is highly diverse. In most of the inland northern and central regions, the climate ranges from humid subtropical to humid continental and oceanic. In particular, the climate of the Po valley geographical region is mostly continental, with harsh winters and hot summers.","Italy\n\nThe coastal areas of Liguria, Tuscany and most of the South generally fit the Mediterranean climate stereotype (Köppen climate classification Csa). Conditions on peninsular coastal areas can be very different from the interior's higher ground and valleys, particularly during the winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and warm and generally dry summers, although lowland valleys can be quite hot in summer. Average winter temperatures vary from 0 C on the Alps to\n12 C in Sicily, like so the average summer temperatures range from 20 C to over 30 C.","Italy\n\nPolitics","Italy\n\nItaly has been a unitary parliamentary republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by a constitutional referendum. The President of Italy (Presidente della Repubblica), currently Sergio Mattarella since 2015, is Italy's head of state. The President is elected for a single seven years mandate by the Parliament of Italy in joint session. Italy has a written democratic constitution, resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Civil War.","Italy\n\nGovernment","Italy\n\nItaly has a parliamentary government based on a proportional voting system. The parliament is perfectly bicameral: the two houses, the Chamber of Deputies (that meets in Palazzo Montecitorio) and the Senate of the Republic (that meets in Palazzo Madama), have the same powers. The Prime Minister, officially President of the Council of Ministers (Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), is Italy's head of government. The Prime Minister and the cabinet are appointed by the President of the Republic, but must pass a vote of confidence in Parliament to come into office. The incumbent Prime Minister is Matteo Renzi of the Democratic Party.","Italy\n\nThe prime minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds effective executive power— and he must receive a vote of approval from it to execute most political activities. The office is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems, but the leader of the Italian government is not authorized to request the dissolution of the Parliament of Italy.","Italy\n\nAnother difference with similar offices is that the overall political responsibility for intelligence is vested in the President of the Council of Ministers. By virtue of that, the Prime Minister has exclusive power to: Coordinate intelligence policies, determining the financial resources and strengthening national cyber security; Apply and protect State secrets; Authorize agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad, in violation of the law.","Italy\n\nA peculiarity of the Italian Parliament is the representation given to Italian citizens permanently living abroad: 12 Deputies and 6 Senators elected in four distinct overseas constituencies. In addition, the Italian Senate is characterised also by a small number of senators for life, appointed by the President \"for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field\". Former Presidents of the Republic are ex officio life senators.","Italy\n\nItaly's three major political parties are the Democratic Party, Forza Italia and the Five Stars Movement. During the 2013 general election these three parties won 579 out of 630 seats available in the Chamber of Deputies and 294 out of 315 in the Senate. Most of the remaining seats were won by a short-lived electoral bloc formed to support the outgoing Prime Minister Mario Monti, the far left party Left, Ecology, Freedom or by parties that contest elections only in one part of Italy: the Northern League, the South Tyrolean People's Party, Vallée d'Aoste and Great South. On 15 November 2013, 58 splinter MPs from Forza Italia founded New Centre-Right.","Italy\n\nLaw and criminal justice","Italy\n\nThe Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. The Supreme Court of Cassation is the highest court in Italy for both criminal and civil appeal cases. The Constitutional Court of Italy (Corte Costituzionale) rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and is a post–World War II innovation. Since their appearance in the middle of the 19th century, Italian organised crime and criminal organisations have infiltrated the social and economic life of many regions in Southern Italy, the most notorious of which being the Sicilian Mafia, which would later expand into some foreign countries including the United States. The Mafia receipts may reach 9% of Italy's GDP.","Italy\n\nA 2009 report identified 610 comuni which have a strong Mafia presence, where 13 million Italians live and 14.6% of the Italian GDP is produced. The Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, nowadays probably the most powerful crime syndicate of Italy, accounts alone for 3% of the country's GDP. However, at 0.013 per 1,000 people, Italy has only the 47th highest murder rate (in a group of 62 countries) and the 43rd highest number of rapes per 1,000 people in the world (in a group of 65 countries), relatively low figures among developed countries.","Italy\n\nLaw enforcement","Italy\n\nLaw enforcement in Italy is provided by multiple police forces, five of which are national, Italian agencies.\nThe Polizia di Stato (State Police) is the civil national police of Italy. Along with patrolling, investigative and law enforcement duties, it patrols the Autostrada (Italy's Express Highway network), and oversees the security of railways, bridges and waterways.\nThe Carabinieri is the common name for the Arma dei Carabinieri, a Gendarmerie-like military corps with police duties. They also serve as the military police for the Italian armed forces.\nThe Guardia di Finanza, (English: Financial Guard) is a corps under the authority of the Minister of Economy and Finance, with a role as police force. The Corps is in charge of financial, economic, judiciary and public safety.\nThe Corpo Forestale dello Stato (National Forestry Department) is responsible for law enforcement in Italian national parks and forests. Their duties include enforcing poaching laws, safeguarding protected animal species and preventing forest fires.","Italy\n\nForeign relations","Italy\n\nItaly is a founding member of the European Community, now the European Union (EU), and of NATO. Italy was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and it is a member and strong supporter of a wide number of international organisations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, and the Central European Initiative. Its recent turns in the rotating presidency of international organisations include the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), the forerunner of the OSCE, in 1994; G8; and the EU in 2009 and from July to December 2003.","Italy\n\nItaly strongly supports multilateral international politics, endorsing the United Nations and its international security activities. , Italy was deploying 5,296 troops abroad, engaged in 33 UN and NATO missions in 25 countries of the world. Italy deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. Italy deployed over 2,000 troops in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) from February 2003. Italy still supports international efforts to reconstruct and stabilise Iraq, but it had withdrawn its military contingent of some 3,200 troops by November 2006, maintaining only humanitarian operators and other civilian personnel.\nIn August 2006 Italy deployed about 2,450 troops in Lebanon for the United Nations' peacekeeping mission UNIFIL. Italy is one of the largest financiers of the Palestinian National Authority, contributing €60 million in 2013 alone.","Italy\n\nMilitary","Italy\n\nThe Italian Army, Navy, Air Force and Carabinieri collectively form the Italian Armed Forces, under the command of the Supreme Defence Council, presided over by the President of Italy. From 2005, military service is entirely voluntary. In 2010, the Italian military had 293,202 personnel on active duty, of which 114,778 are Carabinieri. Total Italian military spending in 2010 ranked tenth in the world, standing at $35.8 billion, equal to 1.7% of national GDP. As part of NATO's nuclear sharing strategy Italy also hosts 90 United States nuclear bombs, located in the Ghedi and Aviano air bases.","Italy\n\nThe Italian Army is the national ground defence force, numbering 109,703 in 2008. Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft the Mangusta attack helicopter, recently deployed in UN missions. It also has at its disposal a large number of Leopard 1 and M113 armoured vehicles.","Italy\n\nThe Italian Navy in 2008 had 35,200 active personnel with 85 commissioned ships and 123 aircraft. It is now equipping itself with a bigger aircraft carrier (the Cavour), new destroyers, submarines and multipurpose frigates. In modern times the Italian Navy, being a member of the NATO, has taken part in many coalition peacekeeping operations around the world.","Italy\n\nThe Italian Air Force in 2008 had a strength of 43,882 and operated 585 aircraft, including 219 combat jets and 114 helicopters. As a stopgap and as replacement for leased Tornado ADV interceptors, the AMI has leased 30 F-16A Block 15 ADF and four F-16B Block 10 Fighting Falcons, with an option for more. The coming years will also see the introduction of 121 EF2000 Eurofighter Typhoons, replacing the leased F-16 Fighting Falcons. Further updates are foreseen in the Tornado IDS/IDT and AMX fleets. A transport capability is guaranteed by a fleet of 22 C-130Js and Aeritalia G.222s of which 12 are being replaced with the newly developed G.222 variant called the C-27J Spartan.","Italy\n\nAn autonomous corps of the military, the Carabinieri are the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, policing the military and civilian population alongside Italy's other police forces. While the different branches of the Carabinieri report to separate ministries for each of their individual functions, the corps reports to the Ministry of Internal Affairs when maintaining public order and security.","Italy\n\nAdministrative divisions","Italy\n\nItaly is subdivided into 20 regions (regioni), five of these regions having a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their local matters. The country is further divided into 14 metropolitan cities (città metropolitane) and 96 provinces (province), which in turn are subdivided in 8,047 municipalities (comuni).","Italy\n\nEconomy","Italy\n\nItaly has a capitalist mixed economy, ranking as the third-largest in the Eurozone and the eighth-largest in the world. The country is a founding member of the G7, G8, the Eurozone and the OECD.","Italy\n\nItaly is regarded as one of the world's most industrialised nations and a leading country in world trade and exports. It is a highly developed country, with the world's 8th highest quality of life and the 25th Human Development Index. The country is well known for its creative and innovative business, a large and competitive agricultural sector (Italy is the world's largest wine producer), and for its influential and high-quality automobile, machinery, food, design and fashion industry.","Italy\n\nItaly is the world's sixth largest manufacturing country, characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and a large number of dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in several industrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry. This has produced a manufacturing sector often focused on the export of niche market and luxury products, that if on one side is less capable to compete on the quantity, on the other side is more capable of facing the competition from China and other emerging Asian economies based on lower labour costs, with higher quality products.","Italy\n\nThe country was the world's 7th largest exporter in 2009. Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. Its largest EU trade partners, in order of market share, are Germany (12.9%), France (11.4%), and Spain (7.4%). Finally, tourism is one of the fastest growing and profitable sectors of the national economy: with 48.6 million international tourist arrivals and total receipts estimated at $45.5 billion in 2014, Italy was the fifth most visited country and the sixth highest tourism earner in the world.","Italy\n\nItaly is part of the European single market which represents more than 500 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Italy introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002. It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 330 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank.","Italy\n\nItaly has been hit very hard by the Great Recession and the subsequent European sovereign-debt crisis, that exacerbated the country's structural problems. Effectively, after a strong GDP growth of 5–6% per year from the 1950s to the early 1970s, and a progressive slowdown in the 1980-90s, the country virtually stagnated in the 2000s. The political efforts to revive growth with massive government spending eventually produced a severe rise in public debt, that stood at over 135% of GDP in 2014, ranking second in the EU only after the Greek one (at 174%). For all that, the largest chunk of Italian public debt is owned by national subjects, a major difference between Italy and Greece, and the level of household debt is much lower than the OECD average.","Italy\n\nA gaping North–South divide is a major factor of socio-economic weakness. It can be noted by the huge difference in statistical income between the northern and southern regions and municipalities. The richest region, Lombardy, earns 127% of the national GDP per capita, while the poorest, Calabria, only 61% The unemployment rate (11.9%) stands slightly above the Eurozone average, however the average figure is 7.9% in the North and 20.2% in the South.","Italy\n\nInfrastructure","Italy\n\nIn 2004 the transport sector in Italy generated a turnover of about 119.4 billion euros, employing 935,700 persons in 153,700 enterprises. Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were 668721 km of serviceable roads in Italy, including 6487 km of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia. In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 goods vehicles circulated on the national road network.","Italy\n\nThe national railway network, state-owned and operated by Ferrovie dello Stato, in 2008 totalled of which is electrified, and on which 4,802 locomotives and railcars run.","Italy\n\nThe national inland waterways network comprised 1477 km of navigable rivers and channels in 2002. In 2004 there were approximately 30 main airports (including the two hubs of Malpensa International in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International in Rome) and 43 major seaports (including the seaport of Genoa, the country's largest and second largest in the Mediterranean Sea). In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships.","Italy\n\nItaly needs to import about 80% of its energy requirements.","Italy\n\nItaly does not invest enough to maintain its drinking water supply and sanitation infrastructure, while water and sanitation tariffs are among the lowest in the European Union. The Galli Law, passed in 1993, aimed at raising the level of investment and to improve service quality by consolidating service providers, making them more efficient and increasing the level of cost recovery through tariff revenues. Despite these reforms, investment levels have declined and remain far from sufficient.","Italy\n\nScience and technology","Italy\n\nThrough the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During the Renaissance Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72) made important contributions to a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), a physicist, mathematician and astronomer, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include key improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and ultimately the triumph of Copernicanism over the Ptolemaic model. Other astronomers suchs as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made many important discoveries about the Solar System. In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy. Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), and Gerolamo Cardano (1501–76) made fundamental advances in mathematics. Luca Pacioli established accounting to the world. Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–54), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor and is also noted for his many other contributions to physics, including the co-development of the quantum theory and was one of the key figures in the creation of the nuclear weapon. He, Emilio G.","Italy\n\nSegrè, and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews, including Emilio G. Segrè (1905–89) (who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), and Bruno Rossi (1905–93), a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy.","Italy\n\nOther prominent physicists include: Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular the Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN). In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry, Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high polymers. Giuseppe Occhialini received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947.","Italy\n\nEnnio de Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of Elliptic partial differential equations.","Italy\n\nDemographics","Italy\n\nAt the end of 2013, Italy had 60,782,668 inhabitants. The resulting population density, at 202 PD/km2, is higher than that of most Western European countries. However, the distribution of the population is widely uneven. The most densely populated areas are the Po Valley (that accounts for almost a half of the national population) and the metropolitan areas of Rome and Naples, while vast regions such as the Alps and Apennines highlands, the plateaus of Basilicata and the island of Sardinia are very sparsely populated.","Italy\n\nThe population of Italy almost doubled during the 20th century, but the pattern of growth was extremely uneven because of large-scale internal migration from the rural South to the industrial cities of the North, a phenomenon which happened as a consequence of the Italian economic miracle of the 1950–1960s. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they start to dramatically decline, leading to rapid population ageing. At the end of the 2000s (decade), one in five Italians was over 65 years old. However, in recent years Italy experienced a significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has also climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008. \nThe TFR is expected to reach 1.6–1.8 in 2030.","Italy\n\nFrom the late 19th century until the 1960s Italy was a country of mass emigration. Between 1898 and 1914, the peak years of Italian diaspora, approximately 750,000 Italians emigrated each year. The diaspora concerned more than 25 million Italians and it is considered the biggest mass migration of contemporary times. As a result, today more than 4.1 million Italian citizens are living abroad,[http://www.interno.it/mininterno/export/sites/default/it/sezioni/servizi/legislazione/elezioni/0947_2010_02_01_DM27012010.html Statistiche del Ministero dell'Interno] while at least 60 million people of full or part Italian ancestry live outside of Italy, most notably in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Australia, and France.","Italy\n\nMetropolitan cities","Italy\n\nEthnic groups","Italy\n\nIn 2014, Italy had about 4.9 million foreign residents, making up some 8.1% of the total population. The figures include more than half a million children born in Italy to foreign nationals—second generation immigrants, but exclude foreign nationals who have subsequently acquired Italian nationality; this applies to about 130,000 people a year. The official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, that were estimated in 2008 to number at least 670,000.","Italy\n\nStarting from the early 1980s, until then a linguistically and culturally homogeneous society, Italy begun to attract substantial flows of foreign immigrants. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and, more recently, the 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union, large waves of migration originated from the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe (especially Romania, Albania, Ukraine and Poland). An equally important source of immigration is neighbouring North Africa (in particular, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia), with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from Asia-Pacific (notably China and the Philippines) and Latin America (mainly from Peru and Ecuador) have been recorded.","Italy\n\nCurrently, about one million Romanian citizens (around one tenth of them being Roma ) are officially registered as living in Italy, representing thus the most important individual country of origin, followed by Albanians and Moroccans with about 500,000 people each. The number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more. Overall, at the end of the 2000s (decade) the foreign born population of Italy was from: Europe (54%), Africa (22%), Asia (16%), the Americas (8%) and Oceania (0.06%). The distribution of immigrants is largely uneven in Italy: 87% of immigrants live in the northern and central parts of the country (the most economically developed areas), while only 13% live in the southern half of the peninsula.","Italy\n\nLanguages","Italy\n\nItaly's official language is Italian. It is estimated that there are about 64 million native Italian speakers while the total number of Italian speakers, including those who use it as a second language, is about 85 million. Italy has numerous regional dialects, however, the establishment of a national education system has led to decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century. Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s thanks to economic growth and the rise of mass media and television (the state broadcaster RAI helped set a standard Italian).","Italy\n\nTwelve historical minority languages are legally recognised: Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan and Sardinian (Law number 482 of 15 December 1999). French is co-official in the Valle d’Aosta—although in fact Franco-Provencal is more commonly spoken there. German has the same status in South Tyrol as, in some parts of that province and in parts of the neighbouring Trentino, does Ladin. Slovene is officially recognised in the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Udine.","Italy\n\nBecause of significant recent immigration, Italy has sizeable populations whose native language is not Italian. According to the Italian National Institute of Statistics, Romanian is the most common mother tongue among foreign residents in Italy: almost 800,000 people speak Romanian as their first language (21.9% of the foreign residents aged 6 and over). Other prevalent mother tongues are Arabic (spoken by over 475,000 people; 13.1% of foreign residents), Albanian (380,000 people) and Spanish (255,000 people). Other languages spoken in Italy are Ukrainian, Hindi, Polish, and Tamil amongst others.","Italy\n\nReligion","Italy\n\nRoman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in the country, although Catholicism is no longer officially the state religion. In 2010, the proportion of Italians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 81.2%.","Italy\n\nThe Holy See, the episcopal jurisdiction of Rome, contains the central government of the entire Roman Catholic Church, including various agencies essential to administration. Diplomatically, it is recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, who is also the Bishop of Rome, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. Often incorrectly referred to as \"the Vatican\", the Holy See is not the same entity as the Vatican City State, which came into existence only in 1929; the Holy See dates back to early Christian times. Ambassadors are officially accredited not to the Vatican City State but to \"the Holy See\", and papal representatives to states and international organisations are recognised as representing the Holy See, not the Vatican City State.","Italy\n\nMinority Christian faiths in Italy include Eastern Orthodox, Waldensians and Protestant communities. In 2011, there were an estimated 1.5 million Orthodox Christians in Italy, or 2.5% of the population; 0.5 million Pentecostals and Evangelicals (of whom 0.4 million are members of the Assemblies of God), 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses, 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Latter-day Saints, 15,000 Baptists (plus some 5,000 Free Baptists), 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists (affiliated with the Waldensian Church).","Italy\n\nOne of the longest-established minority religious faiths in Italy is Judaism, Jews having been present in Ancient Rome since before the birth of Christ. Italy has for centuries welcomed Jews expelled from other countries, notably Spain. However, as a result of the Holocaust, about 20% of Italian Jews lost their lives.p. 403 This, together with the emigration that preceded and followed World War II, has left only a small community of around 28,400 Jews in Italy.","Italy\n\nSoaring immigration in the last two decades has been accompanied by an increase in non-Christian faiths. In 2010, there were 1.6 million Muslims in Italy, forming 2.6 percent of population. In addition, there are more than 200,000 followers of faiths originating in the Indian subcontinent with some 70,000 Sikhs with 22 gurdwaras across the country, 70,000 Hindus, and 50,000 Buddhists. There were an estimated 4,900 Bahá'ís in Italy in 2005.","Italy\n\nThe Italian state, as a measure to protect religious freedom, devolves shares of income tax to recognised religious communities, under a regime known as Eight per thousand (Otto per mille). Donations are allowed to Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu communities; however, Islam remains excluded, since no Muslim communities have yet signed a concordat with the Italian state. Taxpayers who do not wish to fund a religion contribute their share to the state welfare system.","Italy\n\nEducation","Italy\n\nEducation in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen, and consists of five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado) and university (università).","Italy\n\nPrimary education lasts eight years. The students are given a basic education in Italian, English, mathematics, natural sciences, history, geography, social studies, physical education and visual and musical arts. Secondary education lasts for five years and includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the liceo prepares students for university studies with a classical or scientific curriculum, while the istituto tecnico and the Istituto professionale prepare pupils for vocational education. In 2012, the Italian secondary education has been evalued as slightly below the OECD average, with a strong and steady improvement in science and mathematics results since 2003; however, a wide gap exists between northern schools, which performed significantly better than the national average (among the best in the world in some subjects), and schools in the South, that had much poorer results.","Italy\n\nTertiary education in Italy is divided between public universities, private universities and the prestigious and selective superior graduate schools, such as the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. The university system in Italy is generally regarded as poor for a world cultural powerhouse, with no universities ranked among the 100 world best and only 20 among the top 500. However, the current government has scheduled major reforms and investments in order to improve the overall internationalisation and quality of the system.","Italy\n\nHealth","Italy\n\nThe Italian state runs a universal public healthcare system since 1978. However, healthcare is provided to all citizens and residents by a mixed public-private system. The public part is the Servizio Sanitario Nazionale, which is organised under the Ministry of Health and administered on a devolved regional basis. Healthcare spending in Italy accounted for 9.2% of the national GDP in 2012, very close the OECD countries' average of 9.3%.","Italy\n\nItaly in 2000 ranked as having the world's 2nd best healthcare system, and the world's 2nd best healthcare performance. Life expectancy in Italy is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 6th in the world for life expectancy. In comparison to other Western countries, Italy has a relatively low rate of adult obesity (below 10%), probably thanks to the health benefits of the mediterranean diet. The proportion of daily smokers was 22% in 2012, down from 24.4% in 2000 but still slightly above the OECD average. Smoking in public places including bars, restaurants, night clubs and offices has been restricted to specially ventilated rooms since 2005.","Italy\n\nCulture","Italy\n\nFor centuries divided by politics and geography until its eventual unification in 1861, Italy has developed a unique culture, shaped by a multitude of regional customs and local centres of power and patronage. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a number of magnificent courts competed for attracting the best architects, artistis and scholars, thus producing an immense legacy of monuments, paintings, music and literature.","Italy\n\nItaly has more UNESCO World Heritage Sites (51) than any other country in the world, and has rich collections of art, culture and literature from many different periods. The country has had a broad cultural influence worldwide, also because numerous Italians emigrated to other places during the Italian diaspora. Furthermore, the nation has, overall, an estimated 100,000 monuments of any sort (museums, palaces, buildings, statues, churches, art galleries, villas, fountains, historic houses and archaeological remains).","Italy\n\nArchitecture","Italy\n\nItaly has a very broad and diverse architectural style, which cannot be simply classified by period, but also by region, because of Italy's division into several regional states until 1861. This has created a highly diverse and eclectic range in architectural designs.","Italy\n\nItaly is known for its considerable architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries. Several of the finest works in Western architecture, such as the Colosseum, the Milan Cathedral and Florence cathedral, the Leaning Tower of Pisa and the building designs of Venice are found in Italy.","Italy\n\nItalian architecture has also widely influenced the architecture of the world. British architect Inigo Jones, inspired by the designs of Italian buildings and cities, brought back the ideas of Italian Renaissance architecture to 17th-century England, being inspired by Andrea Palladio. Additionally, Italianate architecture, popular abroad since the 19th century, was used to describe foreign architecture which was built in an Italian style, especially modelled on Renaissance architecture.","Italy\n\nVisual art","Italy\n\nThe history of Italian visual art is part of Western painting history. Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main \"styles\" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.","Italy\n\nPanel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture.","Italy\n\nThe Italian Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy. In Italy artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces including his David, Pietà, Moses. Other prominent Renaissance sculptors include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi, Andrea del Verrocchio.","Italy\n\nIn the 15th and 16th centuries, the High Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. In the 17th century, among the greatest painters of Italian Baroque are Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Artemisia Gentileschi, Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni and Bartolomeo Manfredi. Subsequently, in the 18th century, Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such as Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Canaletto. Italian Neoclassical sculpture focused, with Antonio Canova's nudes, on the idealist aspect of the movement.","Italy\n\nIn the 19th century, major Italian Romantic painters were Francesco Hayez, Giuseppe Bezzuoli and Francesco Podesti. Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by the Macchiaioli, led by Giovanni Fattori, and Giovanni Boldini; Realism by Gioacchino Toma and Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo. In the 20th century, with Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting and sculpture. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow.","Italy\n\nLiterature and theatre","Italy\n\nThe basis of the modern Italian language was established by the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, whose greatest work, the Divine Comedy, is considered among the foremost literary statements produced in Europe during the Middle Ages. There is no shortage of celebrated literary figures in Italy: Giovanni Boccaccio, Giacomo Leopardi, Alessandro Manzoni, Torquato Tasso, Ludovico Ariosto, and Petrarch, whose best-known vehicle of expression, the sonnet, was created in Italy.","Italy\n\nProminent philosophers include Giordano Bruno, Marsilio Ficino, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Giambattista Vico. Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997.","Italy\n\nCarlo Collodi's 1883 novel, The Adventures of Pinocchio, is the most celebrated children's classic by an Italian author.","Italy\n\nItalian theatre can be traced back to the Roman tradition which was heavily influenced by the Greek; as with many other literary genres, Roman dramatists tended to adapt and translate from the Greek. For example, Seneca's Phaedra was based on that of Euripides, and many of the comedies of Plautus were direct translations of works by Menander. During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, Commedia dell'arte was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics, and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called canovaccio.","Italy\n\nMusic","Italy\n\nFrom folk music to classical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.","Italy\n\nItaly's most famous composers include the Renaissance composers Palestrina and Monteverdi, the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples, and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.","Italy\n\nItaly is widely known for being the birthplace of opera. Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in Italian cities such as Mantua and Venice. Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi and Puccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala operahouse in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers include Enrico Caruso and Alessandro Bonci.","Italy\n\nIntroduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM and Goblin. Italy was also an important country in the development of disco and electronic music, with Italo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent usage of synthesizers and drum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside from Euro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such as Eurodance and Nu-disco).","Italy\n\nProducers/songwriters such as Giorgio Moroder, who won three Academy Awards for his music, were highly influential in the development of EDM (electronic dance music). Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto. Singers such as pop diva Mina, classical crossover artist Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, and European chart-topper Eros Ramazzotti have attained international acclaim.","Italy\n\nCinema","Italy\n\nThe history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions. The first Italian film was a few seconds, showing Pope Leo XIII giving a blessing to the camera. The Italian film industry was born between 1903 and 1908 with three companies: the Società Italiana Cines, the Ambrosio Film and the Itala Film. Other companies soon followed in Milan and in Naples. In a short time these first companies reached a fair producing quality, and films were soon sold outside Italy. Cinema was later used by Benito Mussolini, who founded Rome's renowned Cinecittà studio for the production of Fascist propaganda until World War II.","Italy\n\nAfter the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s. Notable Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni and Dario Argento. Movies include world cinema treasures such as La dolce vita, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly and Bicycle Thieves. The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday of neorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy.","Italy\n\nAs the country grew wealthier in the 1950s, a form of neorealism known as pink neorealism succeeded, and other film genres, such as sword-and-sandal followed as spaghetti westerns, were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with movies like Life Is Beautiful directed by Roberto Benigni, Il Postino: The Postman with Massimo Troisi and The Great Beauty directed by Paolo Sorrentino.","Italy\n\nItaly is the most awarded country at the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.","Italy\n\nSport","Italy\n\nThe most popular sport in Italy is, by far, football. Italy's national football team (nicknamed Gli Azzurri – \"the Blues\") is one of the world's most successful team as it has won four FIFA World Cups (1934, 1938, 1982, and 2006). Italian clubs have won 48 major European trophies, making Italy the second most successful country in European football. Italy's top-flight club football league, Serie A, ranks as the fourth best in Europe and is followed by millions of fans around the world.","Italy\n\nOther popular team sports in Italy include volleyball, basketball and rugby. Italy's male and female national teams are often featured among the world's best. The Italian national basketball team's best results were gold at Eurobasket 1983 and EuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in 2004. Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe. Rugby union enjoys a good level of popularity, especially in the north of the country. Italy's national team competes in the Six Nations Championship, and is a regular at the Rugby World Cup. Italy ranks as a tier-one nation by World Rugby.","Italy\n\nItaly has a long and successful tradition in individual sports as well. Bicycle racing is a very familiar sport in the country. Italians have won the UCI World Championships more than any other country, except Belgium. The Giro d'Italia is a cycling race held every May, and constitutes one of the three Grand Tours, along with the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España, each of which last approximately three weeks. Alpine skiing is also a very widespread sport in Italy, and the country is a popular international skiing destination, known for its ski resorts. Italian skiers achieved good results in Winter Olympic Games, Alpine Ski World Cup, and World Championship. Tennis has a significant following in Italy, ranking as the fourth most practised sport in the country. The Rome Masters, founded in 1930, is one of the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the world. Italian professional tennis players won the Davis Cup in 1976 and the Fed Cup in 2006, 2009, 2010 and 2013. Motorsports are also extremely popular in Italy. Italy has won, by far, the most MotoGP World Championships.","Italy\n\nItalian Scuderia Ferrari is the oldest surviving team in Grand Prix racing, having competed since 1948, and statistically the most successful Formula One team in history with a record of 224 wins.","Italy\n\nHistorically, Italy has been successful in the Olympic Games, taking part from the first Olympiad and in 47 Games out of 48. Italian sportsmen have won 522 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 106 at the Winter Olympic Games, for a combined total of 628 medals with 235 golds, which makes them the fifth most successful nation in Olympic history for total medals. The country hosted two Winter Olympics (in 1956 and 2006), and one Summer games (in 1960).","Italy\n\nFashion and design","Italy\n\nItalian fashion has a long tradition, and is regarded as one most important in the world. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's main fashion capitals. According to Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings 2013 by Global Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide when Milan was twelfth. Major Italian fashion labels, such as Gucci, Armani, Prada, Versace, Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Missoni, Fendi, Moschino, Max Mara, Trussardi, and Ferragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world. Also, the fashion magazine Vogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.","Italy\n\nItaly is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design, industrial design and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such as Gio Ponti and Ettore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such as \"Bel Disegno\" and \"Linea Italiana\" have entered the vocabulary of furniture design. Examples of classic pieces of Italian white goods and pieces of furniture include Zanussi's washing machines and fridges, the \"New Tone\" sofas by Atrium, and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song \"Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again\".","Italy\n\nToday, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design. The city of Milan hosts Fiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair. Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as the \"Fuori Salone\" and the Salone del Mobile, and has been home to the designers Bruno Munari, Lucio Fontana, Enrico Castellani and Piero Manzoni.","Italy\n\nCuisine","Italy\n\nModern Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC. Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences, including Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, and Jewish. Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World with the introduction of items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century. Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the most popular in the world, wielding strong influence abroad.","Italy\n\nThe Mediterranean diet forms the basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta, fish, fruits and vegetables and characterised by its extreme simplicity and variety, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation. Dishes and recipes are often derivatives from local and familial tradition rather than created by chefs, so many recipes are ideally suited for home cooking, this being one of the main reasons behind the ever increasing worldwide popularity of Italian cuisine, from America to Asia. Ingredients and dishes vary widely by region.","Italy\n\nA key factor in the success of Italian cuisine is its heavy reliance on traditional products; Italy has the most traditional specialities protected under EU law. Cheese, cold cuts and wine are a major part of Italian cuisine, with many regional declinations and Protected Designation of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication labels, and along with coffee (especially espresso) make up a very important part of the Italian gastronomic culture. Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits, pistachio and almonds with sweet cheeses like mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla and cinnamon. Gelato, tiramisù and cassata are among the most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes and patisserie.","List of rivers of Italy\n\nThis is a list of rivers, which are at least partially located in Italy. They are organized according to what body of water they drain into, with the exceptions of Sicily and Sardinia, which are listed separately. At the bottom all of the rivers are listed alphabetically.","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the North Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Reno di Lei\nAfter entering Switzerland, the Reno di Lei drains via the Reno di Avers and the Hinterrhein into the Rhine.","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the Black Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Drava (a short section in Italy, continues into Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and Hungary)\nThe Drava drains into the Danube on the Croatia–Serbia border.\n*Slizza (three-quarters in Italy, a quarter in Austria)\n:After entering Austria, the Slizza drains via the Gail into the Drava.\n*Acqua Granda (half in Italy, half in Switzerland)\nAfter entering Switzerland, the Spöl drains into the Inn, which meets the Danube in Germany.","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the Adriatic Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Adriatic Sea will begin at the coastal border between Italy and Slovenia and will follow the Adriatic coast of Italy until it reaches Santa Maria di Leuca. Beyond this point, rivers empty into the Ionian Sea rather than the Adriatic. The rivers are ordered according to how far along the coast the river mouth is from the Italian/Slovenian border, the first river having its mouth the closest to the border and the last being closest to Santa Maria di Leuca.","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Timavo (Reka)\n*Isonzo (Soča)\n*Vipacco (Vipava)\n*Torre\n:*Natisone\n*Cormor\n*Ausa\n*Tagliamento\n*Livenza\n*Piave\n*Brenta\n*Bacchiglione\n*Adige\n*Tartaro-Canalbianco-Po di Levante\n*Po\n*Reno\n*Senio\n*Santerno\n*Sillaro\n*Idice\n:*Savena\n*Samoggia\n*Limentra\n*Lamone\n*Uniti\n*Bidente-Ronco\n*Montone\n:*Acquacheta\n:*Rabbi\n*Savio\n*Rubicon\n*Marecchia\n*San Marino\n*Ausa\n*Marano\n*Conca\n*Foglia\n*Metauro\n*Candigliano\n:*Biscubio\n:*Burano\n*Cesano\n*Misa\n*Nevola\n*Musone\n*Potenza\n*Chienti\n*Fiastrone\n*Fiastra\n*Tenna\n*Aso\n*Tesino\n*Tronto\n*Castellano\n*Salinello\n*Tordino\n*Vomano\n*Fucino\n*Mavone\n*Piomba\n*Saline\n*Fino\n*Tavo\n*Aterno-Pescara\n*Sagittario\n:*Gizio\n*Alento\n*Foro\n*Moro\n*Sangro\n*Trigno\n*Biferno\n*Fortore\n*Carapelle\n*Calaggio\n*Carapellotto\n*Ofanto\n*Locone\n*Canale Reale","List of rivers of Italy\n\nTributaries of the Adige","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Avisio\n*Eisack\n*Braibach\n*Derjon\n*Eggentaler Bach\n*Pfitscher Bach\n*Pflerscher Bach\n*Plima\n*Ridnauner Bach\n*Rienz\n:*Ahr\n::*Reinbach\n:*Antholzer Bach\n:*Gran Ega\n:*Gsieser Bach\n:*Pragser Bach\n:*Pfunderer Bach\n*Talfer\n*Villnößer Bach\n*Karlinbach\n*Passer\n*Rom\n*Saldurbach\n*Schnalser Bach\n*Suldenbach\n*Falschauer","List of rivers of Italy\n\nTributaries of the Po","List of rivers of Italy\n\nThe tributaries of the Po are organized into right- and left-hand tributaries. The lists are ordered from the river closest to the source of the Po to the river closest to the mouth of the Po.","List of rivers of Italy\n\nRight-hand tributaries","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Varaita\n*Maira\n*Grana del Monferrato\n*Rotaldo\n*Gattola\n*Stura del Monferrato\n*Tanaro\n*Belbo\n:*Tinella\n*Borbore\n:*Triversa\n*Bormida\n:*Bormida di Spigno\n:*Orba\n::*Piota\n:::*Gorzente\n::*Lemme\n::*Stura di Ovada\n:*Erro\n*Stura di Demonte\n*Versa\n*Staffora\n*Scrivia\n*Borbera\n*Grue\n*Curone\n*Trebbia\n*Nure\n*Arda\n*Taro\n*Ceno\n*Stirone\n*Parma\n*Baganza\n*Enza\n*Crostolo\n*Secchia\n*Panaro","List of rivers of Italy\n\nLeft-hand tributaries","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Pellice\n*Chisone\n:*Germanasca\n*Dora Riparia\n*Cenischia\n*Dora di Bardonecchia\n*Stura di Lanzo\n*Ceronda\n*Malone\n*Orco\n*Soana\n*Dora Baltea\n*Buthier\n*Lys\n*Chiusella\n*Sesia\n*Sessera\n:*Strona di Postua\n*Cervo\n:*Strona di Mosso\n:*Ostola\n:*Marchiazza\n:*Rovasenda\n:*Elvo\n*Agogna\n*Erbognone\n*Terdoppio\n*Ticino\n*Olona\n*Lambro\n*Adda\n*Brembo\n:*Enna\n:*Parina\n:*Stabina\n*Seveso (The Seveso enters the Naviglio Martesana canal which enters the Lambro.)\n*Oglio\n*Chiese\n:*Caffaro (The Caffaro enters Lake Idro which empties into the Chiese.)\n:*Re di Anfo (The Re di Anfo enters Lake Idro which empties into the Chiese.)\n*Mincio\n*Sarca (The Sarca enters Lake Garda which empties into the Mincio.)","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Versa","List of rivers of Italy\n\nRivers draining into Lake Maggiore","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Boesio\n*Cannobino\n*Giona\n*Maggia (entirely in Switzerland)\n*Melezzo Orientale (partly in Switzerland)\n:*Isorno (partly in Switzerland)\n*Margorabbia\n*San Bernardino\n*Stronetta\n*Toce\n*Anza\n*Bogna\n*Diveria\n*Melezzo Occidentale\n*Ovesca\n*Strona\n:*Nigoglia\n*Ticino\n*Tresa","List of rivers of Italy\n\nRivers draining into Lake Como","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Adda\n*Albano\n*Breggia\n*Cosia\n*Fiumelatte\n*Liro\n*Mera\n*Acquafraggia\n*Liro\n*Pioverna","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the Ionian Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Ionian Sea will begin at Santa Maria di Leuca in the east and will extend to the Strait of Messina in the west. Sicilian rivers are excluded because they are listed in their own section below. The rivers are ordered according to how far east their mouth is, the first river having the easternmost mouth and the last having the westernmost mouth.","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Lato\n*Bradano\n*Alvo\n*Basentello\n*Bilioso\n*Gravina\n*Gravina di Matera\n*Basento\n*Cavone\n*Salandrella\n*Agri\n*Sinni\n*Crati\n*Stilaro\n*Allaro\n*Amusa\n*Gerace\n*Bonamico\n*La Verde\n*Torno\n*Amendolea\n*Melito","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the Tyrrhenian Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Tyrrhenian Sea will begin at the Strait of Messina in the south and extend north up to San Pietro Point near Portovenere. Sicilian and Sardinian rivers are excluded from this list because those rivers are in their own sections below. The rivers are ordered according to how far south their mouth is, the first river having the southernmost mouth and the last having the northernmost mouth.","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Marro\n*Savuto\n*Tusciano\n*Calore Irpino\n:*Tammaro\n*Sele\n*Calore Lucano\n*Tanagro\n*Alento\n*Volturno\n*Garigliano\n*Liri\n:*Sacco\n*Gari\n:*Rapido\n*Tiber\n*Marta\n*Arrone\n*Fiora\n*Ombrone\n*Arno\n*Bisenzio\n*Chiana\n*Era\n*Pesa\n*Sieve\n*Serchio\n*Magra\n*Vara","List of rivers of Italy\n\nTributaries of the Tiber","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Allia\n*Aniene\n*Cremera\n*Nera\n*Corno\n:*Sordo\n*Velino\n:*Turano\n:*Salto\n*Paglia\n*Chiana\n*Topino\n*Chiascio\n*Clitunno\n*Ose","List of rivers of Italy\n\nDraining into the Ligurian Sea","List of rivers of Italy\n\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Ligurian Sea will begin at San Pietro Point near Portovenere in the east and will extend to the border with France near Monaco. Sardinian rivers are excluded from this list because those rivers are in their own section below. The rivers are ordered according to how close their mouth is to San Pietro Point. The river with its mouth closest to this geographic point is listed first and rivers further away from this point are listed in the order in which their mouth empties into the sea as one proceeds along the coast up to the border with France.\n*Entella\n*Lavagna\n*Bisagno\n*Polcevera\n*Cerusa\n*Varatella\n*Pora\n*Centa\n*Arroscia\n*Argentina\n*Nervia\n*Barbaira\n*Roia (Roya)\n*Bevera (Bévéra)","List of rivers of Italy\n\nRivers of Sicily","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Alcantara\n*Anapo\n*Belice\n*Calcinara\n*Cassibile\n*Ciane\n*Crinisus\n*Dirillo\n*Dittaino\n*Fiume di Girgenti\n*Sant'Anna\n*Gela\n*Grande River\n*Helorus\n*Ippari\n*Irminio\n*Mazaro\n*Platani\n*Salso\n*Cerami\n*Simeto\n*Troina\n*Verdura","List of rivers of Italy\n\nRivers of Sardinia","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Cixerri\n*Coghinas\n*Flumendosa\n*Flumini Mannu\n*Temo\n*Tirso","List of rivers of Italy\n\nAlphabetical list","List of rivers of Italy\n\n*Acquacheta\n*Acquafraggia\n*Adda\n*Adige\n*Agogna\n*Agri\n*Ahr\n*Albano\n*Alcantara\n*Allaro\n*Allia\n*Alvo\n*Amendolea\n*Amusa\n*Anapo\n*Aniene\n*Antholzerbach\n*Anza\n*Arda\n*Argentina\n*Arno\n*Arrone\n*Arroscia\n*Aso\n*Aterno-Pescara\n*Ausa, in the Province of Udine\n*Ausa, in San Marino and the Province of Rimini\n*Avisio\n*Bacchiglione\n*Basentello\n*Basento\n*Barbaira\n*Belbo\n*Belice\n*Bevera (Bévéra)\n*Bidente-Ronco\n*Biferno\n*Bilioso\n*Bisagno\n*Biscubio\n*Boesio\n*Bogna\n*Bonamico\n*Borbera\n*Bormida\n*Bormida di Spigno\n*Bradano\n*Braibach\n*Breggia\n*Brembo\n*Brenta\n*Burano\n*Buthier\n*Caffaro\n*Calaggio\n*Calcinara\n*Calore Irpino\n*Calore Lucano\n*Canale Reale\n*Candigliano\n*Cannobino\n*Carapelle\n*Carapellotto\n*Cassibile\n*Castellano\n*Cavone\n*Cenischia\n*Ceno\n*Centa\n*Cerami\n*Cerusa\n*Cervo\n*Cesano\n*Chiana\n*Chiani\n*Chiascio\n*Chienti\n*Chiese\n*Chisone\n*Ciane\n*Cixerri\n*Clitunno\n*Coghinas\n*Conca\n*Cormor\n*Corno\n*Cosia\n*Crati\n*Cremera\n*Crinisus\n*Crostolo\n*Curone\n*Derjon\n*Dirillo\n*Dittaino\n*Diveria\n*Dora Baltea\n*Dora di Bardonecchia\n*Dora Riparia\n*Drava\n*Eggentaler Bach\n*Elvo\n*Enna\n*Enza\n*Entella\n*Erbognone\n*Erro\n*Fiastra\n*Fiastrone\n*Fiora\n*Fiume di Girgenti\n*Fiumelatte\n*Flumendosa\n*Foglia\n*Fortore\n*Fucino\n*Gorzente\n*Gran Ega\n*Garigliano\n*Gattola\n*Gela\n*Gerace\n*Giona\n*Grana del Monferrato\n*Grande River\n*Gravina\n*Gravina di Matera\n*Grue\n*Gsieser Bach\n*Helorus\n*Idice\n*Ippari\n*Irminio\n*Isarco (Eisack)\n*Isonzo (Soča)\n*Isorno\n*Karlinbach\n*Lambro\n*Lamone\n*Lato\n*Lavagna\n*La Verde\n*Lemme\n*Limentra\n*Liri\n*Liro (This Liro enters Lake Como.)\n*Liro (This Liro enters the Mera.)\n*Livenza\n*Locone\n*Lys\n*Magra\n*Maira\n*Malone\n*Marano\n*Marecchia\n*Margorabbia\n*Marro\n*Marta\n*Mazaro\n*Melezzo Occidentale\n*Melezzo Orientale\n*Melito\n*Mera\n*Metauro\n*Mincio\n*Misa\n*Montone\n*Musone\n*Natisone\n*Nera\n*Nervia\n*Nevola\n*Nigoglia\n*Nure\n*Ofanto\n*Oglio\n*Olona\n*Ombrone\n*Orba\n*Orco\n*Ose\n*Ovesca\n*Paglia\n*Panaro\n*Parina\n*Parma\n*Passirio\n*Pfitscher Bach\n*Pflerscher Bach\n*Pfunderer Bach\n*Piave\n*Piomba\n*Piota\n*Pioverna\n*Platani\n*Plima\n*Po\n*Polcevera\n*Pora\n*Potenza\n*Pragser Bach\n*Rabbi\n*Rapido (Gari)\n*Ram (Rom)\n*Re di Anfo\n*Reinbach\n*Reno\n*Reno di Lei\n*Ridnauner Bach\n*Rienza (Rienz)\n*Roia (Roya)\n*Rotaldo\n*Rubicon\n*Sacco\n*Salandrella\n*Saldurbach\n*Saline\n*Salinello\n*Salso\n*Salto\n*Samoggia\n*San Bernardino\n*Sangro\n*San Marino\n*Sant'Anna\n*Santerno\n*Sarca\n*Savena\n*Savio\n*Savuto\n*Scrivia\n*Secchia\n*Sele\n*Senales (Schnalser Bach)\n*Serchio\n*Sesia\n*Seveso\n*Sillaro\n*Simeto\n*Sinni\n*Slizza\n*Soana\n*Sordo\n*Spöl\n*Stabina\n*Staffora\n*Stilaro\n*Stirone\n*Strona\n*Stronetta\n*Stura del Monferrato\n*Stura di Demonte\n*Stura di Lanzo\n*Stura di Ovada\n*Suldenbach\n*Tagliamento\n*Talfer\n*Tammaro\n*Tanagro\n*Tanaro\n*Taro\n*Tartaro-Canalbianco-Po di Levante\n*Tenna\n*Terdoppio\n*Tesino\n*Tiber\n*Ticino\n*Timavo (Reka)\n*Tinella\n*Tirso\n*Toce\n*Topino\n*Tordino\n*Torno\n*Torre\n*Trebbia\n*Tresa\n*Trigno\n*Troina\n*Tronto\n*Turano\n*Tusciano\n*Uniti\n*Valsura (Falschauer)\n*Vara\n*Varaita\n*Varatella\n*Velino\n*Verdura\n*Versa (This Versa is a tributary of the Po.)\n*Versa (This Versa is a tributary of the Tanaro.)\n*Villnößer Bach\n*Vipacco\n*Volturno\n*Vomano","Po (river)\n\nThe Po (; and Eridanus; ; ancient Ligurian: Bodincus or Bodencus; and Ἠριδανός) is a river that flows eastward across northern Italy. The Po flows either 652 km or 682 km – considering the length of the Maira, a right bank tributary. The headwaters of the Po are a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face of Monviso (in the Cottian Alps). The Po ends at a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea near Venice. It has a drainage area of 74,000 km² in all, 70,000 in Italy, of which 41,000 is in montane environments and 29,000 on the plain. The Po is the longest river in Italy; at its widest point its width is 503 m. The Po extends along the 45th parallel north.","Po (river)\n\nThe river flows through many important Italian cities, including Turin (Torino), Piacenza and Ferrara. It is connected to Milan through a net of channels called navigli, which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a wide delta (with hundreds of small channels and five main ones, called Po di Maestra, Po della Pila, Po delle Tolle, Po di Gnocca and Po di Goro) at the southern part of which is Comacchio, an area famous for eels. The Po valley was the territory of the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided into Cispadane Gaul (South of the Po) and Transpadane Gaul (North of the Po). The Po begins in the Alps, and is in Italy, and flows eastward.","Po (river)\n\nThe river is subject to heavy flooding. Consequently, over half its length is controlled with argini, or dikes. The slope of the valley decreases from 0.35% in the west to 0.14% in the east, a low gradient. There are 450 standing lakes.","Po (river)\n\nIt is characterized by its large discharge (several rivers over 1,000 km have a discharge inferior or equal to the Po).","Po (river)\n\nGeography","Po (river)\n\nPo Valley","Po (river)\n\nThe vast valley around the Po is called the Po Basin or Po Valley (Italian Pianura Padana or Val Padana); in time it became the main industrial area of the country. In 2002, more than 16 million people lived there, at the time nearly ⅓ of the population of Italy.","Po (river)\n\nThe two main economic uses of the valley are for industry and for agriculture, both major uses. The industrial centres, such as Turin and Milan, are located on higher terrain, away from the river. They rely for power on the numerous hydroelectric stations in or on the flanks of the Alps, and on the coal/oil power stations which use the water of the Po basin as coolant. Drainage from the north is mediated through several large, scenic lakes. The streams are now controlled by so many dams as to slow the river's sedimentation rate, causing geologic problems. The expansive, moist and fertile flood plain is reserved mainly for agriculture and is subject to flash floods, even though the overall quantity of water is lower than in the past and lower than demand. The main products of the farms around the river are cereals including – unusually for Europe – rice, which requires heavy irrigation. The latter method is the chief consumer of surface water, while industrial and human consumption use underground water.","Po (river)\n\nPo Delta","Po (river)\n\nProtected areas","Po (river)\n\nThe Po Delta wetlands have been protected by the institution of two regional parks in the regions in which it is situated: Veneto and Emilia-Romagna. The Po Delta Regional Park in Emilia-Romagna, the largest, consists of four parcels of land on the right bank of the Po and to the south. Created by law in 1988, it is managed by a consortium, the Consorzio per la gestione de Parco, to which Ferrara and Ravenna provinces belong as well as nine comuni: Comacchio, Argenta, Ostellato, Goro, Mesola, Codigoro, Ravenna, Alfonsine, and Cervia. Executive authority resides in an assembly of the presidents of the provinces, the mayors of the comuni and the board of directors. They employ a Technical-Scientific Committee and a Park Council to carry out directives. In 1999 the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was added to \"Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, and its Po Delta.\" The 53653 ha of the park contain wetlands, forest, dunes and salt pans. It has a high biodiversity, with 1000-1100 plant species and 374 vertebrate species, of which 300 are birds.","Po (river)\n\nThe active delta","Po (river)\n\nThe most recent part of the delta, which projects into the Adriatic between Chioggia and Comacchio, contains channels that actually connect to the Adriatic and on that account is called the active delta by the park authorities, as opposed to the fossil delta, which contains channels that no longer connect the Po to the Adriatic (but once did). The active delta was created in 1604 when the city of Venice diverted the main stream, the Po grande or Po di Venezia, from its channel north of Porto Viro to the south of Porto Viro in a channel then called the Taglio di Porto Viro, \"Porto Viro cut-off.\" Their intent was to stop the gradual migration of the Po toward the lagoon of Venice, which would have filled up with sediment had contact been made. The subsequent town of Taglio di Po grew around the diversionary works. The lock of Volta Grimana blocked the old channel, now the Po di Levante, which flows to the Adriatic through Porto Levante.","Po (river)\n\nBelow Taglio di Po the Parco Regionale Veneto, one of the tracts under the authority of the Parco Delta del Po, contains the latest branches of the Po. The Po di Gnocca branches to the south followed by the Po di Maestra to the north at Porto Tolle. At Tolle downstream the Po di Venezia divides into the Po delle Tolle to the south and the Po della Pila to the north. The former exits at Bonelli. The latter divides again at Pila into the Busa di Tramontana to the north and the Busa di Scirocco to the south, while the mainstream, the Busa Dritta, enters Punta Maistra and exits finally past Pila lighthouse.","Po (river)\n\nDespite the park administration's definition of the active delta as beginning at Porto Viro, there is another active channel upstream from it at Santa Maria in Punta, where the Fiume Po divides into the Po di Goro and the Po di Venezia.","Po (river)\n\nThe fossil delta","Po (river)\n\nThe fossil Po is the region of no longer active channels from the Po to the sea. It begins upstream from Ferrara. The Fiume Po currently flowing to the north of Ferrara is actually the result of a diversion at Ficarolo in 1152 made in the hope of relieving flooding in the vicinity of Ravenna. The diversion channel was at first called the Po di Ficarolo. The Fiume Po before then followed the Po di Volano, no longer connected to the Po, which ran to the south of Ferrara and exited near Volano. In Roman times it did not exit there but ran to the south as the Padus Vetus (\"old Po\") exiting near Comacchio, from which split the Po di Primaro exiting close to Ravenna.","Po (river)\n\nBefore 1152 the seaward extension of today's delta, about 12 km, did not exist. The entire region from Ravenna to Chioggia was dense swamps, explaining why the Via Aemilia was constructed between Rimini and Piacenza and did not begin further north.","Po (river)\n\nGeology","Po (river)\n\nThe Mediterranean Basin is a depression in the Earth's crust caused by the African Plate slipping under the Eurasian Plate. Typically in geologic history the depression is filled with sea water under various geologic names such as Tethys Sea. In the last period of the Miocene Epoch, the Messinian (7-5 mya), the Messinian salinity crisis, a near drying of the Mediterranean, was caused by the sea level dropping below the sill at the Strait of Gibraltar and the equilibrium between evaporation and replenishment shifting in favor of evaporation. At that time the Po Valley and the Adriatic depression were a single canyon system thousands of feet deep. On the southwest the Apennine Mountains bordered a land mass termed Tyrrhenis geologically. Their orogeny was just being completed in the Miocene. On the north the Alpine Orogeny had already created the Alps.","Po (river)\n\nAt the end of the Messinian the ocean broke through the sill and the Mediterranean refilled. The Adriatic transgressed into all of northern Italy. In the subsequent Pliocene sedimentary outwash primarily from the Apennines filled the valley and the central Adriatic generally to a depth of 1000 m to 2000 m but from 2000 m to 3000 m off the current mouth of the Po, with pockets as deep as 6000 m. At the start of the Pleistocene the valley was full. Cycles of transgression and regression are detectable in the valley and the Adriatic as far as its centre and in the southern Adriatic.","Po (river)\n\nFrom the Pleistocene alternation of maritime and alluvial sediments occur as far west as Piacenza. The exact sequences at various locations have been studied extensively. Apparently the sea advanced and receded over the valley in conformance to an equilibrium between sedimentation and glacial advance or recession at 100,000-year intervals and 100 m to 120 m fluctuation of sea level. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum around 20,000 years ago, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5500 years ago.","Po (river)\n\nSince then the Po delta had been prograding. The rate of coastal\nzone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD\nwas 4 m/yr. Human factors, however, brought about a change in the equilibrium in the mid-20th century with the result that the entire coastline of the northern Adriatic is now degrading. Venice, which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the effect is realized in the Po delta as well. The causes are first a decrease in the sedimentation rate due to the locking of sediment behind hydroelectric dams and the deliberate excavation of sand from rivers for industrial purposes. Second, agricultural use of the river is heavy; during peak consumption the flow in places nearly dries up, causing local contention. As a result of decreased flow salt water is intruding into the aquifers and coastal ground water. Eutrophication in standing waters and streams of low flow is on the increase. The valley is subsiding due to the removal of ground water.","Po (river)\n\nHuman aspects","Po (river)\n\nPollution","Po (river)\n\nAlways prone to fog, the valley is subject to heavy smog due to industrial atmospheric emissions, especially from Turin.","Po (river)\n\nIn 2002, the city of Milan had no sewage treatment plant. The sewage went through channels directly into the Po, for which the European Environment Agency cited the city.\nSince 2005, all sewage from Milan is treated in three different plants in Nosedo, San Rocco and Peschiera Borromeo. The three plants can collectively treat the sewage from over 2.5 million inhabitants equivalent.","Po (river)\n\nIn 2005, water from the Po was found to contain \"staggering\" amounts of benzoylecgonine, which is excreted by cocaine users in urine. Based on these figures, cocaine consumption was estimated to be about 4 kg daily, or 27 doses per day per thousand young adults in areas that feed into the river—a number nearly three times higher than previous estimates.","Po (river)\n\nOn February 24, 2010 the Po river was contaminated by an oil spill coming from a refinery in Villasanta through the Lambro, the Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata news agency has estimated that the spill is in the neighborhood of 600,000 liters.","Po (river)\n\nWater resource management","Po (river)\n\nUntil 1989 water resources were administered regionally or locally. The major authority on the lower Po was the Magistrato alle Acque di Venezia, first formed in the 16th-century Republic of Venice. It made all the decisions concerning the diversion of the lower river. Most part of the delta is still in Veneto.","Po (river)\n\nIn 1907 under the Kingdom of Italy the agency became the Magistrato alle Acque and took responsibility for all the water resources in northeastern Italy. Currently it is a decentralized institution of the Ministry of Public Works, headed by a chairman appointed by the Head of State and the Council of Ministers. Its headquarters are in Venice. Its domain is the management and protection of the water system in Veneto, Mantua, Trento, Bolzano and Friuli-Venezia Giulia.","Po (river)\n\nIn 1989 in response to the major geologic problems that were developing along the river Law no. 183/89 was passed authorizing The Po Basin Water Board (Autorità di bacino del fiume Po), which would direct operations concerning all the water resources in the Po basin (see under Po Valley). Its headquarters have been in Parma since its inception in 1990. It considers itself a synergy among all the institutions concerned with the preservation and development of the Po basin. It is administered by officials chosen from the administrations of the constituent regions and provinces.","Po (river)\n\nIn the year 2009 the water board will initiate an Integrated River Basin Management Plan in compliance with the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive, 2000/60/EC. The plan includes many water management and flood risk plans already in place. Between 2009 and 2015 the Po Valley Project (the implementation of the plan) will carry out more than 60 measures to heighten and strengthen dikes, increase natural retention areas, recover sediment transport, recover hydromorphological characteristics, enlarge wetlands, afforest, renaturate, promote biodiversity and promote recreational use, among others.","Po (river)\n\nDams","Po (river)\n\nAt the village of Isola Serafini in the comune of Monticelli d'Ongina, Piacenza Province, 40 km downstream from Piacenza, a 362 m long, 20 m high gate dam featuring eleven 30 m openings gated by vertical lift gates, crosses the Po. Nine gates are high and two are 8 m high for sediment-scouring purposes. A spillway to the right passes through a hydroelectric station of 4 generators of 76 MW each operated by a - 11 m head of water. The spillway connects to a diversionary canal subtending a 12 km loop of the Po. A ship lock 85 m long and 12 m wide next to the station passes some traffic through the canal, but above the dam traffic is mainly barges. The average flow at the dam is 854 m³/s, with a 12,800 m³/s maximum.","Po (river)\n\nTributaries","Po (river)\n\nThe Po has 141 tributaries. They include (R on the right bank, L on the left, looking downstream):\n* Pellice (L)\n* Varaita (R)\n* Maira (R)\n* Dora Riparia (L)\n* Stura di Lanzo (L)\n* Malone (L)\n* Orco (L)\n* Dora Baltea (L)\n* Sesia (L)\n* Tanaro (R)\n* Scrivia (R)\n* Agogna (L)\n* Ticino (L)\n* Versa (R)\n* Lambro (L)\n* Trebbia (R)\n* Nure (R)\n* Adda (L)\n* Arda (R)\n* Taro (R)\n* Parma (R)\n* Enza (R)\n* Oglio (L)\n* Mincio (L)\n* Secchia (R)\n* Panaro (R)\nThe Reno (R) was a tributary of the Po until the middle of the eighteenth century when the course was diverted to lessen the risk of devastating floods.","Po (river)\n\nHistory","Po (river)\n\nThe Po river is first certainly identified in the Graeco-Roman historians and geographers of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, long after the valley had been occupied successively by prehistoric and historic peoples: Ligures, Etruscans, Celts, Veneti, Umbri, and Romans. At that late date the ancient authors were attempting to explain the provenance of the name. Perhaps the earliest of these, Polybius (2nd century BC), uses Pados (in Greek) and says that it was to be identified with the Eridanos of the poets. Moreover, the country people call it Bodencus.","Po (river)\n\nThis implies that a \"country\" population either remained from prehistoric times or adopted the name in use by that substrate. The name has been segmented as Bod-encus or Bod-incus, the suffix being characteristic of the ancient Ligurian language of northern Italy, southern France, Corsica and elsewhere.","Po (river)\n\nPliny the Elder has the most to say about the Padus of his times. Herodotus had expressed doubt concerning the existence of a river in Europe, Eridanos, which flowed into the northern sea, he said, from which amber came. He believed it was a Greek name (there are other Eridanos rivers in Greece), \"invented by some poet,\" but makes no conjectures as to where it might be. Pliny points out that in his own time the Eridanos had become wrongly identified with the Padus. He does not know when or how, but like Herodotus he blames the poets. Amber is supposed to have come from there. Phaëthon, son of the sun, struck by lightning changed into poplars and exuded tears every year, which is the source of amber (a myth of Pausanias). Expressing surprise at the ignorance of the poets, Pliny says \"There can be no doubt that amber is the product of the islands of the northern ocean (Baltic Sea)\" and attributes its introduction into the Po valley to the Veneti, the last link in a trade route to the north through Pannonia and Germany.","Po (river)\n\nPliny (Hist. Nat., iii. 122) also gives the Ligurian name of the Po river as Bodincus, which he translates as \"bottomless\". The root bod- has been generally analyzed as containing the PIE base *bhu(n)d(h)- seen in Sanskrit budhnah and Avestan buna- \"bottom\", Greek pythmen \"foundation\", Latin fundus \"bottom\", Old Irish bond \"sole of the foot\". The word Bodincus appears in the place name Bodincomagus, a Ligurian town on the right bank of the Po downstream from today’s Turin.","Po (river)\n\nMythology","Po (river)\n\nThe Po river is often identified with the Eridanos or Eridanus river of Greek mythology. This mythical river is the namesake of the constellation Eridanus."],"string":"[\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly (), officially the Italian Republic (), is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe.The Italian peninsula is geographically located in Southern Europe, while North Italy can be placed partly or totally in Central Europe. Due to cultural, political and historical reasons, Italy is a Western European country. Italy covers an area of 301338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate or Mediterranean climate; due to its shape, it is often referred to in Italy as lo Stivale (the Boot). With 61 million inhabitants, it is the third most populous EU member state. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino and Vatican City.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nSince classical times, ancient Phoenicians and Greeks, Etruscans, and Celts have inhabited the south, centre and north of the Italian Peninsula respectively, with various Italic peoples dispersed throughout Italy alongside other ancient Italian tribes and Greek, Carthaginian, and Phoenician colonies. The Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually spread throughout Italy, assimilating and conquering other nearby civilizations and forming the Roman Republic. Rome ultimately emerged as the dominant power, conquering much of the ancient world and becoming the leading cultural, political, and religious centre of Western civilisation. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the global distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity and the Latin script.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nDuring the Middle Ages, Italy suffered sociopolitical collapse amid calamitous barbarian invasions, but by the 11th century, numerous rival city-states and maritime republics rose to great prosperity through shipping, commerce, and banking, and even laid the groundwork for capitalism. These independent city-states and regional republics, acting as Europe's main port of entry for Asian and Near Eastern imported goods, often enjoyed a greater degree of democracy in comparison to the monarchies and feudal states found throughout Europe at the time, though much of central Italy remained under the control of the theocratic Papal States, while Southern Italy remained largely feudal, partially as a result of a succession of Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, and Bourbon conquests of the region.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, and art with the start of the modern era. Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists, and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo, and Machiavelli. Explorers from Italy such as Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, and Giovanni da Verrazzano discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery. Nevertheless, Italy's importance as a hub of commercial and political power significantly waned with the opening of trade routes from the New World, as New World imports and trade routes became more influential in Europe and bypassed the East Asian and Mediterranean trade routes that the Italian city-states had dominated. Furthermore, the Italian city-states constantly engaged one another in bloody warfare, with this tension and violent rivalry culminating in the Italian Wars of the 15th and 16th centuries, a series of wars and foreign invasions that left the Italian states vulnerable to annexation by neighboring European powers.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly would remain politically fragmented and fall prey to conquest, occupation, and general foreign domination by European powers such as France, Spain, and Austria, subsequently entering a long period of decline.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nBy the mid-19th century, a rising movement in support of Italian nationalism and Italian independence from foreign control lead to a period of revolutionary political upheaval known as the Risorgimento, which sought to bring about a rebirth of Italian cultural and economic prominence by liberating and consolidating the Italian peninsula and insular Italy into an independent and unified nation-state. After various unsuccessful attempts, the Italian Wars of Independence, the Expedition of the Thousand and the capture of Rome resulted in the eventual unification of the country, now a great power after centuries of foreign domination and political division. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the new Kingdom of Italy rapidly industrialized, especially in the so-called Industrial Triangle of Milan, Turin and Genoa in the north, and soon acquired a small colonial empire. However, the southern areas of the country remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialization, fueling a large and influential diaspora. Despite being one of the main victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil, leading the way to the rise of a Fascist dictatorship in 1922.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in military defeat, economic destruction, and a civil war following the rise of the Italian resistance movement. In the years that followed, Italy abolished the Italian monarchy, reinstated democracy, enjoyed a prolonged economic boom, and, despite periods of sociopolitical turmoil (e.g. Anni di piombo, Mani pulite, Second Mafia War and Maxi Trial), became one of the world's most developed nations.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and eighth largest economy in the world. It has a very high level of human development and enjoys the highest life expectancy in the EU. Italy plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, with a number of academics considering the country to be both a regional power and a great power. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the member of numerous international institutions, including the UN, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the WTO, the G7/G8, G20, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Council of Europe, Uniting for Consensus, and many more. As a reflection of its vast cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is one of the most visited countries.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe assumptions on the etymology of the name \\\"Italia\\\" are very numerous and the corpus of the solutions proposed by historians and linguists is very wide.Alberto Manco, Italia. Disegno storico-linguistico, 2009, Napoli, L'Orientale, ISBN 978-88-95044-62-0 According to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from ,OLD, p. 974: \\\"first syll. naturally short (cf. Quint.Inst.1.5.18), and so scanned in Lucil.825, but in dactylic verse lengthened metri gratia.\\\" was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning \\\"land of young cattle\\\" (cf. Lat vitulus \\\"calf\\\", Umb vitlo \\\"calf\\\"). The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula (modern Calabria: province of Reggio, and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia). But by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name \\\"Italia\\\" to a larger region, but it was during the reign of Emperor Augustus (end of the 1st century BC) that the term was expanded to cover the entire peninsula until the Alps.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nPrehistory and antiquity\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nExcavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Paleolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. The Ancient peoples of pre-Roman Italy – such as the Umbrians, the Latins (from which the Romans emerged), Volsci, Oscans, Samnites, Sabines, the Celts, the Ligures, and many others – were Indo-European peoples; the main historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European heritage include the Etruscans, the Elymians and Sicani in Sicily and the prehistoric Sardinians, which includes the Nuragic civilization. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible non-Indo-European origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni, known for their rock carvings.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nBetween the 17th and the 11th centuries BC Mycenaean Greeks established contacts with Italy and in the 8th and 7th centuries BC Greek colonies were established all along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula became known as Magna Graecia. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nRome, a settlement around a ford on the river Tiber conventionally founded in 753 BC, grew over the course of centuries into a massive empire, stretching from Britain to the borders of Persia, and engulfing the whole Mediterranean basin, in which Greek and Roman and many other cultures merged into a unique civilisation. The Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world. In a slow decline since the third century AD, the Empire split in two in 395 AD. The Western Empire, under the pressure of the barbarian invasions, eventually dissolved in 476 AD, when its last Emperor was deposed by the Germanic chief Odoacer, while the Eastern half of the Empire survived for another thousand years.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMiddle Ages\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy was seized by the Ostrogoths, followed in the 6th century by a brief reconquest under Byzantine Emperor Justinian. The invasion of another Germanic tribe, the Lombards, late in the same century, reduced the Byzantine presence to a rump realm (the Exarchate of Ravenna) and started the end of political unity of the peninsula for the next 1,300 years. The Lombard kingdom was subsequently absorbed into the Frankish Empire by Charlemagne in the late 8th century. The Franks also helped the formation of the Papal States in central Italy. Until the 13th century, Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy, with most of the Italian city-states siding for the former (Ghibellines) or for the latter (Guelphs) from momentary convenience.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIt was during this chaotic era that Italian towns saw the rise of a peculiar institution, the medieval commune. Given the power vacuum caused by extreme territorial fragmentation and the struggle between the Empire and the Holy See, local communities sought autonomous ways to maintain law and order. In 1176 a league of city-states, the Lombard League, defeated the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano, thus ensuring effective independence for most of northern and central Italian cities. In coastal and southern areas, the maritime republics, the most notable being Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi, heavily involved in the Crusades, grew to eventually dominate the Mediterranean and monopolise trade routes to the Orient.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the south, Sicily had become an Islamic emirate in the 9th century, thriving until the Italo-Normans conquered it in the late 11th century together with most of the Lombard and Byzantine principalities of southern Italy. Through a complex series of events, southern Italy developed as a unified kingdom, first under the House of Hohenstaufen, then under the Capetian House of Anjou and, from the 15th century, the House of Aragon. In Sardinia, the former Byzantine provinces became independent states known as Giudicati, although some parts of the island were under Genoese or Pisan control until the Aragonese conquered it in the 15th century. The Black Death pandemic of 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing perhaps one third of the population. However, the recovery from the plague led to a resurgence of cities, trade and economy which allowed the bloom of Humanism and Renaissance, that later spread in Europe.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEarly Modern\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the 14th and 15th centuries, northern-central Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states, the rest of the peninsula being occupied by the larger Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, referred to here as Naples. Though many of these city-states were often formally subordinate to foreign rulers, as in the case of the Duchy of Milan, which was officially a constituent state of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire, the city-states generally managed to maintain de facto independence from the foreign sovereigns that had seized Italian lands following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The strongest among these city-states gradually absorbed the surrounding territories giving birth to the Signorie, regional states often led by merchant families which founded local dynasties. War between the city-states was endemic, and primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. Decades of fighting eventually saw Florence, Milan and Venice emerged as the dominant players that agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThis peace would hold for the next forty years.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Renaissance, a period of vigorous revival of the arts and culture, originated in Italy thanks to a number of factors, as the great wealth accumulated by merchant cities, the patronage of its dominant families like the Medici of Florence, and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Conquest of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.Encyclopædia Britannica, Renaissance, 2008, O.Ed.Har, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World, Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997, Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45088-2\\nThe Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. The ideas and ideals of the Renaissance soon spread into Northern Europe, France, England and much of Europe. In the meantime, the discovery of the Americas, the new routes to Asia discovered by the Portuguese and the rise of the Ottoman Empire, all factors which eroded the traditional Italian dominance in trade with the East, caused a long economic decline in the peninsula.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFollowing the Italian Wars (1494 to 1559), ignited by the rivalry between France and Spain, the city-states gradually lost their independence and came under foreign domination, first under Spain (1559 to 1713) and then Austria (1713 to 1796). In 1629–1631, a new outburst of plague claimed about 14% of Italy's population. In addition, as the Spanish Empire started to decline in the 17th century, so did its possessions in Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Milan. In particular, Southern Italy was impoverished and cut off from the mainstream of events in Europe. In the 18th century, as a result of the War of Spanish Succession, Austria replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power, while the House of Savoy emerged as a regional power expanding to Piedmont and Sardinia. In the same century, the two-century long decline was interrupted by the economic and state reforms pursued in several states by the ruling élites. During the Napoleonic Wars, northern-central Italy was invaded and reorganised as a new Kingdom of Italy, a client state of the French Empire, while the southern half of the peninsula was administered by Joachim Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, who was crowned as King of Naples.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe 1814 Congress of Vienna restored the situation of the late 18th century, but the ideals of the French Revolution could not be eradicated, and soon re-surfaced during the political upheavals that characterised the first part of the 19th century.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItalian unification\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe birth of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful war was declared on Austria. The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in liberating Lombardy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn 1860–61, general Giuseppe Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily, allowing the Sardinian government led by the Count of Cavour to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861. In 1866, Victor Emmanuel II allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annex Venetia. Finally, as France during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War of 1870 abandoned its garrisons in Rome, the Italians rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal States.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Piedmontese Albertine Statute of 1848, extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, provided for basic freedoms, but electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. The government of the new kingdom took place in a framework of parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberal forces. In 1913, male universal suffrage was adopted. As Northern Italy quickly industrialised, the South and rural areas of North remained underdeveloped and overpopulated, forcing millions of people to migrate abroad, while the Italian Socialist Party constantly increased in strength, challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment. Starting from the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing Somalia, Eritrea and later Libya and the Dodecanese under its rule.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly, nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, in 1915 joined the Allies into the war with a promise of substantial territorial gains, that included western Inner Carniola, former Austrian Littoral, Dalmatia as well as parts of the Ottoman Empire. The war was initially inconclusive, as the Italian army get struck in a long attrition war in the Alps, making little progress and suffering very heavy losses. Eventually, in October 1918, the Italians launched a massive offensive, culminating in the victory of Vittorio Veneto. The Italian victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nDuring the war, more than 650,000 Italian soldiers and as many civilians died and the kingdom went to the brink of bankruptcy. Under the Peace Treaties of Saint-Germain, Rapallo and Rome, Italy obtained most of the promised territories, but not Dalmatia (except Zara), allowing nationalists to define the victory as \\\"mutilated\\\". Moreover, Italy annexed the Hungarian harbour of Fiume, that was not part of territories promised at London but had been occupied after the end of the war by Gabriele D'Annunzio.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFascist Regime\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe socialist agitations that followed the devastation of the Great War, inspired by the Russian Revolution, led to counter-revolution and repression throughout Italy. The liberal establishment, fearing a Soviet-style revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini. In October 1922 the Blackshirts of the National Fascist Party attempted a coup (the \\\"March on Rome\\\") which failed but at the last minute, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to proclaim a state of siege and appointed Mussolini prime minister. Over the next few years, Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties, thus forming a dictatorship. These actions attracted international attention and eventually inspired similar dictatorships such as Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, resulting in an international alienation and leading to Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations; Italy allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan and strongly supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish civil war. In 1939, Italy annexed Albania, a de facto protectorate for decades. Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940. After initially advancing in British Somaliland and Egypt, the Italians were defeated in East Africa, Greece, Russia and North Africa.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAfter the attack on Yugoslavia by Germany and Italy, suppression of the Yugoslav Partisans resistance and attempts to Italianization resulted in the Italian war crimes and deportation of about 25,000 people to the Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere. After the war, due to the Cold war, a long period of censorship, disinterest and denial occurred about the Italian war crimes and the Yugoslav's foibe killings. Meanwhile, about 250,000 Italians and anti-communist Slavs fled to Italy in the Istrian exodus.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAn Allied invasion of Sicily began in July 1943, leading to the collapse of the Fascist regime and the fall of Mussolini on 25 July. On 8 September, Italy surrendered. The Germans shortly succeeded in taking control of northern and central Italy. The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war, as the Allies were slowly moving up from the south.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the north, the Germans set up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a Nazi puppet state with Mussolini installed as leader. The post-armistice period saw the rise of a large anti-fascist resistance movement, the Resistenza. Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered. Nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died in the conflict, and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nRepublican Italy\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly became a republic after a referendum held on 2 June 1946, a day celebrated since as Republic Day. This was also the first time that Italian women were entitled to vote. Victor Emmanuel III's son, Umberto II, was forced to abdicate and exiled. The Republican Constitution was approved on 1 January 1948. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy of 1947, most of Julian March was lost to Yugoslavia and, later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all its colonial possessions, formally ending the Italian Empire.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFears in the Italian electorate of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on 18 April 1948, when the Christian Democrats, under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, obtained a landslide victory. Consequently, in 1949 Italy became a member of NATO. The Marshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the \\\"Economic Miracle\\\". In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), which became the European Union (EU) in 1993.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFrom the late 1960s until the early 1980s, the country experienced the Years of Lead, a period characterised by economic crisis (especially after the 1973 oil crisis), widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres carried out by opposing extremist groups, with the alleged involvement of US and Soviet intelligence. / / / The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democrat leader Aldo Moro in 1978 and the Bologna railway station massacre in 1980, where 85 people died.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the 1980s, for the first time since 1945, two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers: one liberal (Giovanni Spadolini) and one socialist (Bettino Craxi); the Christian Democrats remained, however, the main government party. During Craxi's government, the economy recovered and Italy became the world's fifth largest industrial nation, gaining entry into the G7 Group. However, as a result of his spending policies, the Italian national debt skyrocketed during the Craxi era, soon passing 100% of the GDP.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the early 1990s, Italy faced significant challenges, as voters – disenchanted with political paralysis, massive public debt and the extensive corruption system (known as Tangentopoli) uncovered by the 'Clean Hands' investigation – demanded radical reforms. The scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: the Christian Democrats, who ruled for almost 50 years, underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded, splitting up into several factions. The Communists reorganised as a social-democratic force. During the 1990s and the 2000s (decade), center-right (dominated by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi) and center-left coalitions (led by university professor Romano Prodi) alternatively governed the country.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the late 2000s, Italy was severely hit by the Great Recession. From 2008 to 2015, the country suffered 42 months of GDP recession. The economic crisis was one of the main problems that forced Berlusconi to resign in 2011. The government of the conservative Prime Minister was replaced by the technocratic cabinet of Mario Monti. Following the 2013 general election, the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta formed a new government at the head of a right-left Grand coalition. In 2014, challenged by the new Secretary of the PD Matteo Renzi, Letta resigned and was replaced by Renzi. The new government started important constitutional reforms such as the abolition of the Senate and a new electoral law.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is located in Southern Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north, Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia, and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed, enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia, in addition to many smaller islands. The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe country's total area is 301230 km², of which 294020 km² is land and 7210 km² is water. Including the islands, Italy has a coastline and border of 7600 km on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas (740 km), and borders shared with France (488 km), Austria (430 km), Slovenia (232 km) and Switzerland (740 km). San Marino (39 km) and Vatican City (), both enclaves, account for the remainder.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone and the Alps form most of its northern boundary, where Italy's highest point is located on Monte Bianco (4,810 m/15,782 ft).Official French maps show the border detouring south of the main summit, and claim the highest point in Italy is Mont Blanc de Courmayeur (4,748 m), but these are inconsistent with an 1861 convention and topographic watershed analysis. The Po, Italy's longest river (652 km/405 mi), flows from the Alps on the western border with France and crosses the Padan plain on its way to the Adriatic Sea.\\nThe five largest lakes are, in order of diminishing size: Garda (), Maggiore (, shared with Switzerland), Como (), Trasimeno () and Bolsena ().\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe country is situated at the meeting point of the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate, leading to considerable seismic and volcanic activity. There are 14 volcanoes in Italy, four of which are active: Etna (the traditional site of Vulcan’s smithy), Stromboli, Vulcano and Vesuvius. Vesuvius is the only active volcano in mainland Europe and is most famous for the destruction of Pompeii and Herculanum. Several islands and hills have been created by volcanic activity, and there is still a large active caldera, the Campi Flegrei north-west of Naples.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAlthough the country comprises the Italian peninsula and most of the southern Alpine basin, some of Italy's territory extends beyond the Alpine basin and some islands are located outside the Eurasian continental shelf. These territories are the comuni of: Livigno, Sexten, Innichen, Toblach (in part), Chiusaforte, Tarvisio, Graun im Vinschgau (in part), which are all part of the Danube's drainage basin, while the Val di Lei constitutes part of the Rhine's basin and the islands of Lampedusa and Lampione are on the African continental shelf.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEnvironment\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAfter its quick industrial growth, Italy took a long time to confront its environmental problems. After several improvements, it now ranks 84th in the world for ecological sustainability. National parks cover about five percent of the country. In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's leading producers of renewable energy, ranking as the world’s fourth largest holder of installed solar energy capacity and the sixth largest holder of wind power capacity in 2010. Renewable energies now make up about 12% of the total primary and final energy consumption in Italy, with a future target share set at 17% for the year 2020.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nHowever, air pollution remains a severe problem, especially in the industrialised north, reaching the tenth highest level worldwide of industrial carbon dioxide emissions in the 1990s. Italy is the twelfth largest carbon dioxide producer. \\nExtensive traffic and congestion in the largest metropolitan areas continue to cause severe environmental and health issues, even if smog levels have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and 1980s, and the presence of smog is becoming an increasingly rarer phenomenon and levels of sulphur dioxide are decreasing.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMany watercourses and coastal stretches have also been contaminated by industrial and agricultural activity, while because of rising water levels, Venice has been regularly flooded throughout recent years. Waste from industrial activity is not always disposed of by legal means and has led to permanent health effects on inhabitants of affected areas, as in the case of the Seveso disaster. The country has also operated several nuclear reactors between 1963 and 1990 but, after the Chernobyl disaster and a referendum on the issue the nuclear program was terminated, a decision that was overturned by the government in 2008, planning to build up to four nuclear power plants with French technology. This was in turn struck down by a referendum following the Fukushima nuclear accident.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nDeforestation, illegal building developments and poor land-management policies have led to significant erosion all over Italy's mountainous regions, leading to major ecological disasters like the 1963 Vajont Dam flood, the 1998 Sarno and 2009 Messina mudslides.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThanks to the great longitudinal extension of the peninsula and the mostly mountainous internal conformation, the climate of Italy is highly diverse. In most of the inland northern and central regions, the climate ranges from humid subtropical to humid continental and oceanic. In particular, the climate of the Po valley geographical region is mostly continental, with harsh winters and hot summers.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe coastal areas of Liguria, Tuscany and most of the South generally fit the Mediterranean climate stereotype (Köppen climate classification Csa). Conditions on peninsular coastal areas can be very different from the interior's higher ground and valleys, particularly during the winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and warm and generally dry summers, although lowland valleys can be quite hot in summer. Average winter temperatures vary from 0 C on the Alps to\\n12 C in Sicily, like so the average summer temperatures range from 20 C to over 30 C.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has been a unitary parliamentary republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by a constitutional referendum. The President of Italy (Presidente della Repubblica), currently Sergio Mattarella since 2015, is Italy's head of state. The President is elected for a single seven years mandate by the Parliament of Italy in joint session. Italy has a written democratic constitution, resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Civil War.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has a parliamentary government based on a proportional voting system. The parliament is perfectly bicameral: the two houses, the Chamber of Deputies (that meets in Palazzo Montecitorio) and the Senate of the Republic (that meets in Palazzo Madama), have the same powers. The Prime Minister, officially President of the Council of Ministers (Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), is Italy's head of government. The Prime Minister and the cabinet are appointed by the President of the Republic, but must pass a vote of confidence in Parliament to come into office. The incumbent Prime Minister is Matteo Renzi of the Democratic Party.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe prime minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds effective executive power— and he must receive a vote of approval from it to execute most political activities. The office is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems, but the leader of the Italian government is not authorized to request the dissolution of the Parliament of Italy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAnother difference with similar offices is that the overall political responsibility for intelligence is vested in the President of the Council of Ministers. By virtue of that, the Prime Minister has exclusive power to: Coordinate intelligence policies, determining the financial resources and strengthening national cyber security; Apply and protect State secrets; Authorize agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad, in violation of the law.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nA peculiarity of the Italian Parliament is the representation given to Italian citizens permanently living abroad: 12 Deputies and 6 Senators elected in four distinct overseas constituencies. In addition, the Italian Senate is characterised also by a small number of senators for life, appointed by the President \\\"for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field\\\". Former Presidents of the Republic are ex officio life senators.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly's three major political parties are the Democratic Party, Forza Italia and the Five Stars Movement. During the 2013 general election these three parties won 579 out of 630 seats available in the Chamber of Deputies and 294 out of 315 in the Senate. Most of the remaining seats were won by a short-lived electoral bloc formed to support the outgoing Prime Minister Mario Monti, the far left party Left, Ecology, Freedom or by parties that contest elections only in one part of Italy: the Northern League, the South Tyrolean People's Party, Vallée d'Aoste and Great South. On 15 November 2013, 58 splinter MPs from Forza Italia founded New Centre-Right.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nLaw and criminal justice\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian judicial system is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. The Supreme Court of Cassation is the highest court in Italy for both criminal and civil appeal cases. The Constitutional Court of Italy (Corte Costituzionale) rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and is a post–World War II innovation. Since their appearance in the middle of the 19th century, Italian organised crime and criminal organisations have infiltrated the social and economic life of many regions in Southern Italy, the most notorious of which being the Sicilian Mafia, which would later expand into some foreign countries including the United States. The Mafia receipts may reach 9% of Italy's GDP.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nA 2009 report identified 610 comuni which have a strong Mafia presence, where 13 million Italians live and 14.6% of the Italian GDP is produced. The Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, nowadays probably the most powerful crime syndicate of Italy, accounts alone for 3% of the country's GDP. However, at 0.013 per 1,000 people, Italy has only the 47th highest murder rate (in a group of 62 countries) and the 43rd highest number of rapes per 1,000 people in the world (in a group of 65 countries), relatively low figures among developed countries.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nLaw enforcement\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nLaw enforcement in Italy is provided by multiple police forces, five of which are national, Italian agencies.\\nThe Polizia di Stato (State Police) is the civil national police of Italy. Along with patrolling, investigative and law enforcement duties, it patrols the Autostrada (Italy's Express Highway network), and oversees the security of railways, bridges and waterways.\\nThe Carabinieri is the common name for the Arma dei Carabinieri, a Gendarmerie-like military corps with police duties. They also serve as the military police for the Italian armed forces.\\nThe Guardia di Finanza, (English: Financial Guard) is a corps under the authority of the Minister of Economy and Finance, with a role as police force. The Corps is in charge of financial, economic, judiciary and public safety.\\nThe Corpo Forestale dello Stato (National Forestry Department) is responsible for law enforcement in Italian national parks and forests. Their duties include enforcing poaching laws, safeguarding protected animal species and preventing forest fires.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is a founding member of the European Community, now the European Union (EU), and of NATO. Italy was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and it is a member and strong supporter of a wide number of international organisations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, and the Central European Initiative. Its recent turns in the rotating presidency of international organisations include the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), the forerunner of the OSCE, in 1994; G8; and the EU in 2009 and from July to December 2003.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly strongly supports multilateral international politics, endorsing the United Nations and its international security activities. , Italy was deploying 5,296 troops abroad, engaged in 33 UN and NATO missions in 25 countries of the world. Italy deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. Italy deployed over 2,000 troops in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) from February 2003. Italy still supports international efforts to reconstruct and stabilise Iraq, but it had withdrawn its military contingent of some 3,200 troops by November 2006, maintaining only humanitarian operators and other civilian personnel.\\nIn August 2006 Italy deployed about 2,450 troops in Lebanon for the United Nations' peacekeeping mission UNIFIL. Italy is one of the largest financiers of the Palestinian National Authority, contributing €60 million in 2013 alone.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian Army, Navy, Air Force and Carabinieri collectively form the Italian Armed Forces, under the command of the Supreme Defence Council, presided over by the President of Italy. From 2005, military service is entirely voluntary. In 2010, the Italian military had 293,202 personnel on active duty, of which 114,778 are Carabinieri. Total Italian military spending in 2010 ranked tenth in the world, standing at $35.8 billion, equal to 1.7% of national GDP. As part of NATO's nuclear sharing strategy Italy also hosts 90 United States nuclear bombs, located in the Ghedi and Aviano air bases.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian Army is the national ground defence force, numbering 109,703 in 2008. Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft the Mangusta attack helicopter, recently deployed in UN missions. It also has at its disposal a large number of Leopard 1 and M113 armoured vehicles.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian Navy in 2008 had 35,200 active personnel with 85 commissioned ships and 123 aircraft. It is now equipping itself with a bigger aircraft carrier (the Cavour), new destroyers, submarines and multipurpose frigates. In modern times the Italian Navy, being a member of the NATO, has taken part in many coalition peacekeeping operations around the world.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian Air Force in 2008 had a strength of 43,882 and operated 585 aircraft, including 219 combat jets and 114 helicopters. As a stopgap and as replacement for leased Tornado ADV interceptors, the AMI has leased 30 F-16A Block 15 ADF and four F-16B Block 10 Fighting Falcons, with an option for more. The coming years will also see the introduction of 121 EF2000 Eurofighter Typhoons, replacing the leased F-16 Fighting Falcons. Further updates are foreseen in the Tornado IDS/IDT and AMX fleets. A transport capability is guaranteed by a fleet of 22 C-130Js and Aeritalia G.222s of which 12 are being replaced with the newly developed G.222 variant called the C-27J Spartan.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAn autonomous corps of the military, the Carabinieri are the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, policing the military and civilian population alongside Italy's other police forces. While the different branches of the Carabinieri report to separate ministries for each of their individual functions, the corps reports to the Ministry of Internal Affairs when maintaining public order and security.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is subdivided into 20 regions (regioni), five of these regions having a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their local matters. The country is further divided into 14 metropolitan cities (città metropolitane) and 96 provinces (province), which in turn are subdivided in 8,047 municipalities (comuni).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has a capitalist mixed economy, ranking as the third-largest in the Eurozone and the eighth-largest in the world. The country is a founding member of the G7, G8, the Eurozone and the OECD.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is regarded as one of the world's most industrialised nations and a leading country in world trade and exports. It is a highly developed country, with the world's 8th highest quality of life and the 25th Human Development Index. The country is well known for its creative and innovative business, a large and competitive agricultural sector (Italy is the world's largest wine producer), and for its influential and high-quality automobile, machinery, food, design and fashion industry.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is the world's sixth largest manufacturing country, characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and a large number of dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in several industrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry. This has produced a manufacturing sector often focused on the export of niche market and luxury products, that if on one side is less capable to compete on the quantity, on the other side is more capable of facing the competition from China and other emerging Asian economies based on lower labour costs, with higher quality products.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe country was the world's 7th largest exporter in 2009. Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. Its largest EU trade partners, in order of market share, are Germany (12.9%), France (11.4%), and Spain (7.4%). Finally, tourism is one of the fastest growing and profitable sectors of the national economy: with 48.6 million international tourist arrivals and total receipts estimated at $45.5 billion in 2014, Italy was the fifth most visited country and the sixth highest tourism earner in the world.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is part of the European single market which represents more than 500 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Italy introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002. It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 330 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has been hit very hard by the Great Recession and the subsequent European sovereign-debt crisis, that exacerbated the country's structural problems. Effectively, after a strong GDP growth of 5–6% per year from the 1950s to the early 1970s, and a progressive slowdown in the 1980-90s, the country virtually stagnated in the 2000s. The political efforts to revive growth with massive government spending eventually produced a severe rise in public debt, that stood at over 135% of GDP in 2014, ranking second in the EU only after the Greek one (at 174%). For all that, the largest chunk of Italian public debt is owned by national subjects, a major difference between Italy and Greece, and the level of household debt is much lower than the OECD average.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nA gaping North–South divide is a major factor of socio-economic weakness. It can be noted by the huge difference in statistical income between the northern and southern regions and municipalities. The richest region, Lombardy, earns 127% of the national GDP per capita, while the poorest, Calabria, only 61% The unemployment rate (11.9%) stands slightly above the Eurozone average, however the average figure is 7.9% in the North and 20.2% in the South.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nInfrastructure\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn 2004 the transport sector in Italy generated a turnover of about 119.4 billion euros, employing 935,700 persons in 153,700 enterprises. Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were 668721 km of serviceable roads in Italy, including 6487 km of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia. In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 goods vehicles circulated on the national road network.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe national railway network, state-owned and operated by Ferrovie dello Stato, in 2008 totalled of which is electrified, and on which 4,802 locomotives and railcars run.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe national inland waterways network comprised 1477 km of navigable rivers and channels in 2002. In 2004 there were approximately 30 main airports (including the two hubs of Malpensa International in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International in Rome) and 43 major seaports (including the seaport of Genoa, the country's largest and second largest in the Mediterranean Sea). In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly needs to import about 80% of its energy requirements.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly does not invest enough to maintain its drinking water supply and sanitation infrastructure, while water and sanitation tariffs are among the lowest in the European Union. The Galli Law, passed in 1993, aimed at raising the level of investment and to improve service quality by consolidating service providers, making them more efficient and increasing the level of cost recovery through tariff revenues. Despite these reforms, investment levels have declined and remain far from sufficient.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThrough the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During the Renaissance Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72) made important contributions to a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), a physicist, mathematician and astronomer, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include key improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and ultimately the triumph of Copernicanism over the Ptolemaic model. Other astronomers suchs as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made many important discoveries about the Solar System. In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy. Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), and Gerolamo Cardano (1501–76) made fundamental advances in mathematics. Luca Pacioli established accounting to the world. Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–54), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor and is also noted for his many other contributions to physics, including the co-development of the quantum theory and was one of the key figures in the creation of the nuclear weapon. He, Emilio G.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nSegrè, and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews, including Emilio G. Segrè (1905–89) (who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), and Bruno Rossi (1905–93), a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nOther prominent physicists include: Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular the Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN). In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry, Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high polymers. Giuseppe Occhialini received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEnnio de Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of Elliptic partial differential equations.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAt the end of 2013, Italy had 60,782,668 inhabitants. The resulting population density, at 202 PD/km2, is higher than that of most Western European countries. However, the distribution of the population is widely uneven. The most densely populated areas are the Po Valley (that accounts for almost a half of the national population) and the metropolitan areas of Rome and Naples, while vast regions such as the Alps and Apennines highlands, the plateaus of Basilicata and the island of Sardinia are very sparsely populated.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe population of Italy almost doubled during the 20th century, but the pattern of growth was extremely uneven because of large-scale internal migration from the rural South to the industrial cities of the North, a phenomenon which happened as a consequence of the Italian economic miracle of the 1950–1960s. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they start to dramatically decline, leading to rapid population ageing. At the end of the 2000s (decade), one in five Italians was over 65 years old. However, in recent years Italy experienced a significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has also climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008. \\nThe TFR is expected to reach 1.6–1.8 in 2030.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFrom the late 19th century until the 1960s Italy was a country of mass emigration. Between 1898 and 1914, the peak years of Italian diaspora, approximately 750,000 Italians emigrated each year. The diaspora concerned more than 25 million Italians and it is considered the biggest mass migration of contemporary times. As a result, today more than 4.1 million Italian citizens are living abroad,[http://www.interno.it/mininterno/export/sites/default/it/sezioni/servizi/legislazione/elezioni/0947_2010_02_01_DM27012010.html Statistiche del Ministero dell'Interno] while at least 60 million people of full or part Italian ancestry live outside of Italy, most notably in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Australia, and France.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMetropolitan cities\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEthnic groups\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn 2014, Italy had about 4.9 million foreign residents, making up some 8.1% of the total population. The figures include more than half a million children born in Italy to foreign nationals—second generation immigrants, but exclude foreign nationals who have subsequently acquired Italian nationality; this applies to about 130,000 people a year. The official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, that were estimated in 2008 to number at least 670,000.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nStarting from the early 1980s, until then a linguistically and culturally homogeneous society, Italy begun to attract substantial flows of foreign immigrants. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and, more recently, the 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union, large waves of migration originated from the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe (especially Romania, Albania, Ukraine and Poland). An equally important source of immigration is neighbouring North Africa (in particular, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia), with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from Asia-Pacific (notably China and the Philippines) and Latin America (mainly from Peru and Ecuador) have been recorded.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nCurrently, about one million Romanian citizens (around one tenth of them being Roma ) are officially registered as living in Italy, representing thus the most important individual country of origin, followed by Albanians and Moroccans with about 500,000 people each. The number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more. Overall, at the end of the 2000s (decade) the foreign born population of Italy was from: Europe (54%), Africa (22%), Asia (16%), the Americas (8%) and Oceania (0.06%). The distribution of immigrants is largely uneven in Italy: 87% of immigrants live in the northern and central parts of the country (the most economically developed areas), while only 13% live in the southern half of the peninsula.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly's official language is Italian. It is estimated that there are about 64 million native Italian speakers while the total number of Italian speakers, including those who use it as a second language, is about 85 million. Italy has numerous regional dialects, however, the establishment of a national education system has led to decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century. Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s thanks to economic growth and the rise of mass media and television (the state broadcaster RAI helped set a standard Italian).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nTwelve historical minority languages are legally recognised: Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan and Sardinian (Law number 482 of 15 December 1999). French is co-official in the Valle d’Aosta—although in fact Franco-Provencal is more commonly spoken there. German has the same status in South Tyrol as, in some parts of that province and in parts of the neighbouring Trentino, does Ladin. Slovene is officially recognised in the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Udine.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nBecause of significant recent immigration, Italy has sizeable populations whose native language is not Italian. According to the Italian National Institute of Statistics, Romanian is the most common mother tongue among foreign residents in Italy: almost 800,000 people speak Romanian as their first language (21.9% of the foreign residents aged 6 and over). Other prevalent mother tongues are Arabic (spoken by over 475,000 people; 13.1% of foreign residents), Albanian (380,000 people) and Spanish (255,000 people). Other languages spoken in Italy are Ukrainian, Hindi, Polish, and Tamil amongst others.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nRoman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in the country, although Catholicism is no longer officially the state religion. In 2010, the proportion of Italians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 81.2%.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Holy See, the episcopal jurisdiction of Rome, contains the central government of the entire Roman Catholic Church, including various agencies essential to administration. Diplomatically, it is recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, who is also the Bishop of Rome, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. Often incorrectly referred to as \\\"the Vatican\\\", the Holy See is not the same entity as the Vatican City State, which came into existence only in 1929; the Holy See dates back to early Christian times. Ambassadors are officially accredited not to the Vatican City State but to \\\"the Holy See\\\", and papal representatives to states and international organisations are recognised as representing the Holy See, not the Vatican City State.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMinority Christian faiths in Italy include Eastern Orthodox, Waldensians and Protestant communities. In 2011, there were an estimated 1.5 million Orthodox Christians in Italy, or 2.5% of the population; 0.5 million Pentecostals and Evangelicals (of whom 0.4 million are members of the Assemblies of God), 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses, 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Latter-day Saints, 15,000 Baptists (plus some 5,000 Free Baptists), 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists (affiliated with the Waldensian Church).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nOne of the longest-established minority religious faiths in Italy is Judaism, Jews having been present in Ancient Rome since before the birth of Christ. Italy has for centuries welcomed Jews expelled from other countries, notably Spain. However, as a result of the Holocaust, about 20% of Italian Jews lost their lives.p. 403 This, together with the emigration that preceded and followed World War II, has left only a small community of around 28,400 Jews in Italy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nSoaring immigration in the last two decades has been accompanied by an increase in non-Christian faiths. In 2010, there were 1.6 million Muslims in Italy, forming 2.6 percent of population. In addition, there are more than 200,000 followers of faiths originating in the Indian subcontinent with some 70,000 Sikhs with 22 gurdwaras across the country, 70,000 Hindus, and 50,000 Buddhists. There were an estimated 4,900 Bahá'ís in Italy in 2005.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian state, as a measure to protect religious freedom, devolves shares of income tax to recognised religious communities, under a regime known as Eight per thousand (Otto per mille). Donations are allowed to Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu communities; however, Islam remains excluded, since no Muslim communities have yet signed a concordat with the Italian state. Taxpayers who do not wish to fund a religion contribute their share to the state welfare system.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nEducation in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen, and consists of five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado) and university (università).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nPrimary education lasts eight years. The students are given a basic education in Italian, English, mathematics, natural sciences, history, geography, social studies, physical education and visual and musical arts. Secondary education lasts for five years and includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the liceo prepares students for university studies with a classical or scientific curriculum, while the istituto tecnico and the Istituto professionale prepare pupils for vocational education. In 2012, the Italian secondary education has been evalued as slightly below the OECD average, with a strong and steady improvement in science and mathematics results since 2003; however, a wide gap exists between northern schools, which performed significantly better than the national average (among the best in the world in some subjects), and schools in the South, that had much poorer results.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nTertiary education in Italy is divided between public universities, private universities and the prestigious and selective superior graduate schools, such as the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. The university system in Italy is generally regarded as poor for a world cultural powerhouse, with no universities ranked among the 100 world best and only 20 among the top 500. However, the current government has scheduled major reforms and investments in order to improve the overall internationalisation and quality of the system.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian state runs a universal public healthcare system since 1978. However, healthcare is provided to all citizens and residents by a mixed public-private system. The public part is the Servizio Sanitario Nazionale, which is organised under the Ministry of Health and administered on a devolved regional basis. Healthcare spending in Italy accounted for 9.2% of the national GDP in 2012, very close the OECD countries' average of 9.3%.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly in 2000 ranked as having the world's 2nd best healthcare system, and the world's 2nd best healthcare performance. Life expectancy in Italy is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 6th in the world for life expectancy. In comparison to other Western countries, Italy has a relatively low rate of adult obesity (below 10%), probably thanks to the health benefits of the mediterranean diet. The proportion of daily smokers was 22% in 2012, down from 24.4% in 2000 but still slightly above the OECD average. Smoking in public places including bars, restaurants, night clubs and offices has been restricted to specially ventilated rooms since 2005.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFor centuries divided by politics and geography until its eventual unification in 1861, Italy has developed a unique culture, shaped by a multitude of regional customs and local centres of power and patronage. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a number of magnificent courts competed for attracting the best architects, artistis and scholars, thus producing an immense legacy of monuments, paintings, music and literature.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has more UNESCO World Heritage Sites (51) than any other country in the world, and has rich collections of art, culture and literature from many different periods. The country has had a broad cultural influence worldwide, also because numerous Italians emigrated to other places during the Italian diaspora. Furthermore, the nation has, overall, an estimated 100,000 monuments of any sort (museums, palaces, buildings, statues, churches, art galleries, villas, fountains, historic houses and archaeological remains).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has a very broad and diverse architectural style, which cannot be simply classified by period, but also by region, because of Italy's division into several regional states until 1861. This has created a highly diverse and eclectic range in architectural designs.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is known for its considerable architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries. Several of the finest works in Western architecture, such as the Colosseum, the Milan Cathedral and Florence cathedral, the Leaning Tower of Pisa and the building designs of Venice are found in Italy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItalian architecture has also widely influenced the architecture of the world. British architect Inigo Jones, inspired by the designs of Italian buildings and cities, brought back the ideas of Italian Renaissance architecture to 17th-century England, being inspired by Andrea Palladio. Additionally, Italianate architecture, popular abroad since the 19th century, was used to describe foreign architecture which was built in an Italian style, especially modelled on Renaissance architecture.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nVisual art\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe history of Italian visual art is part of Western painting history. Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main \\\"styles\\\" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nPanel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Italian Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy. In Italy artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces including his David, Pietà, Moses. Other prominent Renaissance sculptors include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi, Andrea del Verrocchio.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the 15th and 16th centuries, the High Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. In the 17th century, among the greatest painters of Italian Baroque are Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Artemisia Gentileschi, Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni and Bartolomeo Manfredi. Subsequently, in the 18th century, Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such as Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Canaletto. Italian Neoclassical sculpture focused, with Antonio Canova's nudes, on the idealist aspect of the movement.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIn the 19th century, major Italian Romantic painters were Francesco Hayez, Giuseppe Bezzuoli and Francesco Podesti. Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by the Macchiaioli, led by Giovanni Fattori, and Giovanni Boldini; Realism by Gioacchino Toma and Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo. In the 20th century, with Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting and sculpture. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nLiterature and theatre\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe basis of the modern Italian language was established by the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, whose greatest work, the Divine Comedy, is considered among the foremost literary statements produced in Europe during the Middle Ages. There is no shortage of celebrated literary figures in Italy: Giovanni Boccaccio, Giacomo Leopardi, Alessandro Manzoni, Torquato Tasso, Ludovico Ariosto, and Petrarch, whose best-known vehicle of expression, the sonnet, was created in Italy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nProminent philosophers include Giordano Bruno, Marsilio Ficino, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Giambattista Vico. Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nCarlo Collodi's 1883 novel, The Adventures of Pinocchio, is the most celebrated children's classic by an Italian author.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItalian theatre can be traced back to the Roman tradition which was heavily influenced by the Greek; as with many other literary genres, Roman dramatists tended to adapt and translate from the Greek. For example, Seneca's Phaedra was based on that of Euripides, and many of the comedies of Plautus were direct translations of works by Menander. During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, Commedia dell'arte was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics, and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called canovaccio.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFrom folk music to classical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly's most famous composers include the Renaissance composers Palestrina and Monteverdi, the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples, and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is widely known for being the birthplace of opera. Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in Italian cities such as Mantua and Venice. Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi and Puccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala operahouse in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers include Enrico Caruso and Alessandro Bonci.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nIntroduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM and Goblin. Italy was also an important country in the development of disco and electronic music, with Italo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent usage of synthesizers and drum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside from Euro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such as Eurodance and Nu-disco).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nProducers/songwriters such as Giorgio Moroder, who won three Academy Awards for his music, were highly influential in the development of EDM (electronic dance music). Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto. Singers such as pop diva Mina, classical crossover artist Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, and European chart-topper Eros Ramazzotti have attained international acclaim.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions. The first Italian film was a few seconds, showing Pope Leo XIII giving a blessing to the camera. The Italian film industry was born between 1903 and 1908 with three companies: the Società Italiana Cines, the Ambrosio Film and the Itala Film. Other companies soon followed in Milan and in Naples. In a short time these first companies reached a fair producing quality, and films were soon sold outside Italy. Cinema was later used by Benito Mussolini, who founded Rome's renowned Cinecittà studio for the production of Fascist propaganda until World War II.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAfter the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s. Notable Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni and Dario Argento. Movies include world cinema treasures such as La dolce vita, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly and Bicycle Thieves. The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday of neorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nAs the country grew wealthier in the 1950s, a form of neorealism known as pink neorealism succeeded, and other film genres, such as sword-and-sandal followed as spaghetti westerns, were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with movies like Life Is Beautiful directed by Roberto Benigni, Il Postino: The Postman with Massimo Troisi and The Great Beauty directed by Paolo Sorrentino.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is the most awarded country at the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe most popular sport in Italy is, by far, football. Italy's national football team (nicknamed Gli Azzurri – \\\"the Blues\\\") is one of the world's most successful team as it has won four FIFA World Cups (1934, 1938, 1982, and 2006). Italian clubs have won 48 major European trophies, making Italy the second most successful country in European football. Italy's top-flight club football league, Serie A, ranks as the fourth best in Europe and is followed by millions of fans around the world.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nOther popular team sports in Italy include volleyball, basketball and rugby. Italy's male and female national teams are often featured among the world's best. The Italian national basketball team's best results were gold at Eurobasket 1983 and EuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in 2004. Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe. Rugby union enjoys a good level of popularity, especially in the north of the country. Italy's national team competes in the Six Nations Championship, and is a regular at the Rugby World Cup. Italy ranks as a tier-one nation by World Rugby.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly has a long and successful tradition in individual sports as well. Bicycle racing is a very familiar sport in the country. Italians have won the UCI World Championships more than any other country, except Belgium. The Giro d'Italia is a cycling race held every May, and constitutes one of the three Grand Tours, along with the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España, each of which last approximately three weeks. Alpine skiing is also a very widespread sport in Italy, and the country is a popular international skiing destination, known for its ski resorts. Italian skiers achieved good results in Winter Olympic Games, Alpine Ski World Cup, and World Championship. Tennis has a significant following in Italy, ranking as the fourth most practised sport in the country. The Rome Masters, founded in 1930, is one of the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the world. Italian professional tennis players won the Davis Cup in 1976 and the Fed Cup in 2006, 2009, 2010 and 2013. Motorsports are also extremely popular in Italy. Italy has won, by far, the most MotoGP World Championships.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItalian Scuderia Ferrari is the oldest surviving team in Grand Prix racing, having competed since 1948, and statistically the most successful Formula One team in history with a record of 224 wins.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nHistorically, Italy has been successful in the Olympic Games, taking part from the first Olympiad and in 47 Games out of 48. Italian sportsmen have won 522 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 106 at the Winter Olympic Games, for a combined total of 628 medals with 235 golds, which makes them the fifth most successful nation in Olympic history for total medals. The country hosted two Winter Olympics (in 1956 and 2006), and one Summer games (in 1960).\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nFashion and design\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItalian fashion has a long tradition, and is regarded as one most important in the world. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's main fashion capitals. According to Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings 2013 by Global Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide when Milan was twelfth. Major Italian fashion labels, such as Gucci, Armani, Prada, Versace, Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Missoni, Fendi, Moschino, Max Mara, Trussardi, and Ferragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world. Also, the fashion magazine Vogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nItaly is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design, industrial design and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such as Gio Ponti and Ettore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such as \\\"Bel Disegno\\\" and \\\"Linea Italiana\\\" have entered the vocabulary of furniture design. Examples of classic pieces of Italian white goods and pieces of furniture include Zanussi's washing machines and fridges, the \\\"New Tone\\\" sofas by Atrium, and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song \\\"Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again\\\".\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nToday, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design. The city of Milan hosts Fiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair. Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as the \\\"Fuori Salone\\\" and the Salone del Mobile, and has been home to the designers Bruno Munari, Lucio Fontana, Enrico Castellani and Piero Manzoni.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nModern Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC. Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences, including Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, and Jewish. Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World with the introduction of items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century. Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the most popular in the world, wielding strong influence abroad.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nThe Mediterranean diet forms the basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta, fish, fruits and vegetables and characterised by its extreme simplicity and variety, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation. Dishes and recipes are often derivatives from local and familial tradition rather than created by chefs, so many recipes are ideally suited for home cooking, this being one of the main reasons behind the ever increasing worldwide popularity of Italian cuisine, from America to Asia. Ingredients and dishes vary widely by region.\",\n \"Italy\\n\\nA key factor in the success of Italian cuisine is its heavy reliance on traditional products; Italy has the most traditional specialities protected under EU law. Cheese, cold cuts and wine are a major part of Italian cuisine, with many regional declinations and Protected Designation of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication labels, and along with coffee (especially espresso) make up a very important part of the Italian gastronomic culture. Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits, pistachio and almonds with sweet cheeses like mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla and cinnamon. Gelato, tiramisù and cassata are among the most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes and patisserie.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nThis is a list of rivers, which are at least partially located in Italy. They are organized according to what body of water they drain into, with the exceptions of Sicily and Sardinia, which are listed separately. At the bottom all of the rivers are listed alphabetically.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the North Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Reno di Lei\\nAfter entering Switzerland, the Reno di Lei drains via the Reno di Avers and the Hinterrhein into the Rhine.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the Black Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Drava (a short section in Italy, continues into Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and Hungary)\\nThe Drava drains into the Danube on the Croatia–Serbia border.\\n*Slizza (three-quarters in Italy, a quarter in Austria)\\n:After entering Austria, the Slizza drains via the Gail into the Drava.\\n*Acqua Granda (half in Italy, half in Switzerland)\\nAfter entering Switzerland, the Spöl drains into the Inn, which meets the Danube in Germany.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the Adriatic Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Adriatic Sea will begin at the coastal border between Italy and Slovenia and will follow the Adriatic coast of Italy until it reaches Santa Maria di Leuca. Beyond this point, rivers empty into the Ionian Sea rather than the Adriatic. The rivers are ordered according to how far along the coast the river mouth is from the Italian/Slovenian border, the first river having its mouth the closest to the border and the last being closest to Santa Maria di Leuca.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Timavo (Reka)\\n*Isonzo (Soča)\\n*Vipacco (Vipava)\\n*Torre\\n:*Natisone\\n*Cormor\\n*Ausa\\n*Tagliamento\\n*Livenza\\n*Piave\\n*Brenta\\n*Bacchiglione\\n*Adige\\n*Tartaro-Canalbianco-Po di Levante\\n*Po\\n*Reno\\n*Senio\\n*Santerno\\n*Sillaro\\n*Idice\\n:*Savena\\n*Samoggia\\n*Limentra\\n*Lamone\\n*Uniti\\n*Bidente-Ronco\\n*Montone\\n:*Acquacheta\\n:*Rabbi\\n*Savio\\n*Rubicon\\n*Marecchia\\n*San Marino\\n*Ausa\\n*Marano\\n*Conca\\n*Foglia\\n*Metauro\\n*Candigliano\\n:*Biscubio\\n:*Burano\\n*Cesano\\n*Misa\\n*Nevola\\n*Musone\\n*Potenza\\n*Chienti\\n*Fiastrone\\n*Fiastra\\n*Tenna\\n*Aso\\n*Tesino\\n*Tronto\\n*Castellano\\n*Salinello\\n*Tordino\\n*Vomano\\n*Fucino\\n*Mavone\\n*Piomba\\n*Saline\\n*Fino\\n*Tavo\\n*Aterno-Pescara\\n*Sagittario\\n:*Gizio\\n*Alento\\n*Foro\\n*Moro\\n*Sangro\\n*Trigno\\n*Biferno\\n*Fortore\\n*Carapelle\\n*Calaggio\\n*Carapellotto\\n*Ofanto\\n*Locone\\n*Canale Reale\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nTributaries of the Adige\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Avisio\\n*Eisack\\n*Braibach\\n*Derjon\\n*Eggentaler Bach\\n*Pfitscher Bach\\n*Pflerscher Bach\\n*Plima\\n*Ridnauner Bach\\n*Rienz\\n:*Ahr\\n::*Reinbach\\n:*Antholzer Bach\\n:*Gran Ega\\n:*Gsieser Bach\\n:*Pragser Bach\\n:*Pfunderer Bach\\n*Talfer\\n*Villnößer Bach\\n*Karlinbach\\n*Passer\\n*Rom\\n*Saldurbach\\n*Schnalser Bach\\n*Suldenbach\\n*Falschauer\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nTributaries of the Po\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nThe tributaries of the Po are organized into right- and left-hand tributaries. The lists are ordered from the river closest to the source of the Po to the river closest to the mouth of the Po.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nRight-hand tributaries\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Varaita\\n*Maira\\n*Grana del Monferrato\\n*Rotaldo\\n*Gattola\\n*Stura del Monferrato\\n*Tanaro\\n*Belbo\\n:*Tinella\\n*Borbore\\n:*Triversa\\n*Bormida\\n:*Bormida di Spigno\\n:*Orba\\n::*Piota\\n:::*Gorzente\\n::*Lemme\\n::*Stura di Ovada\\n:*Erro\\n*Stura di Demonte\\n*Versa\\n*Staffora\\n*Scrivia\\n*Borbera\\n*Grue\\n*Curone\\n*Trebbia\\n*Nure\\n*Arda\\n*Taro\\n*Ceno\\n*Stirone\\n*Parma\\n*Baganza\\n*Enza\\n*Crostolo\\n*Secchia\\n*Panaro\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nLeft-hand tributaries\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Pellice\\n*Chisone\\n:*Germanasca\\n*Dora Riparia\\n*Cenischia\\n*Dora di Bardonecchia\\n*Stura di Lanzo\\n*Ceronda\\n*Malone\\n*Orco\\n*Soana\\n*Dora Baltea\\n*Buthier\\n*Lys\\n*Chiusella\\n*Sesia\\n*Sessera\\n:*Strona di Postua\\n*Cervo\\n:*Strona di Mosso\\n:*Ostola\\n:*Marchiazza\\n:*Rovasenda\\n:*Elvo\\n*Agogna\\n*Erbognone\\n*Terdoppio\\n*Ticino\\n*Olona\\n*Lambro\\n*Adda\\n*Brembo\\n:*Enna\\n:*Parina\\n:*Stabina\\n*Seveso (The Seveso enters the Naviglio Martesana canal which enters the Lambro.)\\n*Oglio\\n*Chiese\\n:*Caffaro (The Caffaro enters Lake Idro which empties into the Chiese.)\\n:*Re di Anfo (The Re di Anfo enters Lake Idro which empties into the Chiese.)\\n*Mincio\\n*Sarca (The Sarca enters Lake Garda which empties into the Mincio.)\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Versa\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nRivers draining into Lake Maggiore\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Boesio\\n*Cannobino\\n*Giona\\n*Maggia (entirely in Switzerland)\\n*Melezzo Orientale (partly in Switzerland)\\n:*Isorno (partly in Switzerland)\\n*Margorabbia\\n*San Bernardino\\n*Stronetta\\n*Toce\\n*Anza\\n*Bogna\\n*Diveria\\n*Melezzo Occidentale\\n*Ovesca\\n*Strona\\n:*Nigoglia\\n*Ticino\\n*Tresa\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nRivers draining into Lake Como\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Adda\\n*Albano\\n*Breggia\\n*Cosia\\n*Fiumelatte\\n*Liro\\n*Mera\\n*Acquafraggia\\n*Liro\\n*Pioverna\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the Ionian Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Ionian Sea will begin at Santa Maria di Leuca in the east and will extend to the Strait of Messina in the west. Sicilian rivers are excluded because they are listed in their own section below. The rivers are ordered according to how far east their mouth is, the first river having the easternmost mouth and the last having the westernmost mouth.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Lato\\n*Bradano\\n*Alvo\\n*Basentello\\n*Bilioso\\n*Gravina\\n*Gravina di Matera\\n*Basento\\n*Cavone\\n*Salandrella\\n*Agri\\n*Sinni\\n*Crati\\n*Stilaro\\n*Allaro\\n*Amusa\\n*Gerace\\n*Bonamico\\n*La Verde\\n*Torno\\n*Amendolea\\n*Melito\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the Tyrrhenian Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Tyrrhenian Sea will begin at the Strait of Messina in the south and extend north up to San Pietro Point near Portovenere. Sicilian and Sardinian rivers are excluded from this list because those rivers are in their own sections below. The rivers are ordered according to how far south their mouth is, the first river having the southernmost mouth and the last having the northernmost mouth.\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Marro\\n*Savuto\\n*Tusciano\\n*Calore Irpino\\n:*Tammaro\\n*Sele\\n*Calore Lucano\\n*Tanagro\\n*Alento\\n*Volturno\\n*Garigliano\\n*Liri\\n:*Sacco\\n*Gari\\n:*Rapido\\n*Tiber\\n*Marta\\n*Arrone\\n*Fiora\\n*Ombrone\\n*Arno\\n*Bisenzio\\n*Chiana\\n*Era\\n*Pesa\\n*Sieve\\n*Serchio\\n*Magra\\n*Vara\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nTributaries of the Tiber\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Allia\\n*Aniene\\n*Cremera\\n*Nera\\n*Corno\\n:*Sordo\\n*Velino\\n:*Turano\\n:*Salto\\n*Paglia\\n*Chiana\\n*Topino\\n*Chiascio\\n*Clitunno\\n*Ose\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nDraining into the Ligurian Sea\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nFor the purposes of this list, the Italian rivers draining into the Ligurian Sea will begin at San Pietro Point near Portovenere in the east and will extend to the border with France near Monaco. Sardinian rivers are excluded from this list because those rivers are in their own section below. The rivers are ordered according to how close their mouth is to San Pietro Point. The river with its mouth closest to this geographic point is listed first and rivers further away from this point are listed in the order in which their mouth empties into the sea as one proceeds along the coast up to the border with France.\\n*Entella\\n*Lavagna\\n*Bisagno\\n*Polcevera\\n*Cerusa\\n*Varatella\\n*Pora\\n*Centa\\n*Arroscia\\n*Argentina\\n*Nervia\\n*Barbaira\\n*Roia (Roya)\\n*Bevera (Bévéra)\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nRivers of Sicily\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Alcantara\\n*Anapo\\n*Belice\\n*Calcinara\\n*Cassibile\\n*Ciane\\n*Crinisus\\n*Dirillo\\n*Dittaino\\n*Fiume di Girgenti\\n*Sant'Anna\\n*Gela\\n*Grande River\\n*Helorus\\n*Ippari\\n*Irminio\\n*Mazaro\\n*Platani\\n*Salso\\n*Cerami\\n*Simeto\\n*Troina\\n*Verdura\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nRivers of Sardinia\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Cixerri\\n*Coghinas\\n*Flumendosa\\n*Flumini Mannu\\n*Temo\\n*Tirso\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\nAlphabetical list\",\n \"List of rivers of Italy\\n\\n*Acquacheta\\n*Acquafraggia\\n*Adda\\n*Adige\\n*Agogna\\n*Agri\\n*Ahr\\n*Albano\\n*Alcantara\\n*Allaro\\n*Allia\\n*Alvo\\n*Amendolea\\n*Amusa\\n*Anapo\\n*Aniene\\n*Antholzerbach\\n*Anza\\n*Arda\\n*Argentina\\n*Arno\\n*Arrone\\n*Arroscia\\n*Aso\\n*Aterno-Pescara\\n*Ausa, in the Province of Udine\\n*Ausa, in San Marino and the Province of Rimini\\n*Avisio\\n*Bacchiglione\\n*Basentello\\n*Basento\\n*Barbaira\\n*Belbo\\n*Belice\\n*Bevera (Bévéra)\\n*Bidente-Ronco\\n*Biferno\\n*Bilioso\\n*Bisagno\\n*Biscubio\\n*Boesio\\n*Bogna\\n*Bonamico\\n*Borbera\\n*Bormida\\n*Bormida di Spigno\\n*Bradano\\n*Braibach\\n*Breggia\\n*Brembo\\n*Brenta\\n*Burano\\n*Buthier\\n*Caffaro\\n*Calaggio\\n*Calcinara\\n*Calore Irpino\\n*Calore Lucano\\n*Canale Reale\\n*Candigliano\\n*Cannobino\\n*Carapelle\\n*Carapellotto\\n*Cassibile\\n*Castellano\\n*Cavone\\n*Cenischia\\n*Ceno\\n*Centa\\n*Cerami\\n*Cerusa\\n*Cervo\\n*Cesano\\n*Chiana\\n*Chiani\\n*Chiascio\\n*Chienti\\n*Chiese\\n*Chisone\\n*Ciane\\n*Cixerri\\n*Clitunno\\n*Coghinas\\n*Conca\\n*Cormor\\n*Corno\\n*Cosia\\n*Crati\\n*Cremera\\n*Crinisus\\n*Crostolo\\n*Curone\\n*Derjon\\n*Dirillo\\n*Dittaino\\n*Diveria\\n*Dora Baltea\\n*Dora di Bardonecchia\\n*Dora Riparia\\n*Drava\\n*Eggentaler Bach\\n*Elvo\\n*Enna\\n*Enza\\n*Entella\\n*Erbognone\\n*Erro\\n*Fiastra\\n*Fiastrone\\n*Fiora\\n*Fiume di Girgenti\\n*Fiumelatte\\n*Flumendosa\\n*Foglia\\n*Fortore\\n*Fucino\\n*Gorzente\\n*Gran Ega\\n*Garigliano\\n*Gattola\\n*Gela\\n*Gerace\\n*Giona\\n*Grana del Monferrato\\n*Grande River\\n*Gravina\\n*Gravina di Matera\\n*Grue\\n*Gsieser Bach\\n*Helorus\\n*Idice\\n*Ippari\\n*Irminio\\n*Isarco (Eisack)\\n*Isonzo (Soča)\\n*Isorno\\n*Karlinbach\\n*Lambro\\n*Lamone\\n*Lato\\n*Lavagna\\n*La Verde\\n*Lemme\\n*Limentra\\n*Liri\\n*Liro (This Liro enters Lake Como.)\\n*Liro (This Liro enters the Mera.)\\n*Livenza\\n*Locone\\n*Lys\\n*Magra\\n*Maira\\n*Malone\\n*Marano\\n*Marecchia\\n*Margorabbia\\n*Marro\\n*Marta\\n*Mazaro\\n*Melezzo Occidentale\\n*Melezzo Orientale\\n*Melito\\n*Mera\\n*Metauro\\n*Mincio\\n*Misa\\n*Montone\\n*Musone\\n*Natisone\\n*Nera\\n*Nervia\\n*Nevola\\n*Nigoglia\\n*Nure\\n*Ofanto\\n*Oglio\\n*Olona\\n*Ombrone\\n*Orba\\n*Orco\\n*Ose\\n*Ovesca\\n*Paglia\\n*Panaro\\n*Parina\\n*Parma\\n*Passirio\\n*Pfitscher Bach\\n*Pflerscher Bach\\n*Pfunderer Bach\\n*Piave\\n*Piomba\\n*Piota\\n*Pioverna\\n*Platani\\n*Plima\\n*Po\\n*Polcevera\\n*Pora\\n*Potenza\\n*Pragser Bach\\n*Rabbi\\n*Rapido (Gari)\\n*Ram (Rom)\\n*Re di Anfo\\n*Reinbach\\n*Reno\\n*Reno di Lei\\n*Ridnauner Bach\\n*Rienza (Rienz)\\n*Roia (Roya)\\n*Rotaldo\\n*Rubicon\\n*Sacco\\n*Salandrella\\n*Saldurbach\\n*Saline\\n*Salinello\\n*Salso\\n*Salto\\n*Samoggia\\n*San Bernardino\\n*Sangro\\n*San Marino\\n*Sant'Anna\\n*Santerno\\n*Sarca\\n*Savena\\n*Savio\\n*Savuto\\n*Scrivia\\n*Secchia\\n*Sele\\n*Senales (Schnalser Bach)\\n*Serchio\\n*Sesia\\n*Seveso\\n*Sillaro\\n*Simeto\\n*Sinni\\n*Slizza\\n*Soana\\n*Sordo\\n*Spöl\\n*Stabina\\n*Staffora\\n*Stilaro\\n*Stirone\\n*Strona\\n*Stronetta\\n*Stura del Monferrato\\n*Stura di Demonte\\n*Stura di Lanzo\\n*Stura di Ovada\\n*Suldenbach\\n*Tagliamento\\n*Talfer\\n*Tammaro\\n*Tanagro\\n*Tanaro\\n*Taro\\n*Tartaro-Canalbianco-Po di Levante\\n*Tenna\\n*Terdoppio\\n*Tesino\\n*Tiber\\n*Ticino\\n*Timavo (Reka)\\n*Tinella\\n*Tirso\\n*Toce\\n*Topino\\n*Tordino\\n*Torno\\n*Torre\\n*Trebbia\\n*Tresa\\n*Trigno\\n*Troina\\n*Tronto\\n*Turano\\n*Tusciano\\n*Uniti\\n*Valsura (Falschauer)\\n*Vara\\n*Varaita\\n*Varatella\\n*Velino\\n*Verdura\\n*Versa (This Versa is a tributary of the Po.)\\n*Versa (This Versa is a tributary of the Tanaro.)\\n*Villnößer Bach\\n*Vipacco\\n*Volturno\\n*Vomano\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Po (; and Eridanus; ; ancient Ligurian: Bodincus or Bodencus; and Ἠριδανός) is a river that flows eastward across northern Italy. The Po flows either 652 km or 682 km – considering the length of the Maira, a right bank tributary. The headwaters of the Po are a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face of Monviso (in the Cottian Alps). The Po ends at a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea near Venice. It has a drainage area of 74,000 km² in all, 70,000 in Italy, of which 41,000 is in montane environments and 29,000 on the plain. The Po is the longest river in Italy; at its widest point its width is 503 m. The Po extends along the 45th parallel north.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe river flows through many important Italian cities, including Turin (Torino), Piacenza and Ferrara. It is connected to Milan through a net of channels called navigli, which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a wide delta (with hundreds of small channels and five main ones, called Po di Maestra, Po della Pila, Po delle Tolle, Po di Gnocca and Po di Goro) at the southern part of which is Comacchio, an area famous for eels. The Po valley was the territory of the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided into Cispadane Gaul (South of the Po) and Transpadane Gaul (North of the Po). The Po begins in the Alps, and is in Italy, and flows eastward.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe river is subject to heavy flooding. Consequently, over half its length is controlled with argini, or dikes. The slope of the valley decreases from 0.35% in the west to 0.14% in the east, a low gradient. There are 450 standing lakes.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIt is characterized by its large discharge (several rivers over 1,000 km have a discharge inferior or equal to the Po).\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nPo Valley\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe vast valley around the Po is called the Po Basin or Po Valley (Italian Pianura Padana or Val Padana); in time it became the main industrial area of the country. In 2002, more than 16 million people lived there, at the time nearly ⅓ of the population of Italy.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe two main economic uses of the valley are for industry and for agriculture, both major uses. The industrial centres, such as Turin and Milan, are located on higher terrain, away from the river. They rely for power on the numerous hydroelectric stations in or on the flanks of the Alps, and on the coal/oil power stations which use the water of the Po basin as coolant. Drainage from the north is mediated through several large, scenic lakes. The streams are now controlled by so many dams as to slow the river's sedimentation rate, causing geologic problems. The expansive, moist and fertile flood plain is reserved mainly for agriculture and is subject to flash floods, even though the overall quantity of water is lower than in the past and lower than demand. The main products of the farms around the river are cereals including – unusually for Europe – rice, which requires heavy irrigation. The latter method is the chief consumer of surface water, while industrial and human consumption use underground water.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nPo Delta\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nProtected areas\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Po Delta wetlands have been protected by the institution of two regional parks in the regions in which it is situated: Veneto and Emilia-Romagna. The Po Delta Regional Park in Emilia-Romagna, the largest, consists of four parcels of land on the right bank of the Po and to the south. Created by law in 1988, it is managed by a consortium, the Consorzio per la gestione de Parco, to which Ferrara and Ravenna provinces belong as well as nine comuni: Comacchio, Argenta, Ostellato, Goro, Mesola, Codigoro, Ravenna, Alfonsine, and Cervia. Executive authority resides in an assembly of the presidents of the provinces, the mayors of the comuni and the board of directors. They employ a Technical-Scientific Committee and a Park Council to carry out directives. In 1999 the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was added to \\\"Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, and its Po Delta.\\\" The 53653 ha of the park contain wetlands, forest, dunes and salt pans. It has a high biodiversity, with 1000-1100 plant species and 374 vertebrate species, of which 300 are birds.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe active delta\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe most recent part of the delta, which projects into the Adriatic between Chioggia and Comacchio, contains channels that actually connect to the Adriatic and on that account is called the active delta by the park authorities, as opposed to the fossil delta, which contains channels that no longer connect the Po to the Adriatic (but once did). The active delta was created in 1604 when the city of Venice diverted the main stream, the Po grande or Po di Venezia, from its channel north of Porto Viro to the south of Porto Viro in a channel then called the Taglio di Porto Viro, \\\"Porto Viro cut-off.\\\" Their intent was to stop the gradual migration of the Po toward the lagoon of Venice, which would have filled up with sediment had contact been made. The subsequent town of Taglio di Po grew around the diversionary works. The lock of Volta Grimana blocked the old channel, now the Po di Levante, which flows to the Adriatic through Porto Levante.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nBelow Taglio di Po the Parco Regionale Veneto, one of the tracts under the authority of the Parco Delta del Po, contains the latest branches of the Po. The Po di Gnocca branches to the south followed by the Po di Maestra to the north at Porto Tolle. At Tolle downstream the Po di Venezia divides into the Po delle Tolle to the south and the Po della Pila to the north. The former exits at Bonelli. The latter divides again at Pila into the Busa di Tramontana to the north and the Busa di Scirocco to the south, while the mainstream, the Busa Dritta, enters Punta Maistra and exits finally past Pila lighthouse.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nDespite the park administration's definition of the active delta as beginning at Porto Viro, there is another active channel upstream from it at Santa Maria in Punta, where the Fiume Po divides into the Po di Goro and the Po di Venezia.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe fossil delta\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe fossil Po is the region of no longer active channels from the Po to the sea. It begins upstream from Ferrara. The Fiume Po currently flowing to the north of Ferrara is actually the result of a diversion at Ficarolo in 1152 made in the hope of relieving flooding in the vicinity of Ravenna. The diversion channel was at first called the Po di Ficarolo. The Fiume Po before then followed the Po di Volano, no longer connected to the Po, which ran to the south of Ferrara and exited near Volano. In Roman times it did not exit there but ran to the south as the Padus Vetus (\\\"old Po\\\") exiting near Comacchio, from which split the Po di Primaro exiting close to Ravenna.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nBefore 1152 the seaward extension of today's delta, about 12 km, did not exist. The entire region from Ravenna to Chioggia was dense swamps, explaining why the Via Aemilia was constructed between Rimini and Piacenza and did not begin further north.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Basin is a depression in the Earth's crust caused by the African Plate slipping under the Eurasian Plate. Typically in geologic history the depression is filled with sea water under various geologic names such as Tethys Sea. In the last period of the Miocene Epoch, the Messinian (7-5 mya), the Messinian salinity crisis, a near drying of the Mediterranean, was caused by the sea level dropping below the sill at the Strait of Gibraltar and the equilibrium between evaporation and replenishment shifting in favor of evaporation. At that time the Po Valley and the Adriatic depression were a single canyon system thousands of feet deep. On the southwest the Apennine Mountains bordered a land mass termed Tyrrhenis geologically. Their orogeny was just being completed in the Miocene. On the north the Alpine Orogeny had already created the Alps.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nAt the end of the Messinian the ocean broke through the sill and the Mediterranean refilled. The Adriatic transgressed into all of northern Italy. In the subsequent Pliocene sedimentary outwash primarily from the Apennines filled the valley and the central Adriatic generally to a depth of 1000 m to 2000 m but from 2000 m to 3000 m off the current mouth of the Po, with pockets as deep as 6000 m. At the start of the Pleistocene the valley was full. Cycles of transgression and regression are detectable in the valley and the Adriatic as far as its centre and in the southern Adriatic.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nFrom the Pleistocene alternation of maritime and alluvial sediments occur as far west as Piacenza. The exact sequences at various locations have been studied extensively. Apparently the sea advanced and receded over the valley in conformance to an equilibrium between sedimentation and glacial advance or recession at 100,000-year intervals and 100 m to 120 m fluctuation of sea level. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum around 20,000 years ago, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5500 years ago.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nSince then the Po delta had been prograding. The rate of coastal\\nzone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD\\nwas 4 m/yr. Human factors, however, brought about a change in the equilibrium in the mid-20th century with the result that the entire coastline of the northern Adriatic is now degrading. Venice, which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the effect is realized in the Po delta as well. The causes are first a decrease in the sedimentation rate due to the locking of sediment behind hydroelectric dams and the deliberate excavation of sand from rivers for industrial purposes. Second, agricultural use of the river is heavy; during peak consumption the flow in places nearly dries up, causing local contention. As a result of decreased flow salt water is intruding into the aquifers and coastal ground water. Eutrophication in standing waters and streams of low flow is on the increase. The valley is subsiding due to the removal of ground water.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nHuman aspects\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nPollution\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nAlways prone to fog, the valley is subject to heavy smog due to industrial atmospheric emissions, especially from Turin.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIn 2002, the city of Milan had no sewage treatment plant. The sewage went through channels directly into the Po, for which the European Environment Agency cited the city.\\nSince 2005, all sewage from Milan is treated in three different plants in Nosedo, San Rocco and Peschiera Borromeo. The three plants can collectively treat the sewage from over 2.5 million inhabitants equivalent.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIn 2005, water from the Po was found to contain \\\"staggering\\\" amounts of benzoylecgonine, which is excreted by cocaine users in urine. Based on these figures, cocaine consumption was estimated to be about 4 kg daily, or 27 doses per day per thousand young adults in areas that feed into the river—a number nearly three times higher than previous estimates.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nOn February 24, 2010 the Po river was contaminated by an oil spill coming from a refinery in Villasanta through the Lambro, the Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata news agency has estimated that the spill is in the neighborhood of 600,000 liters.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nWater resource management\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nUntil 1989 water resources were administered regionally or locally. The major authority on the lower Po was the Magistrato alle Acque di Venezia, first formed in the 16th-century Republic of Venice. It made all the decisions concerning the diversion of the lower river. Most part of the delta is still in Veneto.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIn 1907 under the Kingdom of Italy the agency became the Magistrato alle Acque and took responsibility for all the water resources in northeastern Italy. Currently it is a decentralized institution of the Ministry of Public Works, headed by a chairman appointed by the Head of State and the Council of Ministers. Its headquarters are in Venice. Its domain is the management and protection of the water system in Veneto, Mantua, Trento, Bolzano and Friuli-Venezia Giulia.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIn 1989 in response to the major geologic problems that were developing along the river Law no. 183/89 was passed authorizing The Po Basin Water Board (Autorità di bacino del fiume Po), which would direct operations concerning all the water resources in the Po basin (see under Po Valley). Its headquarters have been in Parma since its inception in 1990. It considers itself a synergy among all the institutions concerned with the preservation and development of the Po basin. It is administered by officials chosen from the administrations of the constituent regions and provinces.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nIn the year 2009 the water board will initiate an Integrated River Basin Management Plan in compliance with the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive, 2000/60/EC. The plan includes many water management and flood risk plans already in place. Between 2009 and 2015 the Po Valley Project (the implementation of the plan) will carry out more than 60 measures to heighten and strengthen dikes, increase natural retention areas, recover sediment transport, recover hydromorphological characteristics, enlarge wetlands, afforest, renaturate, promote biodiversity and promote recreational use, among others.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nDams\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nAt the village of Isola Serafini in the comune of Monticelli d'Ongina, Piacenza Province, 40 km downstream from Piacenza, a 362 m long, 20 m high gate dam featuring eleven 30 m openings gated by vertical lift gates, crosses the Po. Nine gates are high and two are 8 m high for sediment-scouring purposes. A spillway to the right passes through a hydroelectric station of 4 generators of 76 MW each operated by a - 11 m head of water. The spillway connects to a diversionary canal subtending a 12 km loop of the Po. A ship lock 85 m long and 12 m wide next to the station passes some traffic through the canal, but above the dam traffic is mainly barges. The average flow at the dam is 854 m³/s, with a 12,800 m³/s maximum.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nTributaries\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Po has 141 tributaries. They include (R on the right bank, L on the left, looking downstream):\\n* Pellice (L)\\n* Varaita (R)\\n* Maira (R)\\n* Dora Riparia (L)\\n* Stura di Lanzo (L)\\n* Malone (L)\\n* Orco (L)\\n* Dora Baltea (L)\\n* Sesia (L)\\n* Tanaro (R)\\n* Scrivia (R)\\n* Agogna (L)\\n* Ticino (L)\\n* Versa (R)\\n* Lambro (L)\\n* Trebbia (R)\\n* Nure (R)\\n* Adda (L)\\n* Arda (R)\\n* Taro (R)\\n* Parma (R)\\n* Enza (R)\\n* Oglio (L)\\n* Mincio (L)\\n* Secchia (R)\\n* Panaro (R)\\nThe Reno (R) was a tributary of the Po until the middle of the eighteenth century when the course was diverted to lessen the risk of devastating floods.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Po river is first certainly identified in the Graeco-Roman historians and geographers of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire, long after the valley had been occupied successively by prehistoric and historic peoples: Ligures, Etruscans, Celts, Veneti, Umbri, and Romans. At that late date the ancient authors were attempting to explain the provenance of the name. Perhaps the earliest of these, Polybius (2nd century BC), uses Pados (in Greek) and says that it was to be identified with the Eridanos of the poets. Moreover, the country people call it Bodencus.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThis implies that a \\\"country\\\" population either remained from prehistoric times or adopted the name in use by that substrate. The name has been segmented as Bod-encus or Bod-incus, the suffix being characteristic of the ancient Ligurian language of northern Italy, southern France, Corsica and elsewhere.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nPliny the Elder has the most to say about the Padus of his times. Herodotus had expressed doubt concerning the existence of a river in Europe, Eridanos, which flowed into the northern sea, he said, from which amber came. He believed it was a Greek name (there are other Eridanos rivers in Greece), \\\"invented by some poet,\\\" but makes no conjectures as to where it might be. Pliny points out that in his own time the Eridanos had become wrongly identified with the Padus. He does not know when or how, but like Herodotus he blames the poets. Amber is supposed to have come from there. Phaëthon, son of the sun, struck by lightning changed into poplars and exuded tears every year, which is the source of amber (a myth of Pausanias). Expressing surprise at the ignorance of the poets, Pliny says \\\"There can be no doubt that amber is the product of the islands of the northern ocean (Baltic Sea)\\\" and attributes its introduction into the Po valley to the Veneti, the last link in a trade route to the north through Pannonia and Germany.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nPliny (Hist. Nat., iii. 122) also gives the Ligurian name of the Po river as Bodincus, which he translates as \\\"bottomless\\\". The root bod- has been generally analyzed as containing the PIE base *bhu(n)d(h)- seen in Sanskrit budhnah and Avestan buna- \\\"bottom\\\", Greek pythmen \\\"foundation\\\", Latin fundus \\\"bottom\\\", Old Irish bond \\\"sole of the foot\\\". The word Bodincus appears in the place name Bodincomagus, a Ligurian town on the right bank of the Po downstream from today’s Turin.\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nMythology\",\n \"Po (river)\\n\\nThe Po river is often identified with the Eridanos or Eridanus river of Greek mythology. This mythical river is the namesake of the constellation Eridanus.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1581,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2493"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"On which river does Verona stand?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Adige"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["adige valley","etsch adige","adige river","etsch","val adige","river etsch","adige"],"string":"[\n \"adige valley\",\n \"etsch adige\",\n \"adige river\",\n \"etsch\",\n \"val adige\",\n \"river etsch\",\n \"adige\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Province of Verona\n\nThe Province of Verona () is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. The eastern bank of Lake Garda is near the province. Its capital is the city of Verona. The city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The province is cosmopolitan in nature. It is bordered by Italian Tyrol in the north, Province of Vicenza and Province of Padua in the east. Province of Rovigo and Province of Mantua in south and Lake Garda in the west. From north to south the maximum extent of the province is 50 miles while it is 25 miles from east to west.","Province of Verona\n\nOverview","Province of Verona\n\nThe province has an area of 3109 km2 and a total population of about 0.9 million. There are 98 comuni (singular: comune) in the province. Important comuni include Bovolone, Bonavigo, Bussolengo, Cerea, Isola della Scala, Legnago, Negrar, Peschiera del Garda, San Bonifacio, San Giovanni Lupatoto, San Martino Buon Albergo, Soave, Sona, Valeggio sul Mincio and Villafranca di Verona. \nWilliam Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet takes place in Verona, as do some scenes in his play The Two Gentlemen of Verona. The Casa di Giulietta (Juliet Capulet's villa in the play) is an important local visitor attraction. Verona attracts a large number of tourists every year. Due to its important role in history the province boasts of a large number of castles, towers, hermitages, monasteries, sanctuaries, and old Romanesque parishes. A regional park is located in Lessinia. Valpolicella is popular for its wines which are made from indigenous techniques. Europe's biggest natural bridge-Ponte di Veja is located in the province. The northern part of the province is mostly hilly. Several rivers pass through the rivers. A few of them are Tartaro, Caslagnaro and Adige."],"string":"[\n \"Province of Verona\\n\\nThe Province of Verona () is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. The eastern bank of Lake Garda is near the province. Its capital is the city of Verona. The city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The province is cosmopolitan in nature. It is bordered by Italian Tyrol in the north, Province of Vicenza and Province of Padua in the east. Province of Rovigo and Province of Mantua in south and Lake Garda in the west. From north to south the maximum extent of the province is 50 miles while it is 25 miles from east to west.\",\n \"Province of Verona\\n\\nOverview\",\n \"Province of Verona\\n\\nThe province has an area of 3109 km2 and a total population of about 0.9 million. There are 98 comuni (singular: comune) in the province. Important comuni include Bovolone, Bonavigo, Bussolengo, Cerea, Isola della Scala, Legnago, Negrar, Peschiera del Garda, San Bonifacio, San Giovanni Lupatoto, San Martino Buon Albergo, Soave, Sona, Valeggio sul Mincio and Villafranca di Verona. \\nWilliam Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet takes place in Verona, as do some scenes in his play The Two Gentlemen of Verona. The Casa di Giulietta (Juliet Capulet's villa in the play) is an important local visitor attraction. Verona attracts a large number of tourists every year. Due to its important role in history the province boasts of a large number of castles, towers, hermitages, monasteries, sanctuaries, and old Romanesque parishes. A regional park is located in Lessinia. Valpolicella is popular for its wines which are made from indigenous techniques. Europe's biggest natural bridge-Ponte di Veja is located in the province. The northern part of the province is mostly hilly. Several rivers pass through the rivers. A few of them are Tartaro, Caslagnaro and Adige.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1582,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2495"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which poet died while helping the Greeks fight for their independence?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Byron"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["byron george gordon lord","george gordon byron 6th baron byron","6th lord byron","byronesque","george gordon noel 6th baron byron","byron george gordon noel 6th baron byron","george gordon noel 6th baron byron byron","george byron","george gordon baron byron","george gordon 6th lord byron","noel 6th baron byron","george gordon byron byron","george gordon lord byron","lord george gordon noel byron","george byron gordon","george gordon byron 6th byron baron","george gordon noel","byronian","byron","lord noel byron","george gordon byron","george gordon 6th baron byron","george byron 6th baron byron","george gordon byron lord byron","6th baron byron","george gordon noel lord byron","george gordon noel byron","lord byron george gordon","lord george gordon byron","george gordon noel byron 6th baron byron","george gordon noel byron lord byron","lord byron","george gordon byron baron byron","byronism"],"string":"[\n \"byron george gordon lord\",\n \"george gordon byron 6th baron byron\",\n \"6th lord byron\",\n \"byronesque\",\n \"george gordon noel 6th baron byron\",\n \"byron george gordon noel 6th baron byron\",\n \"george gordon noel 6th baron byron byron\",\n \"george byron\",\n \"george gordon baron byron\",\n \"george gordon 6th lord byron\",\n \"noel 6th baron byron\",\n \"george gordon byron byron\",\n \"george gordon lord byron\",\n \"lord george gordon noel byron\",\n \"george byron gordon\",\n \"george gordon byron 6th byron baron\",\n \"george gordon noel\",\n \"byronian\",\n \"byron\",\n \"lord noel byron\",\n \"george gordon byron\",\n \"george gordon 6th baron byron\",\n \"george byron 6th baron byron\",\n \"george gordon byron lord byron\",\n \"6th baron byron\",\n \"george gordon noel lord byron\",\n \"george gordon noel byron\",\n \"lord byron george gordon\",\n \"lord george gordon byron\",\n \"george gordon noel byron 6th baron byron\",\n \"george gordon noel byron lord byron\",\n \"lord byron\",\n \"george gordon byron baron byron\",\n \"byronism\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nHistory of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\nHistory of Greece\nThe Greek Revolution of 1821\nContrary to popular opinion there never was a country called Greece or Hellas until the Revolution of 1821. When rebellion against the Ottoman Empire gave birth to Hellas, Hellenic-speaking people had a national homeland for the first time in history. In 1821 the land that was known as Greece is controlled by the Turks, except for the Ionian islands which has been occupied by the Venetians, then the French and in 1815 by the British. The rebellion of the Greeks actually begins in Moldavia when an army of 4500 Hellenes led by General Alexander Ypsilantis, a Phanariot from the so-named district of Istanbul, a member of the Philike Hetairia (Friendly Society), invades hoping to encourage the local Romanian peasants to throw off the yoke of the Turks. Instead they attack their wealthy countrymen and the Greeks have to escape. When the revolution breaks out in the Peloponessos, the Sultan in Istanbul hangs the Patriarch Grigorios V for failing to keep the Greek Christians in line which they considered his duty for the vast privileges they allowed him.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nThe Phanariot Greeks fall in line behind the new patriarch and condemn the revolution. But in the Peloponessos the rebellion is making progress and combined with Ali Pasha's rebellion in Ipirus the Turks have their hands full. On March 25th 1821 Bishop Germanos of Patras raises the flag of revolution at the monastery of Agia Lavra near Kalavrita and the battle cry of \"Freedom or Death\" becomes the motto of the revolution. But historian David Brewer in his Greece, The Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence disagrees, stating that the story of the flag raising at Agia Lavra was apparently an invention by Francois Pouqueville, a prominent architect of the Philhellenism movement throughout Europe, who contributed to the liberation of the Greeks, and to the rebirth of the Greek Nation. Nevertheless, fighting begins to break out all over with massacres committed by both the Greeks and the Turks. On the island of Chios 25,000 Greeks are killed while in the Peloponessos the Greeks kill 15,000 of the 40,000 Turks living there.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nIt would be unfair to over-look Ali Pasha and the fact that the insurrection of 1821 was actually something of an Albanian affair and that the Chios massacre was a consequence of this. The Chiotes had enormous privileges under the Ottomans even to the point of dominating the Ottoman admiralty. It was the role of the Chios 'navy' in the revolt that was seen as an act of treason by the Turks, though in Brewer's book the Chios navy was less than eager to join the fray and the cause of the Turkish invasion was the fact that the Samos navy has landed on the island and occupied the citadel. On March 13th 1821, twelve days before the official beginning of the War of Independence, the first 'revolutionary flag' was actually raised on the island of Spetses by Laskarina Bouboulina (though there were several revolutionary flags which could lay claim to being the first, including Hydra). Twice widowed with 7 children but extremely rich she owned several ships. On April 3rd Spetses revolted, followed by the islands of Hydra and Psara with a total of over 300 ships between them.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nBouboulina and her fleet of 8 ships sailed to Nafplion and took part in the siege of the impregnable fortress there. Her later attack on Monemvasia managed to capture that fortress. She took part in the blockade of Pylos and brought supplies to the revolutionaries by sea. Bouboulina became a national hero, one of the first women to play a major role in a revolution. Without her and her ships the Greeks might not have gained their independence. What is less well known is that she was Albanian. The Greeks, led by local heroes like Theodoros Kolokotronis from the Mani, capture the Peloponessos and form a provisional government, electing the Phanariot Alexandros Mavrokordatos president. On April 26th the Greeks attack Athens and the Turks of the city are forced to flee to the Acropolis. They are rescued in August by Turkish troops but finally surrender in June of 1822. By mid July, about half had been massacred, others died of disease, and over the next months the rest (550) were evacuated by foreign diplomats. In the meantime the Greeks in the Peloponessos, (or the Morea as it was called), are fighting amongst themselves.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nIn European cities intellectuals and poets like Lord Byron embrace the Greek cause and sway public opinion. The Greek struggle is interpreted by many Europeans simplistically and romantically as a battle between the ideals of the ancient Greeks against the ruthless Turks who had been occupying and suppressing the descendents of Pericles, Socrates and Plato. Many, including Lord Byron, volunteer to fight and become leaders and heroes of the revolution, known as the Philhellenes (friends of the Greeks). Some sing the praises of the modern Greeks but many are completely disillusioned by the pettiness and greed of the Greek klefth leaders who seem to just want glory and riches. Though some of these warlords are elevated to the role of saviors and heroes in the national mythology, the reality is that many of them were just pirates and thieves looking out for their own self-interest.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nOn the other hand the motives of the Europeans is just as suspect and the plan for Greece was actually to be a sort of colony of Great Britain (or several colonies) since the last thing in the world they wanted was every national group on the continent being inspired by events in Greece and trying to start their own country too. But as history so often shows us, once you get the engine of revolution started you can't really control where it takes you. In 1823 Lord Byron arrives in Missolonghi, to take part in the resistance there, but dies three months later, not as romantically as he would have liked, but by disease. In 1826 the Peloponessos is back in Turkish hands and Athens is one of only a few cities controlled by the Greeks. When the Turkish army returns, a major battle takes place and on June 5th the Acropolis is surrendered. Among the fifteen hundred Greek dead are 22 of the 26 Philhellenes. By 1827 the Turks have all of Greece with the exception of Nafplion and a few islands.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nBut the Greeks are rescued by their own history as support for them in their struggle grows. The Treaty of London, backed by Britain, Russia and France. declares that the three great powers can intervene 'peacefully' to secure the autonomy of the Hellenes. In October of that year the British, French and Russians show the power of peaceful intervention when they destroy the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the bay of Navarino (Pylos) in what may have been the world's biggest and most fatal 'misunderstanding'. Whether by accident or not, when an Egyptian ship fires on a small boat filled with British sailors, all hell breaks loose and when the smoke clears the entire Turkish-Egyptian fleet is at the bottom of the bay, (where they can still be seen). It is the most one-sided battle in the history of naval warfare. With the destruction of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet the Hellenes have a clear path to nationhood except for the usual fighting amongst themselves. In an interesting anecdote about the war, when the Turkish garrison of Athens was using the acropolis as a fortress they came under siege by the Greek revolutionary army.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nAfter a few days, the Turks were short of ammunition and the Greeks noticed from far away that they were taking down the marble columns and extracting the lead wedge that holds the \"slices\" of the columns together. (If you have noticed some fallen columns like at the temple of Olympian Zeus, you will see in the center of the slices, a hollow part. This was filled with lead by the ancient architects and made the columns stronger, and able to resist the frequent small earthquakes which happen all the time around Attica.) The Greeks sent an envoy to the Turks and asked them how much lead they would obtain by taking down all the columns of the Parthenon. They agreed on the quantity of the lead, and the Greeks sent it to the Turks with the agreement that they would leave the remaining temple of the Parthenon intact. This shows how much the Greek warriors who could hardly read or write, appreciated their ancient Greek heritage, though it didn't stop them from taking the entire ancient library of Kaisariani Monastery onto the Acropolis and tearing up the books to use the paper for cartridges!","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nIn 1828 Count Ioannis Capodistrias of Corfu is elected the first governor of Greece by the assembly of Troezene as the Turkish-Egyptian army leave the Peloponessos once and for all. The Greeks draw up a constitution as a republic and on March 31st 1833 the Turkish troops who have been occupying the Acropolis leave. Four years after being elected President, Kapodistrias is assassinated in the new capital city of Nafplion supposedly by members of a Mani clan, the Mavromichalis family, who were at odds with his belief in a strong central government, (though some people believe he was killed by the British who blamed the Mavromichalis and thus eliminated two problems). A year later the 17 year old Otto (Othon), son of Ludwig of Bavaria, is declared King of the Hellenes by the British, Russians and French. He arrives in Nafplion by boat a year later to great fanfare. In 1834 the capital is moved to Athens, which is now a town of 10,000 inhabitants. In 1837 the University of Athens opens. King Otto is forced by the military to accept a constitution in 1843.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nHe is overthrown by the army in 1862 and he and his wife Amalia are exiled and replaced in 1863 by the Danish Prince Christian William Ferdinand Adolphus George of the Holstein-Sonderburg-Gluckbsburg who becomes George I, King of the Hellenes. In March of 1864 the Ionian islands are ceded to Greece by Great Britain. In 1878 Great Britain takes over the administration of Cyprus from the Ottoman government. Two years later revolution breaks out in the still Turkish occupied island of Crete. In 1881 Thessaly and the Arta region of Epirus are ceded to Greece by the Ottoman empire. From the mid-1880's to 90's Harilaos Trikoupis and Theodoror Deliyannis alternate power, in what is the beginning of a two-party system. Trikoupis focuses on domestic issues and during his rule roads are built, tracks are laid, the metro is built and even the Corinth Canal which had been started by Nero in 67 AD is completed in 1893. Deliyannis on the other hand is a believer in the Megalo Idea, that Greece will one day rule a new Hellenic empire along the lines of the Byzantine.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nDuring the mid to late eighteen-hundreds, architects came from Europe to build a new Athens of neo-classical buildings with the help of local architects and benefactors of the Hellenic diaspora society. In 1842 a wealthy Greek from Trieste named Antonis Dimitriou had built a house for himself in the center of Athens which in 1874 becomes the Hotel Grande Bretagne . It becomes the hotel of choice for kings, queens and dignitaries and the scene of many important moments modern Greek history. Some other examples include the Evangelismos Hospital built by Andrea Syngros from the island of Chios, the Zappion which was a gift of the Zappas brothers from Northern Epirus, the Athens Polytechnic which was built by Nicholas Stournaras from Metsovo and the King's Palace (now the Parliament building in Syntagma). Perhaps the largest and most important gift is the reconstruction of the ancient marble Panathenaic Stadium by George Averof, an Alexandrian businessman from Metsovo for the Olympic games of 1896. By then the population of the city is around 130,000 and the Olympics are a sort of coming-out party for the new capital city of Europe's newest nation.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nBut the Olympics of 1896 which are credited as the first of the modern Olympics actually weren't. In 1833 Panagiotis Soutsos wrote about the revival of the Olympic Games in his poetry 'Dialogue of the Dead' and in 1850 Dr William Penny Brookes founded annual games in Much Wenlock, Shropshire, UK. In 1856 Evangelis Zappas wrote to King Otto of Greece offering to fund the revival of the Olympic Games. The first modern international Olympic Games held in Athens at Platia Kotzia, then called Ludouvikou or Ludvig Square, in 1859, sponsored by Evangelis Zappas. The 'Zappas Games' welcomed participants from the Ottoman Empire as well as Greece, making the Games international. In 1860 Dr William Penny Brookes founded the Wenlock Olympian Society. Brookes was clearly inspired by the first modern Olympic Games since he incorporated some of the events into the Wenlock Olympian Games. Petros Velissariou was the first person to be listed on the honorary roll as the first Olympic victor for his performance in the 1859 Zappas Games. In 1863 Baron Pierre de Coubertin was born. Why is this mentioned?","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nCoubertin is hailed as the founder of the modern Olympics and the Olympic Committee and yet when he was born both had already been in existence. In 1870, when Coubertin was just seven years old, the first modern Olympics to be held in a stadium took place in the ancient Panathenaic stadium of Athens which had been rebuilt by Evangelis Zappas. In 1875 the third games were held at the stadium and in 1889 another series of games was held in another location. It was not until 1892 that both Dr William Penny Brookes and Baron Pierre de Coubertin publicly proposed the revival of the Olympic Games for the first time with Brooke's proposal coming first. In 1894 Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee. In 1896 the Fourth modern international Olympic Games and the first IOC Olympic Games were held at the Panathenian Stadium, in Athens, the stadium again having been refurbished by Zappas and fellow philanthropist George Averoff. The Zappeion building was the first indoor Olympic arena.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nSo while you could argue that Coubertin was the founder of the International Olympic Committee, this line of reasoning falters when it comes to the modern Olympics which were inspired by Panayiotis Soutsos and paid for by Evangels Zappas approximately 1,460 years after the Ancient Olympic Games had been banned by the first Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I. (For more see www.zappas.org where you can join the campaign to formally recognise Panagiotis Soutsos and Evangelis Zappas as founders of the modern Olympic Games and Dr William Penny Brookes as a founder of the modern Olympic Movement.)\nThe same year that the Olympics are held another rebellion breaks out in Crete. Greece, under Deliyannis backs the island's liberation and declares war on Turkey. In three weeks the Greek army is defeated but Crete is put under international administration. In 1898 Crete is granted autonomy and Prince George, the 2nd son of the King is appointed governor. In Turkey events are taking place that will change the face of Asia Minor and Greece too. Sultan Abdul Hamit of the Ottoman Empire applies a policy of genocide to the Armenians. In August and September 1894, Armenians are slain in Sassun.","History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nIn October 1895 the first organised genocide takes place in Constantinople and Trebizond and in November and December 1895 the Ottoman authorities organize a great massacre throughout the country. In June 1896, the massacre of Van takes place. After the capture by the Armenians of the Ottoman Bank, another massacre takes place in Constantinople. The total number of victims is 300.000 Armenian men, women and children. In 1905 Eleftherios Venizelos, the president of the Cretan assembly announces the Union (enosis) with Greece. Though this union is not recognized until 1913, Venizelos comes to Athens where he becomes one of the most important political players of 20th century Greece. Help Support Matt's Greece Travel Guides \nDo you enjoy using my site? Have you found it entertaining as well as useful? If so please show your appreciation by booking hotels through the travel agencies and the links found on my Greek Travel Agents Page . The small comission I make on the bookings enable me to keep working and in most cases you won't find them any cheaper by searching elsewhere. You can also book at Booking.com's Greece Pages and they give me a small percentage on each booking.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nNationalism and Independence for Greece\nNationalism and \"Independence\" for the Greeks | Rebellion against Spain in Latin America | Independence for Brazil\nNationalism and \"Independence\" for the Greeks\nIf there is such a thing as being on the right side of history, those who supported maintenance of the status quo espoused by the Holy Alliance and traditionalist conservatives were not on it. There were too many people who wanted change. This included Greeks who wanted independence from Ottoman rule. The Greeks had been under Ottoman rule since the mid-1400s. In Greece, Islamic law applied only to Muslims. The Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to function and Greeks were free to worship as they pleased and to maintain their own culture and language. The Greeks saw the Ottoman Turks as inferior, and they looked back at what they considered the glories of ancient Greece. In the late 1700s the French Revolution inspired among the Greeks a greater yearning for liberty. A revolt against Ottoman rule gave Serbia quasi-autonomy beginning in 1813, and this had encouraged the Greeks.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nThere was a tendency among Greeks to believe that it would be their fellow Orthodox Christians, the Russians, who would free them from Ottoman power. Then in 1814, at the center of a thriving Greek community in Russian-ruled Odessa , Greek exiles laid what they hoped would be the ground work for an armed uprising inside Greece, and they misleadingly portrayed their group as having the approval of the Russian authorities. In 1821, Greeks on the Peloponnese Peninsula rebelled, inspired by news of an uprising in Moldavia, which was also under Ottoman rule. A small group led by a Greek, which included some Russians, had crossed the border into Moldavia where they raised the flag of Greek independence and hoped that the Romanians and Bulgarians of Moldavia would rise with them for their own independence. The revolt in Moldavia was crushed, but revolt in the Peloponnese spread. Rebels in the Peloponnese lacked good organization and discipline. For the most part they were Christians smiting their enemies without mercy. Leaders emerged who tried to invoke restraint and to stop looting, but they had little effect.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nGreek peasants armed with scythes, clubs and slings, grabbed what valuables they could and killed wherever possible, including small clusters of Muslims fleeing their homes. Of the estimated 50,000 Muslims living on the Peloponnese Peninsula in March 1821, an estimated 20,000 were killed within a few weeks – men, women and children. In Constantinople on April 10 the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, had the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregorios V, seized. Gregorios was accused of having intrigued with the uprising and having committed perjury and treason. Gregorios was hanged with Mahmud believing it was his right to order the execution. Christians across Europe were aware of the uprising in the Peloponnese but not of the atrocities of the revolutionaries, and they were shocked by the hanging of Gregorios. Common Russians wanted to avenge the death of the patriarch, but Russia's Tsar Alexander had other matters to consider and merely withdrew his ambassador from Constantinople. Alexander was still allied with Austria against revolutions, especially nationalist revolutions, and the tsar was not ready to break with that alliance. And neither was Britain's foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh. In April the Greek revolt spread northward toward central Greece and Athens .","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nIn May, Muslims in Athens were defending themselves from the Acropolis. In the Peloponnese various towns and cities fell, including Petras, where all Muslims who did not make it to the safety of the walls of the town's fortress were killed. In August in the Peloponnese, Muslims of the small town of Monemvasia were besieged and chose to surrender rather than endure more hunger, and when they surrendered they were slaughtered. A few days later, between 2,000 and 3,000 Muslims in Navarino were massacred. Tripolitsa was a city of 35,000 Turks, Albanians, Jews and others in the middle of Peloponnese. There the Ottoman governor resided, and there Greeks massacred for two days. An estimated 10,000 people, including women and children, were killed, as were 2,000 who had been taken prisoner. It is reported that Muslim women were raped and that Muslims were tortured for information of the whereabouts of their money. Water wells became polluted and disease spread that caused the death of thousands of Greeks. The taking of Tripolitsa in October was the final Greek success for the year 1821. Turks remained only at the fortresses in Patras and Nauplia and two lesser fortresses.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nMeanwhile in Constantinople, Janissaries soldiers were in revolt against the sultan and venting their anger upon Christians, and Christians were being slaughtered. The sultan transported soldiers from Anatolia and defeated the insurgents, killing 200 Janissaries. In early 1822, Muslims struck again against Christians. A Turkish military force joined by crowds of impassioned civilians landed on the island of Chios in the eastern Aegean Sea, an island with a population of about 100,000. There were Turkish officers who tried to restrain sections of the invading force. Nevertheless the invaders slaughtered around 25,000, some of the Greeks escaping by boats that came to their rescue, and some wealthy islanders paid Turkish commanders huge sums for protection. The slaughter stopped when Turks rounded up Greek survivors for sale in the slave markets of Asia Minor. The Greeks had the advantage of superiority at sea. They were experienced mariners. Greek sailors who had been working on Ottoman ships abandoned those ships, leaving the Turks to recruit inexperienced dock-laborers and peasants. In 1822 the Greeks captured the coastal region in the west just north of the Peloponnese Peninsula, and farther east they took Athens and Thebes.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nThe Greeks were now in control of west and east-central Greece as well as the Aegean islands. In 1822 the Greeks declared independence, stating:\nWe, descendants of the wise and noble peoples of Hellas, we who are the contemporaries of the enlightened and civilized nations of Europe, we who behold the advantages which they enjoy under the protection of the impenetrable aegis of the law, find it no longer possible to suffer without cowardice and self-contempt the cruel yoke of the Ottoman power which has weighed upon us for more than four centuries – a power which does not listen to reason and knows no other law than its own will, which orders and disposes everything despotically and according to caprice. The military victories of the Greeks led them to underrate the importance of discipline and to ignore the advice of those who preferred victory accompanied by restraint and mercy. The lack of a central organization for the revolution produced three provisional Greek governments. In 1823, rivalries escalated into violence. Greeks on the Aegean island of Psara were at war with those of the larger island of Samos about 120 kilometers (75 miles) to the south.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nDiscipline and cohesion vanished from the Greek fleet. Battle of Navarino Bay, the last battle of sailing ships, 1827\nClick to enlarge\nA new Ottoman admiral lacked confidence and failed to regain command of the sea for the Turks. In 1824 fighting between Greeks increased. On the Peloponnese Peninsula were Greek notables who wanted to retain the status they had held during Ottoman rule, and there were leading fighters who wanted some political power as a reward for their military contribution. Ship owners also thought they deserved some political power. Liberal intellectuals wanted a parliament. There were conservatives who tended to see the struggle between the Ottoman Turks and the Greeks as between Islam and Greek Orthodox Christianity, and they tended to want the preservation of an authoritarian relationship between the Greek Orthodox Church and Greek society. While these divisions were taking place, Mahmud II was strengthening his position through an alliance with his independent-minded governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and his son Ibrahim. Ali had newly modernized armed forces and a relatively large navy.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nSultan Mahud promised Muhammad Ali rule over the island of Crete and the appointment of Ibrahim as pasha of the Peloponnese, and Mahmud promised Ali concessions in Syria. The Egyptians, under the command of Ibrahim, arrived in Greece in 1825 and quickly gained dominance of the seas and Aegean islands. The Ottomans retook Athens, the Peloponnese and the town of Missolonghi just north of the Peloponnese – while rival Greek presidents and rival assemblies were competing for political supremacy. King Otto\nMissolonghi was where the poet Lord Byron fighting with the Greeks had died in 1824 because of a disease. Missolonghi was a symbol of Greek defiance against Ottoman power. It held out for months, heroically in the eyes of the Europeans. Its fall to the Muslims added to a new wave of support for the Greeks across Europe, with the idea that Greece had to be saved for European civilization. Already, financiers in London had contracted loans for the Greeks.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nThe Greek effort was helped by the arrival of money and volunteers from abroad, bringing the complaint from the Turks that they were \"no longer fighting the Greeks but all Europe.\"\nIbrahim began more devastation in Greece, and by July 1827 it looked as though the Ottoman Empire had won its war against the Greek insurgency. This was claimed by Ottoman writers. But Ibrahim's devastations inspired Britain, France and Russia to a joint demonstration by their navies. They demanded an armistice and that Ibrahim evacuate the Peloponnese. Ibrahim refused. In October the British, French and Russian fleet entered Navarino Bay , and there the Battle of Navarino, last naval battle of sailing ships, took place. Ibrahim's navy was destroyed. King Otto arrives in Greece, 1833, an artist's imagination\nIn October 1828, France landed troops on the Peloponnese Peninsula, and under French protection the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government. The Greeks took back Athens, Thebes and other territory, and the European powers imposed a ceasefire. In Greece a republican government war formed, with John Capdistrias as its leader. His authoritarian style of governing offended many, and in 1831 he was assassinated.","Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\n\nInternational recognition of Greek independence came in 1832 in a treaty signed by Britain, France, Russia and Bavaria. Athens was recognized as the capital of Greece. Thessaly, Macedon, Thrace and Epirus, which had large populations of non-Greeks, were not recognized as a part of Greece. Crete, the Dodecanese islands and the region around Smyrna were not included in the new Greek state. The convening European powers retained an ill-defined right to intervene in Greece. And they wanted the Greeks to be ruled by a monarchy. They chose the seventeen-year-old son of Ludwig I of Bavaria, Otto of Wittlesbach, and Otto became King Otto of Greece. Under King Otto the Greeks were taxed more than they had been under the Ottoman Turks. This did not please the Greeks. Neither did King Otto's Roman Catholicism. Orthodox Greeks considered him a heretic. And rather than marry into a Greek family, Otto, in 1837, married a princess from Oldenburg Germany, where his wedding took place. The queen remained unpopular with the Greeks, while the Great Powers continued to guarantee King Otto's rule.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nTagore and His India\nTagore and His India\nby Amartya Sen *\nVoice of Bengal\nRabindranath Tagore, who died in 1941 at the age of eighty, is a towering figure in the millennium-old literature of Bengal. Anyone who becomes familiar with this large and flourishing tradition will be impressed by the power of Tagore's presence in Bangladesh and in India. His poetry as well as his novels, short stories, and essays are very widely read, and the songs he composed reverberate around the eastern part of India and throughout Bangladesh. In contrast, in the rest of the world, especially in Europe and America, the excitement that Tagore's writings created in the early years of the twentieth century has largely vanished. The enthusiasm with which his work was once greeted was quite remarkable. Gitanjali, a selection of his poetry for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, was published in English translation in London in March of that year, and had been reprinted ten times by November, when the award was announced.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nBut he is not much read now in the West, and already by 1937, Graham Greene was able to say: \"As for Rabindranath Tagore, I cannot believe that anyone but Mr. Yeats can still take his poems very seriously.\"\nThe Mystic\nThe contrast between Tagore's commanding presence in Bengali literature and culture, and his near-total eclipse in the rest of the world, is perhaps less interesting than the distinction between the view of Tagore as a deeply relevant and many-sided contemporary thinker in Bangladesh and India, and his image in the West as a repetitive and remote spiritualist. Graham Greene had, in fact, gone on to explain that he associated Tagore \"with what Chesterton calls 'the bright pebbly eyes' of the Theosophists.\" Certainly, an air of mysticism played some part in the \"selling\" of Rabindranath Tagore to the West by Yeats, Ezra Pound, and his other early champions. Even Anna Akhmatova, one of Tagore's few later admirers (who translated his poems into Russian in the mid-1960s), talks of \"that mighty flow of poetry which takes its strength from Hinduism as from the Ganges, and is called Rabindranath Tagore.\"\nAn air of mysticism. Portrait by W.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nRothenstein\nConfluence of Cultures\nRabindranath did come from a Hindu family - one of the landed gentry who owned estates mostly in what is now Bangladesh. But whatever wisdom there might be in Akhmatova's invoking of Hinduism and the Ganges, it did not prevent the largely Muslim citizens of Bangladesh from having a deep sense of identity with Tagore and his ideas. Nor did it stop the newly independent Bangladesh from choosing one of Tagore's songs - the \"Amar Sonar Bangla\" which means \"my golden Bengal\" - as its national anthem. This must be very confusing to those who see the contemporary world as a \"clash of civilizations\" - with \"the Muslim civilization,\" \"the Hindu civilization,\" and \"the Western civilization,\" each forcefully confronting the others. They would also be confused by Rabindranath Tagore's own description of his Bengali family as the product of \"a confluence of three cultures: Hindu, Mohammedan, and British\". 1\nRabindranath's grandfather, Dwarkanath, was well known for his command of Arabic and Persian, and Rabindranath grew up in a family atmosphere in which a deep knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient Hindu texts was combined with an understanding of Islamic traditions as well as Persian literature.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nIt is not so much that Rabindranath tried to produce - or had an interest in producing - a \"synthesis\" of the different religions (as the great Moghul emperor Akbar tried hard to achieve) as that his outlook was persistently non-sectarian, and his writings - some two hundred books - show the influence of different parts of the Indian cultural background as well as of the rest of the world. 2\nAbode of Peace\nMost of his work was written at Santiniketan (Abode of Peace), the small town that grew around the school he founded in Bengal in 1901, and he not only conceived there an imaginative and innovative system of education, but through his writings and his influence on students and teachers, he was able to use the school as a base from which he could take a major part in India's social, political, and cultural movements. The profoundly original writer, whose elegant prose and magical poetry Bengali readers know well, is not the sermonizing spiritual guru admired - and then rejected - in London.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nTagore was not only an immensely versatile poet; he was also a great short story writer, novelist, playwright, essayist, and composer of songs, as well as a talented painter whose pictures, with their mixture of representation and abstraction, are only now beginning to receive the acclaim that they have long deserved. His essays, moreover, ranged over literature, politics, culture, social change, religious beliefs, philosophical analysis, international relations, and much else. The coincidence of the fiftieth anniversary of Indian independence with the publication of a selection of Tagore's letters by Cambridge University Press 3 , brought Tagore's ideas and reflections to the fore, which makes it important to examine what kind of leadership in thought and understanding he provided in the Indian subcontinent in the first half of this century. Gandhi and Tagore\nSince Rabindranath Tagore and Mohandas Gandhi were two leading Indian thinkers in the twentieth century, many commentators have tried to compare their ideas. On learning of Rabindranath's death, Jawaharlal Nehru, then incarcerated in a British jail in India, wrote in his prison diary for August 7, 1941:\n\"Gandhi and Tagore.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nTwo types entirely different from each other, and yet both of them typical of India, both in the long line of India's great men ... It is not so much because of any single virtue but because of the tout ensemble, that I felt that among the world's great men today Gandhi and Tagore were supreme as human beings. What good fortune for me to have come into close contact with them.\"\nRomain Rolland was fascinated by the contrast between them, and when he completed his book on Gandhi, he wrote to an Indian academic, in March 1923: \"I have finished my Gandhi, in which I pay tribute to your two great river-like souls, overflowing with divine spirit, Tagore and Gandhi.\" The following month, he recorded in his diary an account of some of the differences between Gandhi and Tagore written by Reverend C.F. Andrews, the English clergyman and public activist who was a close friend of both men (and whose important role in Gandhi's life in South Africa as well as India is well portrayed in Richard Attenborough's film Gandhi [1982]).","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nAndrews described to Rolland a discussion between Tagore and Gandhi, at which he was present, on subjects that divided them:\n\"The first subject of discussion was idols; Gandhi defended them, believing the masses incapable of raising themselves immediately to abstract ideas. Tagore cannot bear to see the people eternally treated as a child. Gandhi quoted the great things achieved in Europe by the flag as an idol; Tagore found it easy to object, but Gandhi held his ground, contrasting European flags bearing eagles, etc., with his own, on which he has put a spinning wheel. The second point of discussion was nationalism, which Gandhi defended. He said that one must go through nationalism to reach internationalism, in the same way that one must go through war to reach peace.\" 4\nTagore greatly admired Gandhi but he had many disagreements with him on a variety of subjects, including nationalism, patriotism, the importance of cultural exchange, the role of rationality and of science, and the nature of economic and social development.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nThese differences, I shall argue, have a clear and consistent pattern, with Tagore pressing for more room for reasoning, and for a less traditionalist view, a greater interest in the rest of the world, and more respect for science and for objectivity generally. Rabindranath knew that he could not have given India the political leadership that Gandhi provided, and he was never stingy in his praise for what Gandhi did for the nation (it was, in fact, Tagore who popularized the term \"Mahatma\" - great soul - as a description of Gandhi). And yet each remained deeply critical of many things that the other stood for. That Mahatma Gandhi has received incomparably more attention outside India and also within much of India itself makes it important to understand \"Tagore's side\" of the Gandhi-Tagore debates. In his prison diary, Nehru wrote: \"Perhaps it is as well that [Tagore] died now and did not see the many horrors that are likely to descend in increasing measure on the world and on India.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe had seen enough and he was infinitely sad and unhappy.\" Toward the end of his life, Tagore was indeed becoming discouraged about the state of India, especially as its normal burden of problems, such as hunger and poverty, was being supplemented by politically organized incitement to \"communal\" violence between Hindus and Muslims. This conflict would lead in 1947, six years after Tagore's death, to the widespread killing that took place during partition; but there was much gore already during his declining days. In December 1939, he wrote to his friend Leonard Elmhirst, the English philanthropist and social reformer who had worked closely with him on rural reconstruction in India (and who had gone on to found the Dartington Hall Trust in England and a progressive school at Dartington that explicitly invoked Rabindranath's educational ideals): 5\n\"It does not need a defeatist to feel deeply anxious about the future of millions who, with all their innate culture and their peaceful traditions are being simultaneously subjected to hunger, disease, exploitations foreign and indigenous, and the seething discontents of communalism.\"\nHow would Tagore have viewed the India of today?","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nWould he see progress there, or wasted opportunity, perhaps even a betrayal of its promise and conviction? And, on a wider subject, how would he react to the spread of cultural separatism in the contemporary world? East and West\nGiven the vast range of his creative achievements, perhaps the most astonishing aspect of the image of Tagore in the West is its narrowness; he is recurrently viewed as \"the great mystic from the East,\" an image with a putative message for the West, which some would welcome, others dislike, and still others find deeply boring. To a great extent this Tagore was the West's own creation, part of its tradition of message-seeking from the East, particularly from India, which - as Hegel put it - had \"existed for millennia in the imagination of the Europeans.\" 6 Friedrich Schlegel, Schelling, Herder, and Schopenhauer were only a few of the thinkers who followed the same pattern. They theorized, at first, that India was the source of superior wisdom.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nSchopenhauer at one stage even argued that the New Testament \"must somehow be of Indian origin: this is attested by its completely Indian ethics, which transforms morals into asceticism, its pessimism, and its avatar,\" in \"the person of Christ.\" But then they rejected their own theories with great vehemence, sometimes blaming India for not living up to their unfounded expectations. We can imagine that Rabindranath's physical appearance - handsome, bearded, dressed in non-Western clothes - may, to some extent, have encouraged his being seen as a carrier of exotic wisdom. Yasunari Kawabata , the first Japanese Nobel Laureate in Literature, treasured memories from his middle-school days of \"this sage-like poet\":\nHis white hair flowed softly down both sides of his forehead; the tufts of hair under the temples also were long like two beards, and linking up with the hair on his cheeks, continued into his beard, so that he gave an impression, to the boy I was then, of some ancient Oriental wizard. 7\nThat appearance would have been well-suited to the selling of Tagore in the West as a quintessentially mystical poet, and it could have made it somewhat easier to pigeonhole him.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nCommenting on Rabindranath's appearance, Frances Cornford told William Rothenstein, \"I can now imagine a powerful and gentle Christ, which I never could before.\" Beatrice Webb, who did not like Tagore and resented what she took to be his \"quite obvious dislike of all that the Webbs stand for\" (there is, in fact, little evidence that Tagore had given much thought to this subject), said that he was \"beautiful to look at\" and that \"his speech has the perfect intonation and slow chant-like moderation of the dramatic saint.\" Ezra Pound and W. B. Yeats, among others, first led the chorus of adoration in the Western appreciation of Tagore, and then soon moved to neglect and even shrill criticism. The contrast between Yeats's praise of his work in 1912 (\"These lyrics ... display in their thought a world I have dreamed of all my life long,\" \"the work of a supreme culture\") and his denunciation in 1935 (\"Damn Tagore\") arose partly from the inability of Tagore's many-sided writings to fit into the narrow box in which Yeats wanted to place - and keep - him.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nCertainly, Tagore did write a huge amount, and published ceaselessly, even in English (sometimes in indifferent English translation), but Yeats was also bothered, it is clear, by the difficulty of fitting Tagore's later writings into the image Yeats had presented to the West. Tagore, he had said, was the product of \"a whole people, a whole civilization, immeasurably strange to us,\" and yet \"we have met our own image, ... or heard, perhaps for the first time in literature, our voice as in a dream.\" 8\nYeats did not totally reject his early admiration (as Ezra Pound and several others did), and he included some of Tagore's early poems in The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, which he edited in 1936. Yeats also had some favorable things to say about Tagore's prose writings. His censure of Tagore's later poems was reinforced by his dislike of Tagore's own English translations of his work (\"Tagore does not know English, no Indian knows English,\" Yeats explained), unlike the English version of Gitanjali which Yeats had himself helped to prepare.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nPoetry is, of course, notoriously difficult to translate, and anyone who knows Tagore's poems in their original Bengali cannot feel satisfied with any of the translations (made with or without Yeats's help). Even the translations of his prose works suffer, to some extent, from distortion. E.M. Forster noted, in a review of a translation of one of Tagore's great Bengali novels, The Home and the World, in 1919: \"The theme is so beautiful,\" but the charms have \"vanished in translation,\" or perhaps \"in an experiment that has not quite come off.\" 9\nTagore himself played a somewhat bemused part in the boom and bust of his English reputation. He accepted the extravagant praise with much surprise as well as pleasure, and then received denunciations with even greater surprise, and barely concealed pain. Tagore was sensitive to criticism, and was hurt by even the most far-fetched accusations, such as the charge that he was getting credit for the work of Yeats, who had \"rewritten\" Gitanjali. (This charge was made by a correspondent for The Times, Sir Valentine Chirol, whom E.M.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nForster once described as \"an old Anglo-Indian reactionary hack.\") From time to time Tagore also protested the crudity of some of his overexcited advocates. He wrote to C.F. Andrews in 1920: \"These people ... are like drunkards who are afraid of their lucid intervals.\"\nGod and Others\nYeats was not wrong to see a large religious element in Tagore's writings. He certainly had interesting and arresting things to say about life and death. Susan Owen, the mother of Wilfred Owen, wrote to Rabindranath in 1920, describing her last conversations with her son before he left for the war which would take his life. Wilfred said goodbye with \"those wonderful words of yours - beginning at 'When I go from hence, let this be my parting word.'\" When Wilfred's pocket notebook was returned to his mother, she found \"these words written in his dear writing - with your name beneath.\"\nThe idea of a direct, joyful, and totally fearless relationship with God can be found in many of Tagore's religious writings, including the poems of Gitanjali. From India's diverse religious traditions he drew many ideas, both from ancient texts and from popular poetry.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nBut \"the bright pebbly eyes of the Theosophists\" do not stare out of his verses. Despite the archaic language of the original translation of Gitanjali, which did not, I believe, help to preserve the simplicity of the original, its elementary humanity comes through more clearly than any complex and intense spirituality:\nLeave this chanting and singing and telling of beads! Whom dost thou worship in this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all shut? Open thine eyes and see thy God is not before thee! He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is breaking stones. He is with them in sun and in shower, and his garment is covered with dust. An ambiguity about religious experience is central to many of Tagore's devotional poems, and makes them appeal to readers irrespective of their beliefs; but excessively detailed interpretation can ruinously strip away that ambiguity. 10 This applies particularly to his many poems which combine images of human love and those of pious devotion. Tagore writes:\nI have no sleep to-night. Ever and again I open my door and look out on the darkness, my friend! I can see nothing before me.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nI wonder where lies thy path! By what dim shore of the ink-black river, by what far edge of the frowning forest, through what mazy depth of gloom, art thou threading thy course to come to see me, my friend? I suppose it could be helpful to be told, as Yeats hastens to explain, that \"the servant or the bride awaiting the master's home-coming in the empty house\" is \"among the images of the heart turning to God.\" But in Yeats's considerate attempt to make sure that the reader does not miss the \"main point,\" something of the enigmatic beauty of the Bengali poem is lost - even what had survived the antiquated language of the English translation. Tagore certainly had strongly held religious beliefs (of an unusually nondenominational kind), but he was interested in a great many other things as well and had many different things to say about them. Some of the ideas he tried to present were directly political, and they figure rather prominently in his letters and lectures.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe had practical, plainly expressed views about nationalism, war and peace, cross-cultural education, freedom of the mind, the importance of rational criticism, the need for openness, and so on. His admirers in the West, however, were tuned to the more otherworldly themes which had been emphasized by his first Western patrons. People came to his public lectures in Europe and America, expecting ruminations on grand, transcendental themes; when they heard instead his views on the way public leaders should behave, there was some resentment, particularly (as E.P. Thompson reports) when he delivered political criticism \"at $700 a scold.\"\nAn ambiguity about religious experience. The Royal Library\nReasoning in Freedom\nFor Tagore it was of the highest importance that people be able to live, and reason, in freedom. His attitudes toward politics and culture, nationalism and internationalism, tradition and modernity, can all be seen in the light of this belief. 11 Nothing, perhaps, expresses his values as clearly as a poem in Gitanjali:\nWhere the mind is without fear\nand the head is held high;\nWhere knowledge is free;\nWhere the clear stream of reason\nhas not lost its way into the\ndreary desert sand of dead habit; ...","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nInto that heaven of freedom,\nmy Father, let my country awake. Rabindranath's qualified support for nationalist movements - and his opposition to the unfreedom of alien rule - came from this commitment. So did his reservations about patriotism, which, he argued, can limit both the freedom to engage ideas from outside \"narrow domestic walls\" and the freedom also to support the causes of people in other countries. Rabindranath's passion for freedom underlies his firm opposition to unreasoned traditionalism, which makes one a prisoner of the past (lost, as he put it, in \"the dreary desert sand of dead habit\"). Tagore illustrates the tyranny of the past in his amusing yet deeply serious parable \"Kartar Bhoot\" (\"The Ghost of the Leader\"). As the respected leader of an imaginary land is about to die, his panic-stricken followers request him to stay on after his death to instruct them on what to do. He consents. But his followers find their lives are full of rituals and constraints on everyday behavior and are not responsive to the world around them.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nUltimately, they request the ghost of the leader to relieve them of his domination, when he informs them that he exists only in their minds. Tagore's deep aversion to any commitment to the past that could not be modified by contemporary reason extended even to the alleged virtue of invariably keeping past promises. On one occasion when Mahatma Gandhi visited Tagore's school at Santiniketan, a young woman got him to sign her autograph book. Gandhi wrote: \"Never make a promise in haste. Having once made it fulfill it at the cost of your life.\" When he saw this entry, Tagore became agitated. He wrote in the same book a short poem in Bengali to the effect that no one can be made \"a prisoner forever with a chain of clay.\" He went on to conclude in English, possibly so that Gandhi could read it too, \"Fling away your promise if it is found to be wrong.\" 12\nTagore and Gandhi, in Shantiniketan, 1940.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nShantiniketan Collections\nTagore had the greatest admiration for Mahatma Gandhi as a person and as a political leader, but he was also highly skeptical of Gandhi's form of nationalism and his conservative instincts regarding the country's past traditions. He never criticized Gandhi personally. In the 1938 essay, \"Gandhi the Man,\" he wrote:\nGreat as he is as a politician, as an organizer, as a leader of men, as a moral reformer, he is greater than all these as a man, because none of these aspects and activities limits his humanity. They are rather inspired and sustained by it. And yet there is a deep division between the two men. Tagore was explicit about his disagreement:\nWe who often glorify our tendency to ignore reason, installing in its place blind faith, valuing it as spiritual, are ever paying for its cost with the obscuration of our mind and destiny. I blamed Mahatmaji for exploiting this irrational force of credulity in our people, which might have had a quick result [in creating] a superstructure, while sapping the foundation.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nThus began my estimate of Mahatmaji, as the guide of our nation, and it is fortunate for me that it did not end there. But while it \"did not end there,\" that difference of vision was a powerful divider. Tagore, for example, remained unconvinced of the merit of Gandhi's forceful advocacy that everyone should spin at home with the \"charka,\" the primitive spinning wheel. For Gandhi this practice was an important part of India's self-realization. \"The spinning-wheel gradually became,\" as his biographer B.R. Nanda writes, \"the center of rural uplift in the Gandhian scheme of Indian economics.\" 13 Tagore found the alleged economic rationale for this scheme quite unrealistic. As Romain Rolland noted, Rabindranath \"never tires of criticizing the charka.\" In this economic judgment, Tagore was probably right. Except for the rather small specialized market for high-quality spun cloth, it is hard to make economic sense of hand-spinning, even with wheels less primitive than Gandhi's charka. Hand-spinning as a widespread activity can survive only with the help of heavy government subsidies. 14 However, Gandhi's advocacy of the charka was not based only on economics.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe wanted everyone to spin for \"thirty minutes every day as a sacrifice,\" seeing this as a way for people who are better off to identify themselves with the less fortunate. He was impatient with Tagore's refusal to grasp this point:\nThe poet lives for the morrow, and would have us do likewise .... \"Why should I, who have no need to work for food, spin?\" may be the question asked. Because I am eating what does not belong to me. I am living on the spoliation of my countrymen. Trace the source of every coin that finds its way into your pocket, and you will realise the truth of what I write. Every one must spin. Let Tagore spin like the others. Let him burn his foreign clothes; that is the duty today. God will take care of the morrow. 15\nIf Tagore had missed something in Gandhi's argument, so did Gandhi miss the point of Tagore's main criticism.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nIt was not only that the charka made little economic sense, but also, Tagore thought, that it was not the way to make people reflect on anything: \"The charka does not require anyone to think; one simply turns the wheel of the antiquated invention endlessly, using the minimum of judgment and stamina.\"\nCelibacy and Personal Life\nTagore and Gandhi's attitudes toward personal life were also quite different. Gandhi was keen on the virtues of celibacy, theorized about it, and, after some years of conjugal life, made a private commitment - publicly announced - to refrain from sleeping with his wife. Rabindranath's own attitude on this subject was very different, but he was gentle about their disagreements:\n[Gandhiji] condemns sexual life as inconsistent with the moral progress of man, and has a horror of sex as great as that of the author of The Kreutzer Sonata, but, unlike Tolstoy, he betrays no abhorrence of the sex that tempts his kind.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nIn fact, his tenderness for women is one of the noblest and most consistent traits of his character, and he counts among the women of his country some of his best and truest comrades in the great movement he is leading. Tagore's personal life was, in many ways, an unhappy one. He married in 1883, lost his wife in 1902, and never remarried. He sought close companionship, which he did not always get (perhaps even during his married life - he wrote to his wife, Mrinalini: \"If you and I could be comrades in all our work and in all our thoughts it would be splendid, but we cannot attain all that we desire\"). He maintained a warm friendship with, and a strong Platonic attachment to, the literature-loving wife, Kadambari, of his elder brother, Jyotirindranath. He dedicated some poems to her before his marriage, and several books afterward, some after her death (she committed suicide, for reasons that are not fully understood, at the age of twenty-five, four months after Rabindranath's wedding).","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nMuch later in life, during his tour of Argentina in 1924-1925, Rabindranath came to know the talented and beautiful Victoria Ocampo, who later became the publisher of the literary magazine Sur. They became close friends, but it appears that Rabindranath deflected the possibility of a passionate relationship into a confined intellectual one. 16 His friend Leonard Elmhirst, who accompanied Rabindranath on his Argentine tour, wrote:\nBesides having a keen intellectual understanding of his books, she was in love with him - but instead of being content to build a friendship on the basis of intellect, she was in a hurry to establish that kind of proprietary right over him which he absolutely would not brook. Ocampo and Elmhirst, while remaining friendly, were both quite rude in what they wrote about each other. Ocampo's book on Tagore (of which a Bengali translation was made from the Spanish by the distinguished poet and critic Shankha Ghosh) is primarily concerned with Tagore's writings but also discusses the pleasures and difficulties of their relationship, giving quite a different account from Elmhirst's, and never suggesting any sort of proprietary intentions.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nVictoria Ocampo, however, makes it clear that she very much wanted to get physically closer to Rabindranath: \"Little by little he [Tagore] partially tamed the young animal, by turns wild and docile, who did not sleep, dog-like, on the floor outside his door, simply because it was not done.\" 17 Rabindranath, too, was clearly very much attracted to her. He called her \"Vijaya\" (the Sanskrit equivalent of Victoria), dedicated a book of poems to her, Purabi - an \"evening melody,\" and expressed great admiration for her mind (\"like a star that was distant\"). In a letter to her he wrote, as if to explain his own reticence:\nWhen we were together, we mostly played with words and tried to laugh away our best opportunities to see each other clearly ... Whenever there is the least sign of the nest becoming a jealous rival of the sky [,] my mind, like a migrant bird, tries to take ... flight to a distant shore. Five years later, during Tagore's European tour in 1930, he sent her a cable: \"Will you not come and see me.\" She did.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nBut their relationship did not seem to go much beyond conversation, and their somewhat ambiguous correspondence continued over the years. Written in 1940, a year before his death at eighty, one of the poems in Sesh Lekha (\"Last Writings\"), seems to be about her: \"How I wish I could once again find my way to that foreign land where waits for me the message of love!/... Her language I knew not, but what her eyes said will forever remain eloquent in its anguish.\" 18 However indecisive, or confused, or awkward Rabindranath may have been, he certainly did not share Mahatma Gandhi's censorious views of sex. In fact, when it came to social policy, he advocated contraception and family planning while Gandhi preferred abstinence. Tagore with his wife Mrinalini Devi in 1883. Shantiniketan Collections\nScience and the People\nGandhi and Tagore severely clashed over their totally different attitudes toward science. In January 1934, Bihar was struck by a devastating earthquake, which killed thousands of people.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nGandhi, who was then deeply involved in the fight against untouchability (the barbaric system inherited from India's divisive past, in which \"lowly people\" were kept at a physical distance), extracted a positive lesson from the tragic event. \"A man like me,\" Gandhi argued, \"cannot but believe this earthquake is a divine chastisement sent by God for our sins\" - in particular the sins of untouchability. \"For me there is a vital connection between the Bihar calamity and the untouchability campaign.\"\nTagore, who equally abhorred untouchability and had joined Gandhi in the movements against it, protested against this interpretation of an event that had caused suffering and death to so many innocent people, including children and babies. He also hated the epistemology implicit in seeing an earthquake as caused by ethical failure. \"It is,\" he wrote, \"all the more unfortunate because this kind of unscientific view of [natural] phenomena is too readily accepted by a large section of our countrymen.\"\nThe two remained deeply divided over their attitudes toward science. However, while Tagore believed that modern science was essential to the understanding of physical phenomena, his views on epistemology were interestingly heterodox.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe did not take the simple \"realist\" position often associated with modern science. The report of his conversation with Einstein, published in The New York Times in 1930, shows how insistent Tagore was on interpreting truth through observation and reflective concepts. To assert that something is true or untrue in the absence of anyone to observe or perceive its truth, or to form a conception of what it is, appeared to Tagore to be deeply questionable. When Einstein remarked, \"If there were no human beings any more, the Apollo Belvedere no longer would be beautiful?\" Tagore simply replied, \"No.\" Going further - and into much more interesting territory - Einstein said, \"I agree with regard to this conception of beauty, but not with regard to truth.\" Tagore's response was: \"Why not? Truth is realized through men.\" 19\nAlbert Einstein and Tagore, in New York, 1930.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nPhoto: Martin Vos/Rabindra Bhavan, Shantiniketan\nTagore's epistemology, which he never pursued systematically, would seem to be searching for a line of reasoning that would later be elegantly developed by Hilary Putnam, who has argued: \"Truth depends on conceptual schemes and it is nonetheless 'real truth.'\" 20 Tagore himself said little to explain his convictions, but it is important to take account of his heterodoxy, not only because his speculations were invariably interesting, but also because they illustrate how his support for any position, including his strong interest in science, was accompanied by critical scrutiny. Nationalism and Colonialism\nTagore was predictably hostile to communal sectarianism (such as a Hindu orthodoxy that was antagonistic to Islamic, Christian, or Sikh perspectives). But even nationalism seemed to him to be suspect. Isaiah Berlin summarizes well Tagore's complex position on Indian nationalism:\nTagore stood fast on the narrow causeway, and did not betray his vision of the difficult truth.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe condemned romantic overattachment to the past, what he called the tying of India to the past \"like a sacrificial goat tethered to a post,\" and he accused men who displayed it - they seemed to him reactionary - of not knowing what true political freedom was, pointing out that it is from English thinkers and English books that the very notion of political liberty was derived. But against cosmopolitanism he maintained that the English stood on their own feet, and so must Indians. In 1917 he once more denounced the danger of ‘leaving everything to the unalterable will of the Master,' be he brahmin or Englishman. 21\nThe duality Berlin points to is well reflected also in Tagore's attitude toward cultural diversity. He wanted Indians to learn what is going on elsewhere, how others lived, what they valued, and so on, while remaining interested and involved in their own culture and heritage. Indeed, in his educational writings the need for synthesis is strongly stressed. It can also be found in his advice to Indian students abroad.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nIn 1907 he wrote to his son-in-law Nagendranath Gangulee, who had gone to America to study agriculture:\nTo get on familiar terms with the local people is a part of your education. To know only agriculture is not enough; you must know America too. Of course if, in the process of knowing America, one begins to lose one's identity and falls into the trap of becoming an Americanised person contemptuous of everything Indian, it is preferable to stay in a locked room. Tagore was strongly involved in protest against the Raj on a number of occasions, most notably in the movement to resist the 1905 British proposal to split in two the province of Bengal, a plan that was eventually withdrawn following popular resistance. He was forthright in denouncing the brutality of British rule in India, never more so than after the Amritsar massacre of April 13, 1919, when 379 unarmed people at a peaceful meeting were gunned down by the army, and two thousand more were wounded. Between April 23 and 26, Rabindranath wrote five agitated letters to C.F.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nAndrews, who himself was extremely disturbed, especially after he was told by a British civil servant in India that thanks to this show of strength, the \"moral prestige\" of the Raj had \"never been higher.\"\nA month after the massacre, Tagore wrote to the Viceroy of India, asking to be relieved of the knighthood he had accepted four years earlier:\nThe disproportionate severity of the punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate people and the methods of carrying them out, we are convinced, are without parallel in the history of civilized governments, barring some conspicuous exceptions, recent and remote. Considering that such treatment has been meted out to a population, disarmed and resourceless, by a power which has the most terribly efficient organisation for destruction of human lives, we must strongly assert that it can claim no political expediency, far less moral justification ... The universal agony of indignation roused in the hearts of our people has been ignored by our rulers - possibly congratulating themselves for imparting what they imagine as salutary lessons ...","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nI for my part want to stand, shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen who for their so-called insignificance are liable to suffer a degradation not fit for human beings. Both Gandhi and Nehru expressed their appreciation of the important part Tagore took in the national struggle. It is fitting that after independence, India chose a song of Tagore (\"Jana Gana Mana Adhinayaka,\" which can be roughly translated as \"the leader of people's minds\") as its national anthem. Since Bangladesh would later choose another song of Tagore (\"Amar Sonar Bangla\") as its national anthem, he may be the only one ever to have authored the national anthems of two different countries. Tagore's criticism of the British administration of India was consistently strong and grew more intense over the years. This point is often missed, since he made a special effort to dissociate his criticism of the Raj from any denigration of British - or Western - people and culture. Mahatma Gandhi's well-known quip in reply to a question, asked in England, on what he thought of Western civilization (\"It would be a good idea\") could not have come from Tagore's lips.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe would understand the provocations to which Gandhi was responding - involving cultural conceit as well as imperial tyranny. D.H. Lawrence supplied a fine example of the former: \"I become more and more surprised to see how far higher, in reality, our European civilization stands than the East, Indian and Persian, ever dreamed of .... This fraud of looking up to them - this wretched worship-of-Tagore attitude is disgusting.\" But, unlike Gandhi, Tagore could not, even in jest, be dismissive of Western civilization. Forthright in denouncing the brutality of British rule in India. Portrait by W. Rothenstein\nEven in his powerful indictment of British rule in India in 1941, in a lecture which he gave on his last birthday, and which was later published as a pamphlet under the title Crisis in Civilization, he strains hard to maintain the distinction between opposing Western imperialism and rejecting Western civilization. While he saw India as having been \"smothered under the dead weight of British administration\" (adding \"another great and ancient civilization for whose recent tragic history the British cannot disclaim responsibility is China\"), Tagore recalls what India has gained from \"discussions centred upon Shakespeare's drama and Byron's poetry and above all ...","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nthe large-hearted liberalism of nineteenth-century English politics.\" The tragedy, as Tagore saw it, came from the fact that what \"was truly best in their own civilization, the upholding of dignity of human relationships, has no place in the British administration of this country.\" \"If in its place they have established, baton in hand, a reign of 'law and order,' or in other words a policeman's rule, such a mockery of civilization can claim no respect from us.\"\nCritique of Patriotism\nRabindranath rebelled against the strongly nationalist form that the independence movement often took, and this made him refrain from taking a particularly active part in contemporary politics. He wanted to assert India's right to be independent without denying the importance of what India could learn - freely and profitably - from abroad.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nHe was afraid that a rejection of the West in favor of an indigenous Indian tradition was not only limiting in itself; it could easily turn into hostility to other influences from abroad, including Christianity, which came to parts of India by the fourth century; Judaism, which came through Jewish immigration shortly after the fall of Jerusalem, as did Zoroastrianism through Parsi immigration later on (mainly in the eighth century), and, of course - and most importantly - Islam, which has had a very strong presence in India since the tenth century. Tagore's criticism of patriotism is a persistent theme in his writings. As early as 1908, he put his position succinctly in a letter replying to the criticism of Abala Bose, the wife of a great Indian scientist, Jagadish Chandra Bose: \"Patriotism cannot be our final spiritual shelter; my refuge is humanity. I will not buy glass for the price of diamonds, and I will never allow patriotism to triumph over humanity as long as I live.\" His novel Ghare Baire (The Home and the World) has much to say about this theme.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nIn the novel, Nikhil, who is keen on social reform, including women's liberation, but cool toward nationalism, gradually loses the esteem of his spirited wife, Bimala, because of his failure to be enthusiastic about anti-British agitations, which she sees as a lack of patriotic commitment. Bimala becomes fascinated with Nikhil's nationalist friend Sandip, who speaks brilliantly and acts with patriotic militancy, and she falls in love with him. Nikhil refuses to change his views: \"I am willing to serve my country; but my worship I reserve for Right which is far greater than my country. To worship my country as a god is to bring a curse upon it.\" 22\nAs the story unfolds, Sandip becomes angry with some of his countrymen for their failure to join the struggle as readily as he thinks they should (\"Some Mohamedan traders are still obdurate\"). He arranges to deal with the recalcitrants by burning their meager trading stocks and physically attacking them. Bimala has to acknowledge the connection between Sandip's rousing nationalistic sentiments and his sectarian - and ultimately violent-actions. The dramatic events that follow (Nikhil attempts to help the victims, risking his life) include the end of Bimala's political romance.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nThis is a difficult subject, and Satyajit Ray's beautiful film of The Home and the World brilliantly brings out the novel's tensions, along with the human affections and disaffections of the story. Not surprisingly, the story has had many detractors, not just among dedicated nationalists in India. Georg Lukács found Tagore's novel to be \"a petit bourgeois yarn of the shoddiest kind,\" \"at the intellectual service of the British police,\" and \"a contemptible caricature of Gandhi.\" It would, of course, be absurd to think of Sandip as Gandhi, but the novel gives a \"strong and gentle\" warning, as Bertolt Brecht noted in his diary, of the corruptibility of nationalism, since it is not even-handed. Hatred of one group can lead to hatred of others, no matter how far such feeling may be from the minds of large-hearted nationalist leaders like Mahatma Gandhi. Admiration and Criticism of Japan\nTagore's reaction to nationalism in Japan is particularly telling. As in the case of India, he saw the need to build the self-confidence of a defeated and humiliated people, of people left behind by developments elsewhere, as was the case in Japan before its emergence during the nineteenth century.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nAt the beginning of one of his lectures in Japan in 1916 (\"Nationalism in Japan\"), he observed that \"the worst form of bondage is the bondage of dejection, which keeps men hopelessly chained in loss of faith in themselves.\" Tagore shared the admiration for Japan widespread in Asia for demonstrating the ability of an Asian nation to rival the West in industrial development and economic progress. He noted with great satisfaction that Japan had \"in giant strides left centuries of inaction behind, overtaking the present time in its foremost achievement.\" For other nations outside the West, he said, Japan \"has broken the spell under which we lay in torpor for ages, taking it to be the normal condition of certain races living in certain geographical limits.\"\nBut then Tagore went on to criticize the rise of a strong nationalism in Japan, and its emergence as an imperialist nation. Tagore's outspoken criticisms did not please Japanese audiences and, as E.P.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nThompson wrote, \"the welcome given to him on his first arrival soon cooled.\" 23 Twenty-two years later, in 1937, during the Japanese war on China, Tagore received a letter from Rash Behari Bose, an anti-British Indian revolutionary then living in Japan, who sought Tagore's approval for his efforts there on behalf of Indian independence, in which he had the support of the Japanese government. Tagore replied:\nYour cable has caused me many restless hours, for it hurts me very much to have to ignore your appeal. I wish you had asked for my cooperation in a cause against which my spirit did not protest. I know, in making this appeal, you counted on my great regard for the Japanese for I, along with the rest of Asia, did once admire and look up to Japan and did once fondly hope that in Japan Asia had at last discovered its challenge to the West, that Japan's new strength would be consecrated in safeguarding the culture of the East against alien interests.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nBut Japan has not taken long to betray that rising hope and repudiate all that seemed significant in her wonderful, and, to us symbolic, awakening, and has now become itself a worse menace to the defenceless peoples of the East. How to view Japan's position in the Second World War was a divisive issue in India. After the war, when Japanese political leaders were tried for war crimes, the sole dissenting voice among the judges came from the Indian judge, Radhabinod Pal, a distinguished jurist. Pal dissented on various grounds, among them that no fair trial was possible in view of the asymmetry of power between the victor and the defeated. Ambivalent feelings in India toward the Japanese military aggression, given the unacceptable nature of British imperialism, possibly had a part in predisposing Pal to consider a perspective different from that of the other judges.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nMore tellingly, Subhas Chandra Bose (no relation of Rash Behari Bose), a leading nationalist, made his way to Japan during the war via Italy and Germany after escaping from a British prison; he helped the Japanese to form units of Indian soldiers, who had earlier surrendered to the advancing Japanese army, to fight on the Japanese side as the \"Indian National Army.\" Rabindranath had formerly entertained great admiration for Subhas Bose as a dedicated nonsectarian fighter for Indian independence. 24 But their ways would have parted when Bose's political activities took this turn, although Tagore was dead by the time Bose reached Japan. Tagore saw Japanese militarism as illustrating the way nationalism can mislead even a nation of great achievement and promise. In 1938 Yone Noguchi, the distinguished poet and friend of Tagore (as well as of Yeats and Pound), wrote to Tagore, pleading with him to change his mind about Japan.","Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\n\nRabindranath's reply, written on September 12, 1938, was altogether uncompromising:\nIt seems to me that it is futile for either of us to try to convince the other, since your faith in the infallible right of Japan to bully other Asiatic nations into line with your Government's policy is not shared by me .... Believe me, it is sorrow and shame, not anger, that prompt me to write to you. I suffer intensely not only because the reports of Chinese suffering batter against my heart, but because I can no longer point out with pride the example of a great Japan. He would have been much happier with the postwar emergence of Japan as a peaceful power. Then, too, since he was not free of egotism, he would also have been pleased by the attention paid to his ideas by the novelist Yasunari Kawabata and others. 25\nYasunari Kawabata"],"string":"[\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nHistory of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\nHistory of Greece\\nThe Greek Revolution of 1821\\nContrary to popular opinion there never was a country called Greece or Hellas until the Revolution of 1821. When rebellion against the Ottoman Empire gave birth to Hellas, Hellenic-speaking people had a national homeland for the first time in history. In 1821 the land that was known as Greece is controlled by the Turks, except for the Ionian islands which has been occupied by the Venetians, then the French and in 1815 by the British. The rebellion of the Greeks actually begins in Moldavia when an army of 4500 Hellenes led by General Alexander Ypsilantis, a Phanariot from the so-named district of Istanbul, a member of the Philike Hetairia (Friendly Society), invades hoping to encourage the local Romanian peasants to throw off the yoke of the Turks. Instead they attack their wealthy countrymen and the Greeks have to escape. When the revolution breaks out in the Peloponessos, the Sultan in Istanbul hangs the Patriarch Grigorios V for failing to keep the Greek Christians in line which they considered his duty for the vast privileges they allowed him.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nThe Phanariot Greeks fall in line behind the new patriarch and condemn the revolution. But in the Peloponessos the rebellion is making progress and combined with Ali Pasha's rebellion in Ipirus the Turks have their hands full. On March 25th 1821 Bishop Germanos of Patras raises the flag of revolution at the monastery of Agia Lavra near Kalavrita and the battle cry of \\\"Freedom or Death\\\" becomes the motto of the revolution. But historian David Brewer in his Greece, The Hidden Centuries: Turkish Rule from the Fall of Constantinople to Greek Independence disagrees, stating that the story of the flag raising at Agia Lavra was apparently an invention by Francois Pouqueville, a prominent architect of the Philhellenism movement throughout Europe, who contributed to the liberation of the Greeks, and to the rebirth of the Greek Nation. Nevertheless, fighting begins to break out all over with massacres committed by both the Greeks and the Turks. On the island of Chios 25,000 Greeks are killed while in the Peloponessos the Greeks kill 15,000 of the 40,000 Turks living there.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nIt would be unfair to over-look Ali Pasha and the fact that the insurrection of 1821 was actually something of an Albanian affair and that the Chios massacre was a consequence of this. The Chiotes had enormous privileges under the Ottomans even to the point of dominating the Ottoman admiralty. It was the role of the Chios 'navy' in the revolt that was seen as an act of treason by the Turks, though in Brewer's book the Chios navy was less than eager to join the fray and the cause of the Turkish invasion was the fact that the Samos navy has landed on the island and occupied the citadel. On March 13th 1821, twelve days before the official beginning of the War of Independence, the first 'revolutionary flag' was actually raised on the island of Spetses by Laskarina Bouboulina (though there were several revolutionary flags which could lay claim to being the first, including Hydra). Twice widowed with 7 children but extremely rich she owned several ships. On April 3rd Spetses revolted, followed by the islands of Hydra and Psara with a total of over 300 ships between them.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nBouboulina and her fleet of 8 ships sailed to Nafplion and took part in the siege of the impregnable fortress there. Her later attack on Monemvasia managed to capture that fortress. She took part in the blockade of Pylos and brought supplies to the revolutionaries by sea. Bouboulina became a national hero, one of the first women to play a major role in a revolution. Without her and her ships the Greeks might not have gained their independence. What is less well known is that she was Albanian. The Greeks, led by local heroes like Theodoros Kolokotronis from the Mani, capture the Peloponessos and form a provisional government, electing the Phanariot Alexandros Mavrokordatos president. On April 26th the Greeks attack Athens and the Turks of the city are forced to flee to the Acropolis. They are rescued in August by Turkish troops but finally surrender in June of 1822. By mid July, about half had been massacred, others died of disease, and over the next months the rest (550) were evacuated by foreign diplomats. In the meantime the Greeks in the Peloponessos, (or the Morea as it was called), are fighting amongst themselves.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nIn European cities intellectuals and poets like Lord Byron embrace the Greek cause and sway public opinion. The Greek struggle is interpreted by many Europeans simplistically and romantically as a battle between the ideals of the ancient Greeks against the ruthless Turks who had been occupying and suppressing the descendents of Pericles, Socrates and Plato. Many, including Lord Byron, volunteer to fight and become leaders and heroes of the revolution, known as the Philhellenes (friends of the Greeks). Some sing the praises of the modern Greeks but many are completely disillusioned by the pettiness and greed of the Greek klefth leaders who seem to just want glory and riches. Though some of these warlords are elevated to the role of saviors and heroes in the national mythology, the reality is that many of them were just pirates and thieves looking out for their own self-interest.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nOn the other hand the motives of the Europeans is just as suspect and the plan for Greece was actually to be a sort of colony of Great Britain (or several colonies) since the last thing in the world they wanted was every national group on the continent being inspired by events in Greece and trying to start their own country too. But as history so often shows us, once you get the engine of revolution started you can't really control where it takes you. In 1823 Lord Byron arrives in Missolonghi, to take part in the resistance there, but dies three months later, not as romantically as he would have liked, but by disease. In 1826 the Peloponessos is back in Turkish hands and Athens is one of only a few cities controlled by the Greeks. When the Turkish army returns, a major battle takes place and on June 5th the Acropolis is surrendered. Among the fifteen hundred Greek dead are 22 of the 26 Philhellenes. By 1827 the Turks have all of Greece with the exception of Nafplion and a few islands.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nBut the Greeks are rescued by their own history as support for them in their struggle grows. The Treaty of London, backed by Britain, Russia and France. declares that the three great powers can intervene 'peacefully' to secure the autonomy of the Hellenes. In October of that year the British, French and Russians show the power of peaceful intervention when they destroy the Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the bay of Navarino (Pylos) in what may have been the world's biggest and most fatal 'misunderstanding'. Whether by accident or not, when an Egyptian ship fires on a small boat filled with British sailors, all hell breaks loose and when the smoke clears the entire Turkish-Egyptian fleet is at the bottom of the bay, (where they can still be seen). It is the most one-sided battle in the history of naval warfare. With the destruction of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet the Hellenes have a clear path to nationhood except for the usual fighting amongst themselves. In an interesting anecdote about the war, when the Turkish garrison of Athens was using the acropolis as a fortress they came under siege by the Greek revolutionary army.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nAfter a few days, the Turks were short of ammunition and the Greeks noticed from far away that they were taking down the marble columns and extracting the lead wedge that holds the \\\"slices\\\" of the columns together. (If you have noticed some fallen columns like at the temple of Olympian Zeus, you will see in the center of the slices, a hollow part. This was filled with lead by the ancient architects and made the columns stronger, and able to resist the frequent small earthquakes which happen all the time around Attica.) The Greeks sent an envoy to the Turks and asked them how much lead they would obtain by taking down all the columns of the Parthenon. They agreed on the quantity of the lead, and the Greeks sent it to the Turks with the agreement that they would leave the remaining temple of the Parthenon intact. This shows how much the Greek warriors who could hardly read or write, appreciated their ancient Greek heritage, though it didn't stop them from taking the entire ancient library of Kaisariani Monastery onto the Acropolis and tearing up the books to use the paper for cartridges!\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nIn 1828 Count Ioannis Capodistrias of Corfu is elected the first governor of Greece by the assembly of Troezene as the Turkish-Egyptian army leave the Peloponessos once and for all. The Greeks draw up a constitution as a republic and on March 31st 1833 the Turkish troops who have been occupying the Acropolis leave. Four years after being elected President, Kapodistrias is assassinated in the new capital city of Nafplion supposedly by members of a Mani clan, the Mavromichalis family, who were at odds with his belief in a strong central government, (though some people believe he was killed by the British who blamed the Mavromichalis and thus eliminated two problems). A year later the 17 year old Otto (Othon), son of Ludwig of Bavaria, is declared King of the Hellenes by the British, Russians and French. He arrives in Nafplion by boat a year later to great fanfare. In 1834 the capital is moved to Athens, which is now a town of 10,000 inhabitants. In 1837 the University of Athens opens. King Otto is forced by the military to accept a constitution in 1843.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nHe is overthrown by the army in 1862 and he and his wife Amalia are exiled and replaced in 1863 by the Danish Prince Christian William Ferdinand Adolphus George of the Holstein-Sonderburg-Gluckbsburg who becomes George I, King of the Hellenes. In March of 1864 the Ionian islands are ceded to Greece by Great Britain. In 1878 Great Britain takes over the administration of Cyprus from the Ottoman government. Two years later revolution breaks out in the still Turkish occupied island of Crete. In 1881 Thessaly and the Arta region of Epirus are ceded to Greece by the Ottoman empire. From the mid-1880's to 90's Harilaos Trikoupis and Theodoror Deliyannis alternate power, in what is the beginning of a two-party system. Trikoupis focuses on domestic issues and during his rule roads are built, tracks are laid, the metro is built and even the Corinth Canal which had been started by Nero in 67 AD is completed in 1893. Deliyannis on the other hand is a believer in the Megalo Idea, that Greece will one day rule a new Hellenic empire along the lines of the Byzantine.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nDuring the mid to late eighteen-hundreds, architects came from Europe to build a new Athens of neo-classical buildings with the help of local architects and benefactors of the Hellenic diaspora society. In 1842 a wealthy Greek from Trieste named Antonis Dimitriou had built a house for himself in the center of Athens which in 1874 becomes the Hotel Grande Bretagne . It becomes the hotel of choice for kings, queens and dignitaries and the scene of many important moments modern Greek history. Some other examples include the Evangelismos Hospital built by Andrea Syngros from the island of Chios, the Zappion which was a gift of the Zappas brothers from Northern Epirus, the Athens Polytechnic which was built by Nicholas Stournaras from Metsovo and the King's Palace (now the Parliament building in Syntagma). Perhaps the largest and most important gift is the reconstruction of the ancient marble Panathenaic Stadium by George Averof, an Alexandrian businessman from Metsovo for the Olympic games of 1896. By then the population of the city is around 130,000 and the Olympics are a sort of coming-out party for the new capital city of Europe's newest nation.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nBut the Olympics of 1896 which are credited as the first of the modern Olympics actually weren't. In 1833 Panagiotis Soutsos wrote about the revival of the Olympic Games in his poetry 'Dialogue of the Dead' and in 1850 Dr William Penny Brookes founded annual games in Much Wenlock, Shropshire, UK. In 1856 Evangelis Zappas wrote to King Otto of Greece offering to fund the revival of the Olympic Games. The first modern international Olympic Games held in Athens at Platia Kotzia, then called Ludouvikou or Ludvig Square, in 1859, sponsored by Evangelis Zappas. The 'Zappas Games' welcomed participants from the Ottoman Empire as well as Greece, making the Games international. In 1860 Dr William Penny Brookes founded the Wenlock Olympian Society. Brookes was clearly inspired by the first modern Olympic Games since he incorporated some of the events into the Wenlock Olympian Games. Petros Velissariou was the first person to be listed on the honorary roll as the first Olympic victor for his performance in the 1859 Zappas Games. In 1863 Baron Pierre de Coubertin was born. Why is this mentioned?\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nCoubertin is hailed as the founder of the modern Olympics and the Olympic Committee and yet when he was born both had already been in existence. In 1870, when Coubertin was just seven years old, the first modern Olympics to be held in a stadium took place in the ancient Panathenaic stadium of Athens which had been rebuilt by Evangelis Zappas. In 1875 the third games were held at the stadium and in 1889 another series of games was held in another location. It was not until 1892 that both Dr William Penny Brookes and Baron Pierre de Coubertin publicly proposed the revival of the Olympic Games for the first time with Brooke's proposal coming first. In 1894 Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee. In 1896 the Fourth modern international Olympic Games and the first IOC Olympic Games were held at the Panathenian Stadium, in Athens, the stadium again having been refurbished by Zappas and fellow philanthropist George Averoff. The Zappeion building was the first indoor Olympic arena.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nSo while you could argue that Coubertin was the founder of the International Olympic Committee, this line of reasoning falters when it comes to the modern Olympics which were inspired by Panayiotis Soutsos and paid for by Evangels Zappas approximately 1,460 years after the Ancient Olympic Games had been banned by the first Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I. (For more see www.zappas.org where you can join the campaign to formally recognise Panagiotis Soutsos and Evangelis Zappas as founders of the modern Olympic Games and Dr William Penny Brookes as a founder of the modern Olympic Movement.)\\nThe same year that the Olympics are held another rebellion breaks out in Crete. Greece, under Deliyannis backs the island's liberation and declares war on Turkey. In three weeks the Greek army is defeated but Crete is put under international administration. In 1898 Crete is granted autonomy and Prince George, the 2nd son of the King is appointed governor. In Turkey events are taking place that will change the face of Asia Minor and Greece too. Sultan Abdul Hamit of the Ottoman Empire applies a policy of genocide to the Armenians. In August and September 1894, Armenians are slain in Sassun.\",\n \"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\\n\\nIn October 1895 the first organised genocide takes place in Constantinople and Trebizond and in November and December 1895 the Ottoman authorities organize a great massacre throughout the country. In June 1896, the massacre of Van takes place. After the capture by the Armenians of the Ottoman Bank, another massacre takes place in Constantinople. The total number of victims is 300.000 Armenian men, women and children. In 1905 Eleftherios Venizelos, the president of the Cretan assembly announces the Union (enosis) with Greece. Though this union is not recognized until 1913, Venizelos comes to Athens where he becomes one of the most important political players of 20th century Greece. Help Support Matt's Greece Travel Guides \\nDo you enjoy using my site? Have you found it entertaining as well as useful? If so please show your appreciation by booking hotels through the travel agencies and the links found on my Greek Travel Agents Page . The small comission I make on the bookings enable me to keep working and in most cases you won't find them any cheaper by searching elsewhere. You can also book at Booking.com's Greece Pages and they give me a small percentage on each booking.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nNationalism and Independence for Greece\\nNationalism and \\\"Independence\\\" for the Greeks | Rebellion against Spain in Latin America | Independence for Brazil\\nNationalism and \\\"Independence\\\" for the Greeks\\nIf there is such a thing as being on the right side of history, those who supported maintenance of the status quo espoused by the Holy Alliance and traditionalist conservatives were not on it. There were too many people who wanted change. This included Greeks who wanted independence from Ottoman rule. The Greeks had been under Ottoman rule since the mid-1400s. In Greece, Islamic law applied only to Muslims. The Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to function and Greeks were free to worship as they pleased and to maintain their own culture and language. The Greeks saw the Ottoman Turks as inferior, and they looked back at what they considered the glories of ancient Greece. In the late 1700s the French Revolution inspired among the Greeks a greater yearning for liberty. A revolt against Ottoman rule gave Serbia quasi-autonomy beginning in 1813, and this had encouraged the Greeks.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nThere was a tendency among Greeks to believe that it would be their fellow Orthodox Christians, the Russians, who would free them from Ottoman power. Then in 1814, at the center of a thriving Greek community in Russian-ruled Odessa , Greek exiles laid what they hoped would be the ground work for an armed uprising inside Greece, and they misleadingly portrayed their group as having the approval of the Russian authorities. In 1821, Greeks on the Peloponnese Peninsula rebelled, inspired by news of an uprising in Moldavia, which was also under Ottoman rule. A small group led by a Greek, which included some Russians, had crossed the border into Moldavia where they raised the flag of Greek independence and hoped that the Romanians and Bulgarians of Moldavia would rise with them for their own independence. The revolt in Moldavia was crushed, but revolt in the Peloponnese spread. Rebels in the Peloponnese lacked good organization and discipline. For the most part they were Christians smiting their enemies without mercy. Leaders emerged who tried to invoke restraint and to stop looting, but they had little effect.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nGreek peasants armed with scythes, clubs and slings, grabbed what valuables they could and killed wherever possible, including small clusters of Muslims fleeing their homes. Of the estimated 50,000 Muslims living on the Peloponnese Peninsula in March 1821, an estimated 20,000 were killed within a few weeks – men, women and children. In Constantinople on April 10 the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, had the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregorios V, seized. Gregorios was accused of having intrigued with the uprising and having committed perjury and treason. Gregorios was hanged with Mahmud believing it was his right to order the execution. Christians across Europe were aware of the uprising in the Peloponnese but not of the atrocities of the revolutionaries, and they were shocked by the hanging of Gregorios. Common Russians wanted to avenge the death of the patriarch, but Russia's Tsar Alexander had other matters to consider and merely withdrew his ambassador from Constantinople. Alexander was still allied with Austria against revolutions, especially nationalist revolutions, and the tsar was not ready to break with that alliance. And neither was Britain's foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh. In April the Greek revolt spread northward toward central Greece and Athens .\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nIn May, Muslims in Athens were defending themselves from the Acropolis. In the Peloponnese various towns and cities fell, including Petras, where all Muslims who did not make it to the safety of the walls of the town's fortress were killed. In August in the Peloponnese, Muslims of the small town of Monemvasia were besieged and chose to surrender rather than endure more hunger, and when they surrendered they were slaughtered. A few days later, between 2,000 and 3,000 Muslims in Navarino were massacred. Tripolitsa was a city of 35,000 Turks, Albanians, Jews and others in the middle of Peloponnese. There the Ottoman governor resided, and there Greeks massacred for two days. An estimated 10,000 people, including women and children, were killed, as were 2,000 who had been taken prisoner. It is reported that Muslim women were raped and that Muslims were tortured for information of the whereabouts of their money. Water wells became polluted and disease spread that caused the death of thousands of Greeks. The taking of Tripolitsa in October was the final Greek success for the year 1821. Turks remained only at the fortresses in Patras and Nauplia and two lesser fortresses.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nMeanwhile in Constantinople, Janissaries soldiers were in revolt against the sultan and venting their anger upon Christians, and Christians were being slaughtered. The sultan transported soldiers from Anatolia and defeated the insurgents, killing 200 Janissaries. In early 1822, Muslims struck again against Christians. A Turkish military force joined by crowds of impassioned civilians landed on the island of Chios in the eastern Aegean Sea, an island with a population of about 100,000. There were Turkish officers who tried to restrain sections of the invading force. Nevertheless the invaders slaughtered around 25,000, some of the Greeks escaping by boats that came to their rescue, and some wealthy islanders paid Turkish commanders huge sums for protection. The slaughter stopped when Turks rounded up Greek survivors for sale in the slave markets of Asia Minor. The Greeks had the advantage of superiority at sea. They were experienced mariners. Greek sailors who had been working on Ottoman ships abandoned those ships, leaving the Turks to recruit inexperienced dock-laborers and peasants. In 1822 the Greeks captured the coastal region in the west just north of the Peloponnese Peninsula, and farther east they took Athens and Thebes.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nThe Greeks were now in control of west and east-central Greece as well as the Aegean islands. In 1822 the Greeks declared independence, stating:\\nWe, descendants of the wise and noble peoples of Hellas, we who are the contemporaries of the enlightened and civilized nations of Europe, we who behold the advantages which they enjoy under the protection of the impenetrable aegis of the law, find it no longer possible to suffer without cowardice and self-contempt the cruel yoke of the Ottoman power which has weighed upon us for more than four centuries – a power which does not listen to reason and knows no other law than its own will, which orders and disposes everything despotically and according to caprice. The military victories of the Greeks led them to underrate the importance of discipline and to ignore the advice of those who preferred victory accompanied by restraint and mercy. The lack of a central organization for the revolution produced three provisional Greek governments. In 1823, rivalries escalated into violence. Greeks on the Aegean island of Psara were at war with those of the larger island of Samos about 120 kilometers (75 miles) to the south.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nDiscipline and cohesion vanished from the Greek fleet. Battle of Navarino Bay, the last battle of sailing ships, 1827\\nClick to enlarge\\nA new Ottoman admiral lacked confidence and failed to regain command of the sea for the Turks. In 1824 fighting between Greeks increased. On the Peloponnese Peninsula were Greek notables who wanted to retain the status they had held during Ottoman rule, and there were leading fighters who wanted some political power as a reward for their military contribution. Ship owners also thought they deserved some political power. Liberal intellectuals wanted a parliament. There were conservatives who tended to see the struggle between the Ottoman Turks and the Greeks as between Islam and Greek Orthodox Christianity, and they tended to want the preservation of an authoritarian relationship between the Greek Orthodox Church and Greek society. While these divisions were taking place, Mahmud II was strengthening his position through an alliance with his independent-minded governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and his son Ibrahim. Ali had newly modernized armed forces and a relatively large navy.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nSultan Mahud promised Muhammad Ali rule over the island of Crete and the appointment of Ibrahim as pasha of the Peloponnese, and Mahmud promised Ali concessions in Syria. The Egyptians, under the command of Ibrahim, arrived in Greece in 1825 and quickly gained dominance of the seas and Aegean islands. The Ottomans retook Athens, the Peloponnese and the town of Missolonghi just north of the Peloponnese – while rival Greek presidents and rival assemblies were competing for political supremacy. King Otto\\nMissolonghi was where the poet Lord Byron fighting with the Greeks had died in 1824 because of a disease. Missolonghi was a symbol of Greek defiance against Ottoman power. It held out for months, heroically in the eyes of the Europeans. Its fall to the Muslims added to a new wave of support for the Greeks across Europe, with the idea that Greece had to be saved for European civilization. Already, financiers in London had contracted loans for the Greeks.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nThe Greek effort was helped by the arrival of money and volunteers from abroad, bringing the complaint from the Turks that they were \\\"no longer fighting the Greeks but all Europe.\\\"\\nIbrahim began more devastation in Greece, and by July 1827 it looked as though the Ottoman Empire had won its war against the Greek insurgency. This was claimed by Ottoman writers. But Ibrahim's devastations inspired Britain, France and Russia to a joint demonstration by their navies. They demanded an armistice and that Ibrahim evacuate the Peloponnese. Ibrahim refused. In October the British, French and Russian fleet entered Navarino Bay , and there the Battle of Navarino, last naval battle of sailing ships, took place. Ibrahim's navy was destroyed. King Otto arrives in Greece, 1833, an artist's imagination\\nIn October 1828, France landed troops on the Peloponnese Peninsula, and under French protection the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government. The Greeks took back Athens, Thebes and other territory, and the European powers imposed a ceasefire. In Greece a republican government war formed, with John Capdistrias as its leader. His authoritarian style of governing offended many, and in 1831 he was assassinated.\",\n \"Nationalism and Independence for Greece - World history\\n\\nInternational recognition of Greek independence came in 1832 in a treaty signed by Britain, France, Russia and Bavaria. Athens was recognized as the capital of Greece. Thessaly, Macedon, Thrace and Epirus, which had large populations of non-Greeks, were not recognized as a part of Greece. Crete, the Dodecanese islands and the region around Smyrna were not included in the new Greek state. The convening European powers retained an ill-defined right to intervene in Greece. And they wanted the Greeks to be ruled by a monarchy. They chose the seventeen-year-old son of Ludwig I of Bavaria, Otto of Wittlesbach, and Otto became King Otto of Greece. Under King Otto the Greeks were taxed more than they had been under the Ottoman Turks. This did not please the Greeks. Neither did King Otto's Roman Catholicism. Orthodox Greeks considered him a heretic. And rather than marry into a Greek family, Otto, in 1837, married a princess from Oldenburg Germany, where his wedding took place. The queen remained unpopular with the Greeks, while the Great Powers continued to guarantee King Otto's rule.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nTagore and His India\\nTagore and His India\\nby Amartya Sen *\\nVoice of Bengal\\nRabindranath Tagore, who died in 1941 at the age of eighty, is a towering figure in the millennium-old literature of Bengal. Anyone who becomes familiar with this large and flourishing tradition will be impressed by the power of Tagore's presence in Bangladesh and in India. His poetry as well as his novels, short stories, and essays are very widely read, and the songs he composed reverberate around the eastern part of India and throughout Bangladesh. In contrast, in the rest of the world, especially in Europe and America, the excitement that Tagore's writings created in the early years of the twentieth century has largely vanished. The enthusiasm with which his work was once greeted was quite remarkable. Gitanjali, a selection of his poetry for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, was published in English translation in London in March of that year, and had been reprinted ten times by November, when the award was announced.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nBut he is not much read now in the West, and already by 1937, Graham Greene was able to say: \\\"As for Rabindranath Tagore, I cannot believe that anyone but Mr. Yeats can still take his poems very seriously.\\\"\\nThe Mystic\\nThe contrast between Tagore's commanding presence in Bengali literature and culture, and his near-total eclipse in the rest of the world, is perhaps less interesting than the distinction between the view of Tagore as a deeply relevant and many-sided contemporary thinker in Bangladesh and India, and his image in the West as a repetitive and remote spiritualist. Graham Greene had, in fact, gone on to explain that he associated Tagore \\\"with what Chesterton calls 'the bright pebbly eyes' of the Theosophists.\\\" Certainly, an air of mysticism played some part in the \\\"selling\\\" of Rabindranath Tagore to the West by Yeats, Ezra Pound, and his other early champions. Even Anna Akhmatova, one of Tagore's few later admirers (who translated his poems into Russian in the mid-1960s), talks of \\\"that mighty flow of poetry which takes its strength from Hinduism as from the Ganges, and is called Rabindranath Tagore.\\\"\\nAn air of mysticism. Portrait by W.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nRothenstein\\nConfluence of Cultures\\nRabindranath did come from a Hindu family - one of the landed gentry who owned estates mostly in what is now Bangladesh. But whatever wisdom there might be in Akhmatova's invoking of Hinduism and the Ganges, it did not prevent the largely Muslim citizens of Bangladesh from having a deep sense of identity with Tagore and his ideas. Nor did it stop the newly independent Bangladesh from choosing one of Tagore's songs - the \\\"Amar Sonar Bangla\\\" which means \\\"my golden Bengal\\\" - as its national anthem. This must be very confusing to those who see the contemporary world as a \\\"clash of civilizations\\\" - with \\\"the Muslim civilization,\\\" \\\"the Hindu civilization,\\\" and \\\"the Western civilization,\\\" each forcefully confronting the others. They would also be confused by Rabindranath Tagore's own description of his Bengali family as the product of \\\"a confluence of three cultures: Hindu, Mohammedan, and British\\\". 1\\nRabindranath's grandfather, Dwarkanath, was well known for his command of Arabic and Persian, and Rabindranath grew up in a family atmosphere in which a deep knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient Hindu texts was combined with an understanding of Islamic traditions as well as Persian literature.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nIt is not so much that Rabindranath tried to produce - or had an interest in producing - a \\\"synthesis\\\" of the different religions (as the great Moghul emperor Akbar tried hard to achieve) as that his outlook was persistently non-sectarian, and his writings - some two hundred books - show the influence of different parts of the Indian cultural background as well as of the rest of the world. 2\\nAbode of Peace\\nMost of his work was written at Santiniketan (Abode of Peace), the small town that grew around the school he founded in Bengal in 1901, and he not only conceived there an imaginative and innovative system of education, but through his writings and his influence on students and teachers, he was able to use the school as a base from which he could take a major part in India's social, political, and cultural movements. The profoundly original writer, whose elegant prose and magical poetry Bengali readers know well, is not the sermonizing spiritual guru admired - and then rejected - in London.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nTagore was not only an immensely versatile poet; he was also a great short story writer, novelist, playwright, essayist, and composer of songs, as well as a talented painter whose pictures, with their mixture of representation and abstraction, are only now beginning to receive the acclaim that they have long deserved. His essays, moreover, ranged over literature, politics, culture, social change, religious beliefs, philosophical analysis, international relations, and much else. The coincidence of the fiftieth anniversary of Indian independence with the publication of a selection of Tagore's letters by Cambridge University Press 3 , brought Tagore's ideas and reflections to the fore, which makes it important to examine what kind of leadership in thought and understanding he provided in the Indian subcontinent in the first half of this century. Gandhi and Tagore\\nSince Rabindranath Tagore and Mohandas Gandhi were two leading Indian thinkers in the twentieth century, many commentators have tried to compare their ideas. On learning of Rabindranath's death, Jawaharlal Nehru, then incarcerated in a British jail in India, wrote in his prison diary for August 7, 1941:\\n\\\"Gandhi and Tagore.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nTwo types entirely different from each other, and yet both of them typical of India, both in the long line of India's great men ... It is not so much because of any single virtue but because of the tout ensemble, that I felt that among the world's great men today Gandhi and Tagore were supreme as human beings. What good fortune for me to have come into close contact with them.\\\"\\nRomain Rolland was fascinated by the contrast between them, and when he completed his book on Gandhi, he wrote to an Indian academic, in March 1923: \\\"I have finished my Gandhi, in which I pay tribute to your two great river-like souls, overflowing with divine spirit, Tagore and Gandhi.\\\" The following month, he recorded in his diary an account of some of the differences between Gandhi and Tagore written by Reverend C.F. Andrews, the English clergyman and public activist who was a close friend of both men (and whose important role in Gandhi's life in South Africa as well as India is well portrayed in Richard Attenborough's film Gandhi [1982]).\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nAndrews described to Rolland a discussion between Tagore and Gandhi, at which he was present, on subjects that divided them:\\n\\\"The first subject of discussion was idols; Gandhi defended them, believing the masses incapable of raising themselves immediately to abstract ideas. Tagore cannot bear to see the people eternally treated as a child. Gandhi quoted the great things achieved in Europe by the flag as an idol; Tagore found it easy to object, but Gandhi held his ground, contrasting European flags bearing eagles, etc., with his own, on which he has put a spinning wheel. The second point of discussion was nationalism, which Gandhi defended. He said that one must go through nationalism to reach internationalism, in the same way that one must go through war to reach peace.\\\" 4\\nTagore greatly admired Gandhi but he had many disagreements with him on a variety of subjects, including nationalism, patriotism, the importance of cultural exchange, the role of rationality and of science, and the nature of economic and social development.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nThese differences, I shall argue, have a clear and consistent pattern, with Tagore pressing for more room for reasoning, and for a less traditionalist view, a greater interest in the rest of the world, and more respect for science and for objectivity generally. Rabindranath knew that he could not have given India the political leadership that Gandhi provided, and he was never stingy in his praise for what Gandhi did for the nation (it was, in fact, Tagore who popularized the term \\\"Mahatma\\\" - great soul - as a description of Gandhi). And yet each remained deeply critical of many things that the other stood for. That Mahatma Gandhi has received incomparably more attention outside India and also within much of India itself makes it important to understand \\\"Tagore's side\\\" of the Gandhi-Tagore debates. In his prison diary, Nehru wrote: \\\"Perhaps it is as well that [Tagore] died now and did not see the many horrors that are likely to descend in increasing measure on the world and on India.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe had seen enough and he was infinitely sad and unhappy.\\\" Toward the end of his life, Tagore was indeed becoming discouraged about the state of India, especially as its normal burden of problems, such as hunger and poverty, was being supplemented by politically organized incitement to \\\"communal\\\" violence between Hindus and Muslims. This conflict would lead in 1947, six years after Tagore's death, to the widespread killing that took place during partition; but there was much gore already during his declining days. In December 1939, he wrote to his friend Leonard Elmhirst, the English philanthropist and social reformer who had worked closely with him on rural reconstruction in India (and who had gone on to found the Dartington Hall Trust in England and a progressive school at Dartington that explicitly invoked Rabindranath's educational ideals): 5\\n\\\"It does not need a defeatist to feel deeply anxious about the future of millions who, with all their innate culture and their peaceful traditions are being simultaneously subjected to hunger, disease, exploitations foreign and indigenous, and the seething discontents of communalism.\\\"\\nHow would Tagore have viewed the India of today?\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nWould he see progress there, or wasted opportunity, perhaps even a betrayal of its promise and conviction? And, on a wider subject, how would he react to the spread of cultural separatism in the contemporary world? East and West\\nGiven the vast range of his creative achievements, perhaps the most astonishing aspect of the image of Tagore in the West is its narrowness; he is recurrently viewed as \\\"the great mystic from the East,\\\" an image with a putative message for the West, which some would welcome, others dislike, and still others find deeply boring. To a great extent this Tagore was the West's own creation, part of its tradition of message-seeking from the East, particularly from India, which - as Hegel put it - had \\\"existed for millennia in the imagination of the Europeans.\\\" 6 Friedrich Schlegel, Schelling, Herder, and Schopenhauer were only a few of the thinkers who followed the same pattern. They theorized, at first, that India was the source of superior wisdom.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nSchopenhauer at one stage even argued that the New Testament \\\"must somehow be of Indian origin: this is attested by its completely Indian ethics, which transforms morals into asceticism, its pessimism, and its avatar,\\\" in \\\"the person of Christ.\\\" But then they rejected their own theories with great vehemence, sometimes blaming India for not living up to their unfounded expectations. We can imagine that Rabindranath's physical appearance - handsome, bearded, dressed in non-Western clothes - may, to some extent, have encouraged his being seen as a carrier of exotic wisdom. Yasunari Kawabata , the first Japanese Nobel Laureate in Literature, treasured memories from his middle-school days of \\\"this sage-like poet\\\":\\nHis white hair flowed softly down both sides of his forehead; the tufts of hair under the temples also were long like two beards, and linking up with the hair on his cheeks, continued into his beard, so that he gave an impression, to the boy I was then, of some ancient Oriental wizard. 7\\nThat appearance would have been well-suited to the selling of Tagore in the West as a quintessentially mystical poet, and it could have made it somewhat easier to pigeonhole him.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nCommenting on Rabindranath's appearance, Frances Cornford told William Rothenstein, \\\"I can now imagine a powerful and gentle Christ, which I never could before.\\\" Beatrice Webb, who did not like Tagore and resented what she took to be his \\\"quite obvious dislike of all that the Webbs stand for\\\" (there is, in fact, little evidence that Tagore had given much thought to this subject), said that he was \\\"beautiful to look at\\\" and that \\\"his speech has the perfect intonation and slow chant-like moderation of the dramatic saint.\\\" Ezra Pound and W. B. Yeats, among others, first led the chorus of adoration in the Western appreciation of Tagore, and then soon moved to neglect and even shrill criticism. The contrast between Yeats's praise of his work in 1912 (\\\"These lyrics ... display in their thought a world I have dreamed of all my life long,\\\" \\\"the work of a supreme culture\\\") and his denunciation in 1935 (\\\"Damn Tagore\\\") arose partly from the inability of Tagore's many-sided writings to fit into the narrow box in which Yeats wanted to place - and keep - him.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nCertainly, Tagore did write a huge amount, and published ceaselessly, even in English (sometimes in indifferent English translation), but Yeats was also bothered, it is clear, by the difficulty of fitting Tagore's later writings into the image Yeats had presented to the West. Tagore, he had said, was the product of \\\"a whole people, a whole civilization, immeasurably strange to us,\\\" and yet \\\"we have met our own image, ... or heard, perhaps for the first time in literature, our voice as in a dream.\\\" 8\\nYeats did not totally reject his early admiration (as Ezra Pound and several others did), and he included some of Tagore's early poems in The Oxford Book of Modern Verse, which he edited in 1936. Yeats also had some favorable things to say about Tagore's prose writings. His censure of Tagore's later poems was reinforced by his dislike of Tagore's own English translations of his work (\\\"Tagore does not know English, no Indian knows English,\\\" Yeats explained), unlike the English version of Gitanjali which Yeats had himself helped to prepare.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nPoetry is, of course, notoriously difficult to translate, and anyone who knows Tagore's poems in their original Bengali cannot feel satisfied with any of the translations (made with or without Yeats's help). Even the translations of his prose works suffer, to some extent, from distortion. E.M. Forster noted, in a review of a translation of one of Tagore's great Bengali novels, The Home and the World, in 1919: \\\"The theme is so beautiful,\\\" but the charms have \\\"vanished in translation,\\\" or perhaps \\\"in an experiment that has not quite come off.\\\" 9\\nTagore himself played a somewhat bemused part in the boom and bust of his English reputation. He accepted the extravagant praise with much surprise as well as pleasure, and then received denunciations with even greater surprise, and barely concealed pain. Tagore was sensitive to criticism, and was hurt by even the most far-fetched accusations, such as the charge that he was getting credit for the work of Yeats, who had \\\"rewritten\\\" Gitanjali. (This charge was made by a correspondent for The Times, Sir Valentine Chirol, whom E.M.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nForster once described as \\\"an old Anglo-Indian reactionary hack.\\\") From time to time Tagore also protested the crudity of some of his overexcited advocates. He wrote to C.F. Andrews in 1920: \\\"These people ... are like drunkards who are afraid of their lucid intervals.\\\"\\nGod and Others\\nYeats was not wrong to see a large religious element in Tagore's writings. He certainly had interesting and arresting things to say about life and death. Susan Owen, the mother of Wilfred Owen, wrote to Rabindranath in 1920, describing her last conversations with her son before he left for the war which would take his life. Wilfred said goodbye with \\\"those wonderful words of yours - beginning at 'When I go from hence, let this be my parting word.'\\\" When Wilfred's pocket notebook was returned to his mother, she found \\\"these words written in his dear writing - with your name beneath.\\\"\\nThe idea of a direct, joyful, and totally fearless relationship with God can be found in many of Tagore's religious writings, including the poems of Gitanjali. From India's diverse religious traditions he drew many ideas, both from ancient texts and from popular poetry.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nBut \\\"the bright pebbly eyes of the Theosophists\\\" do not stare out of his verses. Despite the archaic language of the original translation of Gitanjali, which did not, I believe, help to preserve the simplicity of the original, its elementary humanity comes through more clearly than any complex and intense spirituality:\\nLeave this chanting and singing and telling of beads! Whom dost thou worship in this lonely dark corner of a temple with doors all shut? Open thine eyes and see thy God is not before thee! He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is breaking stones. He is with them in sun and in shower, and his garment is covered with dust. An ambiguity about religious experience is central to many of Tagore's devotional poems, and makes them appeal to readers irrespective of their beliefs; but excessively detailed interpretation can ruinously strip away that ambiguity. 10 This applies particularly to his many poems which combine images of human love and those of pious devotion. Tagore writes:\\nI have no sleep to-night. Ever and again I open my door and look out on the darkness, my friend! I can see nothing before me.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nI wonder where lies thy path! By what dim shore of the ink-black river, by what far edge of the frowning forest, through what mazy depth of gloom, art thou threading thy course to come to see me, my friend? I suppose it could be helpful to be told, as Yeats hastens to explain, that \\\"the servant or the bride awaiting the master's home-coming in the empty house\\\" is \\\"among the images of the heart turning to God.\\\" But in Yeats's considerate attempt to make sure that the reader does not miss the \\\"main point,\\\" something of the enigmatic beauty of the Bengali poem is lost - even what had survived the antiquated language of the English translation. Tagore certainly had strongly held religious beliefs (of an unusually nondenominational kind), but he was interested in a great many other things as well and had many different things to say about them. Some of the ideas he tried to present were directly political, and they figure rather prominently in his letters and lectures.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe had practical, plainly expressed views about nationalism, war and peace, cross-cultural education, freedom of the mind, the importance of rational criticism, the need for openness, and so on. His admirers in the West, however, were tuned to the more otherworldly themes which had been emphasized by his first Western patrons. People came to his public lectures in Europe and America, expecting ruminations on grand, transcendental themes; when they heard instead his views on the way public leaders should behave, there was some resentment, particularly (as E.P. Thompson reports) when he delivered political criticism \\\"at $700 a scold.\\\"\\nAn ambiguity about religious experience. The Royal Library\\nReasoning in Freedom\\nFor Tagore it was of the highest importance that people be able to live, and reason, in freedom. His attitudes toward politics and culture, nationalism and internationalism, tradition and modernity, can all be seen in the light of this belief. 11 Nothing, perhaps, expresses his values as clearly as a poem in Gitanjali:\\nWhere the mind is without fear\\nand the head is held high;\\nWhere knowledge is free;\\nWhere the clear stream of reason\\nhas not lost its way into the\\ndreary desert sand of dead habit; ...\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nInto that heaven of freedom,\\nmy Father, let my country awake. Rabindranath's qualified support for nationalist movements - and his opposition to the unfreedom of alien rule - came from this commitment. So did his reservations about patriotism, which, he argued, can limit both the freedom to engage ideas from outside \\\"narrow domestic walls\\\" and the freedom also to support the causes of people in other countries. Rabindranath's passion for freedom underlies his firm opposition to unreasoned traditionalism, which makes one a prisoner of the past (lost, as he put it, in \\\"the dreary desert sand of dead habit\\\"). Tagore illustrates the tyranny of the past in his amusing yet deeply serious parable \\\"Kartar Bhoot\\\" (\\\"The Ghost of the Leader\\\"). As the respected leader of an imaginary land is about to die, his panic-stricken followers request him to stay on after his death to instruct them on what to do. He consents. But his followers find their lives are full of rituals and constraints on everyday behavior and are not responsive to the world around them.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nUltimately, they request the ghost of the leader to relieve them of his domination, when he informs them that he exists only in their minds. Tagore's deep aversion to any commitment to the past that could not be modified by contemporary reason extended even to the alleged virtue of invariably keeping past promises. On one occasion when Mahatma Gandhi visited Tagore's school at Santiniketan, a young woman got him to sign her autograph book. Gandhi wrote: \\\"Never make a promise in haste. Having once made it fulfill it at the cost of your life.\\\" When he saw this entry, Tagore became agitated. He wrote in the same book a short poem in Bengali to the effect that no one can be made \\\"a prisoner forever with a chain of clay.\\\" He went on to conclude in English, possibly so that Gandhi could read it too, \\\"Fling away your promise if it is found to be wrong.\\\" 12\\nTagore and Gandhi, in Shantiniketan, 1940.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nShantiniketan Collections\\nTagore had the greatest admiration for Mahatma Gandhi as a person and as a political leader, but he was also highly skeptical of Gandhi's form of nationalism and his conservative instincts regarding the country's past traditions. He never criticized Gandhi personally. In the 1938 essay, \\\"Gandhi the Man,\\\" he wrote:\\nGreat as he is as a politician, as an organizer, as a leader of men, as a moral reformer, he is greater than all these as a man, because none of these aspects and activities limits his humanity. They are rather inspired and sustained by it. And yet there is a deep division between the two men. Tagore was explicit about his disagreement:\\nWe who often glorify our tendency to ignore reason, installing in its place blind faith, valuing it as spiritual, are ever paying for its cost with the obscuration of our mind and destiny. I blamed Mahatmaji for exploiting this irrational force of credulity in our people, which might have had a quick result [in creating] a superstructure, while sapping the foundation.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nThus began my estimate of Mahatmaji, as the guide of our nation, and it is fortunate for me that it did not end there. But while it \\\"did not end there,\\\" that difference of vision was a powerful divider. Tagore, for example, remained unconvinced of the merit of Gandhi's forceful advocacy that everyone should spin at home with the \\\"charka,\\\" the primitive spinning wheel. For Gandhi this practice was an important part of India's self-realization. \\\"The spinning-wheel gradually became,\\\" as his biographer B.R. Nanda writes, \\\"the center of rural uplift in the Gandhian scheme of Indian economics.\\\" 13 Tagore found the alleged economic rationale for this scheme quite unrealistic. As Romain Rolland noted, Rabindranath \\\"never tires of criticizing the charka.\\\" In this economic judgment, Tagore was probably right. Except for the rather small specialized market for high-quality spun cloth, it is hard to make economic sense of hand-spinning, even with wheels less primitive than Gandhi's charka. Hand-spinning as a widespread activity can survive only with the help of heavy government subsidies. 14 However, Gandhi's advocacy of the charka was not based only on economics.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe wanted everyone to spin for \\\"thirty minutes every day as a sacrifice,\\\" seeing this as a way for people who are better off to identify themselves with the less fortunate. He was impatient with Tagore's refusal to grasp this point:\\nThe poet lives for the morrow, and would have us do likewise .... \\\"Why should I, who have no need to work for food, spin?\\\" may be the question asked. Because I am eating what does not belong to me. I am living on the spoliation of my countrymen. Trace the source of every coin that finds its way into your pocket, and you will realise the truth of what I write. Every one must spin. Let Tagore spin like the others. Let him burn his foreign clothes; that is the duty today. God will take care of the morrow. 15\\nIf Tagore had missed something in Gandhi's argument, so did Gandhi miss the point of Tagore's main criticism.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nIt was not only that the charka made little economic sense, but also, Tagore thought, that it was not the way to make people reflect on anything: \\\"The charka does not require anyone to think; one simply turns the wheel of the antiquated invention endlessly, using the minimum of judgment and stamina.\\\"\\nCelibacy and Personal Life\\nTagore and Gandhi's attitudes toward personal life were also quite different. Gandhi was keen on the virtues of celibacy, theorized about it, and, after some years of conjugal life, made a private commitment - publicly announced - to refrain from sleeping with his wife. Rabindranath's own attitude on this subject was very different, but he was gentle about their disagreements:\\n[Gandhiji] condemns sexual life as inconsistent with the moral progress of man, and has a horror of sex as great as that of the author of The Kreutzer Sonata, but, unlike Tolstoy, he betrays no abhorrence of the sex that tempts his kind.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn fact, his tenderness for women is one of the noblest and most consistent traits of his character, and he counts among the women of his country some of his best and truest comrades in the great movement he is leading. Tagore's personal life was, in many ways, an unhappy one. He married in 1883, lost his wife in 1902, and never remarried. He sought close companionship, which he did not always get (perhaps even during his married life - he wrote to his wife, Mrinalini: \\\"If you and I could be comrades in all our work and in all our thoughts it would be splendid, but we cannot attain all that we desire\\\"). He maintained a warm friendship with, and a strong Platonic attachment to, the literature-loving wife, Kadambari, of his elder brother, Jyotirindranath. He dedicated some poems to her before his marriage, and several books afterward, some after her death (she committed suicide, for reasons that are not fully understood, at the age of twenty-five, four months after Rabindranath's wedding).\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nMuch later in life, during his tour of Argentina in 1924-1925, Rabindranath came to know the talented and beautiful Victoria Ocampo, who later became the publisher of the literary magazine Sur. They became close friends, but it appears that Rabindranath deflected the possibility of a passionate relationship into a confined intellectual one. 16 His friend Leonard Elmhirst, who accompanied Rabindranath on his Argentine tour, wrote:\\nBesides having a keen intellectual understanding of his books, she was in love with him - but instead of being content to build a friendship on the basis of intellect, she was in a hurry to establish that kind of proprietary right over him which he absolutely would not brook. Ocampo and Elmhirst, while remaining friendly, were both quite rude in what they wrote about each other. Ocampo's book on Tagore (of which a Bengali translation was made from the Spanish by the distinguished poet and critic Shankha Ghosh) is primarily concerned with Tagore's writings but also discusses the pleasures and difficulties of their relationship, giving quite a different account from Elmhirst's, and never suggesting any sort of proprietary intentions.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nVictoria Ocampo, however, makes it clear that she very much wanted to get physically closer to Rabindranath: \\\"Little by little he [Tagore] partially tamed the young animal, by turns wild and docile, who did not sleep, dog-like, on the floor outside his door, simply because it was not done.\\\" 17 Rabindranath, too, was clearly very much attracted to her. He called her \\\"Vijaya\\\" (the Sanskrit equivalent of Victoria), dedicated a book of poems to her, Purabi - an \\\"evening melody,\\\" and expressed great admiration for her mind (\\\"like a star that was distant\\\"). In a letter to her he wrote, as if to explain his own reticence:\\nWhen we were together, we mostly played with words and tried to laugh away our best opportunities to see each other clearly ... Whenever there is the least sign of the nest becoming a jealous rival of the sky [,] my mind, like a migrant bird, tries to take ... flight to a distant shore. Five years later, during Tagore's European tour in 1930, he sent her a cable: \\\"Will you not come and see me.\\\" She did.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nBut their relationship did not seem to go much beyond conversation, and their somewhat ambiguous correspondence continued over the years. Written in 1940, a year before his death at eighty, one of the poems in Sesh Lekha (\\\"Last Writings\\\"), seems to be about her: \\\"How I wish I could once again find my way to that foreign land where waits for me the message of love!/... Her language I knew not, but what her eyes said will forever remain eloquent in its anguish.\\\" 18 However indecisive, or confused, or awkward Rabindranath may have been, he certainly did not share Mahatma Gandhi's censorious views of sex. In fact, when it came to social policy, he advocated contraception and family planning while Gandhi preferred abstinence. Tagore with his wife Mrinalini Devi in 1883. Shantiniketan Collections\\nScience and the People\\nGandhi and Tagore severely clashed over their totally different attitudes toward science. In January 1934, Bihar was struck by a devastating earthquake, which killed thousands of people.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nGandhi, who was then deeply involved in the fight against untouchability (the barbaric system inherited from India's divisive past, in which \\\"lowly people\\\" were kept at a physical distance), extracted a positive lesson from the tragic event. \\\"A man like me,\\\" Gandhi argued, \\\"cannot but believe this earthquake is a divine chastisement sent by God for our sins\\\" - in particular the sins of untouchability. \\\"For me there is a vital connection between the Bihar calamity and the untouchability campaign.\\\"\\nTagore, who equally abhorred untouchability and had joined Gandhi in the movements against it, protested against this interpretation of an event that had caused suffering and death to so many innocent people, including children and babies. He also hated the epistemology implicit in seeing an earthquake as caused by ethical failure. \\\"It is,\\\" he wrote, \\\"all the more unfortunate because this kind of unscientific view of [natural] phenomena is too readily accepted by a large section of our countrymen.\\\"\\nThe two remained deeply divided over their attitudes toward science. However, while Tagore believed that modern science was essential to the understanding of physical phenomena, his views on epistemology were interestingly heterodox.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe did not take the simple \\\"realist\\\" position often associated with modern science. The report of his conversation with Einstein, published in The New York Times in 1930, shows how insistent Tagore was on interpreting truth through observation and reflective concepts. To assert that something is true or untrue in the absence of anyone to observe or perceive its truth, or to form a conception of what it is, appeared to Tagore to be deeply questionable. When Einstein remarked, \\\"If there were no human beings any more, the Apollo Belvedere no longer would be beautiful?\\\" Tagore simply replied, \\\"No.\\\" Going further - and into much more interesting territory - Einstein said, \\\"I agree with regard to this conception of beauty, but not with regard to truth.\\\" Tagore's response was: \\\"Why not? Truth is realized through men.\\\" 19\\nAlbert Einstein and Tagore, in New York, 1930.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nPhoto: Martin Vos/Rabindra Bhavan, Shantiniketan\\nTagore's epistemology, which he never pursued systematically, would seem to be searching for a line of reasoning that would later be elegantly developed by Hilary Putnam, who has argued: \\\"Truth depends on conceptual schemes and it is nonetheless 'real truth.'\\\" 20 Tagore himself said little to explain his convictions, but it is important to take account of his heterodoxy, not only because his speculations were invariably interesting, but also because they illustrate how his support for any position, including his strong interest in science, was accompanied by critical scrutiny. Nationalism and Colonialism\\nTagore was predictably hostile to communal sectarianism (such as a Hindu orthodoxy that was antagonistic to Islamic, Christian, or Sikh perspectives). But even nationalism seemed to him to be suspect. Isaiah Berlin summarizes well Tagore's complex position on Indian nationalism:\\nTagore stood fast on the narrow causeway, and did not betray his vision of the difficult truth.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe condemned romantic overattachment to the past, what he called the tying of India to the past \\\"like a sacrificial goat tethered to a post,\\\" and he accused men who displayed it - they seemed to him reactionary - of not knowing what true political freedom was, pointing out that it is from English thinkers and English books that the very notion of political liberty was derived. But against cosmopolitanism he maintained that the English stood on their own feet, and so must Indians. In 1917 he once more denounced the danger of ‘leaving everything to the unalterable will of the Master,' be he brahmin or Englishman. 21\\nThe duality Berlin points to is well reflected also in Tagore's attitude toward cultural diversity. He wanted Indians to learn what is going on elsewhere, how others lived, what they valued, and so on, while remaining interested and involved in their own culture and heritage. Indeed, in his educational writings the need for synthesis is strongly stressed. It can also be found in his advice to Indian students abroad.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn 1907 he wrote to his son-in-law Nagendranath Gangulee, who had gone to America to study agriculture:\\nTo get on familiar terms with the local people is a part of your education. To know only agriculture is not enough; you must know America too. Of course if, in the process of knowing America, one begins to lose one's identity and falls into the trap of becoming an Americanised person contemptuous of everything Indian, it is preferable to stay in a locked room. Tagore was strongly involved in protest against the Raj on a number of occasions, most notably in the movement to resist the 1905 British proposal to split in two the province of Bengal, a plan that was eventually withdrawn following popular resistance. He was forthright in denouncing the brutality of British rule in India, never more so than after the Amritsar massacre of April 13, 1919, when 379 unarmed people at a peaceful meeting were gunned down by the army, and two thousand more were wounded. Between April 23 and 26, Rabindranath wrote five agitated letters to C.F.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nAndrews, who himself was extremely disturbed, especially after he was told by a British civil servant in India that thanks to this show of strength, the \\\"moral prestige\\\" of the Raj had \\\"never been higher.\\\"\\nA month after the massacre, Tagore wrote to the Viceroy of India, asking to be relieved of the knighthood he had accepted four years earlier:\\nThe disproportionate severity of the punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate people and the methods of carrying them out, we are convinced, are without parallel in the history of civilized governments, barring some conspicuous exceptions, recent and remote. Considering that such treatment has been meted out to a population, disarmed and resourceless, by a power which has the most terribly efficient organisation for destruction of human lives, we must strongly assert that it can claim no political expediency, far less moral justification ... The universal agony of indignation roused in the hearts of our people has been ignored by our rulers - possibly congratulating themselves for imparting what they imagine as salutary lessons ...\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nI for my part want to stand, shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen who for their so-called insignificance are liable to suffer a degradation not fit for human beings. Both Gandhi and Nehru expressed their appreciation of the important part Tagore took in the national struggle. It is fitting that after independence, India chose a song of Tagore (\\\"Jana Gana Mana Adhinayaka,\\\" which can be roughly translated as \\\"the leader of people's minds\\\") as its national anthem. Since Bangladesh would later choose another song of Tagore (\\\"Amar Sonar Bangla\\\") as its national anthem, he may be the only one ever to have authored the national anthems of two different countries. Tagore's criticism of the British administration of India was consistently strong and grew more intense over the years. This point is often missed, since he made a special effort to dissociate his criticism of the Raj from any denigration of British - or Western - people and culture. Mahatma Gandhi's well-known quip in reply to a question, asked in England, on what he thought of Western civilization (\\\"It would be a good idea\\\") could not have come from Tagore's lips.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe would understand the provocations to which Gandhi was responding - involving cultural conceit as well as imperial tyranny. D.H. Lawrence supplied a fine example of the former: \\\"I become more and more surprised to see how far higher, in reality, our European civilization stands than the East, Indian and Persian, ever dreamed of .... This fraud of looking up to them - this wretched worship-of-Tagore attitude is disgusting.\\\" But, unlike Gandhi, Tagore could not, even in jest, be dismissive of Western civilization. Forthright in denouncing the brutality of British rule in India. Portrait by W. Rothenstein\\nEven in his powerful indictment of British rule in India in 1941, in a lecture which he gave on his last birthday, and which was later published as a pamphlet under the title Crisis in Civilization, he strains hard to maintain the distinction between opposing Western imperialism and rejecting Western civilization. While he saw India as having been \\\"smothered under the dead weight of British administration\\\" (adding \\\"another great and ancient civilization for whose recent tragic history the British cannot disclaim responsibility is China\\\"), Tagore recalls what India has gained from \\\"discussions centred upon Shakespeare's drama and Byron's poetry and above all ...\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nthe large-hearted liberalism of nineteenth-century English politics.\\\" The tragedy, as Tagore saw it, came from the fact that what \\\"was truly best in their own civilization, the upholding of dignity of human relationships, has no place in the British administration of this country.\\\" \\\"If in its place they have established, baton in hand, a reign of 'law and order,' or in other words a policeman's rule, such a mockery of civilization can claim no respect from us.\\\"\\nCritique of Patriotism\\nRabindranath rebelled against the strongly nationalist form that the independence movement often took, and this made him refrain from taking a particularly active part in contemporary politics. He wanted to assert India's right to be independent without denying the importance of what India could learn - freely and profitably - from abroad.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nHe was afraid that a rejection of the West in favor of an indigenous Indian tradition was not only limiting in itself; it could easily turn into hostility to other influences from abroad, including Christianity, which came to parts of India by the fourth century; Judaism, which came through Jewish immigration shortly after the fall of Jerusalem, as did Zoroastrianism through Parsi immigration later on (mainly in the eighth century), and, of course - and most importantly - Islam, which has had a very strong presence in India since the tenth century. Tagore's criticism of patriotism is a persistent theme in his writings. As early as 1908, he put his position succinctly in a letter replying to the criticism of Abala Bose, the wife of a great Indian scientist, Jagadish Chandra Bose: \\\"Patriotism cannot be our final spiritual shelter; my refuge is humanity. I will not buy glass for the price of diamonds, and I will never allow patriotism to triumph over humanity as long as I live.\\\" His novel Ghare Baire (The Home and the World) has much to say about this theme.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nIn the novel, Nikhil, who is keen on social reform, including women's liberation, but cool toward nationalism, gradually loses the esteem of his spirited wife, Bimala, because of his failure to be enthusiastic about anti-British agitations, which she sees as a lack of patriotic commitment. Bimala becomes fascinated with Nikhil's nationalist friend Sandip, who speaks brilliantly and acts with patriotic militancy, and she falls in love with him. Nikhil refuses to change his views: \\\"I am willing to serve my country; but my worship I reserve for Right which is far greater than my country. To worship my country as a god is to bring a curse upon it.\\\" 22\\nAs the story unfolds, Sandip becomes angry with some of his countrymen for their failure to join the struggle as readily as he thinks they should (\\\"Some Mohamedan traders are still obdurate\\\"). He arranges to deal with the recalcitrants by burning their meager trading stocks and physically attacking them. Bimala has to acknowledge the connection between Sandip's rousing nationalistic sentiments and his sectarian - and ultimately violent-actions. The dramatic events that follow (Nikhil attempts to help the victims, risking his life) include the end of Bimala's political romance.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nThis is a difficult subject, and Satyajit Ray's beautiful film of The Home and the World brilliantly brings out the novel's tensions, along with the human affections and disaffections of the story. Not surprisingly, the story has had many detractors, not just among dedicated nationalists in India. Georg Lukács found Tagore's novel to be \\\"a petit bourgeois yarn of the shoddiest kind,\\\" \\\"at the intellectual service of the British police,\\\" and \\\"a contemptible caricature of Gandhi.\\\" It would, of course, be absurd to think of Sandip as Gandhi, but the novel gives a \\\"strong and gentle\\\" warning, as Bertolt Brecht noted in his diary, of the corruptibility of nationalism, since it is not even-handed. Hatred of one group can lead to hatred of others, no matter how far such feeling may be from the minds of large-hearted nationalist leaders like Mahatma Gandhi. Admiration and Criticism of Japan\\nTagore's reaction to nationalism in Japan is particularly telling. As in the case of India, he saw the need to build the self-confidence of a defeated and humiliated people, of people left behind by developments elsewhere, as was the case in Japan before its emergence during the nineteenth century.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nAt the beginning of one of his lectures in Japan in 1916 (\\\"Nationalism in Japan\\\"), he observed that \\\"the worst form of bondage is the bondage of dejection, which keeps men hopelessly chained in loss of faith in themselves.\\\" Tagore shared the admiration for Japan widespread in Asia for demonstrating the ability of an Asian nation to rival the West in industrial development and economic progress. He noted with great satisfaction that Japan had \\\"in giant strides left centuries of inaction behind, overtaking the present time in its foremost achievement.\\\" For other nations outside the West, he said, Japan \\\"has broken the spell under which we lay in torpor for ages, taking it to be the normal condition of certain races living in certain geographical limits.\\\"\\nBut then Tagore went on to criticize the rise of a strong nationalism in Japan, and its emergence as an imperialist nation. Tagore's outspoken criticisms did not please Japanese audiences and, as E.P.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nThompson wrote, \\\"the welcome given to him on his first arrival soon cooled.\\\" 23 Twenty-two years later, in 1937, during the Japanese war on China, Tagore received a letter from Rash Behari Bose, an anti-British Indian revolutionary then living in Japan, who sought Tagore's approval for his efforts there on behalf of Indian independence, in which he had the support of the Japanese government. Tagore replied:\\nYour cable has caused me many restless hours, for it hurts me very much to have to ignore your appeal. I wish you had asked for my cooperation in a cause against which my spirit did not protest. I know, in making this appeal, you counted on my great regard for the Japanese for I, along with the rest of Asia, did once admire and look up to Japan and did once fondly hope that in Japan Asia had at last discovered its challenge to the West, that Japan's new strength would be consecrated in safeguarding the culture of the East against alien interests.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nBut Japan has not taken long to betray that rising hope and repudiate all that seemed significant in her wonderful, and, to us symbolic, awakening, and has now become itself a worse menace to the defenceless peoples of the East. How to view Japan's position in the Second World War was a divisive issue in India. After the war, when Japanese political leaders were tried for war crimes, the sole dissenting voice among the judges came from the Indian judge, Radhabinod Pal, a distinguished jurist. Pal dissented on various grounds, among them that no fair trial was possible in view of the asymmetry of power between the victor and the defeated. Ambivalent feelings in India toward the Japanese military aggression, given the unacceptable nature of British imperialism, possibly had a part in predisposing Pal to consider a perspective different from that of the other judges.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nMore tellingly, Subhas Chandra Bose (no relation of Rash Behari Bose), a leading nationalist, made his way to Japan during the war via Italy and Germany after escaping from a British prison; he helped the Japanese to form units of Indian soldiers, who had earlier surrendered to the advancing Japanese army, to fight on the Japanese side as the \\\"Indian National Army.\\\" Rabindranath had formerly entertained great admiration for Subhas Bose as a dedicated nonsectarian fighter for Indian independence. 24 But their ways would have parted when Bose's political activities took this turn, although Tagore was dead by the time Bose reached Japan. Tagore saw Japanese militarism as illustrating the way nationalism can mislead even a nation of great achievement and promise. In 1938 Yone Noguchi, the distinguished poet and friend of Tagore (as well as of Yeats and Pound), wrote to Tagore, pleading with him to change his mind about Japan.\",\n \"Tagore and His India - Nobel Prize\\n\\nRabindranath's reply, written on September 12, 1938, was altogether uncompromising:\\nIt seems to me that it is futile for either of us to try to convince the other, since your faith in the infallible right of Japan to bully other Asiatic nations into line with your Government's policy is not shared by me .... Believe me, it is sorrow and shame, not anger, that prompt me to write to you. I suffer intensely not only because the reports of Chinese suffering batter against my heart, but because I can no longer point out with pride the example of a great Japan. He would have been much happier with the postwar emergence of Japan as a peaceful power. Then, too, since he was not free of egotism, he would also have been pleased by the attention paid to his ideas by the novelist Yasunari Kawabata and others. 25\\nYasunari Kawabata\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1583,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2497"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"From which country did Iceland become independent in 1944?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Denmark"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["dinamarca","denmarc","danimarca","mainland denmark","denmarke","kingdom of denmark","danemark","danmoerk","denmark","danska","danmork","denemarke","media of denmark","iso 3166 1 dk","danish kingdom","daenemark","kingdomofdenmark","administrative divisions of denmark","dänemark","subdivisions of denmark","kongeriget danmark","danmörk","eastern denmark","denmark proper","media in denmark"],"string":"[\n \"dinamarca\",\n \"denmarc\",\n \"danimarca\",\n \"mainland denmark\",\n \"denmarke\",\n \"kingdom of denmark\",\n \"danemark\",\n \"danmoerk\",\n \"denmark\",\n \"danska\",\n \"danmork\",\n \"denemarke\",\n \"media of denmark\",\n \"iso 3166 1 dk\",\n \"danish kingdom\",\n \"daenemark\",\n \"kingdomofdenmark\",\n \"administrative divisions of denmark\",\n \"dänemark\",\n \"subdivisions of denmark\",\n \"kongeriget danmark\",\n \"danmörk\",\n \"eastern denmark\",\n \"denmark proper\",\n \"media in denmark\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Kingdom of Iceland\n\nThe Kingdom of Iceland (Icelandic: Konungsríkið Ísland; Danish: Kongeriget Island) was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a national referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place.","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nOrigins of Danish rule","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nIceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, although formally it had been a Norwegian possession until 1814. In 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. The constitution, written the same year, was revised in 1903 and the extent of Iceland's home rule increased in 1904. A minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was made responsible to the Althing, the Icelandic parliament.","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nEstablishment of the Kingdom","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nOn 1 December 1918, the Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state in personal union with Denmark through a common monarch. The Kingdom of Iceland established its own flag and coat of arms and asked that Denmark represent its foreign affairs and defence interests. The Act would be reviewed in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement to continue it could not be reached.","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nWorld War II and the establishment of the Republic","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nThe German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on 10 April, the Althing passed two resolutions investing the Icelandic cabinet with the power of head of state and declaring that Iceland would accept full responsibility for both foreign policy and coastal surveillance. A year later, on 15 May 1941 the Althing adopted a law creating the position of regent for Sveinn Björnsson in order to represent the monarchy. During the first year of World War II, Iceland strictly enforced a position of neutrality and took action against both British and German forces that violated it. On 10 May 1940, Operation \"Fork\" was launched by the United Kingdom when military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour and began an invasion of Iceland. The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a \"flagrant violation\" of Icelandic neutrality. On the day of the invasion, Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson read a radio announcement instructing Icelanders to treat the British troops as guests. The Allied occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war.","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nAt its peak, Britain had approximately 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in Reykjavík and other strategically important places. In July 1941, it coerced the Althing into accepting an American–Icelandic defence agreement, passing responsibility for Iceland's defence to the United States. As many as 40,000 American soldiers were then stationed on the island, outnumbering the native population of adult men. (Iceland's total native population during the war was approximately 120,000.)","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nFollowing a constitutional referendum in May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944. Many Danes felt offended at its timing, as Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The deposed king in Copenhagen, Christian X, nonetheless sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nFlags","Kingdom of Iceland\n\nFile:Light Blue Flag of Iceland.svg|Flag of Iceland (1915–1944)[https://flagspot.net/flags/is-hist.html#1915 Iceland – Flag History] at Flags of the World. Retrieved on 18 March 2014.\nFile:State flag of Iceland (1918–1944).svg|State Flag of Iceland (1915–1944)\nFile:Royal Standard of the King of Iceland (1921–1944).svg|Royal Standard (1921–1944)[https://flagspot.net/flags/is-royal.html#royal Iceland – Royal Standard] at Flags of the World. Retrieved on 18 March 2014.\nFile:Standard of the Regent of Iceland (1941–1944).svg|Standard of the Regent (1941–1944)","History of Iceland\n\nThe recorded history of Iceland began with the settlement by Viking explorers and their slaves from the east, particularly Norway and the British Isles, in the late 9th century. Iceland was still uninhabited long after the rest of western Europe had been settled. Recorded settlement has conventionally been dated back to 874 AD, although archaeological evidence indicates Gaelic monks had settled Iceland before that date. The land was settled quickly, mainly by Norwegians who may have been fleeing conflict or seeking new land to farm. By 930, the chieftains had established a form of governance (Althing), making it one of the world's oldest parliaments. Towards the end of the tenth century Christianity came to Iceland through the influence of the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason. During this time Iceland remained independent, a period known as the Old Commonwealth and Icelandic historians began to document the nation's history in books referred to as Sagas (Icelandic for story or history). In the early thirteenth century internal conflict (Age of the Sturlungs) weakened Iceland which eventually became subjugated to Norway through the Old Covenant (1262–4), effectively ending the Commonwealth. Norway in turn was united with Sweden (1319) and then Denmark (1376).","History of Iceland\n\nEventually, all of the Nordic states were united in one alliance, the Kalmar Union (1397–1523), but on its dissolution Iceland fell under Danish rule. Denmark then imposed a strict trade monopoly in the 17th and 18th centuries, much to the detriment of the Icelandic economy. Iceland's subsequent poverty was aggravated by natural disasters. During this time the population declined.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland remained part of Denmark, but in keeping with the rise of nationalism around Europe in the nineteenth century an independence movement emerged. The Althing, which had been suspended in 1799, was restored in 1844, and Iceland gained sovereignty after World War I, on 1 December 1918. However Iceland shared the Danish Monarchy until World War II. Although Iceland was neutral, the allies occupied it without resistance because of its strategic situation. Since Denmark was under Nazi occupation, Iceland declared itself a republic, and the Republic of Iceland was founded on 17 June 1944 as a fully independent nation. Following the Second World War Iceland was a founding member of the United Nations and grew rapidly, largely due to fishing, although this was marred by conflicts with other nations (Cod Wars). Following rapid financial growth, the economy collapsed in 2008. Today Iceland still struggles with the aftermath of the financial crisis. Iceland has adopted currency barriers that are almost unique in the history of modern Europe . Now tourism accounts for the second largest source of revenue . Iceland continues to remain outside the European Union.","History of Iceland\n\nBecause of its remoteness, Iceland has been spared the ravages of European wars, but has been affected by other external events, such as the Black Death and the Protestant Reformation imposed by Denmark. Iceland's history has also been marked by a number of natural disasters.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland is also a relatively young country in the geological sense, being formed about 20 million years ago by a series of volcanic eruptions in a mid-ocean ridge called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The oldest stone specimens found in Iceland date back to ca. 16 million years ago.","History of Iceland\n\nGeological history","History of Iceland\n\nIn geological terms, Iceland is a young island. It started to form in the Miocene era about 20 million years ago from a series of volcanic eruptions on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where it lies between the North American and Eurasian plates. These plates spread at a rate of approximately 2.5 centimeters per year.","History of Iceland\n\nThis elevated portion of the ridge is known as the Reykjanes Ridge. The volcanic activity is attributed to a hotspot, the Iceland hotspot, which in turn lies over a mantle plume (the Iceland Plume) an anomalously hot rock in the Earth's mantle which is likely to be partly responsible for the island's creation and continued existence. For comparison, it is estimated that other volcanic islands, such as the Faroe Islands have existed for about 55 million years,","History of Iceland\n\nthe Azores (on the same ridge) about 8 million years,","History of Iceland\n\nand Hawaii less than a million years.","History of Iceland\n\nThe younger rock strata in the southwest of Iceland and the central highlands are only about 700 thousand years old. The geological history of the earth is divided into ice ages, based on temperature and climate. The last glacial period, commonly referred to as The Ice Age is thought to have begun about 110 thousand years ago and ended about 10 thousand years ago. While covered in ice, Iceland's icefalls, fjords and valleys were formed.","History of Iceland\n\nEarly history","History of Iceland\n\nIceland remained, for a long time, one of the world's last larger islands uninhabited by humans (the others being New Zealand and Madagascar). It has been suggested that the land called Thule by the Greek merchant Pytheas (4th century BC) was actually Iceland, although it seems highly unlikely considering Pytheas' description of it as an agricultural country with plenty of milk, honey, and fruit (probably Norway, or possibly the Faroe or Shetland islands). The exact date that humans first reached the island is uncertain. Ancient Roman coins dating to the 3rd century have been found in Iceland, but it is unknown whether they were brought there at that time or came later with Viking settlers, having circulated as currency already for centuries.","History of Iceland\n\nThere is some literary evidence that monks and Papar from a Hiberno-Scottish mission may have settled in Iceland before the arrival of the Norse. The 12th-century scholar Ari Þorgilsson wrote in his book, Íslendingabók, that small bells, corresponding to those used by Irish monks, were found by the settlers. No such artifacts have been discovered by archaeologists, however. Some Icelanders claimed descent from Kjarvalr Írakonungr (a king in southeastern Ireland) at the time of the Landnámabók's creation.","History of Iceland\n\nSettlement (874–930)","History of Iceland\n\nIrish monks","History of Iceland\n\nLandnámabók mentions the presence of Irish monks (the Papar) prior to Norse settlement, and states that the monks left behind Irish books, bells and crosiers, among other things. According to the same account, the Irish monks abandoned the country when the Norse arrived, or had left prior to their arrival.","History of Iceland\n\nAnother source mentioning the Papar is Íslendingabók, dating from between 1122 and 1133. According to this account, the previous inhabitants, a few Irish monks, known as the Papar, left the island since they did not want to live with pagan Norsemen. One theory suggests that those monks were members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission, i.e. Irish and Scottish monks who spread Christianity during the Middle Ages. They may also have been hermits.","History of Iceland\n\nRecent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula (close to Keflavík Airport). Carbon dating reveals that the cabin was abandoned somewhere between 770 and 880, suggesting that Iceland was populated well before 874. This archaeological find may also indicate that the monks left Iceland before the Norse arrived.","History of Iceland\n\nNorse discovery","History of Iceland\n\nAccording to Landnámabók, Iceland was discovered by Naddoddr, one of the first settlers in the Faroe Islands, who was sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands, but lost his way and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddoddr named the country Snæland (Snowland). Swedish sailor Garðar Svavarsson also accidentally drifted to the coast of Iceland. He discovered that the country was an island and named it Garðarshólmi (literally Garðar's Islet) and stayed for the winter at Húsavík.","History of Iceland\n\nThe first Scandinavian who deliberately sailed to Garðarshólmi (Iceland) was Flóki Vilgerðarson, also known as Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki). Flóki settled for one winter at Barðaströnd. After the incredibly cold winter passed, the summer came and the whole island became green, which stunned Flóki. Realizing that this place was in fact habitable, despite the horribly cold winter, and full of useful resources, Flóki restocked his boat. Flóki then continued his journey west when he came upon Greenland, which was relatively close to Iceland, but much more north-west and despite being around the time summer was occurring Greenland was still at freezing temperatures. He then left back east to Norway to bring back the resources and knowledge.","History of Iceland\n\nFirst settler","History of Iceland\n\nThe first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfr Arnarson and his wife Hallveig Fróðadóttir. According to Landnáma, he threw two carved pillars overboard as he neared land, vowing to settle wherever they landed. He then sailed along the coast until the pillars were found in the southwestern peninsula, now known as Reykjanesskagi. There he settled with his family around 874, in a place he named Reykjavík (Cove of Smoke) due to the geothermal steam rising from the earth.","History of Iceland\n\nThis very place would eventually become the capital and the largest city of modern Iceland. It is recognized, however, that Ingólfr Arnarson may not have been the first one to settle permanently in Iceland — that may have been Náttfari, one of Garðar Svavarsson's men who stayed behind when Garðar returned to Scandinavia.","History of Iceland\n\nMuch of the above information comes from Landnámabók (Book of Settlement), written some three centuries after the settlement. Archeological findings in Reykjavík are consistent with the date given there: there was a settlement in Reykjavík around 870.","History of Iceland\n\nSettlement","History of Iceland\n\nIngólfr was followed by many more Norse chieftains, their families and slaves who settled all the inhabitable areas of the island in the next decades. These people were primarily of Norwegian, Irish and Scottish origin. Some of the Irish and Scots were slaves and servants of the Norse chiefs according to the Icelandic sagas and Landnámabók and other documents. Some settlers coming from the British Isles were \"Hiberno-Norse,\" with cultural and family connections both to the coastal and island areas of Ireland and/or Scotland and to Norway.","History of Iceland\n\nThe traditional explanation for the exodus from Norway is that people were fleeing the harsh rule of the Norwegian king Haraldr Hárfagri (Harald the Fair-haired), whom medieval literary sources credit with the unification of some parts of modern Norway during this period. It is also believed that the western fjords of Norway were simply overcrowded in this period. The settlement of Iceland is thoroughly recorded in the aforementioned Landnámabók, although the book was compiled in the early 12th century when at least 200 years had passed from the age of settlement.","History of Iceland\n\nAri Þorgilsson's Íslendingabók is generally considered more reliable as a source and is probably somewhat older, but it is far less thorough. It does say that Iceland was fully settled within 60 years, which likely means that all arable land had been claimed by various settlers.","History of Iceland\n\nCommonwealth (930–1262)","History of Iceland\n\nIn 930, the ruling chiefs established an assembly called the Alþingi (Althing). The parliament convened each summer at Þingvellir, where representative chieftains (Goðorðsmenn or Goðar) amended laws, settled disputes and appointed juries to judge lawsuits. Laws were not written down, but were instead memorized by an elected Lawspeaker (lǫgsǫgumaðr).","History of Iceland\n\nThe Alþingi is sometimes stated to be the world's oldest existing parliament. Importantly, there was no central executive power, and therefore laws were enforced only by the people. This gave rise to blood-feuds, which provided the writers of the Icelanders' sagas with plenty of material.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland enjoyed a mostly uninterrupted period of growth in its commonwealth years. Settlements from that era have been found in southwest Greenland and eastern Canada, and sagas such as Eiríks saga rauða and Grœnlendinga saga speak of the settlers' exploits.","History of Iceland\n\nChristianisation","History of Iceland\n\nThe settlers of Iceland were predominantly pagans and worshipped the Norse gods, among them Odin, Thor, Freyr and Freyja. By the 10th century political pressure from Europe to convert to Christianity mounted. As the end of the 1st millennium grew near, many prominent Icelanders had accepted the new faith.","History of Iceland\n\nIn the year 1000, as a civil war between the religious groups seemed likely, the Alþing appointed one of the chieftains, Þorgeirr Ljósvetningagoði, to decide the issue of religion by arbitration. He decided that the country should convert to Christianity as a whole, but that pagans would be allowed to worship privately.","History of Iceland\n\nThe first Icelandic bishop, Ísleifr Gizurarson, was consecrated by bishop Adalbert of Bremen in 1056.","History of Iceland\n\nCivil war and the end of the commonwealth","History of Iceland\n\nDuring the 11th and 12th centuries, the centralization of power had worn down the institutions of the Commonwealth, as the former, notable independence of local farmers and chieftains gave way to the growing power of a handful of families and their leaders. The period from around 1200 to 1262 is generally known as Age of the Sturlungs. This refers to Sturla Þórðarson and his sons Þórður, Sighvatur, and Snorri, who were one of two main clans fighting for power over Iceland, causing havoc in a land inhabited almost entirely by farmers who could ill-afford to travel far from their farms, across the island to fight for their leaders.","History of Iceland\n\nIn 1220, Snorri Sturluson became a vassal of Haakon IV of Norway; his nephew Sturla Sighvatsson also became a vassal in 1235. Sturla used the power and influence of the Sturlungar family to wage war against the other clans in Iceland. After decades of conflict, the Icelandic chieftains agreed to accept the sovereignty of Norway and signed the Old Covenant (Gamli sáttmáli) establishing a union with the Norwegian monarchy.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland under Norwegian and Danish kings (1262–1944)","History of Iceland\n\nNorwegian rule","History of Iceland\n\nLittle changed in the decades following the treaty. Norway's consolidation of power in Iceland was slow, and the Althing intended to hold onto its legislative and judicial power. Nonetheless, the Christian clergy had unique opportunities to accumulate wealth via the tithe, and power gradually shifted to ecclesiastical authorities as Iceland's two bishops in Skálholt and Hólar acquired land at the expense of the old chieftains.","History of Iceland\n\nAround the time Iceland became a vassal state of Norway, a climate shift occurred—a phenomenon now called the Little Ice Age. Areas near the Arctic Circle such as Iceland and Greenland began to have shorter growing seasons and colder winters. Since Iceland had marginal farmland in good times, the climate change resulted in hardship for the population. A serfdom-like institution called the vistarband developed, in which peasants were bound to landowners for a year at a time.","History of Iceland\n\nIt became more difficult to raise barley, the primary cereal crop, and livestock required additional fodder to survive longer and colder winters. Icelanders began to trade for grain from continental Europe — an expensive proposition. Church fast days increased demand for dried codfish, which was easily caught and prepared for export, and the cod trade became an important part of the economy.","History of Iceland\n\nDanish rule","History of Iceland\n\nIceland remained under Norwegian kingship until 1380, when the death of Olav IV extinguished the Norwegian male royal line. Norway (and thus Iceland) then became part of the Kalmar Union, along with Sweden and Denmark, with Denmark as the dominant power. Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Iceland's fish and homespun wool. This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland's trade, and as a result, no new ships for continental trading were built. The small Greenland colony, established in the late 10th century, died out completely before 1500.","History of Iceland\n\nWith the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark–Norway in 1660 under Frederick III, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. Denmark, however, did not provide much protection to Iceland, which was raided in 1627 by a Barbary pirate fleet that abducted almost 300 Icelanders into slavery, in an episode known as the Turkish Abductions.","History of Iceland\n\nReformation and Danish trade monopoly","History of Iceland\n\nBy the middle of the 16th century, Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on his subjects. Jón Arason and Ögmundur Pálsson, the Catholic bishops of Skálholt and Hólar respectively, opposed Christian's efforts at promoting the Protestant Reformation in Iceland. Ögmundur was deported by Danish officials in 1541, but Jón Arason put up a fight.","History of Iceland\n\nOpposition to the reformation ended in 1550 when Jón Arason was captured after being defeated in the Battle of Sauðafell by loyalist forces under the leadership of Daði Guðmundsson. Jón Arason and his two sons were subsequently beheaded in Skálholt. Following this, the Icelanders became Lutherans and remain largely so to this day.","History of Iceland\n\nIn 1602, Iceland was forbidden to trade with countries other than Denmark, by order of the Danish government, which at this time pursued mercantilist policies. The Danish trade monopoly would remain in effect until 1786.","History of Iceland\n\nThe eruption of Laki","History of Iceland\n\nIn the 18th century, climatic conditions in Iceland reached an all-time low since the original settlement. On top of this, the Laki volcano in Iceland erupted in 1783, spitting out three cubic miles (12.5 km³) of lava. Floods, ash, and fumes wiped out 9,000 people and 80 percent of the livestock. The ensuing starvation killed a quarter of Iceland's population. This period is known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin).","History of Iceland\n\nWhen the two kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were separated by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark kept Iceland as a dependency.","History of Iceland\n\nIndependence movement","History of Iceland\n\nThroughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow worse, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly Manitoba in Canada. However, a new national consciousness was revived in Iceland, inspired by romantic nationalist ideas from continental Europe. This revival was spearheaded by the Fjölnismenn, a group of Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals.","History of Iceland\n\nAn independence movement developed under the leadership of a lawyer named Jón Sigurðsson. In 1843 a new Althing was founded as a consultative assembly. It claimed continuity with the Althing of the Icelandic Commonwealth, which had remained for centuries as a judicial body and been abolished in 1800.","History of Iceland\n\nHome rule and sovereignty","History of Iceland\n\nIn 1874, a thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and home rule, which again was expanded in 1904. The constitution was revised in 1903, and a minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was made responsible to the Althing, the first of whom was Hannes Hafstein.","History of Iceland\n\nThe Act of Union, a December 1, 1918, agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state — the Kingdom of Iceland – joined with Denmark in a personal union with the Danish king. Iceland established its own flag. Denmark was to represent its foreign affairs and defense interests. Iceland had no military or naval forces and Denmark was to give notice to other countries that it was permanently neutral. The Act would be up for revision in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement was not reached. By the 1930s the consensus in Iceland was to seek complete independence by 1944 at the latest.","History of Iceland\n\nWorld War I","History of Iceland\n\nIn the quarter of a century preceding the War, Iceland prospered. Iceland became more isolated during WWI and suffered a significant decline in living standards. The treasury became highly indebted, there was a shortage of food and fears over an imminent famine.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland was part of neutral Denmark during the War. Icelanders were in general sympathetic to the cause of the Allies. Iceland also traded significantly with the United Kingdom during the War, as Iceland found itself within its sphere of influence. In their attempts to stop the Icelanders from trading with the Germans indirectly, the British imposed time-consuming and costly constraints on Icelandic exports going to the Nordic countries. There is no evidence of any German plans to invade Iceland during the war.","History of Iceland\n\n1.245 Icelanders, Icelandic Americans and Icelandic Canadians were registered as soldiers during World War I. 989 fought for Canada whereas 256 fought for the United States. 391 of the combatants were born in Iceland, the rest were of Icelandic descent. 10 women of Icelandic descent and 4 women born on Iceland served as nurses during WWI. At least 144 of the combatants died during WWI (96 in combat, 19 from wounds suffered during combat, 2 from accidents, and 27 from disease), 61 of them were born on Iceland. Ten men were taken as prisoners of war by the Germans.","History of Iceland\n\nThe War had a lasting impact on Icelandic society and Iceland's external relations. This includes the major government interference in the marketplace that would last until the post-WWII period. Iceland's competent governance of internal affairs and relations with other states while relations with Denmark were interrupted during the War showed that Iceland was capable of acquiring further powers, which resulted in Denmark recognizing Iceland as a fully sovereign state in 1918. It has been argued that the thirst for news of the War helped Morgunblaðið to gain a dominant position among Icelandic newspapers.","History of Iceland\n\nThe Great Depression","History of Iceland\n\nIcelandic post-WWI prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic depression. The Depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports of plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million in 1932, and was not to rise again to the pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: \"Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state-owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state-regulated funds\". Due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, which cut Iceland's exports of saltfish by half, the Depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of WWII when prices for fish exports soared.","History of Iceland\n\nWorld War II","History of Iceland\n\nWith war looming in spring 1939, Iceland realized its exposed position would be very dangerous in wartime. An all-party government was formed and Lufthansa's request for civilian airplane landing rights was rejected. German ships were all about, however, until the British blockade of Germany stopped that when the war began in September. Iceland demanded Britain allow it to trade with Germany, to no avail.","History of Iceland\n\nThe occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany began on April 9, 1940, severing communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on April 10, the Parliament of Iceland took temporary control of foreign affairs, electing a provisional governor, Sveinn Björnsson, who later became the republic's first president. It turned down British offers of protection because that would violate neutrality. Britain and the U.S. opened direct diplomatic relations, as did Sweden and Norway. The German takeover of Norway left Iceland highly exposed; Britain decided it could not risk a German takeover.\nOn May 10, 1940, British military forces began an invasion of Iceland when they sailed into Reykjavík harbour in Operation Fork.\nThere was no resistance, but the government protested against what it called a \"flagrant violation\" of Icelandic neutrality and Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson called on Icelanders to treat the British troops with the politeness as if they were guests. They behaved accordingly and there were no mishaps. The occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war.","History of Iceland\n\nAt the peak, the British had 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in the Reykjavík area and other strategically important places. In July 1941, responsibility for Iceland's occupation and defence passed to the United States under a U.S.-Icelandic agreement which included a provision that the U.S. recognize Iceland's absolute independence. The British were replaced by up to 40,000 Americans, who outnumbered all adult Icelandic men. (At the time, Iceland had a population of around 120,000.)","History of Iceland\n\nApproximately 159 Icelanders' lives have been confirmed to have been lost in World War II hostilities. Most were killed on cargo and fishing vessels sunk by German aircraft, U-boats or mines. An additional 70 Icelanders died at sea during WWII but it has not been confirmed yet whether they lost their lives due to hostilities.","History of Iceland\n\nRepublic of Iceland (1944–)","History of Iceland\n\nFounding of the republic","History of Iceland\n\nOn 31 December 1943, the Act of Union agreement expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with the King of Denmark and establish a republic. The vote was 97% in favour of ending the union and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland became an independent republic on June 17, 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first President. Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The Danish king, Christian X sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland had prospered during the course of the war, amassing considerable currency reserves in foreign banks. In addition to this, the country received the most Marshall Aid per capita of any European country in the immediate postwar years (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109).","History of Iceland\n\nThe new republican government, led by an unlikely three-party majority cabinet made up of conservatives (the Independence Party, Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn), social democrats (the Social Democratic Party, Alþýðuflokkurinn), and socialists (People's Unity Party – Socialist Party, Sósíalistaflokkurinn), decided to put the funds into a general renovation of the fishing fleet, the building of fish processing facilities, the construction of a cement and fertilizer factory, and a general modernization of agriculture. These actions were aimed at keeping Icelanders' standard of living as high as it had become during the prosperous war years.","History of Iceland\n\nThe government's fiscal policy was strictly Keynesian, and their aim was to create the necessary industrial infrastructure for a prosperous developed country. It was considered essential to keep unemployment down to an absolute minimum and to protect the export fishing industry through currency manipulation and other means. Due to the country's dependence both on unreliable fish catches and foreign demand for fish products, Iceland's economy remained very unstable well into the 1990s, when the country's economy was greatly diversified.","History of Iceland\n\nNATO membership and the Cold War","History of Iceland\n\nIn October 1946, the Icelandic and United States' governments agreed to terminate U.S. responsibility for the defense of Iceland, but the United States retained certain rights at Keflavík, such as the right to re-establish a military presence there, should war threaten.","History of Iceland\n\nIceland became a charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on March 30, 1949, with the reservation that it would never take part in offensive action against another nation. The membership came amid an anti-NATO riot in Iceland. After the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, and pursuant to the request of NATO military authorities, the United States and Alþingi agreed that the United States should again take responsibility for Iceland's defense.","History of Iceland\n\nThis agreement, signed on May 5, 1951, was the authority for the controversial U.S. military presence in Iceland, which remained until 2006. The US base served as a hub for transports and communications to Europe, a key chain in the GIUK gap, a monitor of Soviet submarine activity, a linchpin in the early warning system for incoming Soviet attacks and interceptor of Soviet reconnaissance bombers.","History of Iceland\n\nAlthough U.S. forces no longer maintain a military presence in Iceland, the U.S. still assumes responsibility over the country's defense through NATO. Iceland has retained strong ties to the other Nordic countries. As a consequence Norway, Denmark, Germany and other European nations have increased their defense and rescue cooperation with Iceland since the withdrawal of U.S. forces.","History of Iceland\n\nCod Wars","History of Iceland\n\nThe Cod Wars were a series of militarized interstate disputes between Iceland and the United Kingdom from the 1950s to the mid-1970s. The Proto Cod War (1952-1956) revolved around Iceland's extension of its fishery limits from 3 to 4 nautical miles. The First Cod War (1958-1961) was fought over Iceland's extension from 4 to 12 nautical miles (7 to 22 km). The Second Cod War (1972-1973) occurred when Iceland extended the limits to 50 miles (93 km). The Third Cod War (1975-1976) was fought over Iceland's extension of its fishery limits to 200 miles (370 km). Icelandic patrolships and British trawlers clashed in all four Cod Wars. The Royal Navy was sent to the contested waters in the last three Cod Wars, leading to highly publicized clashes.","History of Iceland\n\nDuring these disputes, Iceland threatened closure of the U.S.-manned NATO base at Keflavík, and the withdrawal of its NATO membership. Due to Iceland's strategic importance during the Cold War, it was important for the US and NATO to maintain the base on Icelandic soil and to keep Iceland as a member of NATO. While the Icelandic government did go through on its threat to break off diplomatic relations with the UK during the Third Cod War, it never went through on its threats to close the US base to withdraw from NATO.","History of Iceland\n\nIt is rare for militarized interstate disputes of this magnitude and intensity to occur between two democracies with as close economic, cultural and institutional ties as Iceland and the UK.","History of Iceland\n\nEEA membership and economic reform","History of Iceland\n\nIn 1991, the Independence Party, led by Davíð Oddsson, formed a coalition government with the Social Democrats. This government set in motion market liberalisation policies, privatising a number of state-owned companies. Iceland then became a member of the European Economic Area in 1994. Economic stability increased and previously chronic inflation was drastically reduced.","History of Iceland\n\nIn 1995, the Independence Party formed a coalition government with the Progressive Party. This government continued with free market policies, privatising two commercial banks and the state-owned telecom Landssíminn.","History of Iceland\n\nCorporate income tax was reduced to 18% (from around 50% at the beginning of the decade), inheritance tax was greatly reduced and the net wealth tax was abolished. A system of individual transferable quotas in the Icelandic fisheries, first introduced in the late 1970s, was further developed.","History of Iceland\n\nThe coalition government remained in power through elections in 1999 and 2003. In 2004, Davíð Oddsson stepped down as Prime Minister after 13 years in office. Halldór Ásgrímsson, leader of the Progressive Party, took over as Prime Minister from 2004 to 2006, followed by Geir H. Haarde, Davíð Oddsson’s successor as leader of the Independence Party.","History of Iceland\n\nFollowing a recession in the early 1990s, economic growth was considerable, averaging about 4% per year from 1994. The governments of the 1990s and 2000s adhered to a staunch but domestically controversial pro-U.S. foreign policy, lending nominal support to the NATO action in the Kosovo War and signing up as a member of the Coalition of the willing during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.","History of Iceland\n\nIn March 2006, the United States announced that it intended to withdraw the greater part of the Icelandic Defence Force. On 12 August 2006, the last four F-15s left Icelandic airspace. The United States closed the Keflavík Air Base in September 2006.","History of Iceland\n\nFollowing elections in May 2007, the Independence Party headed by Geir H. Haarde remained in government, albeit in a new coalition with the Social Democratic Alliance.","History of Iceland\n\nFinancial crisis","History of Iceland\n\nIn October 2008, the Icelandic banking system collapsed, prompting Iceland to seek large loans from the International Monetary Fund and friendly countries. Widespread protests in late 2008 and early 2009 resulted in the resignation of the government of Geir Haarde, which was replaced on 1 February 2009 by a coalition government led by the Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement. Social Democrat minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir was appointed Prime Minister, becoming the world's first openly homosexual head of government of the modern era. Elections took place in April 2009 and a continuing coalition government consisting of the Social Democrats and the Left-Green Movement was established in early May 2009.","History of Iceland\n\nThe crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilized under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and grew by 1.6% in 2012 but many Icelanders remained unhappy with the state of the economy and government austerity policies; the centre-right Independence Party was returned to power, in coalition with the Progressive Party, in the 2013 elections.","History of Iceland\n\nHistoriography","History of Iceland\n\nDivision of history into named periods","History of Iceland\n\nWhile it is convenient to divide history into named periods, it is also misleading because the course of human events neither starts or ends abruptly in most cases, and movements and influences often overlap. One period, as Gunnar Karlsson describes, can be considered the period from 930 CE to 1262–4 when there was no central government or leader, political power being characterised by chieftains (\"goðar\"). This period is referred to therefore as the þjóðveldisöld or goðaveldisöld (National or Chieftain State) period by Icelandic authors, and the Old Commonwealth or Freestate by English ones.","History of Iceland\n\nThere is little consensus on how to divide Icelandic history. Gunnar's own book A Brief History of Iceland (2010) has 33 chapters with considerable overlap in dates. Jón J. Aðils' 1915 text, Íslandssaga (A History of Iceland) uses ten periods:\n*Landnámsöld (Settlement Age) c. 870–930\n*Söguöld (Saga Age) 930–1030\n*Íslenska kirkjan í elstu tíð (The early Icelandic church) 1030–1152\n*Sturlungaöld (Sturlung Age) 1152–1262\n*Ísland undir stjórn Noregskonunga og uppgangur kennimanna (Norwegian royal rule and the rise of the clergy) 1262–1400\n*Kirkjuvald (Ecclesiastical power) 1400–1550\n*Konungsvald (Royal authority) 1550–1683\n*Einveldi og einokun (Absolutism and monopoly trading) 1683–1800\n*Viðreisnarbarátta (Campaign for restoration) [of past glories] 1801–1874\n*Framsókn (Progress) 1875–1915","History of Iceland\n\nIn another of Gunnar's books, Iceland's 1100 Years (2000), Icelandic history is divided into four periods:\n*Colonisation and Commonwealth c. 870–1262\n*Under foreign rule 1262 – c. 1800\n*A primitive society builds a state 1809–1918\n*The great 20th-century transformation\nbased mainly on forms of government, except for the last which reflects mechanisation of the fishing industry.","Iceland\n\nIceland (; ), also called the Republic of Iceland,While sometimes referred to as the \"Republic of Iceland\" ([http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland] [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/26th-gegn-docs/WP/WP54_UNGEGN%20WG%20Country%20Names%20Document%202011.pdf]) and sometimes its counterpart Lýðveldið Ísland in Icelandic, the official name of the country is simply Iceland. [http://translate.google.com/translate?jsn&prev\n_t&hlid&ie\nUTF-8&layout2&eotf\n1&slis&tl\nen&uhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.visindavefur.is%2Fsvar.php%3Fid%3D54970&act\nurl][http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id54970] One example of the former is the name of the Constitution of Iceland, which in Icelandic is Stjórnarskrá lýðveldisins Íslands and literally means \"the Constitution of the republic of Iceland\", but note that \"republic\" is not capitalized. The official title of the President of Iceland (Forseti Íslands) does also not include the word republic as in some other republics. See Names for Iceland. is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. It has a population of and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands.","Iceland\n\nIceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.","Iceland\n\nAccording to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year AD 874 when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, mainly Norwegians and to a smaller extent other Scandinavians settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1814, Iceland was ruled by Norway and afterwards by Denmark. Until the 20th century, the country relied largely on fishing and agriculture. Iceland became independent in 1918 and a republic in 1944. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. In 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which supported diversification into economic and financial services.","Iceland\n\nIceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality. In 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy. Affected by the ongoing worldwide financial crisis, the nation's entire banking system systemically failed in October 2008, leading to a severe depression, substantial political unrest, the Icesave dispute, and the institution of capital controls. Many bankers were jailed and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism.","Iceland\n\nIcelandic culture is founded upon the nation's Scandinavian heritage. Most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic (Celtic) settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is closely related to Faroese and West Norwegian dialects. The country's cultural heritage includes traditional Icelandic cuisine, Icelandic literature and medieval sagas. Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, its lightly armed coast guard being in charge of defence.","Iceland\n\nHistory","Iceland\n\nSettlement and Commonwealth 874–1262","Iceland\n\nAccording to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók, Celtic monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula. Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880.","Iceland\n\nSwedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed over winter and built a house in Húsavík. Garðar departed the following summer but one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík and he and his slaves became the first permanent residents of Iceland.","Iceland\n\nThe Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in the year 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish. By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing, a legislative and judicial assembly, was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth. Lack of arable land also served impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time, about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among some segments of the population for some years afterwards.","Iceland\n\nThe Middle Ages","Iceland\n\nThe Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century, when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Norwegian Empire to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway.","Iceland\n\nIn the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%.","Iceland\n\nReformation and the Early Modern period","Iceland\n\nAround the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar, was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.","Iceland\n\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruption and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. Pirates from several countries, including the Barbary Coast, raided its coastal settlements and abducted people into slavery. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), over half of all livestock died in the country. Around a quarter of the population died in the ensuing famine.","Iceland\n\nIndependence movement 1814–1918","Iceland\n\nIn 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly to the region of Gimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland. About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000.","Iceland\n\nA national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.","Iceland\n\nKingdom of Iceland 1918–1944","Iceland\n\nThe Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark handle Icelandic foreign policy. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland.","Iceland\n\nDuring World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark. A month later, British armed forces invaded and occupied the country, violating Icelandic neutrality. In 1941, the occupation was taken over by the United States so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere.","Iceland\n\nIndependent republic 1944–present","Iceland\n\nOn 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.","Iceland\n\nIn 1946, the Allied occupation force left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force, and remained throughout the Cold War. The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.","Iceland\n\nIceland had prospered during the war. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialisation of the fishing industry and the US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109).","Iceland\n\nThe 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars — several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 miles offshore. Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy oriented toward humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq.","Iceland\n\nIceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001, when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise massive amounts of external debt, contributing to a 32% increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007.","Iceland\n\nEconomic boom and crisis","Iceland\n\nIn the years 2003–2007, following the privatization of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved toward having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world but was hit hard by a major financial crisis. The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and grew by 1.6% in 2012. Many Icelanders, however, have remained unhappy with the state of the economy and government austerity policies. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 elections.","Iceland\n\nGeography","Iceland\n\nIceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63° and 68° N, and longitudes 25° and 13° W.","Iceland\n\nIceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America; thus, the island is generally included in Europe for historical, political, cultural, and practical reasons. Geologically the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest body of land is Greenland (). The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (); Jan Mayen Island (); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about ; and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about . The mainland of Norway is about away.","Iceland\n\nIceland is the world's 18th largest island, and Europe's second largest island after Great Britain. The main island is , but the entire country is in size, of which 62.7% is tundra. There are thirty minor islands in Iceland, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: and Þingvallavatn: ; other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn. Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at .","Iceland\n\nGeologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new oceanic crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge.","Iceland\n\nMany fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-kilometre (3,088-mile) long coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains and lava fields. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park. The country is considered a \"strong performer\" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012.","Iceland\n\nIceland satellite.jpg | Iceland, as seen from space on 29 January 2004\nIceland2008-Sudureyri.JPG | Suðureyri\nNorðfjörður .JPG | Norðfjörður\nEyjafjallajokull-April-17.JPG | The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull\nISLANDIA.jpg | South of Iceland, off the Ring Road, looking north, late afternoon in winter 2001","Iceland\n\nGeology","Iceland\n\nA geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterward, and affected climates in other areas.","Iceland\n\nIceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.","Iceland\n\nWith the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with approx. 30 volcanic systems active.","Iceland\n\nSurtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island.","Iceland\n\nOn 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes. Additional eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes. The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe.","Iceland\n\nAnother large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011. This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull. Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes, and this eruption was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity, with ash and lava hurled into the atmosphere creating a large cloud.","Iceland\n\nClimate","Iceland\n\nThe climate of Iceland's coast is subpolar oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.","Iceland\n\nThe climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than the south.","Iceland\n\nThe highest air temperature recorded was on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are on 30 July 2008, and on 21 January 1918.","Iceland\n\nBiodiversity","Iceland\n\nThere are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. Polar bears occasionally come over from Greenland, but they are just visitors, and no Icelandic populations exist. There are no native or free-living reptiles or amphibians on the island.","Iceland\n\nPhytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. Approximately three quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch (Betula pubescens), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens (Populus tremula), rowans (Sorbus aucuparia), common junipers (Juniperus communis) and other smaller trees, mainly willows.","Iceland\n\nWhen the island was first settled, it was extensively forested. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as \"forested from mountain to sea shore\". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion. Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres are affected by soil erosion, 18000 km2 so seriously as to be useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species. The tallest tree in Iceland is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at in 2013.","Iceland\n\nThe animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, chickens, goats, the sturdy Icelandic horse, and the Icelandic Sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling on icebergs from Greenland. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for approximately half of the country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.","Iceland\n\nCommercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.","Iceland\n\nPolitics","Iceland\n\nIceland has a left–right multi-party system. Following the 2013 parliamentary election, the biggest parties are the centre-right Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn) and the Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn). Other political parties with seats in the Althing are the centre-left Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin), Left-Green Movement (Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð), Bright Future (Björt framtíð), and the Pirate Party of Iceland (Píratar). Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which run only locally in a single municipality.","Iceland\n\nIceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women. Known as the Women's List or Women's Alliance (Kvennalistinn), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. After participating in its first parliamentary elections, the Women's List helped increase the proportion of female parliamentarians by 15%. Although it disbanded in 1999, merging with the Social Democratic Alliance, it left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women, and in 2009 nearly a third of members of parliament were female, compared to the global average of 16%.","Iceland\n\nIn 2011 Iceland was ranked 2nd in the strength of its democratic institutions and 13th in government transparency. The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. However, only 50% of Icelanders say they trust their political institutions, slightly less than the OECD average of 56% (and most probably a consequence of the political scandals in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis).[http://oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/iceland/ Iceland – OECD Better Life Index]. Oecdbetterlifeindex.org. Retrieved 28 April 2012.","Iceland\n\nGovernment","Iceland\n\nIceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. Consequently, \"it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy.\" It currently has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years. The president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. The elections for president, the Althing and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.","Iceland\n\nThe president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing; however, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in the Althing. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves within a reasonable time span does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet personally. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 regent Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941, appointed a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn would later become the country's first president in 1944.","Iceland\n\nThe governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. The extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars, in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.","Iceland\n\nAdministrative divisions","Iceland\n\nIceland is divided into regions, constituencies and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division. Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:\n* Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions);\n* Southwest (four non-contiguous suburban areas around Reykjavík);\n* Northwest and Northeast (northern half of Iceland, split); and,\n* South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).","Iceland\n\nThe redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.","Iceland\n\nThere are 74 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.","Iceland\n\nRegions of Iceland.png|Regions of Iceland\nConstituencies Iceland.png|Constituencies of Iceland\nSveitarfélög-landsvæði.png|Municipalities of Iceland","Iceland\n\nForeign relations","Iceland\n\nIceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe and OECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.","Iceland\n\nIceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009 the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of application for EU membership and officially applied on 17 July 2009. However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following recent elections the two parties that formed the island's new government – the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party – announced they would hold a referendum on EU membership.","Iceland\n\nMilitary","Iceland\n\nIceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Keflavík base, until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006. Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission. Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009.","Iceland\n\nIcelanders remain especially proud of their role in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from , 1958–1961 following a further extension to , 1972–1973 with another extension to ; and in 1975–1976 another extension to .","Iceland\n\nAccording to the Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate, and high level of socio-political stability.","Iceland\n\nEconomy","Iceland\n\nIn 2007, Iceland was the seventh most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112). About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. Utilization of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita. As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.\nHistorically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006.","Iceland\n\nUntil the 20th century, Iceland was among the poorest countries in Western Europe. Currently, it remains one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth had led Iceland to be ranked first in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2007/2008, although in 2011 its HDI rating had fallen to 14th place as a result of the economic crisis. Nevertheless, according to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland has the 2nd highest quality of life in the world. Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking climbs to 5th place. Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012, compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.","Iceland\n\nMany political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries). The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK). Nearly 70% of Icelanders have favoured the adoption of the Canadian dollar (CAD) - more than any other currency in the world.","Iceland\n\nA poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed. Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.","Iceland\n\nIceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%. Despite the decision to resume commercial whale hunting in 2006, the tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population. Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products. The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.","Iceland\n\nIceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world. , it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015. According to INSEAD's Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 11th most innovative country in the world. Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75%, and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not including the many deductions that are available. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world. There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006. Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management. Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.","Iceland\n\nDespite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 had highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy. There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy. The latest assessment by the OECD determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy in order to address inflation. Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and is the 31th highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.","Iceland\n\nEconomic contraction","Iceland\n\nIceland had been hit especially hard by the Great Recession that began in December 2007, because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion). In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the Financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks. Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks will be run into bankruptcy.","Iceland\n\nOn 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2010, it was 7%), a move which was forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund (IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with valuation at around 250 ISK per Euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.","Iceland\n\nOn 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to the public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.","Iceland\n\nThousands of Icelanders have moved from the country after the collapse, and many of those moved to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625. In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament‘s Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis. By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt.","Iceland\n\nAccording to Bloomberg, Iceland is on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail.","Iceland\n\nTransport","Iceland\n\nIceland has a high level of car ownership per capita; with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport. Iceland has of administered roads, of which are paved and are not. A great number of roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads. The road speed limits are in towns, on gravel country roads and on hard-surfaced roads. Iceland currently has no railways.","Iceland\n\nRoute 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur), was completed in 1974, and is a main road that runs around Iceland and connects all the inhabited parts of the island, with the interior of the island being uninhabited. This paved road is long with one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel (also the site of a toll) where it has more lanes. Many bridges on it, especially in the north and east, are single lane and made of timber and/or steel.","Iceland\n\nThe main hub for international transport is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. It is to the west of Reykjavík. Domestic flights, flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and business flights operate mostly out of Reykjavík Airport, which lies in the city centre. Most general aviation traffic is also in Reykjavík. There are 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas. The biggest airport in Iceland is Keflavík International Airport and the biggest airfield is Geitamelur, a four-runway field around east of Reykjavík, dedicated exclusively to gliding. There are a number of international airlines that fly to and from Iceland regularly.","Iceland\n\nEnergy","Iceland\n\nRenewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.","Iceland\n\nIcelanders emit 6.29 tonnes of CO2 in 2009 equivalent of greenhouse gases per capita. Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of a few countries currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at a reasonable cost, because of Iceland's plentiful renewable sources of energy.","Iceland\n\nOn 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area. Two exploration licenses have been awarded.","Iceland\n\n, the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a high-voltage direct-current connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Such a cable would give Iceland access to a market where electricity prices have generally been much higher than those in Iceland. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not enough demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources.","Iceland\n\nEducation and science","Iceland\n\nThe Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities. The government does allow citizens to Home educate their children, however under a very strict set of demands. Students must adhere closely to the government mandated curriculum, and the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching certificate.","Iceland\n\nNursery school, or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.","Iceland\n\nCompulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.","Iceland\n\nUpper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.","Iceland\n\nAn OECD assessment found 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%. Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered to be of excellent quality: the Programme for International Student Assessment currently ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average. Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.","Iceland\n\nAccording to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to be reached by 2020. A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (100 million US dollars or more), Iceland ranked 9th by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the UK, and Canada.","Iceland\n\nDemographics","Iceland\n\nThe original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Gaelic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were indeed Norwegian Viking warriors who brought Gaelic slaves with them.","Iceland\n\nIceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.","Iceland\n\nThe population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table on the left).","Iceland\n\nIn December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin, and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant. The recent increase in immigration has been credited to a labour shortage due to the booming economy at the time, as well as to the lifting of restrictions on the movement of people from the countries that were a part of the 2004 enlargement of the European Union. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.","Iceland\n\nThe southwest corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. The largest towns outside the Greater Reykjavík area are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær, although the latter is relatively close to the capital.","Iceland\n\nSome 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red colonised Greenland among the existing paleo-Eskimo inhabitants in the late 10th century. The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000 and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500. People from Greenland attempted to set up a colony at Vinland in North America, but it was abandoned in the face of hostility from the indigenous residents. Emigration to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. , Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.","Iceland\n\nUrbanisation","Iceland\n\nIceland's 10 most populous urban areas:","Iceland\n\nLanguage","Iceland\n\nIceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.","Iceland\n\nIcelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.","Iceland\n\nEnglish and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum. Both languages are widely understood and spoken. Other commonly spoken languages are Swedish, Norwegian, German and French. Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the biggest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska (i. e. Scandinavian) in Iceland.","Iceland\n\nRather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practiced. Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother. These follow the person's given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir (\"Elísabet, Jón's daughter\" (Jón, being the father)) or Ólafur Katrínarson (\"Ólafur, Katrín's son\" (Katrín being the mother)). Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory is listed alphabetically by first name rather than by surname. All new names must be decided upon by the Icelandic Naming Committee.","Iceland\n\nHealth","Iceland\n\nIceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare () and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.","Iceland\n\nA considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care, and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP and 14th in spending per capita. Over all, the country’s health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization. According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations. , Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).[http://www.webcitation.org/67HObnj6m OECD Health Data 2011]. oecd.org","Iceland\n\nIcelanders are among the world’s healthiest people, with 81% reporting to be in good health, according to an OECD survey. Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries, infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average. The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the 4th highest in the world.","Iceland\n\nAdditionally, Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens. According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic material in the atmosphere is far lower than any other industrialised country measured.","Iceland\n\nReligion","Iceland\n\nIcelanders have freedom of religion under the Constitution of Iceland, though the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church. The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2015, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:\n*73.8% members of the Church of Iceland.\n*11.7% members of some other Christian denomination.\n*7.1% other and not specified\n*5.6% unaffiliated\n*1.5% members of non-Christian denomination.\n*0.3% members of the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association","Iceland\n\nIceland is a very secular country: as with other Nordic nations, religious attendance is relatively low. The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population of Iceland. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic. A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves \"a religious person\", 31% considered themselves \"a non religious person\", while 10% defined themselves as \"a convinced atheist\", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the world.","Iceland\n\nCulture","Iceland\n\nIcelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Scandinavian languages.","Iceland\n\nIn contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be \"very important,\" compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25. Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.","Iceland\n\nAccording to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% of people in Iceland reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD. A more recent 2012 survey found that around three quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%.","Iceland\n\nIceland is liberal with regard to LGBT rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment. On 11 June 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage. The law took effect on 27 June 2010. The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.","Iceland\n\nIcelanders are known for their deep sense of community: an OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country. Similarly, only 6% reported \"rarely\" or \"never\" socializing with others. This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation.","Iceland\n\nEgalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world. The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.Wilcox and Latif, pp. 60–61. Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in.","Iceland\n\nLiterature","Iceland\n\nIceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.","Iceland\n\nA translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential, National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.","Iceland\n\nIcelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation. Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.","Iceland\n\nArt","Iceland\n\nThe distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.","Iceland\n\nContemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.","Iceland\n\nIn the recent years artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large scale projects and exhibitions. The artist run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions and projects. The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.","Iceland\n\nThorarinn thingvellir.jpg|Þingvellir by Þórarinn B. Þorláksson\nThorfinn Karlsefni 1918.jpg|Statue of Thorfinn Karlsefni by Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson in Philadelphia\nLaxness portrett einar hakonarson 1984.jpg|The writer Halldór Laxness by Einar Hákonarson, 1984\nGrassodenhäuser.jpg|Traditional Icelandic turf houses. Until the 20th century, the vast majority of Icelanders lived in rural areas\nAkureyri Menntaskoli.jpg|The old building (Gamli Skóli) of the Menntaskóli, i.e. High School precinct in Akureyri","Iceland\n\nMusic","Iceland\n\nMuch Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock bands The Sugarcubes and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, musicians Björk and Emilíana Torrini, and post-rock band Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is Lofsöngur, written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson.","Iceland\n\nTraditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes. The best known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of Iðunn.","Iceland\n\nIcelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Bang Gang, Quarashi and Amiina to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas and Björgvin Halldórsson. Independent music is very strong in Iceland, with bands such as múm, The Sugarcubes, HAM, Of Monsters and Men, Sigur Rós, Sóley and Viking metal band Skálmöld, as well as solo artists Emilíana Torrini and Mugison.","Iceland\n\nSome Icelandic jazz musicians and jazz bands have earned a reputation outside Iceland. Perhaps best known is the jazz fusion band Mezzoforte and Los Angeles-based jazz vocalist Anna Mjöll. Many Icelandic artists and bands have enjoyed international success, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Hera, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, an annual event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones play in the clubs of Reykjavík for a week. Electronic musicians include ones such as Thor and GusGus.","Iceland\n\nAmong Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir (Anna Thorvaldsdottir), who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honor that includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient.","Iceland\n\nMedia","Iceland\n\nIceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.","Iceland\n\nIceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television programme created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the UK, the Americas and Sweden. The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær. The 2015 television crime series Trapped aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according to the Guardian \"the unlikeliest TV hit of the year\".","Iceland\n\nIn 1992 the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his film, Children of Nature. Actress Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's 1986 film, The Sacrifice. Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's The Tudors, is also Icelandic. Briem starred in the 2008 film Journey to the Center of the Earth, which shot scenes in Iceland. The 2002 James Bond movie Die Another Day is set for a large-part in Iceland. Christopher Nolan's 2014 film, Interstellar was also filmed in Iceland for some of its scenes.","Iceland\n\nOn 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, a resolution proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers, the strongest journalist protection law in the world. According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest ranked countries in press freedom.","Iceland\n\nCCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, is headquartered in Reykjavík. CCP Games hosts the third most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game.","Iceland\n\nIceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world. Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country 3rd in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010. In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to child pornography without compromising the freedom of speech.","Iceland\n\nCuisine","Iceland\n\nMuch of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no utilization of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes, and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr, hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding. Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.","Iceland\n\nBreakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as slátur, which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.","Iceland\n\nCoffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon. Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world. Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is Brennivín (literally \"burnt (i.e. distilled) wine\"), which is similar to Scandinavian akvavit. It is a type of vodka made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði (\"Black Death\").","Iceland\n\nSport","Iceland\n\nSport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.","Iceland\n\nPopular sports include association football, track and field, handball and basketball. Handball is often referred to as the national sport,Wilcox and Latif, p. 110 and Iceland's men's national team is ranked among the top 12 in the world. The Icelandic national football team qualified for the UEFA European football championship for the first time in 2016 and advanced to the quarter-final to play against France. They defeated England 2–1 in the round of 16. The Icelandic women's team also excel at football relative to the size of the country, with the national team ranked 15th by FIFA. In 2014 the Icelandic men's national basketball team qualified into the EuroBasket 2015 for the first time in the country history.","Iceland\n\nIceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless lots of golf courses throughout the island, and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000. Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club. Wilcox and Latif, p. 111 Iceland has also won the most competitions for World's Strongest Man, with eight titles shared evenly between Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson.","Iceland\n\nSwimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum. Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.","Iceland\n\nThe oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence. To this day, it remains a significant pastime.","Iceland\n\nIceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War. , there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population. Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in a number of international tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950."],"string":"[\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nThe Kingdom of Iceland (Icelandic: Konungsríkið Ísland; Danish: Kongeriget Island) was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a national referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its place.\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nOrigins of Danish rule\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nIceland had been under the control of the Crown of Denmark since 1380, although formally it had been a Norwegian possession until 1814. In 1874, one thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland home rule. The constitution, written the same year, was revised in 1903 and the extent of Iceland's home rule increased in 1904. A minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was made responsible to the Althing, the Icelandic parliament.\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nEstablishment of the Kingdom\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nOn 1 December 1918, the Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state in personal union with Denmark through a common monarch. The Kingdom of Iceland established its own flag and coat of arms and asked that Denmark represent its foreign affairs and defence interests. The Act would be reviewed in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement to continue it could not be reached.\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nWorld War II and the establishment of the Republic\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nThe German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940 severed communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on 10 April, the Althing passed two resolutions investing the Icelandic cabinet with the power of head of state and declaring that Iceland would accept full responsibility for both foreign policy and coastal surveillance. A year later, on 15 May 1941 the Althing adopted a law creating the position of regent for Sveinn Björnsson in order to represent the monarchy. During the first year of World War II, Iceland strictly enforced a position of neutrality and took action against both British and German forces that violated it. On 10 May 1940, Operation \\\"Fork\\\" was launched by the United Kingdom when military forces sailed into Reykjavík harbour and began an invasion of Iceland. The government of Iceland issued a protest against what it called a \\\"flagrant violation\\\" of Icelandic neutrality. On the day of the invasion, Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson read a radio announcement instructing Icelanders to treat the British troops as guests. The Allied occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war.\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nAt its peak, Britain had approximately 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in Reykjavík and other strategically important places. In July 1941, it coerced the Althing into accepting an American–Icelandic defence agreement, passing responsibility for Iceland's defence to the United States. As many as 40,000 American soldiers were then stationed on the island, outnumbering the native population of adult men. (Iceland's total native population during the war was approximately 120,000.)\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nFollowing a constitutional referendum in May 1944, Iceland formally became an independent republic on 17 June 1944. Many Danes felt offended at its timing, as Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The deposed king in Copenhagen, Christian X, nonetheless sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nFlags\",\n \"Kingdom of Iceland\\n\\nFile:Light Blue Flag of Iceland.svg|Flag of Iceland (1915–1944)[https://flagspot.net/flags/is-hist.html#1915 Iceland – Flag History] at Flags of the World. Retrieved on 18 March 2014.\\nFile:State flag of Iceland (1918–1944).svg|State Flag of Iceland (1915–1944)\\nFile:Royal Standard of the King of Iceland (1921–1944).svg|Royal Standard (1921–1944)[https://flagspot.net/flags/is-royal.html#royal Iceland – Royal Standard] at Flags of the World. Retrieved on 18 March 2014.\\nFile:Standard of the Regent of Iceland (1941–1944).svg|Standard of the Regent (1941–1944)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe recorded history of Iceland began with the settlement by Viking explorers and their slaves from the east, particularly Norway and the British Isles, in the late 9th century. Iceland was still uninhabited long after the rest of western Europe had been settled. Recorded settlement has conventionally been dated back to 874 AD, although archaeological evidence indicates Gaelic monks had settled Iceland before that date. The land was settled quickly, mainly by Norwegians who may have been fleeing conflict or seeking new land to farm. By 930, the chieftains had established a form of governance (Althing), making it one of the world's oldest parliaments. Towards the end of the tenth century Christianity came to Iceland through the influence of the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason. During this time Iceland remained independent, a period known as the Old Commonwealth and Icelandic historians began to document the nation's history in books referred to as Sagas (Icelandic for story or history). In the early thirteenth century internal conflict (Age of the Sturlungs) weakened Iceland which eventually became subjugated to Norway through the Old Covenant (1262–4), effectively ending the Commonwealth. Norway in turn was united with Sweden (1319) and then Denmark (1376).\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nEventually, all of the Nordic states were united in one alliance, the Kalmar Union (1397–1523), but on its dissolution Iceland fell under Danish rule. Denmark then imposed a strict trade monopoly in the 17th and 18th centuries, much to the detriment of the Icelandic economy. Iceland's subsequent poverty was aggravated by natural disasters. During this time the population declined.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland remained part of Denmark, but in keeping with the rise of nationalism around Europe in the nineteenth century an independence movement emerged. The Althing, which had been suspended in 1799, was restored in 1844, and Iceland gained sovereignty after World War I, on 1 December 1918. However Iceland shared the Danish Monarchy until World War II. Although Iceland was neutral, the allies occupied it without resistance because of its strategic situation. Since Denmark was under Nazi occupation, Iceland declared itself a republic, and the Republic of Iceland was founded on 17 June 1944 as a fully independent nation. Following the Second World War Iceland was a founding member of the United Nations and grew rapidly, largely due to fishing, although this was marred by conflicts with other nations (Cod Wars). Following rapid financial growth, the economy collapsed in 2008. Today Iceland still struggles with the aftermath of the financial crisis. Iceland has adopted currency barriers that are almost unique in the history of modern Europe . Now tourism accounts for the second largest source of revenue . Iceland continues to remain outside the European Union.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nBecause of its remoteness, Iceland has been spared the ravages of European wars, but has been affected by other external events, such as the Black Death and the Protestant Reformation imposed by Denmark. Iceland's history has also been marked by a number of natural disasters.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland is also a relatively young country in the geological sense, being formed about 20 million years ago by a series of volcanic eruptions in a mid-ocean ridge called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The oldest stone specimens found in Iceland date back to ca. 16 million years ago.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nGeological history\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn geological terms, Iceland is a young island. It started to form in the Miocene era about 20 million years ago from a series of volcanic eruptions on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where it lies between the North American and Eurasian plates. These plates spread at a rate of approximately 2.5 centimeters per year.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThis elevated portion of the ridge is known as the Reykjanes Ridge. The volcanic activity is attributed to a hotspot, the Iceland hotspot, which in turn lies over a mantle plume (the Iceland Plume) an anomalously hot rock in the Earth's mantle which is likely to be partly responsible for the island's creation and continued existence. For comparison, it is estimated that other volcanic islands, such as the Faroe Islands have existed for about 55 million years,\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nthe Azores (on the same ridge) about 8 million years,\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nand Hawaii less than a million years.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe younger rock strata in the southwest of Iceland and the central highlands are only about 700 thousand years old. The geological history of the earth is divided into ice ages, based on temperature and climate. The last glacial period, commonly referred to as The Ice Age is thought to have begun about 110 thousand years ago and ended about 10 thousand years ago. While covered in ice, Iceland's icefalls, fjords and valleys were formed.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nEarly history\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland remained, for a long time, one of the world's last larger islands uninhabited by humans (the others being New Zealand and Madagascar). It has been suggested that the land called Thule by the Greek merchant Pytheas (4th century BC) was actually Iceland, although it seems highly unlikely considering Pytheas' description of it as an agricultural country with plenty of milk, honey, and fruit (probably Norway, or possibly the Faroe or Shetland islands). The exact date that humans first reached the island is uncertain. Ancient Roman coins dating to the 3rd century have been found in Iceland, but it is unknown whether they were brought there at that time or came later with Viking settlers, having circulated as currency already for centuries.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThere is some literary evidence that monks and Papar from a Hiberno-Scottish mission may have settled in Iceland before the arrival of the Norse. The 12th-century scholar Ari Þorgilsson wrote in his book, Íslendingabók, that small bells, corresponding to those used by Irish monks, were found by the settlers. No such artifacts have been discovered by archaeologists, however. Some Icelanders claimed descent from Kjarvalr Írakonungr (a king in southeastern Ireland) at the time of the Landnámabók's creation.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nSettlement (874–930)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIrish monks\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nLandnámabók mentions the presence of Irish monks (the Papar) prior to Norse settlement, and states that the monks left behind Irish books, bells and crosiers, among other things. According to the same account, the Irish monks abandoned the country when the Norse arrived, or had left prior to their arrival.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAnother source mentioning the Papar is Íslendingabók, dating from between 1122 and 1133. According to this account, the previous inhabitants, a few Irish monks, known as the Papar, left the island since they did not want to live with pagan Norsemen. One theory suggests that those monks were members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission, i.e. Irish and Scottish monks who spread Christianity during the Middle Ages. They may also have been hermits.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nRecent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula (close to Keflavík Airport). Carbon dating reveals that the cabin was abandoned somewhere between 770 and 880, suggesting that Iceland was populated well before 874. This archaeological find may also indicate that the monks left Iceland before the Norse arrived.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nNorse discovery\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAccording to Landnámabók, Iceland was discovered by Naddoddr, one of the first settlers in the Faroe Islands, who was sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands, but lost his way and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddoddr named the country Snæland (Snowland). Swedish sailor Garðar Svavarsson also accidentally drifted to the coast of Iceland. He discovered that the country was an island and named it Garðarshólmi (literally Garðar's Islet) and stayed for the winter at Húsavík.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe first Scandinavian who deliberately sailed to Garðarshólmi (Iceland) was Flóki Vilgerðarson, also known as Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki). Flóki settled for one winter at Barðaströnd. After the incredibly cold winter passed, the summer came and the whole island became green, which stunned Flóki. Realizing that this place was in fact habitable, despite the horribly cold winter, and full of useful resources, Flóki restocked his boat. Flóki then continued his journey west when he came upon Greenland, which was relatively close to Iceland, but much more north-west and despite being around the time summer was occurring Greenland was still at freezing temperatures. He then left back east to Norway to bring back the resources and knowledge.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nFirst settler\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfr Arnarson and his wife Hallveig Fróðadóttir. According to Landnáma, he threw two carved pillars overboard as he neared land, vowing to settle wherever they landed. He then sailed along the coast until the pillars were found in the southwestern peninsula, now known as Reykjanesskagi. There he settled with his family around 874, in a place he named Reykjavík (Cove of Smoke) due to the geothermal steam rising from the earth.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThis very place would eventually become the capital and the largest city of modern Iceland. It is recognized, however, that Ingólfr Arnarson may not have been the first one to settle permanently in Iceland — that may have been Náttfari, one of Garðar Svavarsson's men who stayed behind when Garðar returned to Scandinavia.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nMuch of the above information comes from Landnámabók (Book of Settlement), written some three centuries after the settlement. Archeological findings in Reykjavík are consistent with the date given there: there was a settlement in Reykjavík around 870.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nSettlement\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIngólfr was followed by many more Norse chieftains, their families and slaves who settled all the inhabitable areas of the island in the next decades. These people were primarily of Norwegian, Irish and Scottish origin. Some of the Irish and Scots were slaves and servants of the Norse chiefs according to the Icelandic sagas and Landnámabók and other documents. Some settlers coming from the British Isles were \\\"Hiberno-Norse,\\\" with cultural and family connections both to the coastal and island areas of Ireland and/or Scotland and to Norway.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe traditional explanation for the exodus from Norway is that people were fleeing the harsh rule of the Norwegian king Haraldr Hárfagri (Harald the Fair-haired), whom medieval literary sources credit with the unification of some parts of modern Norway during this period. It is also believed that the western fjords of Norway were simply overcrowded in this period. The settlement of Iceland is thoroughly recorded in the aforementioned Landnámabók, although the book was compiled in the early 12th century when at least 200 years had passed from the age of settlement.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAri Þorgilsson's Íslendingabók is generally considered more reliable as a source and is probably somewhat older, but it is far less thorough. It does say that Iceland was fully settled within 60 years, which likely means that all arable land had been claimed by various settlers.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nCommonwealth (930–1262)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 930, the ruling chiefs established an assembly called the Alþingi (Althing). The parliament convened each summer at Þingvellir, where representative chieftains (Goðorðsmenn or Goðar) amended laws, settled disputes and appointed juries to judge lawsuits. Laws were not written down, but were instead memorized by an elected Lawspeaker (lǫgsǫgumaðr).\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe Alþingi is sometimes stated to be the world's oldest existing parliament. Importantly, there was no central executive power, and therefore laws were enforced only by the people. This gave rise to blood-feuds, which provided the writers of the Icelanders' sagas with plenty of material.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland enjoyed a mostly uninterrupted period of growth in its commonwealth years. Settlements from that era have been found in southwest Greenland and eastern Canada, and sagas such as Eiríks saga rauða and Grœnlendinga saga speak of the settlers' exploits.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nChristianisation\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe settlers of Iceland were predominantly pagans and worshipped the Norse gods, among them Odin, Thor, Freyr and Freyja. By the 10th century political pressure from Europe to convert to Christianity mounted. As the end of the 1st millennium grew near, many prominent Icelanders had accepted the new faith.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn the year 1000, as a civil war between the religious groups seemed likely, the Alþing appointed one of the chieftains, Þorgeirr Ljósvetningagoði, to decide the issue of religion by arbitration. He decided that the country should convert to Christianity as a whole, but that pagans would be allowed to worship privately.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe first Icelandic bishop, Ísleifr Gizurarson, was consecrated by bishop Adalbert of Bremen in 1056.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nCivil war and the end of the commonwealth\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nDuring the 11th and 12th centuries, the centralization of power had worn down the institutions of the Commonwealth, as the former, notable independence of local farmers and chieftains gave way to the growing power of a handful of families and their leaders. The period from around 1200 to 1262 is generally known as Age of the Sturlungs. This refers to Sturla Þórðarson and his sons Þórður, Sighvatur, and Snorri, who were one of two main clans fighting for power over Iceland, causing havoc in a land inhabited almost entirely by farmers who could ill-afford to travel far from their farms, across the island to fight for their leaders.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 1220, Snorri Sturluson became a vassal of Haakon IV of Norway; his nephew Sturla Sighvatsson also became a vassal in 1235. Sturla used the power and influence of the Sturlungar family to wage war against the other clans in Iceland. After decades of conflict, the Icelandic chieftains agreed to accept the sovereignty of Norway and signed the Old Covenant (Gamli sáttmáli) establishing a union with the Norwegian monarchy.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland under Norwegian and Danish kings (1262–1944)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nNorwegian rule\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nLittle changed in the decades following the treaty. Norway's consolidation of power in Iceland was slow, and the Althing intended to hold onto its legislative and judicial power. Nonetheless, the Christian clergy had unique opportunities to accumulate wealth via the tithe, and power gradually shifted to ecclesiastical authorities as Iceland's two bishops in Skálholt and Hólar acquired land at the expense of the old chieftains.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAround the time Iceland became a vassal state of Norway, a climate shift occurred—a phenomenon now called the Little Ice Age. Areas near the Arctic Circle such as Iceland and Greenland began to have shorter growing seasons and colder winters. Since Iceland had marginal farmland in good times, the climate change resulted in hardship for the population. A serfdom-like institution called the vistarband developed, in which peasants were bound to landowners for a year at a time.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIt became more difficult to raise barley, the primary cereal crop, and livestock required additional fodder to survive longer and colder winters. Icelanders began to trade for grain from continental Europe — an expensive proposition. Church fast days increased demand for dried codfish, which was easily caught and prepared for export, and the cod trade became an important part of the economy.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nDanish rule\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland remained under Norwegian kingship until 1380, when the death of Olav IV extinguished the Norwegian male royal line. Norway (and thus Iceland) then became part of the Kalmar Union, along with Sweden and Denmark, with Denmark as the dominant power. Unlike Norway, Denmark did not need Iceland's fish and homespun wool. This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland's trade, and as a result, no new ships for continental trading were built. The small Greenland colony, established in the late 10th century, died out completely before 1500.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWith the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark–Norway in 1660 under Frederick III, the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown, including the right to initiate and consent to legislation. Denmark, however, did not provide much protection to Iceland, which was raided in 1627 by a Barbary pirate fleet that abducted almost 300 Icelanders into slavery, in an episode known as the Turkish Abductions.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nReformation and Danish trade monopoly\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nBy the middle of the 16th century, Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on his subjects. Jón Arason and Ögmundur Pálsson, the Catholic bishops of Skálholt and Hólar respectively, opposed Christian's efforts at promoting the Protestant Reformation in Iceland. Ögmundur was deported by Danish officials in 1541, but Jón Arason put up a fight.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nOpposition to the reformation ended in 1550 when Jón Arason was captured after being defeated in the Battle of Sauðafell by loyalist forces under the leadership of Daði Guðmundsson. Jón Arason and his two sons were subsequently beheaded in Skálholt. Following this, the Icelanders became Lutherans and remain largely so to this day.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 1602, Iceland was forbidden to trade with countries other than Denmark, by order of the Danish government, which at this time pursued mercantilist policies. The Danish trade monopoly would remain in effect until 1786.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe eruption of Laki\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn the 18th century, climatic conditions in Iceland reached an all-time low since the original settlement. On top of this, the Laki volcano in Iceland erupted in 1783, spitting out three cubic miles (12.5 km³) of lava. Floods, ash, and fumes wiped out 9,000 people and 80 percent of the livestock. The ensuing starvation killed a quarter of Iceland's population. This period is known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin).\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWhen the two kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were separated by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark kept Iceland as a dependency.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIndependence movement\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThroughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow worse, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly Manitoba in Canada. However, a new national consciousness was revived in Iceland, inspired by romantic nationalist ideas from continental Europe. This revival was spearheaded by the Fjölnismenn, a group of Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAn independence movement developed under the leadership of a lawyer named Jón Sigurðsson. In 1843 a new Althing was founded as a consultative assembly. It claimed continuity with the Althing of the Icelandic Commonwealth, which had remained for centuries as a judicial body and been abolished in 1800.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nHome rule and sovereignty\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 1874, a thousand years after the first acknowledged settlement, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and home rule, which again was expanded in 1904. The constitution was revised in 1903, and a minister for Icelandic affairs, residing in Reykjavík, was made responsible to the Althing, the first of whom was Hannes Hafstein.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe Act of Union, a December 1, 1918, agreement with Denmark, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign state — the Kingdom of Iceland – joined with Denmark in a personal union with the Danish king. Iceland established its own flag. Denmark was to represent its foreign affairs and defense interests. Iceland had no military or naval forces and Denmark was to give notice to other countries that it was permanently neutral. The Act would be up for revision in 1940 and could be revoked three years later if agreement was not reached. By the 1930s the consensus in Iceland was to seek complete independence by 1944 at the latest.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWorld War I\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn the quarter of a century preceding the War, Iceland prospered. Iceland became more isolated during WWI and suffered a significant decline in living standards. The treasury became highly indebted, there was a shortage of food and fears over an imminent famine.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland was part of neutral Denmark during the War. Icelanders were in general sympathetic to the cause of the Allies. Iceland also traded significantly with the United Kingdom during the War, as Iceland found itself within its sphere of influence. In their attempts to stop the Icelanders from trading with the Germans indirectly, the British imposed time-consuming and costly constraints on Icelandic exports going to the Nordic countries. There is no evidence of any German plans to invade Iceland during the war.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\n1.245 Icelanders, Icelandic Americans and Icelandic Canadians were registered as soldiers during World War I. 989 fought for Canada whereas 256 fought for the United States. 391 of the combatants were born in Iceland, the rest were of Icelandic descent. 10 women of Icelandic descent and 4 women born on Iceland served as nurses during WWI. At least 144 of the combatants died during WWI (96 in combat, 19 from wounds suffered during combat, 2 from accidents, and 27 from disease), 61 of them were born on Iceland. Ten men were taken as prisoners of war by the Germans.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe War had a lasting impact on Icelandic society and Iceland's external relations. This includes the major government interference in the marketplace that would last until the post-WWII period. Iceland's competent governance of internal affairs and relations with other states while relations with Denmark were interrupted during the War showed that Iceland was capable of acquiring further powers, which resulted in Denmark recognizing Iceland as a fully sovereign state in 1918. It has been argued that the thirst for news of the War helped Morgunblaðið to gain a dominant position among Icelandic newspapers.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe Great Depression\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIcelandic post-WWI prosperity came to an end with the outbreak of the Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic depression. The Depression hit Iceland hard as the value of exports of plummeted. The total value of Icelandic exports fell from 74 million kronur in 1929 to 48 million in 1932, and was not to rise again to the pre-1930 level until after 1939. Government interference in the economy increased: \\\"Imports were regulated, trade with foreign currency was monopolized by state-owned banks, and loan capital was largely distributed by state-regulated funds\\\". Due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, which cut Iceland's exports of saltfish by half, the Depression lasted in Iceland until the outbreak of WWII when prices for fish exports soared.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWorld War II\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWith war looming in spring 1939, Iceland realized its exposed position would be very dangerous in wartime. An all-party government was formed and Lufthansa's request for civilian airplane landing rights was rejected. German ships were all about, however, until the British blockade of Germany stopped that when the war began in September. Iceland demanded Britain allow it to trade with Germany, to no avail.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany began on April 9, 1940, severing communications between Iceland and Denmark. As a result, on April 10, the Parliament of Iceland took temporary control of foreign affairs, electing a provisional governor, Sveinn Björnsson, who later became the republic's first president. It turned down British offers of protection because that would violate neutrality. Britain and the U.S. opened direct diplomatic relations, as did Sweden and Norway. The German takeover of Norway left Iceland highly exposed; Britain decided it could not risk a German takeover.\\nOn May 10, 1940, British military forces began an invasion of Iceland when they sailed into Reykjavík harbour in Operation Fork.\\nThere was no resistance, but the government protested against what it called a \\\"flagrant violation\\\" of Icelandic neutrality and Prime Minister Hermann Jónasson called on Icelanders to treat the British troops with the politeness as if they were guests. They behaved accordingly and there were no mishaps. The occupation of Iceland would last throughout the war.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAt the peak, the British had 25,000 troops stationed in Iceland, all but eliminating unemployment in the Reykjavík area and other strategically important places. In July 1941, responsibility for Iceland's occupation and defence passed to the United States under a U.S.-Icelandic agreement which included a provision that the U.S. recognize Iceland's absolute independence. The British were replaced by up to 40,000 Americans, who outnumbered all adult Icelandic men. (At the time, Iceland had a population of around 120,000.)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nApproximately 159 Icelanders' lives have been confirmed to have been lost in World War II hostilities. Most were killed on cargo and fishing vessels sunk by German aircraft, U-boats or mines. An additional 70 Icelanders died at sea during WWII but it has not been confirmed yet whether they lost their lives due to hostilities.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nRepublic of Iceland (1944–)\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nFounding of the republic\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nOn 31 December 1943, the Act of Union agreement expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with the King of Denmark and establish a republic. The vote was 97% in favour of ending the union and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland became an independent republic on June 17, 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first President. Denmark was still occupied by Germany. The Danish king, Christian X sent a message of congratulations to the Icelandic people.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland had prospered during the course of the war, amassing considerable currency reserves in foreign banks. In addition to this, the country received the most Marshall Aid per capita of any European country in the immediate postwar years (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109).\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe new republican government, led by an unlikely three-party majority cabinet made up of conservatives (the Independence Party, Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn), social democrats (the Social Democratic Party, Alþýðuflokkurinn), and socialists (People's Unity Party – Socialist Party, Sósíalistaflokkurinn), decided to put the funds into a general renovation of the fishing fleet, the building of fish processing facilities, the construction of a cement and fertilizer factory, and a general modernization of agriculture. These actions were aimed at keeping Icelanders' standard of living as high as it had become during the prosperous war years.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe government's fiscal policy was strictly Keynesian, and their aim was to create the necessary industrial infrastructure for a prosperous developed country. It was considered essential to keep unemployment down to an absolute minimum and to protect the export fishing industry through currency manipulation and other means. Due to the country's dependence both on unreliable fish catches and foreign demand for fish products, Iceland's economy remained very unstable well into the 1990s, when the country's economy was greatly diversified.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nNATO membership and the Cold War\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn October 1946, the Icelandic and United States' governments agreed to terminate U.S. responsibility for the defense of Iceland, but the United States retained certain rights at Keflavík, such as the right to re-establish a military presence there, should war threaten.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIceland became a charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on March 30, 1949, with the reservation that it would never take part in offensive action against another nation. The membership came amid an anti-NATO riot in Iceland. After the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, and pursuant to the request of NATO military authorities, the United States and Alþingi agreed that the United States should again take responsibility for Iceland's defense.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThis agreement, signed on May 5, 1951, was the authority for the controversial U.S. military presence in Iceland, which remained until 2006. The US base served as a hub for transports and communications to Europe, a key chain in the GIUK gap, a monitor of Soviet submarine activity, a linchpin in the early warning system for incoming Soviet attacks and interceptor of Soviet reconnaissance bombers.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nAlthough U.S. forces no longer maintain a military presence in Iceland, the U.S. still assumes responsibility over the country's defense through NATO. Iceland has retained strong ties to the other Nordic countries. As a consequence Norway, Denmark, Germany and other European nations have increased their defense and rescue cooperation with Iceland since the withdrawal of U.S. forces.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nCod Wars\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe Cod Wars were a series of militarized interstate disputes between Iceland and the United Kingdom from the 1950s to the mid-1970s. The Proto Cod War (1952-1956) revolved around Iceland's extension of its fishery limits from 3 to 4 nautical miles. The First Cod War (1958-1961) was fought over Iceland's extension from 4 to 12 nautical miles (7 to 22 km). The Second Cod War (1972-1973) occurred when Iceland extended the limits to 50 miles (93 km). The Third Cod War (1975-1976) was fought over Iceland's extension of its fishery limits to 200 miles (370 km). Icelandic patrolships and British trawlers clashed in all four Cod Wars. The Royal Navy was sent to the contested waters in the last three Cod Wars, leading to highly publicized clashes.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nDuring these disputes, Iceland threatened closure of the U.S.-manned NATO base at Keflavík, and the withdrawal of its NATO membership. Due to Iceland's strategic importance during the Cold War, it was important for the US and NATO to maintain the base on Icelandic soil and to keep Iceland as a member of NATO. While the Icelandic government did go through on its threat to break off diplomatic relations with the UK during the Third Cod War, it never went through on its threats to close the US base to withdraw from NATO.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIt is rare for militarized interstate disputes of this magnitude and intensity to occur between two democracies with as close economic, cultural and institutional ties as Iceland and the UK.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nEEA membership and economic reform\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 1991, the Independence Party, led by Davíð Oddsson, formed a coalition government with the Social Democrats. This government set in motion market liberalisation policies, privatising a number of state-owned companies. Iceland then became a member of the European Economic Area in 1994. Economic stability increased and previously chronic inflation was drastically reduced.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn 1995, the Independence Party formed a coalition government with the Progressive Party. This government continued with free market policies, privatising two commercial banks and the state-owned telecom Landssíminn.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nCorporate income tax was reduced to 18% (from around 50% at the beginning of the decade), inheritance tax was greatly reduced and the net wealth tax was abolished. A system of individual transferable quotas in the Icelandic fisheries, first introduced in the late 1970s, was further developed.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe coalition government remained in power through elections in 1999 and 2003. In 2004, Davíð Oddsson stepped down as Prime Minister after 13 years in office. Halldór Ásgrímsson, leader of the Progressive Party, took over as Prime Minister from 2004 to 2006, followed by Geir H. Haarde, Davíð Oddsson’s successor as leader of the Independence Party.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nFollowing a recession in the early 1990s, economic growth was considerable, averaging about 4% per year from 1994. The governments of the 1990s and 2000s adhered to a staunch but domestically controversial pro-U.S. foreign policy, lending nominal support to the NATO action in the Kosovo War and signing up as a member of the Coalition of the willing during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn March 2006, the United States announced that it intended to withdraw the greater part of the Icelandic Defence Force. On 12 August 2006, the last four F-15s left Icelandic airspace. The United States closed the Keflavík Air Base in September 2006.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nFollowing elections in May 2007, the Independence Party headed by Geir H. Haarde remained in government, albeit in a new coalition with the Social Democratic Alliance.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nFinancial crisis\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn October 2008, the Icelandic banking system collapsed, prompting Iceland to seek large loans from the International Monetary Fund and friendly countries. Widespread protests in late 2008 and early 2009 resulted in the resignation of the government of Geir Haarde, which was replaced on 1 February 2009 by a coalition government led by the Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement. Social Democrat minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir was appointed Prime Minister, becoming the world's first openly homosexual head of government of the modern era. Elections took place in April 2009 and a continuing coalition government consisting of the Social Democrats and the Left-Green Movement was established in early May 2009.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThe crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilized under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and grew by 1.6% in 2012 but many Icelanders remained unhappy with the state of the economy and government austerity policies; the centre-right Independence Party was returned to power, in coalition with the Progressive Party, in the 2013 elections.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nHistoriography\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nDivision of history into named periods\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nWhile it is convenient to divide history into named periods, it is also misleading because the course of human events neither starts or ends abruptly in most cases, and movements and influences often overlap. One period, as Gunnar Karlsson describes, can be considered the period from 930 CE to 1262–4 when there was no central government or leader, political power being characterised by chieftains (\\\"goðar\\\"). This period is referred to therefore as the þjóðveldisöld or goðaveldisöld (National or Chieftain State) period by Icelandic authors, and the Old Commonwealth or Freestate by English ones.\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nThere is little consensus on how to divide Icelandic history. Gunnar's own book A Brief History of Iceland (2010) has 33 chapters with considerable overlap in dates. Jón J. Aðils' 1915 text, Íslandssaga (A History of Iceland) uses ten periods:\\n*Landnámsöld (Settlement Age) c. 870–930\\n*Söguöld (Saga Age) 930–1030\\n*Íslenska kirkjan í elstu tíð (The early Icelandic church) 1030–1152\\n*Sturlungaöld (Sturlung Age) 1152–1262\\n*Ísland undir stjórn Noregskonunga og uppgangur kennimanna (Norwegian royal rule and the rise of the clergy) 1262–1400\\n*Kirkjuvald (Ecclesiastical power) 1400–1550\\n*Konungsvald (Royal authority) 1550–1683\\n*Einveldi og einokun (Absolutism and monopoly trading) 1683–1800\\n*Viðreisnarbarátta (Campaign for restoration) [of past glories] 1801–1874\\n*Framsókn (Progress) 1875–1915\",\n \"History of Iceland\\n\\nIn another of Gunnar's books, Iceland's 1100 Years (2000), Icelandic history is divided into four periods:\\n*Colonisation and Commonwealth c. 870–1262\\n*Under foreign rule 1262 – c. 1800\\n*A primitive society builds a state 1809–1918\\n*The great 20th-century transformation\\nbased mainly on forms of government, except for the last which reflects mechanisation of the fishing industry.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland (; ), also called the Republic of Iceland,While sometimes referred to as the \\\"Republic of Iceland\\\" ([http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland] [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/26th-gegn-docs/WP/WP54_UNGEGN%20WG%20Country%20Names%20Document%202011.pdf]) and sometimes its counterpart Lýðveldið Ísland in Icelandic, the official name of the country is simply Iceland. [http://translate.google.com/translate?jsn&prev\\n_t&hlid&ie\\nUTF-8&layout2&eotf\\n1&slis&tl\\nen&uhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.visindavefur.is%2Fsvar.php%3Fid%3D54970&act\\nurl][http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id54970] One example of the former is the name of the Constitution of Iceland, which in Icelandic is Stjórnarskrá lýðveldisins Íslands and literally means \\\"the Constitution of the republic of Iceland\\\", but note that \\\"republic\\\" is not capitalized. The official title of the President of Iceland (Forseti Íslands) does also not include the word republic as in some other republics. See Names for Iceland. is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. It has a population of and an area of , making it the most sparsely populated country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the surrounding areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year AD 874 when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, mainly Norwegians and to a smaller extent other Scandinavians settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1814, Iceland was ruled by Norway and afterwards by Denmark. Until the 20th century, the country relied largely on fishing and agriculture. Iceland became independent in 1918 and a republic in 1944. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world. In 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which supported diversification into economic and financial services.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality. In 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations' Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy. Affected by the ongoing worldwide financial crisis, the nation's entire banking system systemically failed in October 2008, leading to a severe depression, substantial political unrest, the Icesave dispute, and the institution of capital controls. Many bankers were jailed and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelandic culture is founded upon the nation's Scandinavian heritage. Most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic (Celtic) settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is closely related to Faroese and West Norwegian dialects. The country's cultural heritage includes traditional Icelandic cuisine, Icelandic literature and medieval sagas. Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, its lightly armed coast guard being in charge of defence.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSettlement and Commonwealth 874–1262\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók, Celtic monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission. Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula. Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSwedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed over winter and built a house in Húsavík. Garðar departed the following summer but one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík and he and his slaves became the first permanent residents of Iceland.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in the year 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish. By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing, a legislative and judicial assembly, was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth. Lack of arable land also served impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time, about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among some segments of the population for some years afterwards.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe Middle Ages\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century, when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Norwegian Empire to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn the ensuing centuries, Iceland became one of the poorest countries in Europe. Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nReformation and the Early Modern period\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAround the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar, was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruption and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. Pirates from several countries, including the Barbary Coast, raided its coastal settlements and abducted people into slavery. A great smallpox epidemic in the 18th century killed around a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (Icelandic: Móðuharðindin), over half of all livestock died in the country. Around a quarter of the population died in the ensuing famine.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIndependence movement 1814–1918\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly to the region of Gimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland. About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nA national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nKingdom of Iceland 1918–1944\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark handle Icelandic foreign policy. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nDuring World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of foreign affairs and other matters previously handled by Denmark. A month later, British armed forces invaded and occupied the country, violating Icelandic neutrality. In 1941, the occupation was taken over by the United States so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIndependent republic 1944–present\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn 1946, the Allied occupation force left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force, and remained throughout the Cold War. The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland had prospered during the war. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by industrialisation of the fishing industry and the US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at USD 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at USD 109).\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars — several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 miles offshore. Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps toward nuclear disarmament. A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy oriented toward humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001, when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise massive amounts of external debt, contributing to a 32% increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEconomic boom and crisis\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn the years 2003–2007, following the privatization of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved toward having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world but was hit hard by a major financial crisis. The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, and grew by 1.6% in 2012. Many Icelanders, however, have remained unhappy with the state of the economy and government austerity policies. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 elections.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63° and 68° N, and longitudes 25° and 13° W.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America; thus, the island is generally included in Europe for historical, political, cultural, and practical reasons. Geologically the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest body of land is Greenland (). The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (); Jan Mayen Island (); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about ; and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about . The mainland of Norway is about away.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is the world's 18th largest island, and Europe's second largest island after Great Britain. The main island is , but the entire country is in size, of which 62.7% is tundra. There are thirty minor islands in Iceland, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: and Þingvallavatn: ; other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn. Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at .\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nGeologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new oceanic crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMany fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-kilometre (3,088-mile) long coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains and lava fields. The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park. The country is considered a \\\"strong performer\\\" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland satellite.jpg | Iceland, as seen from space on 29 January 2004\\nIceland2008-Sudureyri.JPG | Suðureyri\\nNorðfjörður .JPG | Norðfjörður\\nEyjafjallajokull-April-17.JPG | The eruption of Eyjafjallajökull\\nISLANDIA.jpg | South of Iceland, off the Ring Road, looking north, late afternoon in winter 2001\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nA geologically young land, Iceland is located on both the Iceland hotspot and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs right through it. This location means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes, notably Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið and Eldfell. The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterward, and affected climates in other areas.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nWith the widespread availability of geothermal power, and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with approx. 30 volcanic systems active.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSurtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes. Additional eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes. The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAnother large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011. This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull. Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes, and this eruption was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity, with ash and lava hurled into the atmosphere creating a large cloud.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe climate of Iceland's coast is subpolar oceanic. The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the most arid. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than the south.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe highest air temperature recorded was on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are on 30 July 2008, and on 21 January 1918.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nBiodiversity\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThere are around 1,300 known species of insects in Iceland, which is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. Polar bears occasionally come over from Greenland, but they are just visitors, and no Icelandic populations exist. There are no native or free-living reptiles or amphibians on the island.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nPhytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. Approximately three quarters of the island are barren of vegetation; plant life consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch (Betula pubescens), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens (Populus tremula), rowans (Sorbus aucuparia), common junipers (Juniperus communis) and other smaller trees, mainly willows.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nWhen the island was first settled, it was extensively forested. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as \\\"forested from mountain to sea shore\\\". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion. Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres are affected by soil erosion, 18000 km2 so seriously as to be useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species. The tallest tree in Iceland is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at in 2013.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, chickens, goats, the sturdy Icelandic horse, and the Icelandic Sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits and reindeer. Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling on icebergs from Greenland. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for approximately half of the country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCommercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has a left–right multi-party system. Following the 2013 parliamentary election, the biggest parties are the centre-right Independence Party (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn) and the Progressive Party (Framsóknarflokkurinn). Other political parties with seats in the Althing are the centre-left Social Democratic Alliance (Samfylkingin), Left-Green Movement (Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð), Bright Future (Björt framtíð), and the Pirate Party of Iceland (Píratar). Many other parties exist on the municipal level, most of which run only locally in a single municipality.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women. Known as the Women's List or Women's Alliance (Kvennalistinn), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. After participating in its first parliamentary elections, the Women's List helped increase the proportion of female parliamentarians by 15%. Although it disbanded in 1999, merging with the Social Democratic Alliance, it left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women, and in 2009 nearly a third of members of parliament were female, compared to the global average of 16%.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn 2011 Iceland was ranked 2nd in the strength of its democratic institutions and 13th in government transparency. The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%. However, only 50% of Icelanders say they trust their political institutions, slightly less than the OECD average of 56% (and most probably a consequence of the political scandals in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis).[http://oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/iceland/ Iceland – OECD Better Life Index]. Oecdbetterlifeindex.org. Retrieved 28 April 2012.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic. The modern parliament, Alþingi (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and suspended in 1799. Consequently, \\\"it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy.\\\" It currently has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years. The president is elected by popular vote for a term of four years, with no term limit. The elections for president, the Althing and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum. The current president is Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing; however, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed, under the condition that it has a majority support in the Althing. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves within a reasonable time span does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet personally. This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 regent Sveinn Björnsson, who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941, appointed a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Sveinn would later become the country's first president in 1944.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. The extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president is disputed by legal scholars, in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest differently. In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is divided into regions, constituencies and municipalities. There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division. Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:\\n* Reykjavík North and Reykjavík South (city regions);\\n* Southwest (four non-contiguous suburban areas around Reykjavík);\\n* Northwest and Northeast (northern half of Iceland, split); and,\\n* South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe redistricting change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThere are 74 municipalities in Iceland which govern local matters like schools, transport and zoning. These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nRegions of Iceland.png|Regions of Iceland\\nConstituencies Iceland.png|Constituencies of Iceland\\nSveitarfélög-landsvæði.png|Municipalities of Iceland\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe and OECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic and linguistic similarities, Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009 the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of application for EU membership and officially applied on 17 July 2009. However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following recent elections the two parties that formed the island's new government – the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party – announced they would hold a referendum on EU membership.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has no standing army. The U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Keflavík base, until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006. Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission. Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit. Iceland has also participated in the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders remain especially proud of their role in hosting the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over fishing rights. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from , 1958–1961 following a further extension to , 1972–1973 with another extension to ; and in 1975–1976 another extension to .\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to the Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate, and high level of socio-political stability.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn 2007, Iceland was the seventh most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112). About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. Utilization of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita. As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2014 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.\\nHistorically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nUntil the 20th century, Iceland was among the poorest countries in Western Europe. Currently, it remains one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth had led Iceland to be ranked first in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2007/2008, although in 2011 its HDI rating had fallen to 14th place as a result of the economic crisis. Nevertheless, according to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland has the 2nd highest quality of life in the world. Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking climbs to 5th place. Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012, compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMany political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries). The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK). Nearly 70% of Icelanders have favoured the adoption of the Canadian dollar (CAD) - more than any other currency in the world.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nA poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed. Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%. Despite the decision to resume commercial whale hunting in 2006, the tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population. Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton and dairy products. The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world. , it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015. According to INSEAD's Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 11th most innovative country in the world. Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75%, and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not including the many deductions that are available. The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world. There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006. Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world. Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management. Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nDespite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD Economic Survey of Iceland 2008 had highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy. There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy. The latest assessment by the OECD determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy in order to address inflation. Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and is the 31th highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEconomic contraction\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland had been hit especially hard by the Great Recession that began in December 2007, because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion). In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the Financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks. Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks will be run into bankruptcy.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2010, it was 7%), a move which was forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund (IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with valuation at around 250 ISK per Euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to the public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThousands of Icelanders have moved from the country after the collapse, and many of those moved to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625. In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament‘s Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis. By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to Bloomberg, Iceland is on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has a high level of car ownership per capita; with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport. Iceland has of administered roads, of which are paved and are not. A great number of roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads. The road speed limits are in towns, on gravel country roads and on hard-surfaced roads. Iceland currently has no railways.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nRoute 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic: Þjóðvegur 1 or Hringvegur), was completed in 1974, and is a main road that runs around Iceland and connects all the inhabited parts of the island, with the interior of the island being uninhabited. This paved road is long with one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel (also the site of a toll) where it has more lanes. Many bridges on it, especially in the north and east, are single lane and made of timber and/or steel.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe main hub for international transport is Keflavík International Airport, which serves Reykjavík and the country in general. It is to the west of Reykjavík. Domestic flights, flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and business flights operate mostly out of Reykjavík Airport, which lies in the city centre. Most general aviation traffic is also in Reykjavík. There are 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas. The biggest airport in Iceland is Keflavík International Airport and the biggest airfield is Geitamelur, a four-runway field around east of Reykjavík, dedicated exclusively to gliding. There are a number of international airlines that fly to and from Iceland regularly.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEnergy\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nRenewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders emit 6.29 tonnes of CO2 in 2009 equivalent of greenhouse gases per capita. Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells. It is also one of a few countries currently capable of producing hydrogen in adequate quantities at a reasonable cost, because of Iceland's plentiful renewable sources of energy.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area. Two exploration licenses have been awarded.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\n, the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a high-voltage direct-current connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Such a cable would give Iceland access to a market where electricity prices have generally been much higher than those in Iceland. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not enough demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEducation and science\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities. The government does allow citizens to Home educate their children, however under a very strict set of demands. Students must adhere closely to the government mandated curriculum, and the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching certificate.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nNursery school, or leikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years, and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCompulsory education, or grunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nUpper secondary education, or framhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known as gymnasia in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAn OECD assessment found 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%. Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered to be of excellent quality: the Programme for International Student Assessment currently ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average. Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to be reached by 2020. A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (100 million US dollars or more), Iceland ranked 9th by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the UK, and Canada.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Gaelic origin. This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were indeed Norwegian Viking warriors who brought Gaelic slaves with them.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database which attempts to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, called Íslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times. There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000. Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table on the left).\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship. Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin, and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce. About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant. The recent increase in immigration has been credited to a labour shortage due to the booming economy at the time, as well as to the lifting of restrictions on the movement of people from the countries that were a part of the 2004 enlargement of the European Union. Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe southwest corner of Iceland is the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. The largest towns outside the Greater Reykjavík area are Akureyri and Reykjanesbær, although the latter is relatively close to the capital.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSome 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red colonised Greenland among the existing paleo-Eskimo inhabitants in the late 10th century. The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000 and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500. People from Greenland attempted to set up a colony at Vinland in North America, but it was abandoned in the face of hostility from the indigenous residents. Emigration to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. , Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nUrbanisation\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland's 10 most populous urban areas:\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the National Curriculum Guide.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEnglish and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum. Both languages are widely understood and spoken. Other commonly spoken languages are Swedish, Norwegian, German and French. Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the biggest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as skandinavíska (i. e. Scandinavian) in Iceland.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nRather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practiced. Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother. These follow the person's given name, e.g. Elísabet Jónsdóttir (\\\"Elísabet, Jón's daughter\\\" (Jón, being the father)) or Ólafur Katrínarson (\\\"Ólafur, Katrín's son\\\" (Katrín being the mother)). Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory is listed alphabetically by first name rather than by surname. All new names must be decided upon by the Icelandic Naming Committee.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare () and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nA considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care, and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP and 14th in spending per capita. Over all, the country’s health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization. According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations. , Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).[http://www.webcitation.org/67HObnj6m OECD Health Data 2011]. oecd.org\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders are among the world’s healthiest people, with 81% reporting to be in good health, according to an OECD survey. Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries, infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average. The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the 4th highest in the world.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAdditionally, Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens. According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic material in the atmosphere is far lower than any other industrialised country measured.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders have freedom of religion under the Constitution of Iceland, though the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church. The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2015, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:\\n*73.8% members of the Church of Iceland.\\n*11.7% members of some other Christian denomination.\\n*7.1% other and not specified\\n*5.6% unaffiliated\\n*1.5% members of non-Christian denomination.\\n*0.3% members of the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is a very secular country: as with other Nordic nations, religious attendance is relatively low. The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population of Iceland. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic. A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves \\\"a religious person\\\", 31% considered themselves \\\"a non religious person\\\", while 10% defined themselves as \\\"a convinced atheist\\\", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the world.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions. Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Scandinavian languages.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders found independence to be \\\"very important,\\\" compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25. Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAccording to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% of people in Iceland reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD. A more recent 2012 survey found that around three quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is liberal with regard to LGBT rights issues. In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage. In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting and assisted insemination treatment. On 11 June 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage. The law took effect on 27 June 2010. The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders are known for their deep sense of community: an OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country. Similarly, only 6% reported \\\"rarely\\\" or \\\"never\\\" socializing with others. This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nEgalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world. The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.Wilcox and Latif, pp. 60–61. Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement. The most famous of these include Njáls saga, about an epic blood feud, and Grænlendinga saga and Eiríks saga, describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland). Egils saga, Laxdæla saga, Grettis saga, Gísla saga and Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nA translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions since the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and rímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century, rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential, National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson. In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far). Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation. Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nContemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment. Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn the recent years artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large scale projects and exhibitions. The artist run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions and projects. The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThorarinn thingvellir.jpg|Þingvellir by Þórarinn B. Þorláksson\\nThorfinn Karlsefni 1918.jpg|Statue of Thorfinn Karlsefni by Icelandic sculptor Einar Jónsson in Philadelphia\\nLaxness portrett einar hakonarson 1984.jpg|The writer Halldór Laxness by Einar Hákonarson, 1984\\nGrassodenhäuser.jpg|Traditional Icelandic turf houses. Until the 20th century, the vast majority of Icelanders lived in rural areas\\nAkureyri Menntaskoli.jpg|The old building (Gamli Skóli) of the Menntaskóli, i.e. High School precinct in Akureyri\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMuch Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock bands The Sugarcubes and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, musicians Björk and Emilíana Torrini, and post-rock band Sigur Rós. The national anthem of Iceland is Lofsöngur, written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nTraditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century, when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called rímur. Rímur are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes. The best known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of Iðunn.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIcelandic contemporary music consists of a big group of bands, ranging from pop-rock groups such as Bang Gang, Quarashi and Amiina to solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, Megas and Björgvin Halldórsson. Independent music is very strong in Iceland, with bands such as múm, The Sugarcubes, HAM, Of Monsters and Men, Sigur Rós, Sóley and Viking metal band Skálmöld, as well as solo artists Emilíana Torrini and Mugison.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSome Icelandic jazz musicians and jazz bands have earned a reputation outside Iceland. Perhaps best known is the jazz fusion band Mezzoforte and Los Angeles-based jazz vocalist Anna Mjöll. Many Icelandic artists and bands have enjoyed international success, most notably Björk and Sigur Rós but also Quarashi, Hera, Ampop, Mínus and múm. The main music festival is arguably Iceland Airwaves, an annual event on the Icelandic music scene, where Icelandic bands along with foreign ones play in the clubs of Reykjavík for a week. Electronic musicians include ones such as Thor and GusGus.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nAmong Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir (Anna Thorvaldsdottir), who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honor that includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn. Smaller stations exist, many of them local. Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including some parts of the interior. The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957. The daily newspapers are Morgunblaðið and Fréttablaðið. The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland is home to LazyTown (Icelandic: Latibær), a children's television programme created by Magnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the UK, the Americas and Sweden. The LazyTown studios are located in Garðabær. The 2015 television crime series Trapped aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according to the Guardian \\\"the unlikeliest TV hit of the year\\\".\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIn 1992 the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his film, Children of Nature. Actress Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's 1986 film, The Sacrifice. Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's The Tudors, is also Icelandic. Briem starred in the 2008 film Journey to the Center of the Earth, which shot scenes in Iceland. The 2002 James Bond movie Die Another Day is set for a large-part in Iceland. Christopher Nolan's 2014 film, Interstellar was also filmed in Iceland for some of its scenes.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nOn 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, a resolution proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers, the strongest journalist protection law in the world. According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest ranked countries in press freedom.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed EVE Online and Dust 514, is headquartered in Reykjavík. CCP Games hosts the third most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world. Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country 3rd in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010. In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to child pornography without compromising the freedom of speech.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nMuch of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no utilization of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food. Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes, and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also include skyr, hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding. Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nBreakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as hangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as slátur, which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nCoffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon. Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world. Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is Brennivín (literally \\\"burnt (i.e. distilled) wine\\\"), which is similar to Scandinavian akvavit. It is a type of vodka made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica. Its potency has earned it the nickname svarti dauði (\\\"Black Death\\\").\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active. The main traditional sport in Iceland is Glíma, a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nPopular sports include association football, track and field, handball and basketball. Handball is often referred to as the national sport,Wilcox and Latif, p. 110 and Iceland's men's national team is ranked among the top 12 in the world. The Icelandic national football team qualified for the UEFA European football championship for the first time in 2016 and advanced to the quarter-final to play against France. They defeated England 2–1 in the round of 16. The Icelandic women's team also excel at football relative to the size of the country, with the national team ranked 15th by FIFA. In 2014 the Icelandic men's national basketball team qualified into the EuroBasket 2015 for the first time in the country history.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless lots of golf courses throughout the island, and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000. Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club. Wilcox and Latif, p. 111 Iceland has also won the most competitions for World's Strongest Man, with eight titles shared evenly between Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nSwimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum. Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nThe oldest sport association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence. To this day, it remains a significant pastime.\",\n \"Iceland\\n\\nIceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War. , there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population. Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in a number of international tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1584,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2503"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which capital city is the Tivoli amusement park?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Copenhagen"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["kaupmannahöfn","koebenhavn","dkcph","kjøbenhavn","k town copenhagen","k town hardcore","københavn","kobenhavn","copenhagen denmark","un locode dkcph","hafnia latin","ktown hardcore","kopenhagen","köpenhamn","koepenhamn","copenhague","kopenhamn","k town punk","københavn denmark","kaupmannahofn","capital of denmark","copenhagen"],"string":"[\n \"kaupmannahöfn\",\n \"koebenhavn\",\n \"dkcph\",\n \"kjøbenhavn\",\n \"k town copenhagen\",\n \"k town hardcore\",\n \"københavn\",\n \"kobenhavn\",\n \"copenhagen denmark\",\n \"un locode dkcph\",\n \"hafnia latin\",\n \"ktown hardcore\",\n \"kopenhagen\",\n \"köpenhamn\",\n \"koepenhamn\",\n \"copenhague\",\n \"kopenhamn\",\n \"k town punk\",\n \"københavn denmark\",\n \"kaupmannahofn\",\n \"capital of denmark\",\n \"copenhagen\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivoli Gardens (or simply Tivoli) is a famous amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the second-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Klampenborg.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nWith 4.733 million visitors in 2015, Tivoli is the second-most popular seasonal theme park in the world, the most-visited theme park in Scandinavia and the fourth most-visited in Europe, only behind Disneyland Paris, Europa-Park Rust and the Efteling.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nHistory","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe amusement park was first called \"Tivoli & Vauxhall\"; \"Tivoli\" alluding to the Jardin de Tivoli in Paris (which in its turn had been named from Tivoli near Rome, Italy),\"Vauxhall\" alluding to the Vauxhall Gardens in London. It is also mentioned in various books, like Number the Stars by Lois Lowry.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivoli's founder, Georg Carstensen (b. 1812 – d. 1857), obtained a five-year charter to create Tivoli by telling King Christian VIII that \"when the people are amusing themselves, they do not think about politics\". The monarch granted Carstensen use of roughly 15 acres (61,000 m²) of the fortified glacis outside Vesterport (the West Gate) for an annual rent. Therefore, until the 1850s, Tivoli was outside the city, accessible through Vesterport.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nFrom the very start, Tivoli included a variety of attractions: buildings in the exotic style of an imaginary Orient: a theatre, band stands, restaurants and cafés, flower gardens, and mechanical amusement rides such as a merry-go-round and a primitive scenic railway. After dark, colored lamps illuminated the gardens. On certain evenings, specially designed fireworks could be seen reflected in Tivoli's lake.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nComposer Hans Christian Lumbye (b. 1810 – d. 1874) was Tivoli's musical director from 1843 to 1872. Lumbye was inspired by Viennese waltz composers like the Strauss family (Johann Strauss I and his sons), and became known as the \"Strauss of the North.\" Many of his compositions are specifically inspired by the gardens, including \"Salute to the Ticket Holders of Tivoli\", \"Carnival Joys\" and \"A Festive Night at Tivoli\". The Tivoli Symphony Orchestra still performs many of his works.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nIn 1874, Chinese style Pantomimeteatret (The Pantomime Theatre) took the place of an older smaller theatre. The audience stands in the open, the stage being inside the building. The theatre's \"curtain\" is a mechanical peacock's tail. From the very beginning, the theatre was the home of Italian pantomimes, introduced in Denmark by the Italian Giuseppe Casorti. This tradition, which is dependent on the Italian Commedia dell'Arte has been kept alive, including the characters Cassander (the old father), Columbine (his beautiful daughter), Harlequin (her lover), and, especially popular with the youngest spectators, the stupid servant Pierrot. The absence of spoken dialogue is an advantage, as Tivoli is now an international tourist attraction.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nIn 1943, Nazi sympathisers burnt many of Tivoli's buildings, including the concert hall, to the ground. Temporary buildings were constructed in their place and the park was back in operation after a few weeks.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivoli is always evolving without abandoning its original charm or traditions. As Georg Carstensen said in 1844, \"Tivoli will never, so to speak, be finished,\" a sentiment echoed just over a century later when Walt Disney said of his own Tivoli-inspired theme park, \"Disneyland will never be completed. It will continue to grow as long as there is imagination left in the world.\" Walt Disney during a trip overseas with his wife Lilly visited Tivoli Gardens. Walt was so impressed with the Danish amusement park, he immediately decided Disneyland should try to emulate its \"happy and unbuttoned air of relaxed fun.\"","Tivoli Gardens\n\nIn Swedish, tivoli has become synonymous with any amusement park.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nRides","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe park is best known for its wooden roller coaster, Rutschebanen, or as some people call it, Bjergbanen (the Mountain Coaster), built in 1914. It is one of world's oldest wooden roller coasters that is still operating today. An operator controls the ride by braking down the hills so it won't gain too much speed. It is an ACE Coaster Classic.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nAnother roller coaster, Dæmonen (The Demon), features an Immelmann loop, a loop, and a zero-G roll all during the ride time of just one minute and forty six seconds. An old roller coaster, Slangen, was removed to have enough space for The Demon. Dæmonen is situated next to the concert hall.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe world's second tallest carousel, The Star Flyer, opened in Tivoli in 2006. Eighty meters high and built by the Austrian company Funtime, it offers panoramic views of the city.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nOn 1 May 2009, Tivoli opened the new ride Vertigo, a looping plane ride where the rider pilots the ride, able to control the plane.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe newest ride, Aquila, opened on 11 April 2013. It is a giant swing and spinner with centrifugal powers up to 4 G, named after the constellation of the Eagle.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nRoller coasters","Tivoli Gardens\n\nOther rides","Tivoli Gardens\n\n*Aquila - giant swing and spinner ride that opened in 2013; with centrifugal powers up to 4G; height limit 1,2m. *Bumper Cars - classic bumper cars that date from 1926. *The Dragon - giant swing / flic flac ride that opened in 1995; height limit 1,4m. Huss. *Ballongyngen - Ferris wheel which opened during WWII in 1943. *The Flying Trunk - a 7-minute H.C. Andersen-inspired dark ride that opened in 1993 and was renovated in 2010. Mack Rides. *Galley Ships - roundabout boats that opened in 1937. *The Golden Tower - drop tower that opened in 1999; height limit 1,4m. S&S Worldwide. *The Mine - dark ride in a boat that opened in 2003; this 200 meters long mine-themed ride has a 2m drop. Mack Rides. *The Monsoon - giant swing, a magic carpet ride that opened in 2001; height limit 1,4. Zierer. *Spinning Top - breakdance spinner that opened in 1988; height limit 1,3m. Huss. *Star Flyer (Himmelskibet) - an 80 m tall sky flyer that opened in 2006; height limit 1,2m. Funtime. *Vertigo giant swing that opened in 2009; height limit 1,4m. Technical Park. This looping plane ride reaches a speed of 60 mph (100 km) and a height of 30 meters.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nKiddie rides","Tivoli Gardens\n\n*The Big Clock (Den blå Safir) - mini Ferris wheel that opened in 1970.\n*Dragon Boats - pilot your own boat on the water, opened in 1936.\n*Dyrekarussellen - classic carousel ride from 1920.\n*The Fun House - house of fun.\n*The Light House - air carousel that opened in 2010.\n*The Little Pilot - airplanes that opened in 1990.\n*Nautilus - roundabout boats that opened in 2007.\n*Petzi's World - play ground for kids.\n*The Panda - mini drop tower that opened in 2000. Zamperla.\n*Rasmus Klump - play and picnic area.\n*The Temple Tower pull yourself up tower ride that opened in 2000. Heege.\n*Trolley Bus - crazy bus. Zamperla.\n*Vintage Cars - on track cars that opened in 1959.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nOther attractions","Tivoli Gardens\n\n*The Pantomime Theater has free pantomime shows. *The Tivoli Guard Boys stars boys age 9 - 16 who perform music at the park. *Tivoli Aquarium - located below ground level inside The Concert Hall, entrance is at extra charge. *Amusement Arcades - extra charge. *Tivoli Jackpot - cash prizes, extra charge. *Tivoli Festival - takes place from 14 May to 8 September and features more than 50 different events that include opera shows, symphony concerts, chamber music, pop and rock artists, and much more. On Fridays at 10 pm there is a weekly rock concert under the banner Friday Rock. *The Concert Hall - there has been a concert hall at the park since day one; the current concert hall was built in 1956 and seats 1660 guests. It was renovated in 1985 and the Rotunda was added then. Extra charge music concerts and shows. *The Glass Hall Theater - the current Glass Hall was built in 1946, following the destruction of the old one in 1944 during the Nazi occupation of Denmark. the hall features all kinds of music events as well as theater shows for kids. Extra charge. *The Harmony Pavilion - occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.","Tivoli Gardens\n\n*Open Air Stage - this open-air stage hosts both music performances and other kind of shows. *Promenade Pavilion - occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nIn addition, there is a Halloween Fest in October and Christmas Holidays in December. During the summer the park has fireworks shows.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nHotels","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThere is one on-site hotel at the park: Hotel Nimb. The Tivoli Hotel & Congress Centre is affiliated with Tivoli Gardens only by name, but close cooperation does take place.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nPerforming arts","Tivoli Gardens\n\nBesides the rides, Tivoli Gardens also serve as a venue for various performing arts & as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivolis Koncertsal","Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivolis Koncertsal is a classical concert hall featuring concerts with some of the largest names in international classical music.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe Pantomime Theatre","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe Pantomime Theatre is an open-air theatre designed by Vilhelm Dahlerup, also known for the design of the Royal Danish Theatre. It is a toy-like historicist built in Chinese style and noted for its mechanical front curtain that takes five men to operate and unfolds like a peacock's tail. As indicated by the name, it is primarily a scene for pantomime theatre in the classical Italian commedia dell'arte tradition, which is performed daily with a live pit orchestra. Besides this original function, the theatre leads a second life as a venue for ballet and modern dance, performing works by choreographers such as August Bournonville, Dinna Bjørn, Louise Midjord and Paul James Rooney.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe Tivoli Youth Guard","Tivoli Gardens\n\nThe Tivoli Youth Guard is a formation of boys and girls aged 8–16 dressed in uniforms reminiscent of those of the Royal Danish Guard complete with bearskins. It was founded in 1844 and gives concerts, makes parades, stands guard at the garden's buildings and monuments at special occasions and represents the gardens at various events. It is composed of a Corps of drums, a military styled marching band and a honor guard platoon.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nRhythmical music","Tivoli Gardens\n\nDuring the warmer summer months, Tivoli also features a live music series dubbed Fredagsrock (Friday Rock), which in the past has featured Roxette, the Smashing Pumpkins, Sting, the Beach Boys, Pet Shop Boys, Kanye West and popular Danish groups such as TV-2, Nephew, Hanne Boel, Raveonettes and Thomas Helmig.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nDuring Copenhagen Jazz Festival Tivoli Gardens is one of the many Copenhagen localities that serves as a venue for concerts.","Tivoli Gardens\n\nGallery","Tivoli Gardens\n\nImage:Kopenhaga tivoli jan2004 ubt.jpeg|The H.C. Andersen castle\nImage:20141228-MAT 1304.jpg|A view of the illuminated gardens on a December night\nImage:20141228-MAT 1315.jpg|Tivoli Gardens lake tree\nImage:Tivoli bynight.JPG|The Vaffelbageriet in Tivoli at night\nImage:20141228-MAT 1325.jpg||The Japanese Tower at night\nImage:20141228-MAT 1324.jpg|Tivoli Gardens Japanese tower and boating lake\nImage:TivoliChinese.jpg|The Pantomime Theatre\nImage:Tivoli Gardens birds view 2015.jpg|Tivoli Gardens seen from a birds eye view in 2015\nImage:TivoliGlassHall.jpg|The Glass Hall\nImage:20141228-MAT 1120-HDR-2.jpg|Tivoli's Moorish Palace, the Nimb Hotel and Restaurant\nImage:Spelterini Tivoli Copenhagen.jpg|Aerial photography, taken from Eduard Spelterini's balloon on 22 June 1922","Amusement park\n\nAn amusement park (sometimes referred to as a funfair ) or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Amusement parks have a fixed location, as opposed to travelling funfairs and traveling carnivals, and are more elaborate than simple city parks or playgrounds, usually providing attractions meant to cater specifically to certain age groups, as well as some that are aimed towards all ages. Theme parks, a specific type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks.","Amusement park\n\nAmusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for people's recreation. World's fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry.","Amusement park\n\nIn common language, the terms theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a theme park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. Despite many older parks adding themed rides and areas, qualifying the park as a theme park, the first park built with the original intention of promoting a specific theme, Santa Claus Land, in Santa Claus, Indiana, did not open until 1946. Disneyland, located in Anaheim, California, built around the concept of encapsulating multiple theme parks into a single amusement park is often mistakenly cited as the first themed amusement park, but is instead the park that made the idea popular.","Amusement park\n\nHistory","Amusement park\n\nOrigins","Amusement park\n\nThe amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, which began in 1133. By the 18th and 19th centuries, they had evolved into places of entertainment for the masses, where the public could view freak shows, acrobatics, conjuring and juggling, take part in competitions and walk through menageries.","Amusement park\n\nThe world's oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken (\"The Hill\") at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583.","Amusement park\n\nA wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel (built by Thomas Bradshaw, at the Aylsham Fair), and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the working classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment.","Amusement park\n\nThe second influence was the pleasure garden. One of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had an admission fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew enormous crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations; tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts and fireworks providing amusement. Although the gardens were originally designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing and animal acrobatics displays.","Amusement park\n\nPrater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766.","Amusement park\n\nThe concept of a fixed park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the world's fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, England. The purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors.","Amusement park\n\nAmerican cities and business also saw the world's fair as a way of demonstrating economic and industrial success. The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an early precursor to the modern amusement park. The fair was an enclosed site, that merged entertainment, engineering and education to entertain the masses. It set out to bedazzle the visitors, and successfully did so with a blaze of lights from the \"White City.\" To make sure that the fair was a financial success, the planners included a dedicated amusement concessions area called the Midway Plaisance. Rides from this fair captured the imagination of the visitors and of amusement parks around the world, such as the first steel Ferris wheel, which was found in many other amusement areas, such as the Prater by 1896. Also, the experience of the enclosed ideal city with wonder, rides, culture and progress (electricity), was based on the creation of an illusory place.","Amusement park\n\nThe \"midway\" introduced at the Columbian Exposition would become a standard part of most amusement parks, fairs, carnivals and circuses. The midway contained not only the rides, but other concessions and entertainments such as shooting galleries, penny arcades, games of chance and shows.","Amusement park\n\nBlackpool and Coney Island","Amusement park\n\nThe modern amusement park evolved from earlier seaside pleasure resorts that had become popular with the public for day-trips or weekend holidays in Blackpool, England and Coney Island, United States.","Amusement park\n\nBlackpool began to develop as a seaside resort with the completion of a branch line to Blackpool from Poulton on the main Preston and Wyre Joint Railway line from Preston to Fleetwood. Fleetwood declined as a resort, as its founder and principal financial backer, Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, went bankrupt. In contrast, Blackpool boomed. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s.","Amusement park\n\nThe growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer.","Amusement park\n\nIn 1863, the North Pier was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for elite visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor. The town expanded southward beyond what is today known as the Golden Mile, towards South Shore, and South Pier was completed in 1893, making Blackpool the only town in the United Kingdom with three piers. In 1878, the Winter Gardens complex opened, incorporating ten years later the Opera House, said to be the largest in Britain outside London.","Amusement park\n\nIn 1879, large parts of the promenade were wired. The lighting and its accompanying pageants reinforced Blackpool's status as the North of England's most prominent holiday resort, and its specifically working class character. It was the forerunner of the present-day Blackpool Illuminations. By the 1890s, the town had a population of 35,000, and could accommodate 250,000 holidaymakers. The number of annual visitors, many staying for a week, was estimated at three million.","Amusement park\n\nIn 1894 two of the town's most prominent buildings opened, the Grand Theatre on Church Street, and Blackpool Tower on the Promenade. The Grand Theatre was one of Britain's first all-electric theatres. When the tower opened, 3,000 customers took the first rides to the top. Tourists paid sixpence for admission, sixpence more for a ride in the lifts to the top, and a further sixpence for the circus.","Amusement park\n\nIn the United States, picnic groves were established along rivers and lakes that provided bathing and water sports, such as Lake Compounce in Connecticut, first established as a picturesque picnic park in 1846, and Riverside Park in Massachusetts, founded in the 1870s along the Connecticut River.","Amusement park\n\nA similar location was Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York, on the Atlantic Ocean, where a horse-drawn streetcar line brought pleasure seekers to the beach beginning in 1829. In 1875, a million passengers rode the Coney Island Railroad, and in 1876 two million visited Coney Island. Hotels and amusements were built to accommodate both the upper classes and the working class at the beach. The first carousel was installed in the 1870s, the first roller coaster, the \"Switchback Railway\", in 1884.","Amusement park\n\nIn the final decade of the 19th century, electric trolley lines were developed in many large American cities. Companies that established the trolley lines also developed trolley parks as destinations of these lines. Trolley parks such as Atlanta's [http://southernspaces.org/2008/vale-amusements-modernity-technology-and-atlantas-ponce-de-leon-park-1870-1920 Ponce de Leon Park], or Reading's [http://www.defunctparks.com/parks/PA/carsonia/carsonia.htm Carsonia Park] were initially popular natural leisure spots before local streetcar companies purchased the sites, expanding them from picnic groves to include regular entertainments, mechanical amusements, dance halls, sports fields, boat rides, restaurants and other resort facilities.","Amusement park\n\nSome of these parks were developed in resort locations, such as bathing resorts at the seaside in New Jersey and New York. A premiere example in New Jersey was Atlantic City, a famous vacation resort. Entrepreneurs erected amusement parks on piers that extended from the boardwalk out over the ocean. The first of several was Ocean Pier in 1891, followed later by Steel Pier in 1898, both of which boasted rides and attractions typical of that time, such as Midway-style games and electric trolley rides. The boardwalk also had the first Roundabout installed in 1892 by William Somers, a wooden predecessor to the Ferris Wheel. Somers installed two others in Asbury Park, New Jersey and Coney Island, New York.","Amusement park\n\nAn early park was the Eldorado Amusement Park that opened in 1891 on the banks of the Hudson River, overlooking New York City. It consisted of 25 acres.","Amusement park\n\nModern amusement parks","Amusement park\n\nThe first permanent enclosed entertainment area, regulated by a single company, was founded in Coney Island in 1895: Sea Lion Park at Coney Island in Brooklyn. This park was one of the first to charge admission to get into the park in addition to sell tickets for rides within the park.","Amusement park\n\nIn 1897, Sea Lion Park was joined by Steeplechase Park, the first of three major amusement parks that would open in the Coney Island area. George Tilyou designed the park to provide thrills and entertainment. The combination of the nearby population center of New York City and the ease of access to the area made Coney Island the embodiment of the American amusement park. Coney Island also featured Luna Park and Dreamland. Coney Island was a huge success and by year 1910 attendance on days could reach a million people. Fueled by the efforts of Frederick Ingersoll, other \"Luna Parks\" were quickly erected worldwide and opened to rave reviews.","Amusement park\n\nThe first amusement park in England was opened in 1896 - the Blackpool Pleasure Beach by W. G. Bean. In 1904, Sir Hiram Maxim's Captive Flying Machine was introduced; he had designed an early aircraft powered by steam engines that had been unsuccessful and instead opened up a pleasure ride of flying carriages that revolved around a central pylon. Other rides included the 'Grotto' (a fantasy ride), 'River Caves' (a scenic railway), water chutes and a toboganning tower.","Amusement park\n\nFire was a constant threat in those days, as much of the construction within the amusement parks of the era was wooden. In 1911, Dreamland was the first Coney Island amusement park to completely burn down; in 1944, Luna Park also burned to the ground. Most of Ingersoll's Luna Parks were similarly destroyed, usually by arson, before his death in 1927.","Amusement park\n\nThe Golden Age","Amusement park\n\nDuring the Gilded Age, many Americans began working fewer hours and had more disposable income. With new-found money and time to spend on leisure activities, Americans sought new venues for entertainment. Amusement parks, set up outside major cities and in rural areas, emerged to meet this new economic opportunity. These parks served as source of fantasy and escape from real life. By the early 1900s, hundreds of amusement parks were operating in the United States and Canada. Trolley parks stood outside many cities. Parks like Atlanta's Ponce de Leon and Idora Park, near Youngstown, OH, took passengers to traditionally popular picnic grounds, which by the late 1890s also often included rides like the Giant Swing, Carousel, and Shoot-the-Chutes. These amusement parks were often based on nationally known parks or world's fairs: they had names like Coney Island, White City, Luna Park, or Dreamland. The American Gilded Age was, in fact, amusement parks' Golden Age that reigned until the late 1920s.","Amusement park\n\nThe Golden Age of amusement parks also included the advent of the kiddie park. Founded in 1925, the original Kiddie Park is located in San Antonio, Texas and is still in operation today. The kiddie parks became popular all over America after World War II.","Amusement park\n\nThis era saw the development of the new innovations in roller coasters that included extreme drops and speeds to thrill the riders. By the end of the First World War, people seemed to want an even more exciting entertainment, a need met by roller coasters. Although the development of the automobile provided people with more options for satisfying their entertainment needs, the amusement parks after the war continued to be successful, while urban amusement parks saw declining attendance. The 1920s is more properly known as the Golden Age of roller coasters, being the decade of frenetic building for these rides.","Amusement park\n\nIn England, the Dreamland Margate openened in 1920 with a Scenic Railway rollercoaster that opened to the public in 1920 with great success, carrying half a million passengers in its first year. The park also installed other rides common to the time including a smaller roller coaster, the Joy Wheel, Miniature Railway, The Whip and the River Caves. A ballroom was constructed on the site of the Skating Rink in 1920 and in 1923 a Variety Cinema was built on the site. Between 1920 and 1935 over £500,000 was invested in the site, constantly adding new rides and facilities and culminating in the construction of the Dreamland Cinema complex in 1934 which stands to this day.","Amusement park\n\nMeanwhile, the Blackpool Pleasure Beach was also being developed. Frequent large-scale investments were responsible for the construction of many new rides, including the Virginia Reel, Whip, Noah's Ark, Big Dipper and Dodgems. In the 1920s the \"Casino Building\" was built, which remains to this day.","Amusement park\n\nIn 1923, land was reclaimed from the sea front. It was at this period that the park moved to its 44-acre (180,000 m2) current location above what became Watson Road, which was built under the Pleasure Beach in 1932. During this time Joseph Emberton, an architect famous for his work in the amusement trade was brought in to redesign the architectural style of the Pleasure Beach rides, working on the \"Grand National\" roller coaster, \"Noah's Ark\" and the Casino building to name a few.","Amusement park\n\nDepression and post-World War II decline","Amusement park\n\nThe Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II during the 1940s saw the decline of the amusement park industry. War caused the affluent urban population to move to the suburbs, television became a source of entertainment, and families went to amusement parks less often.","Amusement park\n\nBy the 1950s, factors such as urban decay, crime, and even desegregation in the ghettos led to changing patterns in how people chose to spend their free time. Many of the older, traditional amusement parks closed or burned to the ground. Many would be taken out by the wrecking ball to make way for suburban housing and development. In 1964, Steeplechase Park, once the king of all amusement parks, closed down for good. The traditional amusement parks which survived, for example, Kennywood, in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania, and Cedar Point, in Sandusky, Ohio, did so in spite of the odds.","Amusement park\n\nAmusement and theme parks today","Amusement park\n\nThe amusement park industry's offerings range from large, worldwide type theme parks such as Walt Disney World, SeaWorld Orlando and Universal Studios Hollywood to smaller and medium-sized theme parks such as the Six Flags parks and Cedar Fair parks. Countless smaller ventures exist in many of the states of the U.S. and in countries around the world. Even simpler theme parks directly aimed at smaller children have emerged, such as Legoland.","Amusement park\n\nExamples of amusement parks in shopping malls exist in West Edmonton Mall, Alberta, Canada; Pier 39, San Francisco; Mall of America, Bloomington, Minnesota.","Amusement park\n\nFamily fun parks starting as miniature golf courses have begun to grow to include batting cages, go-karts, bumper cars, bumper boats and water slides. Some of these parks have grown to include even roller coasters, and traditional amusement parks now also have these competition areas in addition to their thrill rides.","Amusement park\n\nAs of 2008, the Walt Disney Company accounted for around half of the total industry's revenue in the US as a result of more than 50 million visitors of its U.S.-based attractions each year.","Amusement park\n\nOther types of amusement park","Amusement park\n\nEducational theme parks","Amusement park\n\nSome parks use rides and attractions for educational purposes. Disney was the first to successfully open a large-scale theme park built around education. Named Epcot, it opened in 1982 as the second park in the Walt Disney World Resort. There are also Holy Land USA and the Holy Land Experience, which are theme parks built to inspire Christian piety. Dinosaur World entertains families with dinosaurs in natural settings, while the SeaWorld and Busch Gardens parks also offer educational experiences, with each of the parks housing several thousand animals, fish and other sea life in dozens of attractions and exhibits focusing on animal education.","Amusement park\n\nCreated in 1977, the Puy du Fou is a much celebrated theme park in Vendée, France. It is centered around European, French and local history. It received several international prizes.","Amusement park\n\nFamily-owned theme parks","Amusement park\n\nSome theme parks did evolve from more traditional amusement park enterprises, such as Knott's Berry Farm. In the 1920s, Walter Knott and his family sold berries from a roadside stand, which grew to include a restaurant serving fried chicken dinners. Within a few years, lines outside the restaurant were often several hours long. To entertain the waiting crowds, Walter Knott built a Ghost Town in 1940, using buildings relocated from real old west towns such as the Calico, California ghost town and Prescott, Arizona. In 1968, the Knott family fenced the farm, charged admission for the first time, and Knott's Berry Farm officially became an amusement park. Because of its long history, Knott's Berry Farm currently claims to be \"America's First Theme Park.\" Knott's Berry Farm is now owned by Cedar Fair Entertainment Company. Lake Compounce in Bristol, Connecticut may be the true oldest continuously operating amusement park in the United States, open since 1846. Santa Claus Town, which opened in Santa Claus, Indiana in 1935 and included Santa's Candy Castle and other Santa Claus-themed attractions, is considered the first themed attraction in the United States: a precursor to the modern day theme park.","Amusement park\n\nSanta Claus Land (renamed Holiday World in 1984) opened in 1946 in Santa Claus, Indiana and many people will argue that it was the first true Theme Park despite Knott's history. In the 1950s the Herschend family took over operation of the tourist attraction, Marvel Cave near Branson, Missouri. Over the next decade they modernized the cave, which led to large numbers of people waiting to take the tour. The Herschend family opened a recreation of the old mining town that once existed atop Marvel Cave. The small village eventually became the theme park, Silver Dollar City. The park is still owned and operated by the Herschends and the family has several other parks including Dollywood, Celebration City and Wild Adventures.","Amusement park\n\nRegional parks","Amusement park\n\nThe first regional amusement park, as well as the first Six Flags park, Six Flags over Texas was officially opened in 1961 in Arlington, Texas near Dallas. The first Six Flags amusement park was the vision of Angus Wynne, Jr. and helped create the modern, competitive amusement park industry. In the late 1950s, Wynne visited Disneyland and was inspired to create an affordable, closer, and larger amusement park that would be filled with fantasy. He followed in the steps of Disney and had subdivisions within the park that reflected different lands. The subdivisions included the Old South and other sections that referenced Wynne's background. By 1968, the second Six Flags park, Six Flags Over Georgia, opened, and in 1971, Six Flags Over Mid-America (now Six Flags St. Louis) opened near St. Louis, Missouri. Also in 1971 was the opening of the Walt Disney World resort complex in Florida, with the Magic Kingdom (1971), Epcot (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (1989) and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998).","Amusement park\n\nAdmission prices and admission policies","Amusement park\n\nAmusement parks collect much of their revenue from admission fees paid by guests attending the park. Other revenue sources include parking fees, food and beverage sales and souvenirs.","Amusement park\n\nPractically all amusement parks operate using one of two admission principles:","Amusement park\n\nPay-as-you-go","Amusement park\n\nIn amusement parks using the pay-as-you-go scheme, a guest enters the park at little or no charge. The guest must then purchase rides individually, either at the attraction's entrance or by purchasing ride tickets (or a similar exchange method, like a token). The cost of the attraction is often based on its complexity or popularity. For example, a guest might pay one ticket to ride a carousel but four tickets to ride a roller coaster.","Amusement park\n\nThe park may allow guests to purchase a pass providing unlimited admissions to all attractions within the park for a specified duration of time. A wristband or pass is then shown at the attraction entrance to gain admission.","Amusement park\n\nDisneyland opened in 1955 using the pay-as-you-go format. Initially, guests paid the ride admission fees at the attractions. Within a short time, the problems of handling such large amounts of coins led to the development of a ticket system that, while now out of use, is still part of the amusement-park lexicon. In this new format, guests purchased ticket books that contained a number of tickets, labeled \"A,\" \"B\" and \"C.\" Rides and attractions using an \"A-ticket\" were generally simple, with \"B-tickets\" and \"C-tickets\" used for the larger, more popular rides. Later, the \"D-ticket\" was added, then finally the now-famous \"E-ticket\", which was used on the biggest and most elaborate rides, like Space Mountain. Smaller tickets could be traded up for use on larger rides (i.e., two or three A-tickets would equal a single B-ticket). Disneyland, as well as the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, abandoned this practice in 1982.","Amusement park\n\nThe advantages of pay-as-you-go include the following:\n*guests pay for only what they choose to experience, allowed them to visit the park for a short periods of time (whereas guests who get day passes in \"Pay-one-price\" are generally compelled to spend hours to make the most of the cost)\n*attraction costs can be changed easily to encourage use or capitalize on popularity\n*best suited to parks located in areas with high pedestrian traffic and surrounded by competing points-of-interest (i.e. shopping arcade or theatre not operated by the park) and/or natural attractions, that make it hard to charge an admission fee. For instance, Centreville Amusement Park was one of the numerous attractions on the Toronto Islands alongside beaches and boating clubs, and its pay-as-you-go fare scheme was suited its guests who usually spent only 1–2 hours at the park. For amusement parks inside shopping centers such as the West Edmonton Mall's Galaxyland, where amusement attractions exist alongside stores, pedestrian traffic consists of both shoppers and park guests, so it may not be practical to segregate the park premises and charge an admission fee.","Amusement park\n\nThe disadvantages of pay-as-you-go include the following:\n*guests may get tired of spending money almost continuously\n*guests may not spend as much on food or souvenirs\n*results in high volumes of low-spending guests, and the resultant low profit margins are only sufficient for mature amusement parks that are not expanding","Amusement park\n\nPay-one-price","Amusement park\n\nAn amusement park using the pay-one-price scheme will charge guests a single, large admission fee. The guest is then entitled to use most of the attractions (usually including flagship roller coasters) in the park as often as they wish during their visit. A daily admission pass (daypass) is the most basic fare on sale, also sold are season tickets which offer holders admission for the entire operating year (plus special privileges for the newest attractions), and express passes which gives holders priority in bypassing lineup queues for popular attractions.","Amusement park\n\nPay-one-price format parks also have attractions that are not included in the admission charge; these are called \"up-charge attractions\" and can include Skycoasters or go-kart tracks, or games of skill where prizes are won.","Amusement park\n\nWhen Angus Wynne, founder of Six Flags Over Texas, first visited Disneyland in 1959, he noted that park's pay-as-you-go format as a reason to make his park pay-one-price. He thought that a family would be more likely to visit his park if they knew, up front, how much it would cost to attend.","Amusement park\n\nThe advantages of pay-one-price include\n*lower costs for the park operators, since ticket-takers are not needed at each attractions\n*guests need not worry about spending money continuously on attractions, so they may spend more money on food and souvenirs \n*more predictable price to offer guests since upfront cost is known.\n*better suited to amusement parks located in the suburbs or rural areas, with the park often as the only attraction there, which allows for a more captive audience to charge higher admission fees.\n*the higher profit margins, in turn, allow the park to add new attractions.","Amusement park\n\nThe disadvantages of pay-one-price include:\n*price may be unattractive for guests who just visit the park to be with their families or use only few attractions\n*guests are generally compelled to spend hours in order to make the most of the cost of a day pass, pricing is geared towards guests making a full day excursion rather than a short visit","Amusement park\n\nRides and attractions","Amusement park\n\nMechanized thrill machines are a defining feature of amusement parks. Early rides include the carousel, which originally developed from cavalry training methods first used in the Middle Ages. By the 19th century, carousels were common in parks around the world. Another such ride which shaped the future of the amusement park was the roller coaster. The origins of roller coasters can be traced back to 17th-century Russia, where gravity-driven attractions, which at first only consisted of individual sleds or carts riding freely down chutes on top of specially constructed snow slopes with piles of sand at the bottom for braking, were used as winter leisure activities. These crude and temporarily built curiosities, known as Russian Mountains, were the beginning of the search for even more thrilling amusement park rides. The Columbian Exposition of 1893 was a particularly fertile testing ground for amusement rides and included some that the public had never seen before, such as the world's first Ferris wheel, one of the most recognized products of the fair. In the present day, many rides of various types are set around a specific theme.","Amusement park\n\nA park contains a mixture of attractions which can be divided into several categories.","Amusement park\n\nFlat rides","Amusement park\n\nThere is a core set of flat rides which most amusement parks have, including the enterprise, tilt-a-whirl, the gravitron, chairswing, swinging inverter ship, twister, and the top spin. However, there is constant innovation, with new variations on ways to spin and throw passengers around appearing in an effort to keep attracting customers. Manufactures such as Huss and Zamperla specialise in creating flat rides among other amusement attractions.","Amusement park\n\nRoller coasters","Amusement park\n\nAmusement parks often feature multiple roller coasters of primarily timber or steel construction. In essence a specialized railroad system with steep drops and sharp curves, passengers sit and are restrained in cars, usually with two or more cars joined to form a train. Some roller coasters feature one or more inversions (such as vertical loops) which turn the riders upside down. Over the years there have been many roller coaster manufactures with a variety of types of roller coasters.","Amusement park\n\nPopular manufactures today include:\n* Bolliger & Mabillard\n* Gerstlauer\n* Great Coasters International\n* Intamin\n* Mack Rides\n* Premier Rides\n* Rocky Mountain Construction\n* Vekoma\n* Zamperla","Amusement park\n\nTrain rides","Amusement park\n\nAmusement park railroads have had a long and varied history in American amusement parks as well as overseas. Some of the earliest park trains were not really trains; they were trolleys, which brought park patrons to the parks on regular rail lines from the cities to the end of the rail lines where the parks were located. As such, some older parks, such as Kennywood in Pennsylvania, were referred to as trolley parks. The earliest park trains that only operated on lines within the park's boundaries, such as the one on the Zephyr Railroad in Dorney Park, were mostly custom-built. Also, amusement park railroads tend to be narrow gauge, meaning the space between their rails is smaller than that of railroads. Some specific narrow gauges that are common on amusement park railroads are gauge, gauge, and gauge.","Amusement park\n\nPast and present manufacturers include: \n*Allan Herschell Company\n*Brookville Equipment Corporation\n*Cagney Brothers\n*Chance Rides\n*Crown Metal Products\n*Custom Fabricators\n*Custom Locomotives\n*Doppelmayr Garaventa Group\n*Hurlbut Amusement Co.\n*Katiland Trains\n*Miniature Train Co. (MTC)\n*National Amusement Devices Co. (NAD)\n*Ottaway\n*Sandley\n*Severn Lamb\n*Tampa Metal Products\n*Train Rides Unlimited","Amusement park\n\nWater rides","Amusement park\n\nAmusement parks with water resources generally feature a few water rides, such as the log flume, bumper boats, rapids and rowing boats. Such rides are usually gentler and shorter than roller coasters and many are suitable for all ages. Water rides are especially popular on hot days.","Amusement park\n\nDark rides","Amusement park\n\nOverlapping with both train rides and water rides, dark rides are enclosed attractions in which patrons travel in guided vehicles along a predetermined path, through an array of illuminated scenes which may include lighting effects, animation, music and recorded dialogue, and other special effects,.","Amusement park\n\nFerris wheels","Amusement park\n\nFerris wheels are the most common type of amusement ride at state fairs in the US.","Amusement park\n\nTransport rides","Amusement park\n\nTransport rides are used to take large numbers of guests from one area to another, as an alternative to walking, especially for parks that are large or separated into distant areas. Transport rides include chairlifts, monorails, aerial trams, and escalators.","Amusement park\n\nOcean Park Hong Kong is well known for its cable car connecting the Lowland and Headland areas of the park, and for having the world's second longest outdoor escalator in the Headland. Both transportation links providing scenic views of the park's hilly surroundings and, while originally intended for practicality rather than thrills or enjoyment, have become significant park attractions in their own right."],"string":"[\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nTivoli Gardens (or simply Tivoli) is a famous amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the second-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Klampenborg.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nWith 4.733 million visitors in 2015, Tivoli is the second-most popular seasonal theme park in the world, the most-visited theme park in Scandinavia and the fourth most-visited in Europe, only behind Disneyland Paris, Europa-Park Rust and the Efteling.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe amusement park was first called \\\"Tivoli & Vauxhall\\\"; \\\"Tivoli\\\" alluding to the Jardin de Tivoli in Paris (which in its turn had been named from Tivoli near Rome, Italy),\\\"Vauxhall\\\" alluding to the Vauxhall Gardens in London. It is also mentioned in various books, like Number the Stars by Lois Lowry.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nTivoli's founder, Georg Carstensen (b. 1812 – d. 1857), obtained a five-year charter to create Tivoli by telling King Christian VIII that \\\"when the people are amusing themselves, they do not think about politics\\\". The monarch granted Carstensen use of roughly 15 acres (61,000 m²) of the fortified glacis outside Vesterport (the West Gate) for an annual rent. Therefore, until the 1850s, Tivoli was outside the city, accessible through Vesterport.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nFrom the very start, Tivoli included a variety of attractions: buildings in the exotic style of an imaginary Orient: a theatre, band stands, restaurants and cafés, flower gardens, and mechanical amusement rides such as a merry-go-round and a primitive scenic railway. After dark, colored lamps illuminated the gardens. On certain evenings, specially designed fireworks could be seen reflected in Tivoli's lake.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nComposer Hans Christian Lumbye (b. 1810 – d. 1874) was Tivoli's musical director from 1843 to 1872. Lumbye was inspired by Viennese waltz composers like the Strauss family (Johann Strauss I and his sons), and became known as the \\\"Strauss of the North.\\\" Many of his compositions are specifically inspired by the gardens, including \\\"Salute to the Ticket Holders of Tivoli\\\", \\\"Carnival Joys\\\" and \\\"A Festive Night at Tivoli\\\". The Tivoli Symphony Orchestra still performs many of his works.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nIn 1874, Chinese style Pantomimeteatret (The Pantomime Theatre) took the place of an older smaller theatre. The audience stands in the open, the stage being inside the building. The theatre's \\\"curtain\\\" is a mechanical peacock's tail. From the very beginning, the theatre was the home of Italian pantomimes, introduced in Denmark by the Italian Giuseppe Casorti. This tradition, which is dependent on the Italian Commedia dell'Arte has been kept alive, including the characters Cassander (the old father), Columbine (his beautiful daughter), Harlequin (her lover), and, especially popular with the youngest spectators, the stupid servant Pierrot. The absence of spoken dialogue is an advantage, as Tivoli is now an international tourist attraction.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nIn 1943, Nazi sympathisers burnt many of Tivoli's buildings, including the concert hall, to the ground. Temporary buildings were constructed in their place and the park was back in operation after a few weeks.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nTivoli is always evolving without abandoning its original charm or traditions. As Georg Carstensen said in 1844, \\\"Tivoli will never, so to speak, be finished,\\\" a sentiment echoed just over a century later when Walt Disney said of his own Tivoli-inspired theme park, \\\"Disneyland will never be completed. It will continue to grow as long as there is imagination left in the world.\\\" Walt Disney during a trip overseas with his wife Lilly visited Tivoli Gardens. Walt was so impressed with the Danish amusement park, he immediately decided Disneyland should try to emulate its \\\"happy and unbuttoned air of relaxed fun.\\\"\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nIn Swedish, tivoli has become synonymous with any amusement park.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nRides\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe park is best known for its wooden roller coaster, Rutschebanen, or as some people call it, Bjergbanen (the Mountain Coaster), built in 1914. It is one of world's oldest wooden roller coasters that is still operating today. An operator controls the ride by braking down the hills so it won't gain too much speed. It is an ACE Coaster Classic.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nAnother roller coaster, Dæmonen (The Demon), features an Immelmann loop, a loop, and a zero-G roll all during the ride time of just one minute and forty six seconds. An old roller coaster, Slangen, was removed to have enough space for The Demon. Dæmonen is situated next to the concert hall.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe world's second tallest carousel, The Star Flyer, opened in Tivoli in 2006. Eighty meters high and built by the Austrian company Funtime, it offers panoramic views of the city.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nOn 1 May 2009, Tivoli opened the new ride Vertigo, a looping plane ride where the rider pilots the ride, able to control the plane.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe newest ride, Aquila, opened on 11 April 2013. It is a giant swing and spinner with centrifugal powers up to 4 G, named after the constellation of the Eagle.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nRoller coasters\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nOther rides\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\n*Aquila - giant swing and spinner ride that opened in 2013; with centrifugal powers up to 4G; height limit 1,2m. *Bumper Cars - classic bumper cars that date from 1926. *The Dragon - giant swing / flic flac ride that opened in 1995; height limit 1,4m. Huss. *Ballongyngen - Ferris wheel which opened during WWII in 1943. *The Flying Trunk - a 7-minute H.C. Andersen-inspired dark ride that opened in 1993 and was renovated in 2010. Mack Rides. *Galley Ships - roundabout boats that opened in 1937. *The Golden Tower - drop tower that opened in 1999; height limit 1,4m. S&S Worldwide. *The Mine - dark ride in a boat that opened in 2003; this 200 meters long mine-themed ride has a 2m drop. Mack Rides. *The Monsoon - giant swing, a magic carpet ride that opened in 2001; height limit 1,4. Zierer. *Spinning Top - breakdance spinner that opened in 1988; height limit 1,3m. Huss. *Star Flyer (Himmelskibet) - an 80 m tall sky flyer that opened in 2006; height limit 1,2m. Funtime. *Vertigo giant swing that opened in 2009; height limit 1,4m. Technical Park. This looping plane ride reaches a speed of 60 mph (100 km) and a height of 30 meters.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nKiddie rides\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\n*The Big Clock (Den blå Safir) - mini Ferris wheel that opened in 1970.\\n*Dragon Boats - pilot your own boat on the water, opened in 1936.\\n*Dyrekarussellen - classic carousel ride from 1920.\\n*The Fun House - house of fun.\\n*The Light House - air carousel that opened in 2010.\\n*The Little Pilot - airplanes that opened in 1990.\\n*Nautilus - roundabout boats that opened in 2007.\\n*Petzi's World - play ground for kids.\\n*The Panda - mini drop tower that opened in 2000. Zamperla.\\n*Rasmus Klump - play and picnic area.\\n*The Temple Tower pull yourself up tower ride that opened in 2000. Heege.\\n*Trolley Bus - crazy bus. Zamperla.\\n*Vintage Cars - on track cars that opened in 1959.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nOther attractions\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\n*The Pantomime Theater has free pantomime shows. *The Tivoli Guard Boys stars boys age 9 - 16 who perform music at the park. *Tivoli Aquarium - located below ground level inside The Concert Hall, entrance is at extra charge. *Amusement Arcades - extra charge. *Tivoli Jackpot - cash prizes, extra charge. *Tivoli Festival - takes place from 14 May to 8 September and features more than 50 different events that include opera shows, symphony concerts, chamber music, pop and rock artists, and much more. On Fridays at 10 pm there is a weekly rock concert under the banner Friday Rock. *The Concert Hall - there has been a concert hall at the park since day one; the current concert hall was built in 1956 and seats 1660 guests. It was renovated in 1985 and the Rotunda was added then. Extra charge music concerts and shows. *The Glass Hall Theater - the current Glass Hall was built in 1946, following the destruction of the old one in 1944 during the Nazi occupation of Denmark. the hall features all kinds of music events as well as theater shows for kids. Extra charge. *The Harmony Pavilion - occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\n*Open Air Stage - this open-air stage hosts both music performances and other kind of shows. *Promenade Pavilion - occasionally music performances throughout the year and special events.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nIn addition, there is a Halloween Fest in October and Christmas Holidays in December. During the summer the park has fireworks shows.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nHotels\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThere is one on-site hotel at the park: Hotel Nimb. The Tivoli Hotel & Congress Centre is affiliated with Tivoli Gardens only by name, but close cooperation does take place.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nPerforming arts\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nBesides the rides, Tivoli Gardens also serve as a venue for various performing arts & as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nTivolis Koncertsal\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nTivolis Koncertsal is a classical concert hall featuring concerts with some of the largest names in international classical music.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe Pantomime Theatre\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe Pantomime Theatre is an open-air theatre designed by Vilhelm Dahlerup, also known for the design of the Royal Danish Theatre. It is a toy-like historicist built in Chinese style and noted for its mechanical front curtain that takes five men to operate and unfolds like a peacock's tail. As indicated by the name, it is primarily a scene for pantomime theatre in the classical Italian commedia dell'arte tradition, which is performed daily with a live pit orchestra. Besides this original function, the theatre leads a second life as a venue for ballet and modern dance, performing works by choreographers such as August Bournonville, Dinna Bjørn, Louise Midjord and Paul James Rooney.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe Tivoli Youth Guard\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nThe Tivoli Youth Guard is a formation of boys and girls aged 8–16 dressed in uniforms reminiscent of those of the Royal Danish Guard complete with bearskins. It was founded in 1844 and gives concerts, makes parades, stands guard at the garden's buildings and monuments at special occasions and represents the gardens at various events. It is composed of a Corps of drums, a military styled marching band and a honor guard platoon.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nRhythmical music\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nDuring the warmer summer months, Tivoli also features a live music series dubbed Fredagsrock (Friday Rock), which in the past has featured Roxette, the Smashing Pumpkins, Sting, the Beach Boys, Pet Shop Boys, Kanye West and popular Danish groups such as TV-2, Nephew, Hanne Boel, Raveonettes and Thomas Helmig.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nDuring Copenhagen Jazz Festival Tivoli Gardens is one of the many Copenhagen localities that serves as a venue for concerts.\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Tivoli Gardens\\n\\nImage:Kopenhaga tivoli jan2004 ubt.jpeg|The H.C. Andersen castle\\nImage:20141228-MAT 1304.jpg|A view of the illuminated gardens on a December night\\nImage:20141228-MAT 1315.jpg|Tivoli Gardens lake tree\\nImage:Tivoli bynight.JPG|The Vaffelbageriet in Tivoli at night\\nImage:20141228-MAT 1325.jpg||The Japanese Tower at night\\nImage:20141228-MAT 1324.jpg|Tivoli Gardens Japanese tower and boating lake\\nImage:TivoliChinese.jpg|The Pantomime Theatre\\nImage:Tivoli Gardens birds view 2015.jpg|Tivoli Gardens seen from a birds eye view in 2015\\nImage:TivoliGlassHall.jpg|The Glass Hall\\nImage:20141228-MAT 1120-HDR-2.jpg|Tivoli's Moorish Palace, the Nimb Hotel and Restaurant\\nImage:Spelterini Tivoli Copenhagen.jpg|Aerial photography, taken from Eduard Spelterini's balloon on 22 June 1922\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAn amusement park (sometimes referred to as a funfair ) or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Amusement parks have a fixed location, as opposed to travelling funfairs and traveling carnivals, and are more elaborate than simple city parks or playgrounds, usually providing attractions meant to cater specifically to certain age groups, as well as some that are aimed towards all ages. Theme parks, a specific type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for people's recreation. World's fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn common language, the terms theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a theme park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. Despite many older parks adding themed rides and areas, qualifying the park as a theme park, the first park built with the original intention of promoting a specific theme, Santa Claus Land, in Santa Claus, Indiana, did not open until 1946. Disneyland, located in Anaheim, California, built around the concept of encapsulating multiple theme parks into a single amusement park is often mistakenly cited as the first themed amusement park, but is instead the park that made the idea popular.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, which began in 1133. By the 18th and 19th centuries, they had evolved into places of entertainment for the masses, where the public could view freak shows, acrobatics, conjuring and juggling, take part in competitions and walk through menageries.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe world's oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken (\\\"The Hill\\\") at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nA wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel (built by Thomas Bradshaw, at the Aylsham Fair), and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the working classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe second influence was the pleasure garden. One of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had an admission fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew enormous crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations; tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts and fireworks providing amusement. Although the gardens were originally designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing and animal acrobatics displays.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPrater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe concept of a fixed park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the world's fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, England. The purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmerican cities and business also saw the world's fair as a way of demonstrating economic and industrial success. The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an early precursor to the modern amusement park. The fair was an enclosed site, that merged entertainment, engineering and education to entertain the masses. It set out to bedazzle the visitors, and successfully did so with a blaze of lights from the \\\"White City.\\\" To make sure that the fair was a financial success, the planners included a dedicated amusement concessions area called the Midway Plaisance. Rides from this fair captured the imagination of the visitors and of amusement parks around the world, such as the first steel Ferris wheel, which was found in many other amusement areas, such as the Prater by 1896. Also, the experience of the enclosed ideal city with wonder, rides, culture and progress (electricity), was based on the creation of an illusory place.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe \\\"midway\\\" introduced at the Columbian Exposition would become a standard part of most amusement parks, fairs, carnivals and circuses. The midway contained not only the rides, but other concessions and entertainments such as shooting galleries, penny arcades, games of chance and shows.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nBlackpool and Coney Island\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe modern amusement park evolved from earlier seaside pleasure resorts that had become popular with the public for day-trips or weekend holidays in Blackpool, England and Coney Island, United States.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nBlackpool began to develop as a seaside resort with the completion of a branch line to Blackpool from Poulton on the main Preston and Wyre Joint Railway line from Preston to Fleetwood. Fleetwood declined as a resort, as its founder and principal financial backer, Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, went bankrupt. In contrast, Blackpool boomed. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn 1863, the North Pier was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for elite visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor. The town expanded southward beyond what is today known as the Golden Mile, towards South Shore, and South Pier was completed in 1893, making Blackpool the only town in the United Kingdom with three piers. In 1878, the Winter Gardens complex opened, incorporating ten years later the Opera House, said to be the largest in Britain outside London.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn 1879, large parts of the promenade were wired. The lighting and its accompanying pageants reinforced Blackpool's status as the North of England's most prominent holiday resort, and its specifically working class character. It was the forerunner of the present-day Blackpool Illuminations. By the 1890s, the town had a population of 35,000, and could accommodate 250,000 holidaymakers. The number of annual visitors, many staying for a week, was estimated at three million.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn 1894 two of the town's most prominent buildings opened, the Grand Theatre on Church Street, and Blackpool Tower on the Promenade. The Grand Theatre was one of Britain's first all-electric theatres. When the tower opened, 3,000 customers took the first rides to the top. Tourists paid sixpence for admission, sixpence more for a ride in the lifts to the top, and a further sixpence for the circus.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn the United States, picnic groves were established along rivers and lakes that provided bathing and water sports, such as Lake Compounce in Connecticut, first established as a picturesque picnic park in 1846, and Riverside Park in Massachusetts, founded in the 1870s along the Connecticut River.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nA similar location was Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York, on the Atlantic Ocean, where a horse-drawn streetcar line brought pleasure seekers to the beach beginning in 1829. In 1875, a million passengers rode the Coney Island Railroad, and in 1876 two million visited Coney Island. Hotels and amusements were built to accommodate both the upper classes and the working class at the beach. The first carousel was installed in the 1870s, the first roller coaster, the \\\"Switchback Railway\\\", in 1884.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn the final decade of the 19th century, electric trolley lines were developed in many large American cities. Companies that established the trolley lines also developed trolley parks as destinations of these lines. Trolley parks such as Atlanta's [http://southernspaces.org/2008/vale-amusements-modernity-technology-and-atlantas-ponce-de-leon-park-1870-1920 Ponce de Leon Park], or Reading's [http://www.defunctparks.com/parks/PA/carsonia/carsonia.htm Carsonia Park] were initially popular natural leisure spots before local streetcar companies purchased the sites, expanding them from picnic groves to include regular entertainments, mechanical amusements, dance halls, sports fields, boat rides, restaurants and other resort facilities.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nSome of these parks were developed in resort locations, such as bathing resorts at the seaside in New Jersey and New York. A premiere example in New Jersey was Atlantic City, a famous vacation resort. Entrepreneurs erected amusement parks on piers that extended from the boardwalk out over the ocean. The first of several was Ocean Pier in 1891, followed later by Steel Pier in 1898, both of which boasted rides and attractions typical of that time, such as Midway-style games and electric trolley rides. The boardwalk also had the first Roundabout installed in 1892 by William Somers, a wooden predecessor to the Ferris Wheel. Somers installed two others in Asbury Park, New Jersey and Coney Island, New York.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAn early park was the Eldorado Amusement Park that opened in 1891 on the banks of the Hudson River, overlooking New York City. It consisted of 25 acres.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nModern amusement parks\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe first permanent enclosed entertainment area, regulated by a single company, was founded in Coney Island in 1895: Sea Lion Park at Coney Island in Brooklyn. This park was one of the first to charge admission to get into the park in addition to sell tickets for rides within the park.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn 1897, Sea Lion Park was joined by Steeplechase Park, the first of three major amusement parks that would open in the Coney Island area. George Tilyou designed the park to provide thrills and entertainment. The combination of the nearby population center of New York City and the ease of access to the area made Coney Island the embodiment of the American amusement park. Coney Island also featured Luna Park and Dreamland. Coney Island was a huge success and by year 1910 attendance on days could reach a million people. Fueled by the efforts of Frederick Ingersoll, other \\\"Luna Parks\\\" were quickly erected worldwide and opened to rave reviews.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe first amusement park in England was opened in 1896 - the Blackpool Pleasure Beach by W. G. Bean. In 1904, Sir Hiram Maxim's Captive Flying Machine was introduced; he had designed an early aircraft powered by steam engines that had been unsuccessful and instead opened up a pleasure ride of flying carriages that revolved around a central pylon. Other rides included the 'Grotto' (a fantasy ride), 'River Caves' (a scenic railway), water chutes and a toboganning tower.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFire was a constant threat in those days, as much of the construction within the amusement parks of the era was wooden. In 1911, Dreamland was the first Coney Island amusement park to completely burn down; in 1944, Luna Park also burned to the ground. Most of Ingersoll's Luna Parks were similarly destroyed, usually by arson, before his death in 1927.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe Golden Age\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nDuring the Gilded Age, many Americans began working fewer hours and had more disposable income. With new-found money and time to spend on leisure activities, Americans sought new venues for entertainment. Amusement parks, set up outside major cities and in rural areas, emerged to meet this new economic opportunity. These parks served as source of fantasy and escape from real life. By the early 1900s, hundreds of amusement parks were operating in the United States and Canada. Trolley parks stood outside many cities. Parks like Atlanta's Ponce de Leon and Idora Park, near Youngstown, OH, took passengers to traditionally popular picnic grounds, which by the late 1890s also often included rides like the Giant Swing, Carousel, and Shoot-the-Chutes. These amusement parks were often based on nationally known parks or world's fairs: they had names like Coney Island, White City, Luna Park, or Dreamland. The American Gilded Age was, in fact, amusement parks' Golden Age that reigned until the late 1920s.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe Golden Age of amusement parks also included the advent of the kiddie park. Founded in 1925, the original Kiddie Park is located in San Antonio, Texas and is still in operation today. The kiddie parks became popular all over America after World War II.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThis era saw the development of the new innovations in roller coasters that included extreme drops and speeds to thrill the riders. By the end of the First World War, people seemed to want an even more exciting entertainment, a need met by roller coasters. Although the development of the automobile provided people with more options for satisfying their entertainment needs, the amusement parks after the war continued to be successful, while urban amusement parks saw declining attendance. The 1920s is more properly known as the Golden Age of roller coasters, being the decade of frenetic building for these rides.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn England, the Dreamland Margate openened in 1920 with a Scenic Railway rollercoaster that opened to the public in 1920 with great success, carrying half a million passengers in its first year. The park also installed other rides common to the time including a smaller roller coaster, the Joy Wheel, Miniature Railway, The Whip and the River Caves. A ballroom was constructed on the site of the Skating Rink in 1920 and in 1923 a Variety Cinema was built on the site. Between 1920 and 1935 over £500,000 was invested in the site, constantly adding new rides and facilities and culminating in the construction of the Dreamland Cinema complex in 1934 which stands to this day.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nMeanwhile, the Blackpool Pleasure Beach was also being developed. Frequent large-scale investments were responsible for the construction of many new rides, including the Virginia Reel, Whip, Noah's Ark, Big Dipper and Dodgems. In the 1920s the \\\"Casino Building\\\" was built, which remains to this day.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn 1923, land was reclaimed from the sea front. It was at this period that the park moved to its 44-acre (180,000 m2) current location above what became Watson Road, which was built under the Pleasure Beach in 1932. During this time Joseph Emberton, an architect famous for his work in the amusement trade was brought in to redesign the architectural style of the Pleasure Beach rides, working on the \\\"Grand National\\\" roller coaster, \\\"Noah's Ark\\\" and the Casino building to name a few.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nDepression and post-World War II decline\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II during the 1940s saw the decline of the amusement park industry. War caused the affluent urban population to move to the suburbs, television became a source of entertainment, and families went to amusement parks less often.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nBy the 1950s, factors such as urban decay, crime, and even desegregation in the ghettos led to changing patterns in how people chose to spend their free time. Many of the older, traditional amusement parks closed or burned to the ground. Many would be taken out by the wrecking ball to make way for suburban housing and development. In 1964, Steeplechase Park, once the king of all amusement parks, closed down for good. The traditional amusement parks which survived, for example, Kennywood, in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania, and Cedar Point, in Sandusky, Ohio, did so in spite of the odds.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement and theme parks today\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe amusement park industry's offerings range from large, worldwide type theme parks such as Walt Disney World, SeaWorld Orlando and Universal Studios Hollywood to smaller and medium-sized theme parks such as the Six Flags parks and Cedar Fair parks. Countless smaller ventures exist in many of the states of the U.S. and in countries around the world. Even simpler theme parks directly aimed at smaller children have emerged, such as Legoland.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nExamples of amusement parks in shopping malls exist in West Edmonton Mall, Alberta, Canada; Pier 39, San Francisco; Mall of America, Bloomington, Minnesota.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFamily fun parks starting as miniature golf courses have begun to grow to include batting cages, go-karts, bumper cars, bumper boats and water slides. Some of these parks have grown to include even roller coasters, and traditional amusement parks now also have these competition areas in addition to their thrill rides.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAs of 2008, the Walt Disney Company accounted for around half of the total industry's revenue in the US as a result of more than 50 million visitors of its U.S.-based attractions each year.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nOther types of amusement park\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nEducational theme parks\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nSome parks use rides and attractions for educational purposes. Disney was the first to successfully open a large-scale theme park built around education. Named Epcot, it opened in 1982 as the second park in the Walt Disney World Resort. There are also Holy Land USA and the Holy Land Experience, which are theme parks built to inspire Christian piety. Dinosaur World entertains families with dinosaurs in natural settings, while the SeaWorld and Busch Gardens parks also offer educational experiences, with each of the parks housing several thousand animals, fish and other sea life in dozens of attractions and exhibits focusing on animal education.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nCreated in 1977, the Puy du Fou is a much celebrated theme park in Vendée, France. It is centered around European, French and local history. It received several international prizes.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFamily-owned theme parks\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nSome theme parks did evolve from more traditional amusement park enterprises, such as Knott's Berry Farm. In the 1920s, Walter Knott and his family sold berries from a roadside stand, which grew to include a restaurant serving fried chicken dinners. Within a few years, lines outside the restaurant were often several hours long. To entertain the waiting crowds, Walter Knott built a Ghost Town in 1940, using buildings relocated from real old west towns such as the Calico, California ghost town and Prescott, Arizona. In 1968, the Knott family fenced the farm, charged admission for the first time, and Knott's Berry Farm officially became an amusement park. Because of its long history, Knott's Berry Farm currently claims to be \\\"America's First Theme Park.\\\" Knott's Berry Farm is now owned by Cedar Fair Entertainment Company. Lake Compounce in Bristol, Connecticut may be the true oldest continuously operating amusement park in the United States, open since 1846. Santa Claus Town, which opened in Santa Claus, Indiana in 1935 and included Santa's Candy Castle and other Santa Claus-themed attractions, is considered the first themed attraction in the United States: a precursor to the modern day theme park.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nSanta Claus Land (renamed Holiday World in 1984) opened in 1946 in Santa Claus, Indiana and many people will argue that it was the first true Theme Park despite Knott's history. In the 1950s the Herschend family took over operation of the tourist attraction, Marvel Cave near Branson, Missouri. Over the next decade they modernized the cave, which led to large numbers of people waiting to take the tour. The Herschend family opened a recreation of the old mining town that once existed atop Marvel Cave. The small village eventually became the theme park, Silver Dollar City. The park is still owned and operated by the Herschends and the family has several other parks including Dollywood, Celebration City and Wild Adventures.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nRegional parks\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe first regional amusement park, as well as the first Six Flags park, Six Flags over Texas was officially opened in 1961 in Arlington, Texas near Dallas. The first Six Flags amusement park was the vision of Angus Wynne, Jr. and helped create the modern, competitive amusement park industry. In the late 1950s, Wynne visited Disneyland and was inspired to create an affordable, closer, and larger amusement park that would be filled with fantasy. He followed in the steps of Disney and had subdivisions within the park that reflected different lands. The subdivisions included the Old South and other sections that referenced Wynne's background. By 1968, the second Six Flags park, Six Flags Over Georgia, opened, and in 1971, Six Flags Over Mid-America (now Six Flags St. Louis) opened near St. Louis, Missouri. Also in 1971 was the opening of the Walt Disney World resort complex in Florida, with the Magic Kingdom (1971), Epcot (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (1989) and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998).\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAdmission prices and admission policies\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement parks collect much of their revenue from admission fees paid by guests attending the park. Other revenue sources include parking fees, food and beverage sales and souvenirs.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPractically all amusement parks operate using one of two admission principles:\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPay-as-you-go\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nIn amusement parks using the pay-as-you-go scheme, a guest enters the park at little or no charge. The guest must then purchase rides individually, either at the attraction's entrance or by purchasing ride tickets (or a similar exchange method, like a token). The cost of the attraction is often based on its complexity or popularity. For example, a guest might pay one ticket to ride a carousel but four tickets to ride a roller coaster.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe park may allow guests to purchase a pass providing unlimited admissions to all attractions within the park for a specified duration of time. A wristband or pass is then shown at the attraction entrance to gain admission.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nDisneyland opened in 1955 using the pay-as-you-go format. Initially, guests paid the ride admission fees at the attractions. Within a short time, the problems of handling such large amounts of coins led to the development of a ticket system that, while now out of use, is still part of the amusement-park lexicon. In this new format, guests purchased ticket books that contained a number of tickets, labeled \\\"A,\\\" \\\"B\\\" and \\\"C.\\\" Rides and attractions using an \\\"A-ticket\\\" were generally simple, with \\\"B-tickets\\\" and \\\"C-tickets\\\" used for the larger, more popular rides. Later, the \\\"D-ticket\\\" was added, then finally the now-famous \\\"E-ticket\\\", which was used on the biggest and most elaborate rides, like Space Mountain. Smaller tickets could be traded up for use on larger rides (i.e., two or three A-tickets would equal a single B-ticket). Disneyland, as well as the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, abandoned this practice in 1982.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe advantages of pay-as-you-go include the following:\\n*guests pay for only what they choose to experience, allowed them to visit the park for a short periods of time (whereas guests who get day passes in \\\"Pay-one-price\\\" are generally compelled to spend hours to make the most of the cost)\\n*attraction costs can be changed easily to encourage use or capitalize on popularity\\n*best suited to parks located in areas with high pedestrian traffic and surrounded by competing points-of-interest (i.e. shopping arcade or theatre not operated by the park) and/or natural attractions, that make it hard to charge an admission fee. For instance, Centreville Amusement Park was one of the numerous attractions on the Toronto Islands alongside beaches and boating clubs, and its pay-as-you-go fare scheme was suited its guests who usually spent only 1–2 hours at the park. For amusement parks inside shopping centers such as the West Edmonton Mall's Galaxyland, where amusement attractions exist alongside stores, pedestrian traffic consists of both shoppers and park guests, so it may not be practical to segregate the park premises and charge an admission fee.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe disadvantages of pay-as-you-go include the following:\\n*guests may get tired of spending money almost continuously\\n*guests may not spend as much on food or souvenirs\\n*results in high volumes of low-spending guests, and the resultant low profit margins are only sufficient for mature amusement parks that are not expanding\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPay-one-price\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAn amusement park using the pay-one-price scheme will charge guests a single, large admission fee. The guest is then entitled to use most of the attractions (usually including flagship roller coasters) in the park as often as they wish during their visit. A daily admission pass (daypass) is the most basic fare on sale, also sold are season tickets which offer holders admission for the entire operating year (plus special privileges for the newest attractions), and express passes which gives holders priority in bypassing lineup queues for popular attractions.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPay-one-price format parks also have attractions that are not included in the admission charge; these are called \\\"up-charge attractions\\\" and can include Skycoasters or go-kart tracks, or games of skill where prizes are won.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nWhen Angus Wynne, founder of Six Flags Over Texas, first visited Disneyland in 1959, he noted that park's pay-as-you-go format as a reason to make his park pay-one-price. He thought that a family would be more likely to visit his park if they knew, up front, how much it would cost to attend.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe advantages of pay-one-price include\\n*lower costs for the park operators, since ticket-takers are not needed at each attractions\\n*guests need not worry about spending money continuously on attractions, so they may spend more money on food and souvenirs \\n*more predictable price to offer guests since upfront cost is known.\\n*better suited to amusement parks located in the suburbs or rural areas, with the park often as the only attraction there, which allows for a more captive audience to charge higher admission fees.\\n*the higher profit margins, in turn, allow the park to add new attractions.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThe disadvantages of pay-one-price include:\\n*price may be unattractive for guests who just visit the park to be with their families or use only few attractions\\n*guests are generally compelled to spend hours in order to make the most of the cost of a day pass, pricing is geared towards guests making a full day excursion rather than a short visit\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nRides and attractions\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nMechanized thrill machines are a defining feature of amusement parks. Early rides include the carousel, which originally developed from cavalry training methods first used in the Middle Ages. By the 19th century, carousels were common in parks around the world. Another such ride which shaped the future of the amusement park was the roller coaster. The origins of roller coasters can be traced back to 17th-century Russia, where gravity-driven attractions, which at first only consisted of individual sleds or carts riding freely down chutes on top of specially constructed snow slopes with piles of sand at the bottom for braking, were used as winter leisure activities. These crude and temporarily built curiosities, known as Russian Mountains, were the beginning of the search for even more thrilling amusement park rides. The Columbian Exposition of 1893 was a particularly fertile testing ground for amusement rides and included some that the public had never seen before, such as the world's first Ferris wheel, one of the most recognized products of the fair. In the present day, many rides of various types are set around a specific theme.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nA park contains a mixture of attractions which can be divided into several categories.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFlat rides\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nThere is a core set of flat rides which most amusement parks have, including the enterprise, tilt-a-whirl, the gravitron, chairswing, swinging inverter ship, twister, and the top spin. However, there is constant innovation, with new variations on ways to spin and throw passengers around appearing in an effort to keep attracting customers. Manufactures such as Huss and Zamperla specialise in creating flat rides among other amusement attractions.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nRoller coasters\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement parks often feature multiple roller coasters of primarily timber or steel construction. In essence a specialized railroad system with steep drops and sharp curves, passengers sit and are restrained in cars, usually with two or more cars joined to form a train. Some roller coasters feature one or more inversions (such as vertical loops) which turn the riders upside down. Over the years there have been many roller coaster manufactures with a variety of types of roller coasters.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPopular manufactures today include:\\n* Bolliger & Mabillard\\n* Gerstlauer\\n* Great Coasters International\\n* Intamin\\n* Mack Rides\\n* Premier Rides\\n* Rocky Mountain Construction\\n* Vekoma\\n* Zamperla\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nTrain rides\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement park railroads have had a long and varied history in American amusement parks as well as overseas. Some of the earliest park trains were not really trains; they were trolleys, which brought park patrons to the parks on regular rail lines from the cities to the end of the rail lines where the parks were located. As such, some older parks, such as Kennywood in Pennsylvania, were referred to as trolley parks. The earliest park trains that only operated on lines within the park's boundaries, such as the one on the Zephyr Railroad in Dorney Park, were mostly custom-built. Also, amusement park railroads tend to be narrow gauge, meaning the space between their rails is smaller than that of railroads. Some specific narrow gauges that are common on amusement park railroads are gauge, gauge, and gauge.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nPast and present manufacturers include: \\n*Allan Herschell Company\\n*Brookville Equipment Corporation\\n*Cagney Brothers\\n*Chance Rides\\n*Crown Metal Products\\n*Custom Fabricators\\n*Custom Locomotives\\n*Doppelmayr Garaventa Group\\n*Hurlbut Amusement Co.\\n*Katiland Trains\\n*Miniature Train Co. (MTC)\\n*National Amusement Devices Co. (NAD)\\n*Ottaway\\n*Sandley\\n*Severn Lamb\\n*Tampa Metal Products\\n*Train Rides Unlimited\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nWater rides\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nAmusement parks with water resources generally feature a few water rides, such as the log flume, bumper boats, rapids and rowing boats. Such rides are usually gentler and shorter than roller coasters and many are suitable for all ages. Water rides are especially popular on hot days.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nDark rides\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nOverlapping with both train rides and water rides, dark rides are enclosed attractions in which patrons travel in guided vehicles along a predetermined path, through an array of illuminated scenes which may include lighting effects, animation, music and recorded dialogue, and other special effects,.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFerris wheels\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nFerris wheels are the most common type of amusement ride at state fairs in the US.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nTransport rides\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nTransport rides are used to take large numbers of guests from one area to another, as an alternative to walking, especially for parks that are large or separated into distant areas. Transport rides include chairlifts, monorails, aerial trams, and escalators.\",\n \"Amusement park\\n\\nOcean Park Hong Kong is well known for its cable car connecting the Lowland and Headland areas of the park, and for having the world's second longest outdoor escalator in the Headland. Both transportation links providing scenic views of the park's hilly surroundings and, while originally intended for practicality rather than thrills or enjoyment, have become significant park attractions in their own right.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1585,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2504"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"On which river does Prague stand?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Vltava"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["vllatava river","vlatava river","moldau river","river moldau","vltava","waldaha","river vltava","vltava river"],"string":"[\n \"vllatava river\",\n \"vlatava river\",\n \"moldau river\",\n \"river moldau\",\n \"vltava\",\n \"waldaha\",\n \"river vltava\",\n \"vltava river\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Prague\n\nPrague (; ,, ) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union. It is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava River, the city is home to about 1.26 million people, while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of nearly 2 million. The city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union.","Prague\n\nPrague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100-year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque eras, Prague was not only the capital of the Czech state, but also the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in 20th-century history, during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era.","Prague\n\nPrague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petřín hill and Vyšehrad. Since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.","Prague\n\nThe city boasts more than ten major museums, along with numerous theatres, galleries, cinemas, and other historical exhibits. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city. Also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an \"Alpha-\" global city according to GaWC studies, comparable to Vienna, Seoul and Washington, D.C. Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually, . Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome. Prague's low cost of living makes it a popular destination for expats relocating to Europe.","Prague\n\nHistory","Prague\n\nDuring the thousand years of its existence, the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, becoming the multicultural capital of a modern European state, the Czech Republic, a member state of the European Union.","Prague\n\nEarly history","Prague\n\nThe area on which Prague was founded was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. According to the Jewish historian and chronicler David Solomon Ganz (1541–1613), author of a book published in Hebrew, entitled Tzemach Dovid, the city was founded by an ancient king, Boyya (Boiia), in c. 1306 BC.Tzemach Dovid, David Solomon Ganz, Warsaw, 1878, p. 71 ([http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req\n21930&st&pgnum\n72&hilitep. 72] in pdf). The dates are brought down in Anno Mundi, the year [2]455 anno mundi being in the abbreviated form, without the millennium: e.g. תנה \n 455 of the 3rd millennium (Hebrew). In the words of Ganz (Translated from the Hebrew): \"[2]455. Boiia reigned over Ashkenaz during the days of king Ashketāris, around the year [2]455 [anno mundi], and was a strong and valiant king, and a man of war, and he conquered and built a good and large land, calling it after his own name, Bayern (Bavaria). He also built a large city on the Inn river, and called it Boioduron. It is the city whose name was changed afterwards to Passau, unto this very day. King Boiia also conquered that fat and broad land, and called it Boihaem (Bohemia), after his own name, to this very day.","Prague\n\nAlso in the very midst of the country Boihaem he built a large city and called it after his name, Boiinhaem, which is the city whose name was afterwards changed to Prague. Thus did write Spangenberg, etc.\" He gave his name to the city that lay around the place where Prague now stands, calling it Boiinhaem. The historical territory of Bohemia (Latin: Boihaemum), located within the western portion of the Czech Republic, and the neighboring Bavaria (Bayern) also took their names from this ancient king, Boyya (Boiia).","Prague\n\nAround 200 BC the Celts (Boii) established an oppidum (settlement) in the south of present Prague, now called Závist. By the end of the 1st century BC, the population in Bohemia was composed mostly of the Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Suebi). During the reign of Augustus Caesar (27 BC – 14 AD), the city's name was Maroboden, after a ruler at that time whose name was Maroboduus, who was a contemporary of Augustus.Tzemach Dovid, David Solomon Ganz, Warsaw, 1878, p. 85 ([http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req\n21930&st&pgnum\n86&hilite= p. 86] in pdf). According to David Solomon Ganz, the king who gave the city its new name, Maroboden, was a contemporary of Augustus Caesar.(Hebrew). Around the area where modern-day Prague stands, the map of Ptolemaios (2nd century) mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis.","Prague\n\nIn the late 5th century AD, during the great migration period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes moved westwards and, in the 6th century, the Slavic tribes settled Central Europe. By the 9th century, the city was called Praha (Prague), by which name it is still called today.","Prague\n\nAccording to legends, Prague was founded in the 8th century by the Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: \"I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars.\" On the site she ordered to build a castle and a town called Prague.","Prague\n\nBy the year 800 there was a simple fort fortified with wooden buildings, occupying about two-thirds of the area that is now Prague Castle. The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885.","Prague\n\nThe other Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad was founded in the 10th century, some 70 years later than Prague Castle. Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century.","Prague\n\nThe region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia. Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973. Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344, it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz.","Prague\n\nPrague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled, including many Jews, as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub. The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands. Prague contained an important slave market.","Prague\n\nAt the site of the ford in the Vltava river, King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170, the Judith Bridge (Juditin most), named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia. This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342. Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain.","Prague\n\nIn 1257, under King Ottokar II, Malá Strana (\"Lesser Quarter\") was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany (Prague Castle) area. This was the district of the German people, who had the right to administer the law autonomously, pursuant to Magdeburg rights. The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město (\"Old Town\"), which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications.","Prague\n\nThe era of Charles IV","Prague\n\nPrague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople).","Prague\n\nHe ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge. The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction. In 1347, he founded Charles University, which remains the oldest university in Central Europe.","Prague\n\nHe began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral, within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards, on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there. Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344, the year the cathedral was begun.","Prague\n\nThe city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants. The social order, however, became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen's guilds (themselves often torn by internal fights), and the increasing number of poor people.","Prague\n\nThe Hunger Wall, a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area, was built during a famine in the 1360s. The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families.","Prague\n\nCharles IV died in 1378. During the reign of his son, King Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of intense turmoil ensued. During Easter 1389, members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host (Eucharistic wafer) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage, ransack and burn the Jewish quarter. Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague (3,000 people) perished.","Prague\n\nJan Hus, a theologian and rector at the Charles University, preached in Prague. In 1402, he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel. Inspired by John Wycliffe, these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church. Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, put on trial for heresy, and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415.","Prague\n\nFour years later Prague experienced its first defenestration, when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský. Hus' death, coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism, had spurred the Hussite Wars. Peasant rebels, led by the general Jan Žižka, along with Hussite troops from Prague, defeated Emperor Sigismund, in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420.","Prague\n\nDuring the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by \"Crusader\" and mercenary forces, the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner. This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by, with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis, and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre. The words \"PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE\" (The Lord is our Relief) appeared above the coat-of-arms, with a Hussite chalice centred on the top. Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding.","Prague\n\nOne of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague (1648), when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank, they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm; although this flag still exists, it is in very poor condition. They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus. The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419. Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars, it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia.","Prague\n\nIn the following two centuries, Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city. Many noteworthy Gothic buildings were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added.","Prague\n\nHabsburg era","Prague\n\nIn 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity. These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, the painter Arcimboldo, the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee, the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, and others.","Prague\n\nIn 1618, the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years' War, a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia. Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed, and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V, Elector Palatine; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) not far from the city. Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders (involved in the uprising) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others. The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon (1631) and Battle of Prague (1648). Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000. In the second half of the 17th century Prague's population began to grow again. Jews have been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and, by 1708, they accounted for about a quarter of Prague's population.","Prague\n\nIn 1689, a great fire devastated Prague, but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city. In 1713–14, a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time, killing 12,000 to 13,000 people.","Prague\n\nThe economic rise continued through the 18th century, and the city in 1771 had 80,000 inhabitants. Many of these were rich merchants and nobles who enriched the city with a host of palaces, churches and gardens full of art and music, creating a Baroque style renowned throughout the world.","Prague\n\nAfter the Battle of Prague in 1757 Prussian bombardment destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral. However next month after the Battle of Kolín, Frederick II. lost and had to retreat from Bohemia.","Prague\n\nIn 1784, under Joseph II, the four municipalities of Malá Strana, Nové Město, Staré Město, and Hradčany were merged into a single entity. The Jewish district, called Josefov, was included only in 1850. The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague, as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region. A first suburb, Karlín, was created in 1817, and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000.","Prague\n\nThe revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague, but they were fiercely suppressed. In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise, until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861. Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848, but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14% (42,000), and by 1910 to 6.7% (37,000), due to a massive increase of the city's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language.","Prague\n\n20th century","Prague\n\nFirst Czechoslovak Republic","Prague\n\nWorld War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Masaryk. At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry. By 1930, the population had risen to 850,000.","Prague\n\nSecond World War","Prague\n\nHitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939 and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly Czech- and/or German-speaking) Jewish populations. From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals.","Prague\n\nAt the end of the war Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces. 701 people were killed, over 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings, factories and historical landmarks were destroyed (Emmaus Monastery, Faust House, Vinohrady Synagogue). Many historic structures in Prague, however, escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time. According to American pilots, it was the result of a navigational mistake.","Prague\n\nOn 5 May 1945, two days before Germany capitulated, an uprising against Germany occurred. Four days later the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army liberated the city. The majority (about 50,000 people) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war.","Prague\n\nCold War","Prague\n\nPrague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime. On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the \"socialism with a human face\". It was the \"Prague Spring\", which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform.\nJan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the \"normalization\" of the country.","Prague\n\nEra after the Velvet Revolution","Prague\n\nIn 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the split of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 highrise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late 1990s Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation. In 2000, IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague. In 2002 Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system.","Prague\n\nPrague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics, but failed to make the candidate city shortlist. In June 2009, as the result of financial pressures due to the global recession, Prague's officials also chose to cancel the city's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.","Prague\n\nEtymology and other names","Prague\n\nThe Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, práh, which means \"ford\" or \"rapid\", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river. The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw.","Prague\n\nAnother view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city \"to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house\". The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a \"threshold\" to the castle.","Prague\n\nAnother derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě, the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built. At that time, the castle was surrounded by forests, covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river, as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle, appeared only later.","Prague\n\nThe English spelling of the city's name is borrowed from French. Prague is also called the \"City of a Hundred Spires\", based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano, today's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500. Nicknames for Prague have also included: the Golden City, the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe.","Prague\n\nMain sights","Prague\n\nSince the fall of the Iron Curtain, Prague has become one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region, allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form. It contains one of the world's most pristine and varied collections of architecture, from Romanesque, to Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-Renaissance, Neo-Gothic, Art Nouveau, Cubist, Neo-Classical and ultra-modern. Some popular sights include:","Prague\n\nHradčany and Lesser Town (Malá Strana)","Prague\n\n* Prague Castle with the St. Vitus Cathedral which store the Czech Crown Jewels\n* The picturesque Charles Bridge (Karlův most)\n* The Baroque Saint Nicholas Church\n* Church of Our Lady Victorious and Infant Jesus of Prague\n* Písek Gate, one of the last preserved city gate of Baroque fortification\n* Petřín Hill with Petřín Lookout Tower, Mirror Maze and Petřín funicular\n* Lennon Wall\n* The Franz Kafka Museum\n*Kampa Island, an island with a view of the Charles Bridge","Prague\n\nOld Town (Staré Město) and Josefov","Prague\n\n* The Astronomical Clock (Orloj) on Old Town City Hall\n* The Gothic Church of Our Lady before Týn (Kostel Matky Boží před Týnem) from the 14th century with 80 m high towers\n* The vaulted Gothic Old New Synagogue (Staronová Synagoga) of 1270\n* Old Jewish Cemetery\n* Powder Tower (Prašná brána), a Gothic tower of the old city gates\n* Spanish Synagogue with its beautiful interior\n* Old Town Square (Staroměstské náměstí) with gothic and baroque architectural styles\n* The art nouveau Municipal House, a major civic landmark and concert hall known for its Art Nouveau architectural style and political history in the Czech Republic.\n* Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, with an extensive collections including glass, furniture, textile, toys, Art Nouveau, Cubism and Art Deco\n* Clam-Gallas Palace, a baroque palace from 1713","Prague\n\nNew Town (Nové Město)","Prague\n\n* Busy and historic Wenceslas Square\n* The neo-renaissance National Museum with large scientific and historical collections\n* The National Theatre, a neo-Renaissance building with golden roof, alongside the banks of the Vltava River\n* The deconstructivist Dancing House (Fred and Ginger Building)\n* Charles Square, the largest medieval square in Europe (now turned into a park)\n* The Emmaus monastery and WW Memorial \"Prague to Its Victorious Sons\" at Palacky Square (Palackého náměstí)\n* The museum of the Heydrich assassination in the crypt of the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius\n* Stiassny's Jubilee Synagogue is the largest in Prague\n* The Mucha Museum, showcasing the Art Nouveau works of Alphonse Mucha","Prague\n\nVinohrady and Žižkov","Prague\n\n* Jan Žižka large bronze equestrian statue in Vítkov Park, Žižkov – Prague 3\n* The neo-Gothic Church of St. Ludmila at Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) in Vinohrady\n* Žižkov Television Tower with sculptures of crawling babies\n* New Jewish Cemetery in Olšany, location of Franz Kafka's grave – Prague 3\n* The Roman Catholic Sacred Heart Church at George of Poděbrady Square (Jiřího z Poděbrad)\n* The early-20th-century grand Art Nouveau apartment buildings in the area between Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) in Vinohrady and Riegrovy Sady","Prague\n\nOther places","Prague\n\n* Vyšehrad Castle with Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, Vyšehrad cemetery and Prague oldest Rotunda of St. Martin\n* The Prague Metronome at Letná Park, a giant, functional metronome that looms over the city\n* Prague Zoo in Troja, selected as one of the world's best zoos by Forbes magazine\n* Industrial Palace (Průmyslový palác), Křižík's Light fountain, funfair Lunapark and Sea World Aquarium in Výstaviště compound in Holešovice\n* Letohrádek Hvězda (Star Villa) in Liboc, a renaissance villa in the shape of a six-pointed star surrounded by a game reserve\n* National Gallery in Prague with large collection of Czech and international paintings and sculptures by artists such as Mucha, Kupka, Picasso, Monet or Van Gogh\n*Anděl, a busy part of the city with modern architecture and a shopping mall\n* The large Nusle Bridge, spans the Nusle Valley, linking New Town to Pankrác, with the Metro running underneath the road\n*Strahov Monastery, an old Czech premonstratensian abbey founded in 1149 and monastic library","Prague\n\nGallery","Prague\n\nFile:CharlesBridge-Prague.jpg|The Charles Bridge is a historic bridge from the 14th century\nFile:St. Vitus Cathedral 2007.jpg|Prague Castle is the biggest ancient castle in the world\nFile:Prague old town square panorama.jpg|Old Town Square featuring Church of Our Lady before Týn and Old Town City Hall with Prague Orloj\nFile:Mikulas.jpg|St. Nicholas Church in Malá Strana is the best example of the Baroque style in Prague\nFile:Parník Vyšehrad pod Vyšehradem.jpg|Vyšehrad fortress contains Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, the Vyšehrad Cemetery and the oldest Rotunda of St. Martin\nFile:Praha, Letná, pohled na Pařížskou ulici.JPG|View of Pařížská st. from Letná Park\nFile:Náměstí Míru.jpg|Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) with Vinohrady Theatre and Church of St. Ludmila\nFile:Praha Narodni divadlo.jpg|National Theatre offers opera, drama, ballet and other performances\nFile:Prazske-vystaviste-holesovice.jpg|Výstaviště compound contains Průmyslový palác, Křižík's Light Fountain and host funfair Lunapark\nFile:Prague Praha 2014 Holmstad flott gammelnye synagoge old-new synagogue Josefov.jpg|Old New Synagogue is Europe's oldest active synagogue.","Prague\n\nLegend has Golem lying in the loft\nFile:Praha, Vítkov, památník II.JPG|National Monument on Vítkov Hill, the statue of Jan Žižka is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world\nFile:Prague Zoo main entrance.JPG|Prague Zoo, selected as the fourth best zoo in the world by TripAdvisor\nFile:Prague - night.jpg|Prague at night\nFile:Prague skyline at dawn.jpg|Prague historic city centre skyline at dawn is typical for central European metropolises","Prague\n\nTransport","Prague\n\nPublic transportation","Prague\n\nThe public transport infrastructure (PID, Pražská integrovaná doprava) consists of a heavily-used integrated transport system of Prague Metro (lines A, B, and C – its length is 65 km with 61 stations in total), Prague tram system, Prague buses, funiculars, and six ferries. Prague has one of the highest rates of public transport usage in the world, with 1.2 billion passenger journeys per year. Prague has about 130 bus lines (numbers 100–299) and 22 tram lines (numbers 1–26). There are also three funiculars, one on Petřín Hill, one on Mrázovka Hill and a third at the Zoo in Troja.","Prague\n\nThe Prague tram system now operates various types of trams: still popular classic Tatra T3, newer Tatra KT8D5, T6A5, Škoda 14 T (designed by Porsche), newest modern Škoda 15 T and nostalgic tram number 91. Although Melbourne, Australia has the longest total tram system length in the world, Prague's tram network is one of the largest in the world by other measures.","Prague\n\nThe Prague tram rolling stock consists of over 900 individual cars, of those around 400 are the modernized T3 class, which are typically operated coupled together in pairs. The system carries more than 356 million passengers annually, the third highest tram patronage in the world after St Petersburg and Budapest. On a per capita basis, Prague has the second highest tram patronage after Zürich.","Prague\n\nAll services have a common ticketing system, and are run by the Prague Public Transport Company (Dopravní podnik hl. m. Prahy, a. s.) and several other companies. Recently, the Regional Organiser of Prague Integrated Transport (ROPID) has franchised operation of ferries on the Vltava river, which are also a part of the public transport system with common fares. Taxi services make pick-ups on the streets or operate from regulated taxi stands.","Prague\n\nPrague metro","Prague\n\nThe Metro has three major lines extending throughout the city: A (green), B (yellow) and C (red). A fourth Metro line is planned, which would connect the city centre to southern parts of the city. The Prague Metro system served 589.2 million passengers in 2012, making it the fifth busiest metro system in Europe. The first section of the Prague metro was put into operation in 1974. It was the stretch between stations Kačerov and Florenc on the current line C. The first part of Line A was opened in 1978 (Dejvická – Náměstí Míru), the first part of line B in 1985 (Anděl – Florenc).","Prague\n\nIn April 2015, construction finished to extend the green line A further into the northwest corner of Prague closer to the airport. A new interchange station for the bus in the direction of the airport is now the station Nádraží Veleslavín. The final station of the green line is Nemocnice Motol (Motol Hospital), giving people direct public transportation access to the largest medical facility in Czech Republic and one of the largest in Europe. A railway connection to the airport is planned.","Prague\n\nIn operation there are currently two kinds of units: \"81-71M\" which is modernized variant of the Soviet 81-71 (completely modernized between 1995 and 2003) and new \"Metro M1\" trains (since 2000), manufactured by consortium consisting of Siemens, ČKD Praha and ADtranz. The minimum interval between two trains is 90 seconds.","Prague\n\nThe original Soviet vehicles \"Ečs\" were excluded in 1997, but one vehicle is placed in public transport museum in depot Střešovice. The Náměstí Míru metro station is the deepest station and is equipped with the longest escalator in European Union. The Prague metro is generally considered very safe. At metro stations is also striving to architectural appearance.","Prague\n\nRoads","Prague\n\nThe main flow of traffic leads through the centre of the city and through inner and outer ring roads (partially in operation).","Prague\n\nInner Ring Road (The City Ring \"MO\"):\nOnce completed it will surround the wider central part of the city. The longest city tunnel in Europe with a proposed length of and five interchanges is now being built to relieve congestion in the north-western part of Prague. Called Blanka tunnel complex and to be part of the City Ring Road, it is estimated that it will now cost – after several increases – 43 billion CZK. Construction started in 2007 and the tunnel is scheduled to be completed in 2015. This tunnel complex will complete major part of the inner ring road.\nThe entire City Ring is estimated to be finished after 2020.","Prague\n\nOuter Ring Road (The Prague Ring \"D0\"):\nThis ring road will connect all major motorways and speedways that meet each other in Prague region and provide faster transit without a necessity to drive through the city. So far 39 km, out of a total planned 83 km, is in operation. The year of full completion is unknown due to incompetent, constantly changing, leadership of Czech Road and Motorway Directorate, lack of administrative preparations, and insufficient funding of road constructions.\nMost recently, the southern part of this road (with a length of more than 20 km) was opened on 22 September 2010.","Prague\n\nRail","Prague\n\nThe city forms the hub of the Czech railway system, with services to all parts of the Czech Republic and abroad. The railway system links Prague with major European cities (which can be reached without transfers), including Berlin (Germany); Munich (Germany); Vienna (Austria); Warsaw (Poland); Budapest (Hungary); Košice (Slovakia); Zürich (Switzerland); Split (Croatia) and Moscow (Russia). Travel times range between 4.5 hours to Berlin and approximately 28 hours to Moscow.","Prague\n\nPrague's main international railway station is Hlavní nádraží, rail services are also available from other main stations: Masarykovo nádraží, Holešovice and Smíchov, in addition to suburban stations. Commuter rail services operate under the name Esko Praha, which is part of PID (Prague Integrated Transport).","Prague\n\nAir","Prague\n\nPrague is served by Václav Havel Airport, the biggest airport in the Czech Republic and one of the biggest airports in central and eastern Europe. It is the hub of the flag carrier, Czech Airlines, as well as of the low-cost airlines SmartWings and Wizz Air operating throughout Europe. Other airports in Prague include the city's original airport in the north-eastern district of Kbely, which is serviced by the Czech Air Force, also internationally. The runway (9–27) at Kbely is 2 km long. The airport also houses the Prague Aviation Museum. The nearby Letňany airport is mainly used for private aviation and aeroclub aviation. Another airport in the proximity is Aero Vodochody aircraft factory to the north, used for testing purposes, as well as for aeroclub aviation. There are a few aeroclubs around Prague, such as the Točná airfield.","Prague\n\nGeography","Prague\n\nPrague is situated on the Vltava river, at 50°05\"N and 14°27\"E. in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany; Paris, France; and Vancouver, Canada.","Prague\n\nPopulation","Prague\n\nAccording to the 2011 census, about 14% of the city inhabitants were foreigners, the highest proportion in the country.","Prague\n\nDevelopment of the Prague population since 1378:","Prague\n\nClimate","Prague\n\nThe city of Prague lies between oceanic climate and humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November to late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm (8 in) are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C. Nights can be quite cool even in summer, though. Precipitation in Prague (and most of the Bohemian lowland) is rather low (just over 20 in per year) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges. The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain, especially in form of thundershowers. Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy, cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution. Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 kph (10 mph) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months.","Prague\n\nCulture","Prague\n\nThe city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) and the Estates Theatre (Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo), where the premières of Mozart's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre.","Prague\n\nThe city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic.","Prague\n\nThere are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival, the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows.","Prague\n\nMany films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible, xXx, Blade II, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, Red Tails, Children of Dune and Van Helsing. Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties, EuroTrip, Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear. Also, the romantic music video \"Never Tear Us Apart\" by INXS, \"Diamonds from Sierra Leone\" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other famous landmarks. Rihanna's \"Don't Stop the Music\" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000. The music video \"Silver and Cold\" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj, Drona and Rockstar.","Prague\n\nForbes Traveler magazine and TripAdvisor listed Prague Zoo among the world's best zoos.","Prague\n\nWith the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine.","Prague\n\nThe city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel).","Prague\n\nRecent major events held in Prague:","Prague\n\n*International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000\n*NATO Summit 2002\n*International Olympic Committee Session 2004\n*IAU General Assembly 2006 (Definition of planet)\n*EU & USA Summit 2009\n*Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009\n*USA & Russia Summit 2010 (signing of the New START treaty)","Prague\n\nCuisine","Prague\n\nIn 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe. It retained its star until 2011. there are two Michelin-starred restaurants in Prague (Alcron and La Degustation Bohême Bourgeoise).","Prague\n\nIn Malá Strana, Staré Město, Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants, bars and pubs, especially with Czech beer. Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival), which is the biggest beer festival in the Czech Republic, held for 17 days every year in May. At the festival, more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted.","Prague\n\nPrague is home to many breweries including:","Prague\n\n* Pivovary Staropramen (Praha 5)\n* První novoměstský restaurační pivovar (Praha 1)\n* Pivovar U Fleků (Praha 1)\n* Klášterní pivovar Strahov (Praha 1)\n* Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů (Praha 1)\n* Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků (Praha 1)\n* Pivovarský dům (Praha 2) \n* Jihoměstský pivovar (Praha 4)\n* Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů (Praha 4)\n* Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar – Suchdolský Jeník (Praha 6)\n* Pivovar U Bulovky (Praha 8)","Prague\n\nEconomy","Prague\n\nPrague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech Republic's GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. According to the Eurostat, , its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €42,800. Prague ranked the 5th best-performing European NUTS two-level region at 172 percent of the EU-27 average.","Prague\n\nThe city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies.","Prague\n\nPrague employs almost one fifth of the entire Czech workforce and its wages are significantly above average (~+25%). In December 2015, average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK. This represented an annual increase of 3.4% which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 0.5% in December, compared with 0.1% nationally.) Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, most significant are financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration. Services account for around 80 percent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters. The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce, up from 131,132 in 2008. Approximately one-fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city.","Prague\n\nAlmost one-half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague. The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities, most of which were built after 1990, including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses.","Prague\n\nFrom the late 1990s to late 2000s, the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures. A combination of architecture, low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies.","Prague\n\nThe modern economy of Prague is largely service and export-based and, in a 2010 survey, the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) for business.","Prague\n\nIn 2005, Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economists livability rankings. The city was named as a top-tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy, placing 29th globally out of 289 cities, ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index. The street Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive in whole Central Europe.","Prague\n\nIn the Eurostat research, Prague ranked fifth among Europe's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant, achieving 172 percent of the EU average. It ranked just above Paris and well above the Czech Republic as a whole, which achieved 80 percent of the EU average.","Prague\n\nCompanies with highest turnover in the region in 2014:","Prague\n\nPrague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic.","Prague\n\n*President of the Czech Republic\n* The Government and both houses of Parliament\n* Ministries and other national offices (Industrial Property Office, Czech Statistical Office, National Security Authority etc.)\n*Czech National Bank\n*Czech Television and other major broadcasters\n*Radio Free Europe – Radio Liberty\n*Galileo global navigation project\n*Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic","Prague\n\nEducation","Prague\n\nTwelve universities, and a number of colleges and schools are located in the city, including:","Prague\n\nPublic universities","Prague\n\n*Charles University founded in 1348, the oldest university in Central Europe\n*Czech Technical University (ČVUT) founded in 1707\n*Institute of Chemical Technology (VŠCHT) founded in 1920\n*University of Economics (VŠE) founded in 1953\n*Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (ČZU) founded in 1906/1952","Prague\n\nPublic arts academies","Prague\n\n*Academy of Fine Arts (AVU) founded in 1800\n*Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design (VŠUP) founded in 1885\n*Academy of Performing Arts (AMU) founded in 1945","Prague\n\nPrivate schools","Prague\n\n*University of New York in Prague (UNYP) founded in 1998\n*International School of Prague (ISP) founded in 1948\n*Anglo-American University (AAU) founded in 1990\n*University of Northern Virginia in Prague (UNVA) founded in 1998\n*Architectural Institute in Prague (ARCHIP) founded in 2010\n*The University of Finance and Administration (VSFS) founded in 1999\n*Metropolitan University Prague (MUP) founded in 2001\n*Prague College founded in 2004","Prague\n\nInternational institutions","Prague\n\n*New York University\n*Instituto Camões\n*Goethe-Institut\n*Instituto Cervantes\n*British Council\n*Alliance Française","Prague\n\nScience, research and hi-tech centres","Prague\n\nThe region city of Prague is an important centre of research. It is the seat of 39 out of 54 institutes of the Czech Academy of Sciences, including the largest ones, the Institute of Physics, the Institute of Microbiology and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. It is also a seat of 10 public research institutes, four business incubators and large hospitals performing research and development activities such as the Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine in Prague or the Motol University Hospital. Universities seated in Prague (see section Colleges and Universities) also represent important centres of science and research activities.","Prague\n\n, there were 13,000 researchers (out of 30,000 in the Czech Republic, counted in full-time equivalent), representing 3% share of Prague's economically active population. Gross expenditure on research and development accounted for €901.3 million (41.5% of country's total).","Prague\n\nSome well-known multinational companies have established research and development facilities in Prague, among them Siemens, Honeywell and Sun Microsystems.","Prague\n\nIn 2010, Prague was selected to host administration of the EU satellite navigation system Galileo. For civilian purposes it should be launched in 2016. Full completion is expected by 2020.","Prague\n\nSport","Prague\n\nPrague is the site of many sports events, national stadiums and teams.","Prague\n\n*Sparta Prague (Czech First League) – football club\n*Slavia Prague (Czech First League) – football club\n*Dukla Prague (Czech First League) – football club\n*Bohemians 1905 (Czech First League) – football club\n*Viktoria Žižkov (Czech 2. Liga) – football club\n*HC Sparta Praha (Czech Extraliga) – ice hockey club\n*HC Slavia Praha (1st Czech Republic Hockey League) – ice hockey club\n*O2 Arena – the second largest ice hockey arena in Europe. It hosted 2004 and 2015 Ice Hockey World Championship, NHL 2008 and 2010 Opening Game and Euroleague Final Four\n*Strahov Stadium – the largest stadium in the world\n*Prague International Marathon\n*Prague Open – Tennis Tournament held by the I. Czech Lawn Tennis Club\n*Sparta Prague Open – Tennis Tournament held in Prague 7\n*Josef Odložil Memorial – Athletics meeting\n*Mystic SK8 Cup – World Cup of Skateboarding venue takes place at the Štvanice skatepark\n* Gutovka – sport area with a large concrete skatepark, the highest outside climbing wall in Central Europe, four beach volleyball courts and children’s playground \n* World Ultimate Club Championships 2010","Prague\n\nInternational relations","Prague\n\nThe city of Prague also maintains its own EU delegation in Brussels called Prague House.","Prague\n\nPrague was the location of U.S. President Barack Obama's speech on 5 April 2009, which led to the New START treaty with Russia, signed in Prague on 8 April 2010.","Prague\n\nThe annual conference Forum 2000, which was founded by former Czech President Václav Havel, Japanese philanthropist Yōhei Sasakawa, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel in 1996, is held in Prague. Its main objective is \"to identify the key issues facing civilization and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion, culture or ethnicity as their primary components\", and also intends to promote democracy in non-democratic countries and to support civil society. Conferences have attracted a number of prominent thinkers, Nobel laureates, former and acting politicians, business leaders and other individuals like: Frederik Willem de Klerk, Bill Clinton, Nicholas Winton, Oscar Arias Sánchez, Dalai Lama, Hans Küng, Shimon Peres and Madeleine Albright.","Prague\n\nTwin towns and sister cities","Prague\n\nThe city has a friendship agreement and is twinned with:","Prague\n\nNamesakes","Prague\n\nA number of other settlements are derived or similar to the name of Prague. In many of these cases, Czech emigration has left a number of namesake cities scattered over the globe, with a notable concentration in the New World.","Prague\n\nAdditionally, Kłodzko is traditionally referred to as \"Little Prague\" (). Although now in Poland, the city was the capital of the Bohemian kraj of the County of Kladsko.","Prague\n\nIn the arts and popular culture","Prague\n\nPrague is present in numerous artistic works of authors from around the world. The song Cristales de Bohemia (Bohemian Crystal) by Joaquin Sabina, is dedicated to Prague. The album of this song, Vinagre y rosas (Vinegar and Roses) was produced in the cities of Prague, Madrid and Rota."],"string":"[\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague (; ,, ) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union. It is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava River, the city is home to about 1.26 million people, while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of nearly 2 million. The city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100-year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque eras, Prague was not only the capital of the Czech state, but also the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in 20th-century history, during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petřín hill and Vyšehrad. Since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city boasts more than ten major museums, along with numerous theatres, galleries, cinemas, and other historical exhibits. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city. Also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an \\\"Alpha-\\\" global city according to GaWC studies, comparable to Vienna, Seoul and Washington, D.C. Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually, . Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome. Prague's low cost of living makes it a popular destination for expats relocating to Europe.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nDuring the thousand years of its existence, the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, becoming the multicultural capital of a modern European state, the Czech Republic, a member state of the European Union.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nEarly history\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe area on which Prague was founded was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. According to the Jewish historian and chronicler David Solomon Ganz (1541–1613), author of a book published in Hebrew, entitled Tzemach Dovid, the city was founded by an ancient king, Boyya (Boiia), in c. 1306 BC.Tzemach Dovid, David Solomon Ganz, Warsaw, 1878, p. 71 ([http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req\\n21930&st&pgnum\\n72&hilitep. 72] in pdf). The dates are brought down in Anno Mundi, the year [2]455 anno mundi being in the abbreviated form, without the millennium: e.g. תנה \\n 455 of the 3rd millennium (Hebrew). In the words of Ganz (Translated from the Hebrew): \\\"[2]455. Boiia reigned over Ashkenaz during the days of king Ashketāris, around the year [2]455 [anno mundi], and was a strong and valiant king, and a man of war, and he conquered and built a good and large land, calling it after his own name, Bayern (Bavaria). He also built a large city on the Inn river, and called it Boioduron. It is the city whose name was changed afterwards to Passau, unto this very day. King Boiia also conquered that fat and broad land, and called it Boihaem (Bohemia), after his own name, to this very day.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAlso in the very midst of the country Boihaem he built a large city and called it after his name, Boiinhaem, which is the city whose name was afterwards changed to Prague. Thus did write Spangenberg, etc.\\\" He gave his name to the city that lay around the place where Prague now stands, calling it Boiinhaem. The historical territory of Bohemia (Latin: Boihaemum), located within the western portion of the Czech Republic, and the neighboring Bavaria (Bayern) also took their names from this ancient king, Boyya (Boiia).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAround 200 BC the Celts (Boii) established an oppidum (settlement) in the south of present Prague, now called Závist. By the end of the 1st century BC, the population in Bohemia was composed mostly of the Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Suebi). During the reign of Augustus Caesar (27 BC – 14 AD), the city's name was Maroboden, after a ruler at that time whose name was Maroboduus, who was a contemporary of Augustus.Tzemach Dovid, David Solomon Ganz, Warsaw, 1878, p. 85 ([http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req\\n21930&st&pgnum\\n86&hilite= p. 86] in pdf). According to David Solomon Ganz, the king who gave the city its new name, Maroboden, was a contemporary of Augustus Caesar.(Hebrew). Around the area where modern-day Prague stands, the map of Ptolemaios (2nd century) mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn the late 5th century AD, during the great migration period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes moved westwards and, in the 6th century, the Slavic tribes settled Central Europe. By the 9th century, the city was called Praha (Prague), by which name it is still called today.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAccording to legends, Prague was founded in the 8th century by the Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: \\\"I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars.\\\" On the site she ordered to build a castle and a town called Prague.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nBy the year 800 there was a simple fort fortified with wooden buildings, occupying about two-thirds of the area that is now Prague Castle. The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe other Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad was founded in the 10th century, some 70 years later than Prague Castle. Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia. Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973. Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344, it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled, including many Jews, as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub. The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands. Prague contained an important slave market.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAt the site of the ford in the Vltava river, King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170, the Judith Bridge (Juditin most), named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia. This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342. Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1257, under King Ottokar II, Malá Strana (\\\"Lesser Quarter\\\") was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany (Prague Castle) area. This was the district of the German people, who had the right to administer the law autonomously, pursuant to Magdeburg rights. The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město (\\\"Old Town\\\"), which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe era of Charles IV\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHe ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge. The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction. In 1347, he founded Charles University, which remains the oldest university in Central Europe.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHe began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral, within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards, on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there. Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344, the year the cathedral was begun.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants. The social order, however, became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen's guilds (themselves often torn by internal fights), and the increasing number of poor people.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe Hunger Wall, a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area, was built during a famine in the 1360s. The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nCharles IV died in 1378. During the reign of his son, King Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of intense turmoil ensued. During Easter 1389, members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host (Eucharistic wafer) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage, ransack and burn the Jewish quarter. Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague (3,000 people) perished.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nJan Hus, a theologian and rector at the Charles University, preached in Prague. In 1402, he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel. Inspired by John Wycliffe, these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church. Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, put on trial for heresy, and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nFour years later Prague experienced its first defenestration, when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský. Hus' death, coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism, had spurred the Hussite Wars. Peasant rebels, led by the general Jan Žižka, along with Hussite troops from Prague, defeated Emperor Sigismund, in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nDuring the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by \\\"Crusader\\\" and mercenary forces, the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner. This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by, with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis, and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre. The words \\\"PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE\\\" (The Lord is our Relief) appeared above the coat-of-arms, with a Hussite chalice centred on the top. Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nOne of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague (1648), when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank, they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm; although this flag still exists, it is in very poor condition. They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus. The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419. Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars, it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn the following two centuries, Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city. Many noteworthy Gothic buildings were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHabsburg era\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity. These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, the painter Arcimboldo, the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee, the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, and others.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1618, the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years' War, a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia. Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed, and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V, Elector Palatine; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) not far from the city. Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders (involved in the uprising) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others. The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon (1631) and Battle of Prague (1648). Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000. In the second half of the 17th century Prague's population began to grow again. Jews have been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and, by 1708, they accounted for about a quarter of Prague's population.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1689, a great fire devastated Prague, but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city. In 1713–14, a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time, killing 12,000 to 13,000 people.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe economic rise continued through the 18th century, and the city in 1771 had 80,000 inhabitants. Many of these were rich merchants and nobles who enriched the city with a host of palaces, churches and gardens full of art and music, creating a Baroque style renowned throughout the world.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAfter the Battle of Prague in 1757 Prussian bombardment destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral. However next month after the Battle of Kolín, Frederick II. lost and had to retreat from Bohemia.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1784, under Joseph II, the four municipalities of Malá Strana, Nové Město, Staré Město, and Hradčany were merged into a single entity. The Jewish district, called Josefov, was included only in 1850. The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague, as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region. A first suburb, Karlín, was created in 1817, and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague, but they were fiercely suppressed. In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise, until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861. Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848, but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14% (42,000), and by 1910 to 6.7% (37,000), due to a massive increase of the city's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n20th century\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nFirst Czechoslovak Republic\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nWorld War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Masaryk. At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry. By 1930, the population had risen to 850,000.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nSecond World War\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939 and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly Czech- and/or German-speaking) Jewish populations. From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAt the end of the war Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces. 701 people were killed, over 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings, factories and historical landmarks were destroyed (Emmaus Monastery, Faust House, Vinohrady Synagogue). Many historic structures in Prague, however, escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time. According to American pilots, it was the result of a navigational mistake.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nOn 5 May 1945, two days before Germany capitulated, an uprising against Germany occurred. Four days later the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army liberated the city. The majority (about 50,000 people) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nCold War\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime. On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the \\\"socialism with a human face\\\". It was the \\\"Prague Spring\\\", which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform.\\nJan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the \\\"normalization\\\" of the country.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nEra after the Velvet Revolution\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the split of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 highrise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late 1990s Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation. In 2000, IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague. In 2002 Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics, but failed to make the candidate city shortlist. In June 2009, as the result of financial pressures due to the global recession, Prague's officials also chose to cancel the city's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nEtymology and other names\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, práh, which means \\\"ford\\\" or \\\"rapid\\\", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river. The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAnother view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city \\\"to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house\\\". The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a \\\"threshold\\\" to the castle.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAnother derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě, the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built. At that time, the castle was surrounded by forests, covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river, as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle, appeared only later.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe English spelling of the city's name is borrowed from French. Prague is also called the \\\"City of a Hundred Spires\\\", based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano, today's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500. Nicknames for Prague have also included: the Golden City, the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nMain sights\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nSince the fall of the Iron Curtain, Prague has become one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region, allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form. It contains one of the world's most pristine and varied collections of architecture, from Romanesque, to Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neo-Renaissance, Neo-Gothic, Art Nouveau, Cubist, Neo-Classical and ultra-modern. Some popular sights include:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nHradčany and Lesser Town (Malá Strana)\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* Prague Castle with the St. Vitus Cathedral which store the Czech Crown Jewels\\n* The picturesque Charles Bridge (Karlův most)\\n* The Baroque Saint Nicholas Church\\n* Church of Our Lady Victorious and Infant Jesus of Prague\\n* Písek Gate, one of the last preserved city gate of Baroque fortification\\n* Petřín Hill with Petřín Lookout Tower, Mirror Maze and Petřín funicular\\n* Lennon Wall\\n* The Franz Kafka Museum\\n*Kampa Island, an island with a view of the Charles Bridge\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nOld Town (Staré Město) and Josefov\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* The Astronomical Clock (Orloj) on Old Town City Hall\\n* The Gothic Church of Our Lady before Týn (Kostel Matky Boží před Týnem) from the 14th century with 80 m high towers\\n* The vaulted Gothic Old New Synagogue (Staronová Synagoga) of 1270\\n* Old Jewish Cemetery\\n* Powder Tower (Prašná brána), a Gothic tower of the old city gates\\n* Spanish Synagogue with its beautiful interior\\n* Old Town Square (Staroměstské náměstí) with gothic and baroque architectural styles\\n* The art nouveau Municipal House, a major civic landmark and concert hall known for its Art Nouveau architectural style and political history in the Czech Republic.\\n* Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, with an extensive collections including glass, furniture, textile, toys, Art Nouveau, Cubism and Art Deco\\n* Clam-Gallas Palace, a baroque palace from 1713\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nNew Town (Nové Město)\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* Busy and historic Wenceslas Square\\n* The neo-renaissance National Museum with large scientific and historical collections\\n* The National Theatre, a neo-Renaissance building with golden roof, alongside the banks of the Vltava River\\n* The deconstructivist Dancing House (Fred and Ginger Building)\\n* Charles Square, the largest medieval square in Europe (now turned into a park)\\n* The Emmaus monastery and WW Memorial \\\"Prague to Its Victorious Sons\\\" at Palacky Square (Palackého náměstí)\\n* The museum of the Heydrich assassination in the crypt of the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius\\n* Stiassny's Jubilee Synagogue is the largest in Prague\\n* The Mucha Museum, showcasing the Art Nouveau works of Alphonse Mucha\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nVinohrady and Žižkov\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* Jan Žižka large bronze equestrian statue in Vítkov Park, Žižkov – Prague 3\\n* The neo-Gothic Church of St. Ludmila at Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) in Vinohrady\\n* Žižkov Television Tower with sculptures of crawling babies\\n* New Jewish Cemetery in Olšany, location of Franz Kafka's grave – Prague 3\\n* The Roman Catholic Sacred Heart Church at George of Poděbrady Square (Jiřího z Poděbrad)\\n* The early-20th-century grand Art Nouveau apartment buildings in the area between Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) in Vinohrady and Riegrovy Sady\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nOther places\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* Vyšehrad Castle with Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, Vyšehrad cemetery and Prague oldest Rotunda of St. Martin\\n* The Prague Metronome at Letná Park, a giant, functional metronome that looms over the city\\n* Prague Zoo in Troja, selected as one of the world's best zoos by Forbes magazine\\n* Industrial Palace (Průmyslový palác), Křižík's Light fountain, funfair Lunapark and Sea World Aquarium in Výstaviště compound in Holešovice\\n* Letohrádek Hvězda (Star Villa) in Liboc, a renaissance villa in the shape of a six-pointed star surrounded by a game reserve\\n* National Gallery in Prague with large collection of Czech and international paintings and sculptures by artists such as Mucha, Kupka, Picasso, Monet or Van Gogh\\n*Anděl, a busy part of the city with modern architecture and a shopping mall\\n* The large Nusle Bridge, spans the Nusle Valley, linking New Town to Pankrác, with the Metro running underneath the road\\n*Strahov Monastery, an old Czech premonstratensian abbey founded in 1149 and monastic library\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nFile:CharlesBridge-Prague.jpg|The Charles Bridge is a historic bridge from the 14th century\\nFile:St. Vitus Cathedral 2007.jpg|Prague Castle is the biggest ancient castle in the world\\nFile:Prague old town square panorama.jpg|Old Town Square featuring Church of Our Lady before Týn and Old Town City Hall with Prague Orloj\\nFile:Mikulas.jpg|St. Nicholas Church in Malá Strana is the best example of the Baroque style in Prague\\nFile:Parník Vyšehrad pod Vyšehradem.jpg|Vyšehrad fortress contains Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, the Vyšehrad Cemetery and the oldest Rotunda of St. Martin\\nFile:Praha, Letná, pohled na Pařížskou ulici.JPG|View of Pařížská st. from Letná Park\\nFile:Náměstí Míru.jpg|Náměstí Míru (Peace Square) with Vinohrady Theatre and Church of St. Ludmila\\nFile:Praha Narodni divadlo.jpg|National Theatre offers opera, drama, ballet and other performances\\nFile:Prazske-vystaviste-holesovice.jpg|Výstaviště compound contains Průmyslový palác, Křižík's Light Fountain and host funfair Lunapark\\nFile:Prague Praha 2014 Holmstad flott gammelnye synagoge old-new synagogue Josefov.jpg|Old New Synagogue is Europe's oldest active synagogue.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nLegend has Golem lying in the loft\\nFile:Praha, Vítkov, památník II.JPG|National Monument on Vítkov Hill, the statue of Jan Žižka is the third largest bronze equestrian statue in the world\\nFile:Prague Zoo main entrance.JPG|Prague Zoo, selected as the fourth best zoo in the world by TripAdvisor\\nFile:Prague - night.jpg|Prague at night\\nFile:Prague skyline at dawn.jpg|Prague historic city centre skyline at dawn is typical for central European metropolises\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPublic transportation\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe public transport infrastructure (PID, Pražská integrovaná doprava) consists of a heavily-used integrated transport system of Prague Metro (lines A, B, and C – its length is 65 km with 61 stations in total), Prague tram system, Prague buses, funiculars, and six ferries. Prague has one of the highest rates of public transport usage in the world, with 1.2 billion passenger journeys per year. Prague has about 130 bus lines (numbers 100–299) and 22 tram lines (numbers 1–26). There are also three funiculars, one on Petřín Hill, one on Mrázovka Hill and a third at the Zoo in Troja.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe Prague tram system now operates various types of trams: still popular classic Tatra T3, newer Tatra KT8D5, T6A5, Škoda 14 T (designed by Porsche), newest modern Škoda 15 T and nostalgic tram number 91. Although Melbourne, Australia has the longest total tram system length in the world, Prague's tram network is one of the largest in the world by other measures.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe Prague tram rolling stock consists of over 900 individual cars, of those around 400 are the modernized T3 class, which are typically operated coupled together in pairs. The system carries more than 356 million passengers annually, the third highest tram patronage in the world after St Petersburg and Budapest. On a per capita basis, Prague has the second highest tram patronage after Zürich.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAll services have a common ticketing system, and are run by the Prague Public Transport Company (Dopravní podnik hl. m. Prahy, a. s.) and several other companies. Recently, the Regional Organiser of Prague Integrated Transport (ROPID) has franchised operation of ferries on the Vltava river, which are also a part of the public transport system with common fares. Taxi services make pick-ups on the streets or operate from regulated taxi stands.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague metro\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe Metro has three major lines extending throughout the city: A (green), B (yellow) and C (red). A fourth Metro line is planned, which would connect the city centre to southern parts of the city. The Prague Metro system served 589.2 million passengers in 2012, making it the fifth busiest metro system in Europe. The first section of the Prague metro was put into operation in 1974. It was the stretch between stations Kačerov and Florenc on the current line C. The first part of Line A was opened in 1978 (Dejvická – Náměstí Míru), the first part of line B in 1985 (Anděl – Florenc).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn April 2015, construction finished to extend the green line A further into the northwest corner of Prague closer to the airport. A new interchange station for the bus in the direction of the airport is now the station Nádraží Veleslavín. The final station of the green line is Nemocnice Motol (Motol Hospital), giving people direct public transportation access to the largest medical facility in Czech Republic and one of the largest in Europe. A railway connection to the airport is planned.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn operation there are currently two kinds of units: \\\"81-71M\\\" which is modernized variant of the Soviet 81-71 (completely modernized between 1995 and 2003) and new \\\"Metro M1\\\" trains (since 2000), manufactured by consortium consisting of Siemens, ČKD Praha and ADtranz. The minimum interval between two trains is 90 seconds.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe original Soviet vehicles \\\"Ečs\\\" were excluded in 1997, but one vehicle is placed in public transport museum in depot Střešovice. The Náměstí Míru metro station is the deepest station and is equipped with the longest escalator in European Union. The Prague metro is generally considered very safe. At metro stations is also striving to architectural appearance.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nRoads\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe main flow of traffic leads through the centre of the city and through inner and outer ring roads (partially in operation).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nInner Ring Road (The City Ring \\\"MO\\\"):\\nOnce completed it will surround the wider central part of the city. The longest city tunnel in Europe with a proposed length of and five interchanges is now being built to relieve congestion in the north-western part of Prague. Called Blanka tunnel complex and to be part of the City Ring Road, it is estimated that it will now cost – after several increases – 43 billion CZK. Construction started in 2007 and the tunnel is scheduled to be completed in 2015. This tunnel complex will complete major part of the inner ring road.\\nThe entire City Ring is estimated to be finished after 2020.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nOuter Ring Road (The Prague Ring \\\"D0\\\"):\\nThis ring road will connect all major motorways and speedways that meet each other in Prague region and provide faster transit without a necessity to drive through the city. So far 39 km, out of a total planned 83 km, is in operation. The year of full completion is unknown due to incompetent, constantly changing, leadership of Czech Road and Motorway Directorate, lack of administrative preparations, and insufficient funding of road constructions.\\nMost recently, the southern part of this road (with a length of more than 20 km) was opened on 22 September 2010.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nRail\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city forms the hub of the Czech railway system, with services to all parts of the Czech Republic and abroad. The railway system links Prague with major European cities (which can be reached without transfers), including Berlin (Germany); Munich (Germany); Vienna (Austria); Warsaw (Poland); Budapest (Hungary); Košice (Slovakia); Zürich (Switzerland); Split (Croatia) and Moscow (Russia). Travel times range between 4.5 hours to Berlin and approximately 28 hours to Moscow.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague's main international railway station is Hlavní nádraží, rail services are also available from other main stations: Masarykovo nádraží, Holešovice and Smíchov, in addition to suburban stations. Commuter rail services operate under the name Esko Praha, which is part of PID (Prague Integrated Transport).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAir\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is served by Václav Havel Airport, the biggest airport in the Czech Republic and one of the biggest airports in central and eastern Europe. It is the hub of the flag carrier, Czech Airlines, as well as of the low-cost airlines SmartWings and Wizz Air operating throughout Europe. Other airports in Prague include the city's original airport in the north-eastern district of Kbely, which is serviced by the Czech Air Force, also internationally. The runway (9–27) at Kbely is 2 km long. The airport also houses the Prague Aviation Museum. The nearby Letňany airport is mainly used for private aviation and aeroclub aviation. Another airport in the proximity is Aero Vodochody aircraft factory to the north, used for testing purposes, as well as for aeroclub aviation. There are a few aeroclubs around Prague, such as the Točná airfield.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is situated on the Vltava river, at 50°05\\\"N and 14°27\\\"E. in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany; Paris, France; and Vancouver, Canada.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPopulation\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAccording to the 2011 census, about 14% of the city inhabitants were foreigners, the highest proportion in the country.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nDevelopment of the Prague population since 1378:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city of Prague lies between oceanic climate and humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November to late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm (8 in) are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C. Nights can be quite cool even in summer, though. Precipitation in Prague (and most of the Bohemian lowland) is rather low (just over 20 in per year) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges. The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain, especially in form of thundershowers. Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy, cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution. Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 kph (10 mph) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) and the Estates Theatre (Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo), where the premières of Mozart's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThere are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival, the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nMany films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible, xXx, Blade II, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, Red Tails, Children of Dune and Van Helsing. Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties, EuroTrip, Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear. Also, the romantic music video \\\"Never Tear Us Apart\\\" by INXS, \\\"Diamonds from Sierra Leone\\\" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other famous landmarks. Rihanna's \\\"Don't Stop the Music\\\" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000. The music video \\\"Silver and Cold\\\" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj, Drona and Rockstar.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nForbes Traveler magazine and TripAdvisor listed Prague Zoo among the world's best zoos.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nWith the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nRecent major events held in Prague:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000\\n*NATO Summit 2002\\n*International Olympic Committee Session 2004\\n*IAU General Assembly 2006 (Definition of planet)\\n*EU & USA Summit 2009\\n*Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009\\n*USA & Russia Summit 2010 (signing of the New START treaty)\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe. It retained its star until 2011. there are two Michelin-starred restaurants in Prague (Alcron and La Degustation Bohême Bourgeoise).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn Malá Strana, Staré Město, Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants, bars and pubs, especially with Czech beer. Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival), which is the biggest beer festival in the Czech Republic, held for 17 days every year in May. At the festival, more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is home to many breweries including:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n* Pivovary Staropramen (Praha 5)\\n* První novoměstský restaurační pivovar (Praha 1)\\n* Pivovar U Fleků (Praha 1)\\n* Klášterní pivovar Strahov (Praha 1)\\n* Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů (Praha 1)\\n* Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků (Praha 1)\\n* Pivovarský dům (Praha 2) \\n* Jihoměstský pivovar (Praha 4)\\n* Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů (Praha 4)\\n* Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar – Suchdolský Jeník (Praha 6)\\n* Pivovar U Bulovky (Praha 8)\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech Republic's GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. According to the Eurostat, , its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €42,800. Prague ranked the 5th best-performing European NUTS two-level region at 172 percent of the EU-27 average.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague employs almost one fifth of the entire Czech workforce and its wages are significantly above average (~+25%). In December 2015, average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK. This represented an annual increase of 3.4% which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 0.5% in December, compared with 0.1% nationally.) Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, most significant are financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration. Services account for around 80 percent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters. The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce, up from 131,132 in 2008. Approximately one-fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAlmost one-half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague. The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities, most of which were built after 1990, including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nFrom the late 1990s to late 2000s, the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures. A combination of architecture, low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe modern economy of Prague is largely service and export-based and, in a 2010 survey, the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) for business.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 2005, Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economists livability rankings. The city was named as a top-tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy, placing 29th globally out of 289 cities, ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index. The street Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive in whole Central Europe.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn the Eurostat research, Prague ranked fifth among Europe's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant, achieving 172 percent of the EU average. It ranked just above Paris and well above the Czech Republic as a whole, which achieved 80 percent of the EU average.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nCompanies with highest turnover in the region in 2014:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*President of the Czech Republic\\n* The Government and both houses of Parliament\\n* Ministries and other national offices (Industrial Property Office, Czech Statistical Office, National Security Authority etc.)\\n*Czech National Bank\\n*Czech Television and other major broadcasters\\n*Radio Free Europe – Radio Liberty\\n*Galileo global navigation project\\n*Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nTwelve universities, and a number of colleges and schools are located in the city, including:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPublic universities\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*Charles University founded in 1348, the oldest university in Central Europe\\n*Czech Technical University (ČVUT) founded in 1707\\n*Institute of Chemical Technology (VŠCHT) founded in 1920\\n*University of Economics (VŠE) founded in 1953\\n*Czech University of Life Sciences Prague (ČZU) founded in 1906/1952\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPublic arts academies\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*Academy of Fine Arts (AVU) founded in 1800\\n*Academy of Arts, Architecture and Design (VŠUP) founded in 1885\\n*Academy of Performing Arts (AMU) founded in 1945\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrivate schools\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*University of New York in Prague (UNYP) founded in 1998\\n*International School of Prague (ISP) founded in 1948\\n*Anglo-American University (AAU) founded in 1990\\n*University of Northern Virginia in Prague (UNVA) founded in 1998\\n*Architectural Institute in Prague (ARCHIP) founded in 2010\\n*The University of Finance and Administration (VSFS) founded in 1999\\n*Metropolitan University Prague (MUP) founded in 2001\\n*Prague College founded in 2004\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nInternational institutions\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*New York University\\n*Instituto Camões\\n*Goethe-Institut\\n*Instituto Cervantes\\n*British Council\\n*Alliance Française\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nScience, research and hi-tech centres\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe region city of Prague is an important centre of research. It is the seat of 39 out of 54 institutes of the Czech Academy of Sciences, including the largest ones, the Institute of Physics, the Institute of Microbiology and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. It is also a seat of 10 public research institutes, four business incubators and large hospitals performing research and development activities such as the Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine in Prague or the Motol University Hospital. Universities seated in Prague (see section Colleges and Universities) also represent important centres of science and research activities.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n, there were 13,000 researchers (out of 30,000 in the Czech Republic, counted in full-time equivalent), representing 3% share of Prague's economically active population. Gross expenditure on research and development accounted for €901.3 million (41.5% of country's total).\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nSome well-known multinational companies have established research and development facilities in Prague, among them Siemens, Honeywell and Sun Microsystems.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn 2010, Prague was selected to host administration of the EU satellite navigation system Galileo. For civilian purposes it should be launched in 2016. Full completion is expected by 2020.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is the site of many sports events, national stadiums and teams.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\n*Sparta Prague (Czech First League) – football club\\n*Slavia Prague (Czech First League) – football club\\n*Dukla Prague (Czech First League) – football club\\n*Bohemians 1905 (Czech First League) – football club\\n*Viktoria Žižkov (Czech 2. Liga) – football club\\n*HC Sparta Praha (Czech Extraliga) – ice hockey club\\n*HC Slavia Praha (1st Czech Republic Hockey League) – ice hockey club\\n*O2 Arena – the second largest ice hockey arena in Europe. It hosted 2004 and 2015 Ice Hockey World Championship, NHL 2008 and 2010 Opening Game and Euroleague Final Four\\n*Strahov Stadium – the largest stadium in the world\\n*Prague International Marathon\\n*Prague Open – Tennis Tournament held by the I. Czech Lawn Tennis Club\\n*Sparta Prague Open – Tennis Tournament held in Prague 7\\n*Josef Odložil Memorial – Athletics meeting\\n*Mystic SK8 Cup – World Cup of Skateboarding venue takes place at the Štvanice skatepark\\n* Gutovka – sport area with a large concrete skatepark, the highest outside climbing wall in Central Europe, four beach volleyball courts and children’s playground \\n* World Ultimate Club Championships 2010\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nInternational relations\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city of Prague also maintains its own EU delegation in Brussels called Prague House.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague was the location of U.S. President Barack Obama's speech on 5 April 2009, which led to the New START treaty with Russia, signed in Prague on 8 April 2010.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe annual conference Forum 2000, which was founded by former Czech President Václav Havel, Japanese philanthropist Yōhei Sasakawa, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel in 1996, is held in Prague. Its main objective is \\\"to identify the key issues facing civilization and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion, culture or ethnicity as their primary components\\\", and also intends to promote democracy in non-democratic countries and to support civil society. Conferences have attracted a number of prominent thinkers, Nobel laureates, former and acting politicians, business leaders and other individuals like: Frederik Willem de Klerk, Bill Clinton, Nicholas Winton, Oscar Arias Sánchez, Dalai Lama, Hans Küng, Shimon Peres and Madeleine Albright.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nTwin towns and sister cities\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nThe city has a friendship agreement and is twinned with:\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nNamesakes\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nA number of other settlements are derived or similar to the name of Prague. In many of these cases, Czech emigration has left a number of namesake cities scattered over the globe, with a notable concentration in the New World.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nAdditionally, Kłodzko is traditionally referred to as \\\"Little Prague\\\" (). Although now in Poland, the city was the capital of the Bohemian kraj of the County of Kladsko.\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nIn the arts and popular culture\",\n \"Prague\\n\\nPrague is present in numerous artistic works of authors from around the world. The song Cristales de Bohemia (Bohemian Crystal) by Joaquin Sabina, is dedicated to Prague. The album of this song, Vinagre y rosas (Vinegar and Roses) was produced in the cities of Prague, Madrid and Rota.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1586,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2507"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which European country restored its monarchy in 1975?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Spain"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["el reino de españa","iso 3166 1 es","kingdom of spains","reino de espana","regne d espanha","espagna","mountains of spain","kingdom of spain","name of spain","etymology of spain","regne d espanya","spanish kingdom","espainiako erresuma","reino de españa","espanya","espańa","spanish society","islands of spain","spain","spane","espainia","españa","espana","el reino de espana"],"string":"[\n \"el reino de españa\",\n \"iso 3166 1 es\",\n \"kingdom of spains\",\n \"reino de espana\",\n \"regne d espanha\",\n \"espagna\",\n \"mountains of spain\",\n \"kingdom of spain\",\n \"name of spain\",\n \"etymology of spain\",\n \"regne d espanya\",\n \"spanish kingdom\",\n \"espainiako erresuma\",\n \"reino de españa\",\n \"espanya\",\n \"espańa\",\n \"spanish society\",\n \"islands of spain\",\n \"spain\",\n \"spane\",\n \"espainia\",\n \"españa\",\n \"espana\",\n \"el reino de espana\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Culture of Europe\n\nThe culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the European cultural region. European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \"common cultural heritage\".","Culture of Europe\n\nElements","Culture of Europe\n\nBecause of the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \n*A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \n*A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \"Great Divergence\";\n*A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \n*A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\n*Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.","Culture of Europe\n\nBerting says that these points fit with \"Europe's most positive realisations\". \nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.","Culture of Europe\n\nThe Nobel Prize laureate in Literature Thomas Stearns Eliot in his 1948 book Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, credited the prominent Christian influence upon the European culture:","Culture of Europe\n\nArt","Culture of Europe\n\nPainting","Culture of Europe\n\nThe oldest known cave paintings are at the El Castillo cave (Spain), older than 40,800 years. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from antiquity. Until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later.","Culture of Europe\n\nSculpture","Culture of Europe\n\nThe earliest European sculpture to date portrays a female form, and has been estimated at dating from 35,000 years ago. See Classical sculpture, Ancient Greek sculpture, Gothic art, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism, Postminimalism, found art, Postmodern art, Conceptual art.","Culture of Europe\n\nMusic","Culture of Europe\n\n*Classical music : Important classical composers from Europe include Hildegard von Bingen, J.S. Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Brahms, Schumann, Wagner, Richard Strauss, von Weber, Offenbach, Stockhausen, Mendelssohn (Germany), Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rachmaninov, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, (Russia), Schubert, Haydn, Mozart, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg (Austria), Berlioz, Machaut, Pérotin, François Couperin, Lully, Rameau, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Debussy, Ravel (France), Palestrina, Monteverdi, Vivaldi, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Donizetti, Cavalli, Paganini, Bellini, Verdi, Puccini, Rossini (Italy), Tomás Luis de Victoria, Falla, Granados, Albéniz, Rodrigo (Spain), Smetana, Dvořák, Janáček, Martinů (Czech Republic), Dufay, des Prez, Lassus (Belgium), Grieg (Norway), Liszt, Bartók (Hungary), Purcell, Elgar, Britten, Holst (UK), Nielsen (Denmark), Sibelius (Finland), Chopin, Penderecki (Poland), George Enescu, Sergiu Celibidache (Romania). Luciano Pavarotti was a contemporary popular opera singer. Orchestras such as the Berliner Philharmoniker, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra are considered to be amongst the finest ensembles in the world. The Salzburg Festival, the Bayreuth Festival, the Edinburgh International Festival and the BBC Proms are major European classical music festivals, and International Chopin Piano Competition is the world's oldest monographic music competition.","Culture of Europe\n\n*Folk music : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, travelling or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced some popular music in Europe.","Culture of Europe\n\n*Popular music: Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from the United States, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B and Dance. The UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and also creating many of its own genres via notable movements including the British Invasion, the new wave of British heavy metal (that has been compared to Beatlemania. ) and Britpop.","Culture of Europe\n\nSome major UK acts include The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Queen, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Elton John, David Bowie, Deep Purple, Sex Pistols, Eric Clapton, The Clash, Van Morrison, Dire Straits, The Police, Fleetwood Mac, Genesis, George Michael, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, The Who, Eurythmics, Dusty Springfield, The Cure, Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Def Leppard, Duran Duran, Oasis, Radiohead, Coldplay, Mumford & Sons, The Smiths, Muse, Gorillaz, Bonnie Tyler, Seal, Elvis Costello, Bee Gees, Spice Girls, Depeche Mode, The Kinks, The Animals, Motörhead, UB40, One Direction, Adele, Amy Winehouse; Also very important European musicians are U2, Thin Lizzy, The Pogues, The Script, My Bloody Valentine, The Undertones, Sinéad O'Connor (Ireland), Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, Neu!, Scorpions, Nina Hagen, Trio, Rammstein, Modern Talking, James Last, Enigma, Paul Kalkbrenner (Germany), ABBA, The Cardigans, The Hives, Roxette, Swedish House Mafia, Avicii, Icona Pop (Sweden), a-ha (Norway), Björk, Sigur Rós (Iceland), Lepa Brena, Ceca Ražnatović, Jelena Karleuša, Seka Aleksić, Indira Radić, Dragana Mirković (Serbia), Giorgio Moroder, Andrea Bocelli, Ennio Morricone, Benny Benassi, The Bloody Beetroots, Mina, Adriano Celentano, Patty Pravo, Toto Cutugno, Laura Pausini, Eros Ramazzotti, Zucchero Fornaciari, Domenico Modugno, Lucio Battisti, Giorgia, Sabrina Salerno, Ivana Spagna, Eiffel 65, Alexia (Italy), Soulwax, dEUS, Absynthe Minded, The Black Box Revelation, Selah Sue, Girls in Hawaii, Stromae, (Belgium), Luis Eduardo Aute, Julio Iglesias, The Pinker Tones, Lluis Llach, Enrique Iglesias (Spain), Édith Piaf, Serge Gainsbourg, Daft Punk, David Guetta, Justice, Bob Sinclar, Martin Solveig, Étienne de Crécy, Yann Tiersen, Yelle, Phoenix, Air, M83, Alizée, C2C, Jean Michel Jarre (France), Nana Mouskouri, Celine Dion (Greece/France), Vangelis, Demis Roussos, Helena Paparizou (Greece), Kati Wolf (Hungary), Eduard Artemyev, Eduard Khil, Kino, Mumiy Troll, Leningrad, Zemfira, t.A.T.u., PPK (Russia), Doda (Poland), Rasmus Seebach, The Raveonettes, Agnes Obel, WhoMadeWho (Denmark), Bijelo Dugme (Yugoslavia), The Legendary Tigerman, The Gift (Portugal), The Nits, Golden Earring, Focus, zZz, Nicky Romero, Armin van Buuren, Fedde le Grand, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Afrojack (Netherlands), Alexandra Stan, Inna, Edward Maya (Romania), HIM, The Rasmus, Nightwish (Finland).","Culture of Europe\n\nMain festivals includes: Sanremo Music Festival, Coca-Cola Summer Festival (Italy), Glastonbury, Reading and Leeds Festivals, Isle of Wight Festival, T in the Park (UK), Fête de la Musique, Eurockéennes, Vieilles Charrues Festival, Hellfest (France), Wacken (Germany), Festival Internacional de Benicàssim, Primavera Sound (Spain), Exit Festival (Serbia), Sziget Festival (Hungary), Roskilde Festival (Denmark), Rock Werchter, Tomorrowland (Belgium) & Eurovision (music competition between European countries). Domino Recording Company, Bertelsmann Music Group, PolyGram, EMI, Universal Music Group (Subsidiary of French company Vivendi) are the largest European music companies.","Culture of Europe\n\nArchitecture","Culture of Europe\n\nNeolithic architecture : Born in the Levant, Neolithic architecture spread to Europe. The Mediterranean neolithic cultures of Malta worshiped in megalithic temples. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges flint mines and cursus monuments., Architecture of ancient Greece, Roman architecture, Medieval architecture, Renaissance architecture, Baroque architecture, Beaux-Arts architecture, Expressionist architecture, Stalinist architecture, Deconstructivism.","Culture of Europe\n\nLiterature","Culture of Europe\n\nEurope has produced some of the most prominent or popular fiction and nonfiction writers of all time :","Culture of Europe\n\n*Homer, Hesiod, Sappho, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Xenophon, Aristophanes, Menander, Polybius, Arrian, Plutarch, Longus (Ancient Greece)\n*Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, Livy, Ovid, Tacitus, Horace, Catullus, Pliny the Elder, Quintilian, Seneca the Younger, Pliny the Younger (Ancient Rome) \n*Francesco Petrarca, Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso, Carlo Goldoni, Carlo Gozzi, Giacomo Leopardi, Giosuè Carducci, Italo Svevo, Luigi Pirandello, Italo Calvino, Eugenio Montale, Salvatore Quasimodo, Umberto Eco, Dario Fo (Italy)\n*Chrétien de Troyes, François Rabelais, Montaigne, Alexandre Dumas, Pierre Corneille, Racine, Molière, Voltaire, Jean de La Fontaine, Rousseau, Jules Verne, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, Stendhal, Marcel Proust, Albert Camus, JMG Le Clézio, Victor Hugo, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, Anatole France, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Apollinaire, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre, Romain Rolland, Denis Diderot, Michel Foucault, Théophile Gautier, Alain Robbe-Grillet, François Mauriac, André Gide (France)","Culture of Europe\n\n*Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Goncharov, Mikhail Bakunin, Mikhail Lermontov, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Peter Kropotkin, Anton Chekhov, Maxim Gorky, Ivan Bunin, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Boris Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova, Mikhail Bulgakov, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Nabokov, Mikhail Sholokhov, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Joseph Brodsky (Russia)\n*Jorge Manrique, Garcilaso de la Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Francisco de Quevedo, Luis de Góngora, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Leopoldo Alas, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Pío Baroja, José Echegaray, Miguel de Unamuno, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Camilo José Cela, Mario Vargas Llosa (Spain) \n*Luís de Camões, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, Fernando Pessoa, José Saramago (Portugal)\n*Salvador Espriu, Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner (Catalan language)\n*Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Gottfried Herder, Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Heinrich von Kleist, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Heinrich Heine, Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Anne Frank, Hermann Hesse, Nelly Sachs, Günter Grass, Patrick Süskind (Germany)\n*Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Joseph Conrad, Czesław Miłosz, Zbigniew Herbert, Witold Gombrowicz, Jan Kochanowski, Mikołaj Rej, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Wisława Szymborska, Stanisław Lem, Andrzej Sapkowski (Poland)\n*Arnaut Daniel, Frédéric Mistral (Occitan language)\n*Lajos Kossuth, Imre Kertész (Hungary)\n*Franz Kafka, Jaroslav Seifert, Milan Kundera (Czech Republic)","Culture of Europe\n\n*William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Geoffrey Chaucer, Jane Austen, H. G. Wells, Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. K. Rowling, Beatrix Potter, J. M. Barrie, Walter Scott, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, John Milton, Terry Pratchett, Mary Shelley, Roald Dahl, Lewis Carroll, Agatha Christie, Daniel Defoe, Alan Moore, Rudyard Kipling, Aldous Huxley, Harold Pinter (United Kingdom)\n*Laurence Sterne, Bram Stoker, James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift, Samuel Beckett, William Butler Yeats, Seamus Heaney (Ireland)\n*Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Hans Christian Andersen, Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (Denmark)\n*Georges Simenon, Emile Verhaeren, Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgium)\n*Sigrid Undset, Henrik Ibsen, Knut Hamsun, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (Norway)\n*Ivo Andric (Yugoslavia)\n*Frans Eemil Sillanpää (Finland)\n*Elfriede Jelinek (Austria)\n*Halldór Laxness (Iceland)\n*Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko (Ukraine)\n*Verner von Heidenstam, Stieg Larsson, Pär Lagerkvist, August Strindberg, Emanuel Swedenborg, Eyvind Johnson (Sweden)\n*Eugène Ionesco, Mircea Eliade, Mihai Eminescu, Paul Celan, Emil Cioran, Herta Muller, Elie Wiesel (Romania)\n*Joost van den Vondel, Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Multatuli, Louis Couperus, Gerard Reve, Martinus Nijhoff, Gerard Reve (The Netherlands)","Culture of Europe\n\nFilm","Culture of Europe\n\nAntoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph, in Paris. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris. \nIn 1897, Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris.\nSome notable European film movements include German Expressionism, Italian neorealism, French New Wave, Polish Film School, New German Cinema, Portuguese Cinema Novo, Czechoslovak New Wave, Dogme 95, New French Extremity, and Romanian New Wave. The cinema of Europe has its own awards, the European Film Awards.\nMain festivals : Cannes Film Festival (France), Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). The Venice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world.","Culture of Europe\n\nVideo games","Culture of Europe\n\nSome of the most popular games of all time come from Europe: Grand Theft Auto, Tomb Raider, The Witcher, Cossacks: European Wars, Colin McRae: Dirt, Far Cry 3, Asphalt, The Settlers, The Patrician, Need For Speed, Angry Birds, Cut the Rope, Brain Challenge, Rayman, Beyond Good & Evil, Heavy Rain, Beyond: Two Souls, Watch Dogs, Batman: Arkham City, Banjo-Kazooie, LittleBigPlanet, Block Breaker Deluxe, Crysis, Tetris, Assassin's Creed, Europa Universalis, Kinect Sports, Hysteria Project.","Culture of Europe\n\nScience","Culture of Europe\n\n*CERN (;) : The European Organization for Nuclear Research, is the birthplace of the World Wide Web and home of the world's largest machine : the Large Hadron Collider. It is the world's largest particle physics laboratory, situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, established in 1954. In November 2010, the collisions obtained were able to generate the highest temperatures and densities ever produced in an experiment, creating a \"mini-Big Bang\" a million times hotter than the centre of the Sun. *ESA : The European Space Agency's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in the International Space Station program, the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth observations, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle. On 12 November 2014, ESA's Philae probe achieved the first-ever soft landing on a comet. Europe has produced some of the greatest scientists, inventors and intellectuals in history.","Culture of Europe\n\n* Germany: Albert Einstein, Johannes Kepler, Johannes Gutenberg, Gottfried Leibniz, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Max Planck, Karl Benz\n* United Kingdom: Isaac Newton, Charles K. Kao, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, Michael Faraday, James Joule, Edward Jenner, John Dalton, George Stephenson, Florence Nightingale, George Cayley, Frank Whittle, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, Tim Berners Lee, James Watt, Alexander Fleming, Alexander Graham Bell, John Logie Baird, James Clerk Maxwell, Adam Smith, John Maynard Keynes\n* Russia: Dmitri Mendeleev, Ivan Pavlov, Ilya Mechnikov, Nikolai Lobachevsky, Mikhail Lomonosov, Lev Landau, Aleksandr Butlerov, Alexander Popov, Vladimir Shukhov, Igor Sikorsky, Sergey Korolyov. * Finland: Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Ragnar Granit, Johan Gadolin, Pekka Pyykkö, Gustav Elfving, Arvo Ylppö, Linus Torvalds, Anders Chydenius, Elias Lönnrot, Herman Spöring, Jr.","Culture of Europe\n\n* France: Pierre Abelard, Michel de Montaigne, Louis Pasteur, Antoine Lavoisier, Henri Becquerel, René Descartes, Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, the Montgolfier brothers, Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Léon Foucault, Auguste and Louis Lumière, Pierre Curie, , Jacques Lacan, Luc Montagnier, Albert Jacquard\n* Italy: Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Niccolò Machiavelli, Alessandro Volta, Guglielmo Marconi, Enrico Fermi\n* Poland: Sendivogius, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Hevelius, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, Marie Curie, Rudolf Weigl\n* Greece: Archimedes, Euclid, Ptolemy. Hungary: Ottó Bláthy, Ányos Jedlik, John von Neumann, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller\n* Austria: Ludwig Boltzmann, Sigmund Freud, Kurt Gödel\n* Ireland: Lord Kelvin, Robert Boyle, William Rowan Hamilton\n* Spain: Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Isaac Peral, Leonardo Torres Quevedo\n* Sweden: Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius\n* Denmark: Niels Bohr\n* Serbia: Nikola Tesla, Mihajlo Pupin, Milutin Milanković, Miomir Vukobratović\n* Switzerland; Carl Jung\n* The Netherlands; Christiaan Huygens, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, C. H. D. Buys Ballot, Hendrik Lorentz, Jan Oort","Culture of Europe\n\nPhilosophy","Culture of Europe\n\nEuropean philosophy is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in America and most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence.","Culture of Europe\n\nThe Greek schools of philosophy in antiquity provide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today. Christian thought had a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction.","Culture of Europe\n\nPerhaps one of the most important single philosophical periods since the classical era were the Renaissance, the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment. There are many disputes as to its value and even its timescale. What is indisputable is that the tenets of reason and rational discourse owe much to René Descartes, John Locke and others working at the time.","Culture of Europe\n\nOther important European philosophical strands include:\nAnalytic philosophy, Anarchism, Christian Democracy, Communism, Conservatism, Constructionism, Deconstructionism, Empiricism, Epicureanism, Existentialism, Fascism, Humanism, Idealism, Internationalism, Liberalism, Logical positivism, Marxism, Materialism, Monarchism, Nationalism, Perspectivism, Platonism, Positivism, Postmodernism, Protestantism, Rationalism, Relativism, Republicanism, Romanticism, Scepticism, Scholasticism, Social Democracy, Socialism, Stoicism, Structuralism, Thomism, Utilitarianism, Spenglerism.","Culture of Europe\n\nReligion","Culture of Europe\n\nIndo-European religions were: Uralic mythologies, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, Ancient Greek religion, Etruscan religion, and Slavic mythology.","Culture of Europe\n\nThe Eurobarometer Poll 2005 found that, on average, 52% of the citizens of EU member states state that they \"believe in God\", 27% believe there is some sort of spirit or life force while 18% do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force. 3% declined to answer. According to new polls about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union accounting 72% of EU citizens. Non believer/Agnostic account 16%, Atheist account's 7%, and Muslim 2%.","Culture of Europe\n\nChristianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. And throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science. The notion of \"Europe\" and the \"Western World\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \"Christianity and Christendom\" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.","Culture of Europe\n\nThe most popular religions of Europe are the following (by dominant religion):\n*Christianity is the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christian, \n*Catholicism: Countries with significant Catholic populations are Portugal, Spain, Poland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, Ireland, Northern Ireland (UK), Italy, Malta, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia and Lithuania. :There are significant Catholic minorities in the Netherlands, southern Germany, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, western and central Belarus, western Ukraine, Hungarian-speaking Romania, Albania, parts of Russia, the Latgale region of Latvia, The Netherlands, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, England (UK), Scotland (UK), and Wales (UK), and indeed small minorities in most of the other European countries. *Eastern Orthodoxy: The countries with significant Orthodox populations are Albania, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine. *Protestantism: Countries with significant Protestant populations are Norway, Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia,. the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland. There are significant minorities in France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, and indeed small minorities in most European countries. *Islam: Country with a majority Muslim population is Albania. The region of East Thrace (Turkey) and Serbian province of Kosovo and Metohija also have a majority Muslim population.","Culture of Europe\n\nAs of 2010, about 5.2% of European citizens identified themselves as Muslims, with many of them living in EU member states like Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK. Outside of the EU also have significant Muslim minorities like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Crimea, Serbia, parts of European Russia and Georgia. *Judaism","Culture of Europe\n\nCuisine","Culture of Europe\n\nThe cuisines of Western countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguishes Western cooking from cuisines of Asian countries and others. Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size. Steak in particular is a common dish across the West. Similarly to some Asian cuisines, Western cuisines also put substantial emphasis on sauces as condiments, seasonings, or accompaniments (in part due to the difficulty of seasonings penetrating the often larger pieces of meat used in Western cooking). Many dairy products are utilized in the cooking process, except in nouvelle cuisine. Wheat-flour bread has long been the most common sources of starch in this cuisine, along with pasta, dumplings and pastries, although the potato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since the European colonization of the Americas.","Culture of Europe\n\nClothing","Culture of Europe\n\nThe earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France and Spain from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a cave the Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP. See Clothing in ancient Rome, 1100–1200 in fashion, 1200–1300 in fashion, 1300–1400 in fashion, 1400–1500 in fashion, 1500–1550 in fashion, 1550–1600 in fashion, 1600–1650 in fashion, 1650–1700 in fashion, Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution.","Culture of Europe\n\nSport","Culture of Europe\n\nEurope's influence on sport is enormous. Indeed, it is difficult to think of a modern sport, apart from basketball and related sports, that does not have its origins in Europe. European sports include:\n* Association football, which has contested origins between United Kingdom and Italy (where Benito Mussolini insisted the game be called by the name Calcio). What is uncontestable is that the oldest association is The Football Association of England (1863) and the first international match was between Scotland and England (1872). It is now the world's most popular sport and is played throughout Europe. * Cricket has its origins in south eastern Britain. It's popular throughout England and Wales, and parts of Netherlands. It is also popular in other areas and also played in Northwest Europe. It is however very popular worldwide, especially in Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the Indian subcontinent. * Cycling, which is immensely popular as a means of transport, has most of its sporting adherents in Europe, particularly Central Europe. Tour de France is the world's most watched live annual sporting event. The bicycle itself is probably from France (see History of the bicycle).","Culture of Europe\n\n* The discus throw, javelin throw and shot put have their origins in ancient Greece. The Olympics, both ancient and modern, have their origins too in Europe, and have a massive influence globally. * Field Hockey as a modern game, began in 18th Century Britain with Ireland having the oldest federation. It is popular in the British Isles, the Indian subcontinent, Australia and East Asia. Ice hockey, popular in Europe and North America may derive from this sport. * Golf, one of the most popular sports in Europe, Asia and North America, has its origins in Scotland, with the oldest course being at Musselburgh. * Handball, which is popular in Europe and elsewhere, has its origins in antiquity. The modern game is from Northern Europe with Germany having been involved in both the first women's and men's internationals. * Rugby League and Rugby Union which both have similar origins to football. Rugby Union is the older of the two codes and has rules that date from 1845 (see articles: History of rugby league and History of rugby union). They acrimoniously split in the late 19th century over the treatment of injured players.","Culture of Europe\n\nRugby league gradually changed its laws over the next century with the end result that today both sports have little in common, apart from the basics. They have both been carried abroad by colonization, particularly to many former British colonies. American Football and Canadian Football are derivatives of rugby. * Tennis which originates from United Kingdom and related games such as Table Tennis derive from the game Real Tennis which is from France. It is popular throughout the world.","Culture of Europe\n\nIn addition, Europe has numerous national or regional sports which do not command a large international following outside of emigrant groups. These include:\n*Alpine Wrestling in Switzerland.\n*Bandy in Russia, Sweden and Finland\n*Basque Pelota in parts of Spain and France, and which has been brought to the Americas by emigrants.\n*Bullfighting in Spain, Portugal, and parts of southern France near the Spanish Border.\n*Gaelic Football in Ireland, which influenced Australian football rules.\n*Gaelic Handball (Ireland) which was taken to the United States in the form of American Handball.\n*Hurling in Ireland.\n*Korfbal in the Netherlands and Belgium.\n*Pesäpallo (Boboll) in Finland\n*Pétanque, Boules, Petanca, Calitx, Irish Road Bowling, Skittles, Bocce, and Bowls and others are variations of bowling games which are popular throughout Europe and have been spread around the world.\n*Rounders from Britain now popular in northwest Europe from which Baseball derives.\n*Shinty in Scotland, United Kingdom, which influenced ice hockey in Canada (see also Shinny).\n*Trotting in southern Europe.","Culture of Europe\n\nSome sporting organisations hold European Championships.\n*European Cricket Council\n*European Rugby Cup (Club/Regional competition)\n*European SC Championships\n*FIRA - Association of European Rugby\n*IIHF\n*Mitropa Cup\n*Rugby League European Federation - European Nations Cup\n*Sport in the European Union\n*UEFA","Culture of Europe\n\nSome sport competitions feature a European team gathering athletes from different European countries. These teams use the European flag as an emblem. The most famous of these competitions is the Ryder Cup in golf .","Culture of Europe\n\nCapitals of Culture","Culture of Europe\n\nEach year since 1985 one or more cities across Europe are chosen as European Capital of Culture. Here are the past and future capitals:","Culture of Europe\n\n*1985: Athens\n*1986: Florence\n*1987: Amsterdam\n*1988: Berlin\n*1989: Paris\n*1990: Glasgow\n*1991: Dublin\n*1992: Madrid\n*1993: Antwerp\n*1994: Lisbon\n*1995: Luxembourg\n*1996: Copenhagen\n*1997: Thessaloniki\n*1998: Stockholm\n*1999: Weimar\n*2000: Avignon, Bergen, Bologna, Brussels, Helsinki, Kraków, Prague, Reykjavík, Santiago de Compostela\n*2001: Rotterdam, Porto\n*2002: Bruges, Salamanca\n*2003: Graz\n*2004: Genoa, Lille\n*2005: Cork\n*2006: Patras\n*2007: Sibiu, Luxembourg, Greater Region\n*2008: Liverpool, Stavanger\n*2009: Vilnius Linz\n*2010: Essen (representing the Ruhr), Istanbul, Pécs\n*2011: Turku, Tallinn\n*2012: Guimarães, Maribor\n*2013 Marseille, Košice\n*2014: Umeå, Riga [4]\n*2015: Mons, Plzeň\n*2016: San Sebastián, Wrocław[5]\n*2017: Aarhus,[6] Paphos\n*2018: Malta, Netherlands\n*2019: Matera, Italy\n*2020: Rijeka, Croatia","Culture of Europe\n\nSymbols","Culture of Europe\n\n* European symbols","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and the exiles returned. They were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the territorial gains made since 1789.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nKing Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution (1789–1799), which in turn was followed by Napoleon as ruler of France. A coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from (about) 6 April 1814 until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the \"Hundred Days\"—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France. When Napoleon was again defeated they returned to power in July.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nDuring the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime, and so it had some limits on its power. The period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest and disturbances. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nPermanent changes in French society","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided into 80+ departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The complex multiple overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardized legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, and these were sold off or came under the control of local governments. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries), and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious people were paid salaries by the state. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became a central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have a critical role in training the elite.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe old aristocracy had returned, and recovered much of the land they owned directly. However they completely lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and the peasants were no longer under their control. The old aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative, and much more supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but was now based in certain elements of the middle class and indeed the peasantry as well. The great masses of the French people were peasants in the countryside, or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights, and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behavior. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt was an important factor in their calculations.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However France was very slow to industrialize, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still localized, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that showed its national pride in the Army and foreign affairs.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nPolitical overview","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne; he was called the \"Bourbon pretender\" by historiographers, especially by those unfavorable to the restoration of the monarchy. A constitution, the Charter of 1814, was drafted. It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogative for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs a year in direct taxes.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis XVIII was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed to all places of public administration, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was more liberal than his successor Charles X, choosing many centrist cabinets.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis XVIII died in September 1824. He was succeeded by his brother, Charles. Charles X pursued a more conservative form of governance than Louis. His ultra-reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830), which saw his popularity plummet. The king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the outcome of a general election in 1830, through their July Ordinances. The ordinances sparked a revolution against Charles's coup attempt; by 2 August 1830, Charles had fled Paris and abdicated in favour of his grandson Henri, Count of Chambord. Henri's theoretical reign was ended on 9 August when the Chamber of Deputies declared Louis Philippe d'Orléans, who was currently ruling France as regent, King of the French, thus ushering in the July Monarchy.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis XVIII, 1814–1824","Bourbon Restoration\n\nFirst Restoration (1814)","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand, who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for the throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered a regency for Napoleon's son, François Bonaparte, and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans, Louis Philippe, or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Napoleon's former Marshal, who was in line for the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of the Restoration was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux, Marseille, and Lyons, helped assure the Allies.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen, granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814, which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code, which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties, the peasants' biens nationaux, and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801. However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a \"concession and grant\", given \"by the free exercise of our royal authority\".","Bourbon Restoration\n\nAfter a first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore with the white flag, the titling of Louis as the \"XVIII\" (as successor to Louis XVII, who never ruled) and as \"King of France\" rather than \"King of the French\", and the monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux by the Catholic Church and returning émigrés attempting to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill sentiment towards Louis included the army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe Hundred Days","Bourbon Restoration\n\nNapoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba. On his Route Napoléon, most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis was forced to flee Paris to Ghent on 19 March. He returned after Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn Louis's absence, a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down, but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nSecond Restoration (1815)","Bourbon Restoration\n\nTalleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons reigned, as was Fouché, Napoleon's minister of police during the Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror, largely in the south, when supporters of the monarchy sought revenge against those who had supported Napoleon's return, killing 200–300 and forcing thousands to flee. The perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists, or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities were powerless to stop the violence, the King and his ministers sent out their own officials to restore order.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nA Second Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the First. France was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 level. After the Battle of Waterloo, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers; occupation continued until 1818, by around 200,000 soldiers under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814, failed to actualize because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu, and Élie, duc Decazes; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable, elected in 1815 and given the nickname \"unobtainable\" by Louis, due to the overwhelming ultra-royalist majority, threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing trial against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil service members, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who \"had had nothing at all to do with the new France\", was appointed Prime Minister. The chambre introuvable, meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold the place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicization of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by the militia in July 1816.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nOwing to contrasting standpoints of the chamber and the King, the ultra-royalists began to assert the Chamber of Deputies' rights. This resulted in a concession from the government that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure, granted after the ultra-royalists attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn September 1816, the chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816. Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy. The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering, and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on the Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting. The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as the government continued to consolidate its position.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nBy 1820, the opposition liberals, who with the ultras made up half the chamber, proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. The assassination of the Duc de Berry, the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive, the future Charles X, by a Bonapartist in February 1820, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nRichelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot, were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give the wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election. After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry, gave birth to \"miracle child\", Henri, seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son, the duc de Reichstadt, remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand, but also Hugo, Lamartine, Vigny, and Nodier, rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to a minimum.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII, and against the Liberal Spanish Government, fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to the British under Napoleon. The French army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, was led by the duc d'Angoulême, the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cadiz, ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in a similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie, the French equivalent of the carbonari. In the 1824 election, another large majority was secured.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis XVIII died on 16 September 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nCharles X, 1824–1830","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe ascension to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with the ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue, and the last \"restraint\" (i.e., Louis) on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-Revolutionary years, the ultras saw fit to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Concordat of 11 June 1817 was set to replace the Concordat of 1801, but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi, which many deputies were members of, voted on the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts as parricide. The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused a considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nOn 29 May 1825, Charles was crowned in Reims, in an opulent and spectacular ceremony that was reminiscent of the royal pomp of the coronations of the Ancien Régime. Some innovations were included upon request by Villèle: although Charles was hostile towards the 1814 Charter, commitment to the \"constitutional charter\" was affirmed with four of Napoleon's generals in attendance. The Reims Cathedral was decorated to portray the union of Altar and Throne, and Charles Percier, the architect, adorned the building with Neo-Gothic décor, in a style that evoked the Middle Ages, rather than the Roman-influenced \"Empire style\" for which he was renowned. Charles was anointed with the sacred oil said by tradition to have been brought from heaven by a dove in 496; he prostrated himself before the altar; and received the ring, sceptre, hand of justice and then the crown. Charles even touched some people ill with scrofula, a few of whom were reported to have recovered. Hugo, Lamartine and Rossini lauded over the ceremony, while critics saw cause for alarm; Béranger notoriously mocked the king in a song, titled \"The Coronation of King Charles the Simple\".","Bourbon Restoration\n\nOthers went as far as to accuse Charles of being a crypto-Jesuit.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn the months preceding the ceremony, the chambers passed legislation that paid an indemnity to émigrés, who had suffered by the confiscation of their lands during the Revolution. The chambers also approved the requirement that all children would inherit an equal share of land thus ending the law of primogeniture. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately, compared to their original investment, and that the redistribution was just and would reconcile émigrés to post-Revolutionary France; whereas, the opposition accused the ultras of taking money from small investors for disloyal nobles. The bill was eventually defeated in the Peers, where there was still a liberal contingent sitting, mainly appointees of Decazes.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nWhen the bill to reimburse émigrés went through in April, at a cost to the state of approximately 988 million francs (le milliard des émigrés), it was financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs, at an interest rate of 3%. Around 18 million francs were paid to the émigrés per year.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe state's payments were slower than expected, as the market value of the bonds fell; a quarter of those reimbursed received only 250 francs a year. Ironically, the main beneficiaries were perhaps the owners of biens nationaux, numbering around one million, as their property had been guaranteed as one of the conditions for the act's passing, which subsequently led to a rise in the value of their land.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture; at least, it would be automatic for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberal Peers and press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. The forcefulness of this criticism prompted the government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824; this, however, only aggravated the ultras' opponents more, and the bill was withdrawn.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats, which hosted Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with others opposed to press censorship laws (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form the Société des amis de la liberté de la presse; Choiseul-Stainville, Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société, Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera, which worked within the confines of legislation, banning the unauthorized assemblage of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (it was associated with Le Globe) and included members such as Guizot, Rémusat, and Barrot. Pamphlets were sent out which evaded the censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIn April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard. The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine. Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response, the Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to be proliferated, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to the northern départments, was holed up in Saint-Omer, was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nBy the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, that was blamed on the government's passing of the law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering the actions of préfects, who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and the Aide-toi; the Aide-toi backed liberals, constitutionnels, and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists).","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac, who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting the formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye. Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose a chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellant to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup, and prominent liberals for a tax strike.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nAt the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned the government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia. France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar. Polignac also initiated French colonization in Algeria; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early June. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution. However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nCharles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in the July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nCharles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord, and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henri V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies, the body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, to power.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nFall of the Bourbons 1827–1830","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThere is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled the conservative Bourbons.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nBetween 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the Revolution of 1789. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops. In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners, kept the tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the \"Year Without a Summer\" in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nAt the same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers. This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nWhile the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought a relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded the right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nAlso, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and the political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nBy 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold the official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe Four Ordinances","Bourbon Restoration\n\nTechnically, the Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While the King retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not preserve his policies with a liberal majority within the Chamber of Deputies. Stark action was required.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nA final no-confidence vote by the liberals, in March 1830, spurred the king into action, and he set about to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. These decrees, known as the \"Four Ordinances\", or the \"Ordinances of Saint-Cloud\", were:","Bourbon Restoration\n\n# Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies\n# Restriction of the Press Laws\n# Restriction of the franchise to only the wealthiest within France\n# Immediate new elections based upon the new electorate","Bourbon Restoration\n\nWord spread quickly of the king's intent. On 10 July 1830, before the king had even made his declarations, a group of wealthy, liberal journalists and newspaper proprietors, led by Adolphe Thiers, met in Paris to decide upon a strategy to counter Charles X. It was decided then, nearly three weeks before the Revolution, that in the event of Charles' expected proclamations, the journalistic establishment of Paris would publish vitriolic criticisms of the king's policies in an attempt to mobilize the masses. Thus, when Charles X made his declarations on the 25 July 1830, the liberal journalism machine mobilized, publishing articles and complaints decrying the despotism of the king's actions.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe urban mobs of Paris also mobilized, driven by patriotic fervor and economic hardship, assembling barricades and attacking the infrastructure of Charles X. Within days, the situation escalated beyond the ability of the monarchy to control it. As the Crown moved to shut down liberal periodicals, the radical Parisian masses defended those publications. They also launched attacks against pro-Bourbon presses, and paralyzed the coercive apparatus of the monarchy. Seizing the opportunity, the liberals in Parliament began drafting resolutions, complaints, and censures against the king.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe king finally abdicated on 30 July 1830. Twenty minutes later, his son, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, who had nominally succeeded as Louis XIX, also abdicated, having lasted what is believed to be the shortest reign on record. The Crown nominally then fell upon the son of Louis Antoine's younger brother, Charles X's grandson, who became Henri V, with Louis-Phillippe, Duc d'Orléans, as Lieutenant-General of the realm. However, the newly empowered Chamber of Deputies declared the throne vacant, and on 9 August, elevated Louis-Philippe, to the throne. Thus, the July Monarchy began.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis-Philippe and the House of Orléans","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLouis-Philippe ascended the throne on the strength of the July Revolution of 1830, and ruled, not as \"King of France\" but as \"King of the French\", marking the shift to national sovereignty. The Orléanists remained in power until 1848. Following the ousting of the last king to rule France during the February 1848 Revolution, the French Second Republic was formed with the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as President (1848–1852). In the French coup of 1851, Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III of the Second Empire, which lasted from 1852 to 1870.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nPolitical parties under Restoration","Bourbon Restoration\n\nPolitical parties saw substantial changes of alignment and membership under the Restoration. The Chamber of Deputies oscillated between repressive ultra-royalist phases and progressive liberal phases. Opponents of the monarchy were absent from the political scene, because of the repression of the White Terror. Individuals of influence who had different visions of the French constitutional monarchy clashed.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nAll parties remained fearful of the common people, whom Adolphe Thiers later referred to by the term \"cheap multitude\". Their political sights were set on a favoritism of class. Political changes in the Chamber were due to abuse by the majority tendency, involving a dissolution and then an inversion of the majority, or critical events; for example, the assassination of the Duc de Berry in 1820.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nDisputes were a power struggle between the powerful (royalty against deputies) rather than a fight between royalty and populism. Although the deputies claimed to defend the interests of the people, most had an important fear of common people, of innovations, of socialism and even of simple measures, such as the extension of voting rights.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe principal political parties during the Restoration were:","Bourbon Restoration\n\nConstitutionnels Constitutionnels were mostly rich and educated middle-class men: lawyers, senior officials of the Empire, and academics. They feared the triumph of the aristocracy, as much as that of the democrats. They accepted the charter, because it guaranteed freedom and civil equality and created a barrier to the popular masses who were considered unable, because of their ignorance, to be involved in the management of public affairs. Important personalities were Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, François Guizot, and the count of Serre. Their newspapers were Le Courrier français and Le Censeur.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nDoctrinaires Doctrinaires promoted a return to a moderate monarchy and were opposed to the extremists in the early period of the Restoration. The most prominent Doctrinaire newspaper was Le Courrier français.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIndependents","Bourbon Restoration\n\nIndependents were mostly lower middle class: doctors and lawyers, bourgeoisie, men of law, and, in rural constituencies, traders of national goods. They rejected the charter, considering it too conservative. They rejected the treaties of 1815, the white flag and the pre-eminence of clergy and of nobility. Important personalities were parliamentary monarchist Benjamin Constant, officer of the Empire Maximilien Sebastien Foy, republican lawyer Jacques-Antoine Manuel and Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette. Their newspapers were La Minerve, Le Constitutionnel and Le Globe.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLiberal royalists","Bourbon Restoration\n\nLiberals appeared as a party in the last years of the Restoration. Liberal royalists preached movement towards more liberty and openness. They wished to lower the taxable quota to support the middle-class as a whole, to the detriment of the aristocracy. Liberals had profited from the emergence of a new middle-class elite, due to the Industrial Revolution, which upset the aristocratic order.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nRepublicans","Bourbon Restoration\n\nFacing the representatives of the middle class, the Republicans, then situated on the extreme left, addressed the miserable world of the disenfranchised worker. Workers were neither represented, nor listened to. Their demonstrations were repressed or diverted, causing, at most, a reinforcement of parliamentarism, which did not mean democratic evolution, only wider taxation. For some, such as Blanqui, revolution seemed the only solution. Garnier-Pagès, and Louis-Eugène and Éléonore-Louis Godefroi Cavaignac considered themselves to be Republicans, while Cabet and Raspail were active as socialists. Saint-Simon was also active during this period, and made direct appeals to Louis XVIII before his death in 1824.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nUltra-royalists","Bourbon Restoration\n\nUltra-royalists wished for a return to the Ancien Régime, such as before 1789, with a view toward absolutism: domination by the nobility and \"other devoted Christians\". They were anti-Republican, anti-democratic, and preached Government on High, by a marked noble elite. They tolerated vote censitaire: a form of democracy limited to those paying taxes above a high threshold. Ultra-royalists were interested in preserving aristocracy and promoting absolutism. They found the Charter of 1814 to be too revolutionary. The ultra-royalists wanted a return to absolute monarchy, the re-establishment of privileges, and a king: Charles X.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nProminent ultra-royalists theorists were Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. Their parliamentary leaders were François Régis de La Bourdonnaye, comte de La Bretèche and, in 1829, Jules de Polignac. Their main newspapers were La Quotidienne and La Gazette; other royalist papers included the Drapeau Blanc, named after the Bourbon white flag, and the Oriflamme, named after the battle standard of France.","Bourbon Restoration\n\nPopular culture","Bourbon Restoration\n\nThe French historical film Jacquou le Croquant, directed by Laurent Boutonnat and starring Gaspard Ulliel and Marie-Josée Croze, is based on the Bourbon Restoration.","Monarchism\n\nMonarchism is the advocacy of a monarch or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government, independent of any specific monarch; one who espouses a particular monarch is a royalist. Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is sometimes referred to as republicanism.","Monarchism\n\nDepending on the country, a monarchist may advocate for the rule of the person who sits on the throne, a pretender, or someone who would otherwise occupy the throne but has been deposed.","Monarchism\n\nHistory","Monarchism\n\nMonarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions. Monarchy has often claimed legitimacy from a higher power (in early modern Europe the divine right of kings, and in China the Mandate of Heaven).","Monarchism\n\nIn England, royalty ceded power elsewhere in a gradual process. In 1215, a group of nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, which guaranteed citizens certain liberties and established that the king's powers were not absolute. In 1687-88, the Glorious Revolution and the overthrow of King James II established the principles of constitutional monarchy, which would later be worked out by Locke and other thinkers. However, absolute monarchy, justified by Hobbes in Leviathan (1651), remained a prominent principle elsewhere. In the 18th century, Voltaire and others encouraged \"enlightened absolutism\", which was embraced by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II and by Catherine II of Russia.","Monarchism\n\nIn the late 18th century, the American Revolution and the French Revolution were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. Each in its different way exemplified the concept of popular sovereignty upheld by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1848 then ushered in a wave of revolutions against the continental European monarchies.","Monarchism\n\nWorld War I and its aftermath saw the end of three major European monarchies: the Russian Romanov dynasty, the German Hohenzollern dynasty, including all other German monarchies and the Austro-Hungarian Habsburg dynasty.","Monarchism\n\nThe rise of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 provoked an increase in support for monarchism; however, efforts by Hungarian monarchists failed to bring back a royal head of state, and the monarchists settled for a regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, to represent the monarchy until it could be restored. Horthy was regent from 1920 to 1944. In similar wise the 1938 fascist régime of Franco in Spain claimed to have reconstituted the Spanish monarchy in absentia (and in this case ultimately yielded to a restoration, in the person of King Juan Carlos). In 1920s Germany a number of monarchists gathered around the German National People's Party which demanded the return of the Hohenzollern monarchy and an end to the Weimar Republic; the party retained a large base of support until the rise of Nazism in the 1930s.","Monarchism\n\nWith the arrival of Communism in Eastern Europe by the end of 1947, the remaining Eastern European monarchies, namely the Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Albania, the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, were all abolished and replaced by socialist republics.","Monarchism\n\nThe aftermath of World War II also saw the return of monarchist and republican rivalry in Italy, where a referendum was held on whether the state should remain a monarchy or become a republic. The republican side won the vote by a narrow margin, and the modern Republic of Italy was created.","Monarchism\n\nMonarchism as a political force internationally has substantially diminished since the end of the Second World War, though it had an important role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution and also played a role in the modern political affairs of Nepal. Nepal was one of the last states to have had an absolute monarch, which continued until King Gyanendra was peacefully deposed in May 2008 and the country became a federal republic. One of the world's oldest monarchies was abolished in Ethiopia in 1974 with the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie.","Monarchism\n\nCurrent monarchies","Monarchism\n\nThe majority of current monarchies are constitutional monarchies. In most of these, the monarch wields only symbolic power, although in some, the monarch does play a role in political affairs. In Thailand, for instance, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who has reigned since 1946, has played a critical role in the nation's political agenda and in various military coups. Similarly, in Morocco, King Mohammed VI wields significant, but not absolute power.","Monarchism\n\nLiechtenstein is a democratic principality whose citizens have voluntarily given more power to their monarch in recent years.","Monarchism\n\nThere remain a handful of countries in which the monarch is the true ruler. The majority of these countries are oil-producing Arab Islamic monarchies like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Other strong monarchies include Brunei and Swaziland.","Monarchism\n\nJustifications for monarchism","Monarchism\n\nAbsolute monarchy stands as an opposition to anarchism and, additionally from the Age of Enlightenment, liberalism, and communism.","Monarchism\n\nOtto von Habsburg advocated a form of constitutional monarchy based on the primacy of the supreme judicial function, with hereditary succession, mediation by a tribunal is warranted if suitability is problematic.","Monarchism\n\nNonpartisan head of state","Monarchism\n\nA monarchy has been justified on the grounds that it provides for a nonpartisan head of state, separate from the head of government, and thus ensures that the highest representative of the country, at home and internationally, does not only represent a particular political party, but all people.","Monarchism\n\nSafeguard for liberty","Monarchism\n\nThe International Monarchist League, founded in 1943, which has been very influential in Canada, has always sought to promote monarchy on the grounds that it strengthens popular liberty, both in a democracy and in a dictatorship, because by definition the monarch is not beholden to politicians.","Monarchism\n\nBritish-American libertarian writer Matthew Feeney, on the occasion of the birth of Prince George of Cambridge, the potential future king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, in 2013, wrote:","Monarchism\n\nConnection to the past","Monarchism\n\nSince the middle of the 19th century, some monarchists have stopped defending monarchy on the basis of abstract, universal principles applicable to all nations or even on the grounds that a monarchy would be the best or most practical government for the nation in question but prefer invoking local symbolic grounds that they would be a particular nation's link to the past.","Monarchism\n\nHence, post-19th century debates on whether to preserve a monarchy or to adopt a republican form of government have often been debates over national identity, with the monarch generally serving as a symbol for other issues.","Monarchism\n\nFor example, in countries like Belgium and the Netherlands anti-monarchist talk is often centered on the perceived symbolism of a monarch contrasting with those nation's political culture of egalitarianism. In Belgium, another factor are the anti-Belgian sentiments of the separatist Flemish movement. The latter see the monarchy as a predominantly francophone institution of which the historical roots lie in the French-speaking elite that ruled Belgium until circa 1950s.","Monarchism\n\nIn Canada and Australia, by contrast, debates over monarchy represent or represented debates whose driving force concerned each nation's relationship with the United Kingdom and the cultural heritage that this relationship represents.","Monarchism\n\nHuman desire for hierarchy","Monarchism\n\nIn a 1943 essay in The Spectator, \"Equality\", British author C.S. Lewis criticized egalitarianism, and its corresponding call for the abolition of monarchy, as contrary to human nature, writing, \"Where men are forbidden to honour a king they honour millionaires, athletes, or film-stars instead: even famous prostitutes or gangsters. For spiritual nature, like bodily nature, will be served; deny it food and it will gobble poison.\"","Monarchism\n\nMonarchists","Monarchism\n\nAmerican\n* Loyalist (American Revolution)\nAustralian\n* Dame Joan Sutherland (1926–2010) \n* Tony Abbott (born 1957) \nAustrian\n* Georg von Trapp (1880–1947)\n* Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000)\n* Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1909–1999)\nBritish\n* Sir Ian Botham (born 1955) \n* Dame Judi Dench (born 1934) \n* Boris Johnson (born 1964)\n* Michael Heseltine (born 1933)\n* Sir Elton John (born 1947)\n* Sir Tom Jones (born 1940)\n* J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) \n* C.S. Lewis (1898–1963)\n* Sir Paul McCartney (born 1942)\n* Harold Wilson (1916–1995)\n* Sir Winston Churchill (1874–1965)\n* David Cameron (born 1966)\nGerman\n* Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg (1907–1944)\nGreek\n* Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941)\nJapan\n* Yoshiko Sakurai (born 1945)\nNew Zealander\n* Russell Crowe (born 1964) \nPolish\n* Robert Iwaszkiewicz (born 1962)\n* Radek Sikorski (born 1963)\n* Janusz Korwin-Mikke (born 1942)\n* Grzegorz Braun (born 1967)\n* Michał Marusik (born 1951)\n* Kazik Staszewski (born 1963)\n* Robert Makłowicz (born 1963)\nRussian\n* Anton Bakov (born 1965)\nTurkish\n* Sheikh Nazim (1922-2014)\n* Abdul Kerim al-Qubrusi (1957-2012)\n* Kadir Mısıroğlu (born 1933)"],"string":"[\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the European cultural region. European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \\\"common cultural heritage\\\".\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nElements\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nBecause of the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \\n*A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \\n*A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \\\"Great Divergence\\\";\\n*A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \\n*A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\\n*Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nBerting says that these points fit with \\\"Europe's most positive realisations\\\". \\nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe Nobel Prize laureate in Literature Thomas Stearns Eliot in his 1948 book Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, credited the prominent Christian influence upon the European culture:\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nPainting\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe oldest known cave paintings are at the El Castillo cave (Spain), older than 40,800 years. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from antiquity. Until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSculpture\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe earliest European sculpture to date portrays a female form, and has been estimated at dating from 35,000 years ago. See Classical sculpture, Ancient Greek sculpture, Gothic art, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism, Postminimalism, found art, Postmodern art, Conceptual art.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*Classical music : Important classical composers from Europe include Hildegard von Bingen, J.S. Bach, Handel, Beethoven, Brahms, Schumann, Wagner, Richard Strauss, von Weber, Offenbach, Stockhausen, Mendelssohn (Germany), Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rachmaninov, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, (Russia), Schubert, Haydn, Mozart, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg (Austria), Berlioz, Machaut, Pérotin, François Couperin, Lully, Rameau, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Debussy, Ravel (France), Palestrina, Monteverdi, Vivaldi, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Donizetti, Cavalli, Paganini, Bellini, Verdi, Puccini, Rossini (Italy), Tomás Luis de Victoria, Falla, Granados, Albéniz, Rodrigo (Spain), Smetana, Dvořák, Janáček, Martinů (Czech Republic), Dufay, des Prez, Lassus (Belgium), Grieg (Norway), Liszt, Bartók (Hungary), Purcell, Elgar, Britten, Holst (UK), Nielsen (Denmark), Sibelius (Finland), Chopin, Penderecki (Poland), George Enescu, Sergiu Celibidache (Romania). Luciano Pavarotti was a contemporary popular opera singer. Orchestras such as the Berliner Philharmoniker, the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra are considered to be amongst the finest ensembles in the world. The Salzburg Festival, the Bayreuth Festival, the Edinburgh International Festival and the BBC Proms are major European classical music festivals, and International Chopin Piano Competition is the world's oldest monographic music competition.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*Folk music : Europe has a wide and diverse range of indigenous music, sharing common features in rural, travelling or maritime communities. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was increasingly transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced some popular music in Europe.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*Popular music: Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from the United States, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, R'n'B and Dance. The UK has been most successful in re-exporting this type of music and also creating many of its own genres via notable movements including the British Invasion, the new wave of British heavy metal (that has been compared to Beatlemania. ) and Britpop.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSome major UK acts include The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Queen, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Elton John, David Bowie, Deep Purple, Sex Pistols, Eric Clapton, The Clash, Van Morrison, Dire Straits, The Police, Fleetwood Mac, Genesis, George Michael, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, The Who, Eurythmics, Dusty Springfield, The Cure, Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Def Leppard, Duran Duran, Oasis, Radiohead, Coldplay, Mumford & Sons, The Smiths, Muse, Gorillaz, Bonnie Tyler, Seal, Elvis Costello, Bee Gees, Spice Girls, Depeche Mode, The Kinks, The Animals, Motörhead, UB40, One Direction, Adele, Amy Winehouse; Also very important European musicians are U2, Thin Lizzy, The Pogues, The Script, My Bloody Valentine, The Undertones, Sinéad O'Connor (Ireland), Kraftwerk, Tangerine Dream, Can, Neu!, Scorpions, Nina Hagen, Trio, Rammstein, Modern Talking, James Last, Enigma, Paul Kalkbrenner (Germany), ABBA, The Cardigans, The Hives, Roxette, Swedish House Mafia, Avicii, Icona Pop (Sweden), a-ha (Norway), Björk, Sigur Rós (Iceland), Lepa Brena, Ceca Ražnatović, Jelena Karleuša, Seka Aleksić, Indira Radić, Dragana Mirković (Serbia), Giorgio Moroder, Andrea Bocelli, Ennio Morricone, Benny Benassi, The Bloody Beetroots, Mina, Adriano Celentano, Patty Pravo, Toto Cutugno, Laura Pausini, Eros Ramazzotti, Zucchero Fornaciari, Domenico Modugno, Lucio Battisti, Giorgia, Sabrina Salerno, Ivana Spagna, Eiffel 65, Alexia (Italy), Soulwax, dEUS, Absynthe Minded, The Black Box Revelation, Selah Sue, Girls in Hawaii, Stromae, (Belgium), Luis Eduardo Aute, Julio Iglesias, The Pinker Tones, Lluis Llach, Enrique Iglesias (Spain), Édith Piaf, Serge Gainsbourg, Daft Punk, David Guetta, Justice, Bob Sinclar, Martin Solveig, Étienne de Crécy, Yann Tiersen, Yelle, Phoenix, Air, M83, Alizée, C2C, Jean Michel Jarre (France), Nana Mouskouri, Celine Dion (Greece/France), Vangelis, Demis Roussos, Helena Paparizou (Greece), Kati Wolf (Hungary), Eduard Artemyev, Eduard Khil, Kino, Mumiy Troll, Leningrad, Zemfira, t.A.T.u., PPK (Russia), Doda (Poland), Rasmus Seebach, The Raveonettes, Agnes Obel, WhoMadeWho (Denmark), Bijelo Dugme (Yugoslavia), The Legendary Tigerman, The Gift (Portugal), The Nits, Golden Earring, Focus, zZz, Nicky Romero, Armin van Buuren, Fedde le Grand, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Afrojack (Netherlands), Alexandra Stan, Inna, Edward Maya (Romania), HIM, The Rasmus, Nightwish (Finland).\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nMain festivals includes: Sanremo Music Festival, Coca-Cola Summer Festival (Italy), Glastonbury, Reading and Leeds Festivals, Isle of Wight Festival, T in the Park (UK), Fête de la Musique, Eurockéennes, Vieilles Charrues Festival, Hellfest (France), Wacken (Germany), Festival Internacional de Benicàssim, Primavera Sound (Spain), Exit Festival (Serbia), Sziget Festival (Hungary), Roskilde Festival (Denmark), Rock Werchter, Tomorrowland (Belgium) & Eurovision (music competition between European countries). Domino Recording Company, Bertelsmann Music Group, PolyGram, EMI, Universal Music Group (Subsidiary of French company Vivendi) are the largest European music companies.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nNeolithic architecture : Born in the Levant, Neolithic architecture spread to Europe. The Mediterranean neolithic cultures of Malta worshiped in megalithic temples. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges flint mines and cursus monuments., Architecture of ancient Greece, Roman architecture, Medieval architecture, Renaissance architecture, Baroque architecture, Beaux-Arts architecture, Expressionist architecture, Stalinist architecture, Deconstructivism.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nEurope has produced some of the most prominent or popular fiction and nonfiction writers of all time :\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*Homer, Hesiod, Sappho, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Xenophon, Aristophanes, Menander, Polybius, Arrian, Plutarch, Longus (Ancient Greece)\\n*Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Sallust, Virgil, Livy, Ovid, Tacitus, Horace, Catullus, Pliny the Elder, Quintilian, Seneca the Younger, Pliny the Younger (Ancient Rome) \\n*Francesco Petrarca, Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso, Carlo Goldoni, Carlo Gozzi, Giacomo Leopardi, Giosuè Carducci, Italo Svevo, Luigi Pirandello, Italo Calvino, Eugenio Montale, Salvatore Quasimodo, Umberto Eco, Dario Fo (Italy)\\n*Chrétien de Troyes, François Rabelais, Montaigne, Alexandre Dumas, Pierre Corneille, Racine, Molière, Voltaire, Jean de La Fontaine, Rousseau, Jules Verne, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, Stendhal, Marcel Proust, Albert Camus, JMG Le Clézio, Victor Hugo, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, Anatole France, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Apollinaire, Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre, Romain Rolland, Denis Diderot, Michel Foucault, Théophile Gautier, Alain Robbe-Grillet, François Mauriac, André Gide (France)\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Goncharov, Mikhail Bakunin, Mikhail Lermontov, Ivan Turgenev, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Peter Kropotkin, Anton Chekhov, Maxim Gorky, Ivan Bunin, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Boris Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova, Mikhail Bulgakov, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Nabokov, Mikhail Sholokhov, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Joseph Brodsky (Russia)\\n*Jorge Manrique, Garcilaso de la Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Francisco de Quevedo, Luis de Góngora, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Leopoldo Alas, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Pío Baroja, José Echegaray, Miguel de Unamuno, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Camilo José Cela, Mario Vargas Llosa (Spain) \\n*Luís de Camões, José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, Fernando Pessoa, José Saramago (Portugal)\\n*Salvador Espriu, Mercè Rodoreda, Joan Salvat-Papasseit, Josep Carner (Catalan language)\\n*Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Johann Gottfried Herder, Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Heinrich von Kleist, Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Heinrich Heine, Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, Rudolf Christoph Eucken, Anne Frank, Hermann Hesse, Nelly Sachs, Günter Grass, Patrick Süskind (Germany)\\n*Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Joseph Conrad, Czesław Miłosz, Zbigniew Herbert, Witold Gombrowicz, Jan Kochanowski, Mikołaj Rej, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Wisława Szymborska, Stanisław Lem, Andrzej Sapkowski (Poland)\\n*Arnaut Daniel, Frédéric Mistral (Occitan language)\\n*Lajos Kossuth, Imre Kertész (Hungary)\\n*Franz Kafka, Jaroslav Seifert, Milan Kundera (Czech Republic)\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Geoffrey Chaucer, Jane Austen, H. G. Wells, Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. R. R. Tolkien, J. K. Rowling, Beatrix Potter, J. M. Barrie, Walter Scott, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, John Milton, Terry Pratchett, Mary Shelley, Roald Dahl, Lewis Carroll, Agatha Christie, Daniel Defoe, Alan Moore, Rudyard Kipling, Aldous Huxley, Harold Pinter (United Kingdom)\\n*Laurence Sterne, Bram Stoker, James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift, Samuel Beckett, William Butler Yeats, Seamus Heaney (Ireland)\\n*Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Hans Christian Andersen, Johannes Vilhelm Jensen (Denmark)\\n*Georges Simenon, Emile Verhaeren, Maurice Maeterlinck (Belgium)\\n*Sigrid Undset, Henrik Ibsen, Knut Hamsun, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (Norway)\\n*Ivo Andric (Yugoslavia)\\n*Frans Eemil Sillanpää (Finland)\\n*Elfriede Jelinek (Austria)\\n*Halldór Laxness (Iceland)\\n*Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko (Ukraine)\\n*Verner von Heidenstam, Stieg Larsson, Pär Lagerkvist, August Strindberg, Emanuel Swedenborg, Eyvind Johnson (Sweden)\\n*Eugène Ionesco, Mircea Eliade, Mihai Eminescu, Paul Celan, Emil Cioran, Herta Muller, Elie Wiesel (Romania)\\n*Joost van den Vondel, Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Multatuli, Louis Couperus, Gerard Reve, Martinus Nijhoff, Gerard Reve (The Netherlands)\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nFilm\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nAntoine Lumière realized, on 28 December 1895, the first projection, with the Cinematograph, in Paris. Philippe Binant realized, on 2 February 2000, the first digital cinema projection in Europe, with the DLP CINEMA technology developed by Texas Instruments, in Paris. \\nIn 1897, Georges Méliès established the first cinema studio on a rooftop property in Montreuil, near Paris.\\nSome notable European film movements include German Expressionism, Italian neorealism, French New Wave, Polish Film School, New German Cinema, Portuguese Cinema Novo, Czechoslovak New Wave, Dogme 95, New French Extremity, and Romanian New Wave. The cinema of Europe has its own awards, the European Film Awards.\\nMain festivals : Cannes Film Festival (France), Berlin International Film Festival (Germany). The Venice Film Festival (Italy) or Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia, is the oldest film festival in the world.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nVideo games\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSome of the most popular games of all time come from Europe: Grand Theft Auto, Tomb Raider, The Witcher, Cossacks: European Wars, Colin McRae: Dirt, Far Cry 3, Asphalt, The Settlers, The Patrician, Need For Speed, Angry Birds, Cut the Rope, Brain Challenge, Rayman, Beyond Good & Evil, Heavy Rain, Beyond: Two Souls, Watch Dogs, Batman: Arkham City, Banjo-Kazooie, LittleBigPlanet, Block Breaker Deluxe, Crysis, Tetris, Assassin's Creed, Europa Universalis, Kinect Sports, Hysteria Project.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nScience\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*CERN (;) : The European Organization for Nuclear Research, is the birthplace of the World Wide Web and home of the world's largest machine : the Large Hadron Collider. It is the world's largest particle physics laboratory, situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border, established in 1954. In November 2010, the collisions obtained were able to generate the highest temperatures and densities ever produced in an experiment, creating a \\\"mini-Big Bang\\\" a million times hotter than the centre of the Sun. *ESA : The European Space Agency's space flight program includes human spaceflight, mainly through the participation in the International Space Station program, the launch and operations of unmanned exploration missions to other planets and the Moon, Earth observations, science, telecommunication as well as maintaining a major spaceport, the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou, French Guiana and designing launch vehicles. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching and further developing this launch vehicle. On 12 November 2014, ESA's Philae probe achieved the first-ever soft landing on a comet. Europe has produced some of the greatest scientists, inventors and intellectuals in history.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n* Germany: Albert Einstein, Johannes Kepler, Johannes Gutenberg, Gottfried Leibniz, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Max Planck, Karl Benz\\n* United Kingdom: Isaac Newton, Charles K. Kao, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, Michael Faraday, James Joule, Edward Jenner, John Dalton, George Stephenson, Florence Nightingale, George Cayley, Frank Whittle, Alan Turing, Stephen Hawking, Tim Berners Lee, James Watt, Alexander Fleming, Alexander Graham Bell, John Logie Baird, James Clerk Maxwell, Adam Smith, John Maynard Keynes\\n* Russia: Dmitri Mendeleev, Ivan Pavlov, Ilya Mechnikov, Nikolai Lobachevsky, Mikhail Lomonosov, Lev Landau, Aleksandr Butlerov, Alexander Popov, Vladimir Shukhov, Igor Sikorsky, Sergey Korolyov. * Finland: Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Ragnar Granit, Johan Gadolin, Pekka Pyykkö, Gustav Elfving, Arvo Ylppö, Linus Torvalds, Anders Chydenius, Elias Lönnrot, Herman Spöring, Jr.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n* France: Pierre Abelard, Michel de Montaigne, Louis Pasteur, Antoine Lavoisier, Henri Becquerel, René Descartes, Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, the Montgolfier brothers, Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Léon Foucault, Auguste and Louis Lumière, Pierre Curie, , Jacques Lacan, Luc Montagnier, Albert Jacquard\\n* Italy: Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Niccolò Machiavelli, Alessandro Volta, Guglielmo Marconi, Enrico Fermi\\n* Poland: Sendivogius, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Hevelius, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, Marie Curie, Rudolf Weigl\\n* Greece: Archimedes, Euclid, Ptolemy. Hungary: Ottó Bláthy, Ányos Jedlik, John von Neumann, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller\\n* Austria: Ludwig Boltzmann, Sigmund Freud, Kurt Gödel\\n* Ireland: Lord Kelvin, Robert Boyle, William Rowan Hamilton\\n* Spain: Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Isaac Peral, Leonardo Torres Quevedo\\n* Sweden: Alfred Nobel, Anders Celsius\\n* Denmark: Niels Bohr\\n* Serbia: Nikola Tesla, Mihajlo Pupin, Milutin Milanković, Miomir Vukobratović\\n* Switzerland; Carl Jung\\n* The Netherlands; Christiaan Huygens, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, C. H. D. Buys Ballot, Hendrik Lorentz, Jan Oort\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nPhilosophy\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nEuropean philosophy is a predominant strand of philosophy globally, and is central to philosophical enquiry in America and most other parts of the world which have fallen under its influence.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe Greek schools of philosophy in antiquity provide the basis of philosophical discourse that extends to today. Christian thought had a huge influence on many fields of European philosophy (as European philosophy has been on Christian thought too), sometimes as a reaction.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nPerhaps one of the most important single philosophical periods since the classical era were the Renaissance, the Age of Reason and the Age of Enlightenment. There are many disputes as to its value and even its timescale. What is indisputable is that the tenets of reason and rational discourse owe much to René Descartes, John Locke and others working at the time.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nOther important European philosophical strands include:\\nAnalytic philosophy, Anarchism, Christian Democracy, Communism, Conservatism, Constructionism, Deconstructionism, Empiricism, Epicureanism, Existentialism, Fascism, Humanism, Idealism, Internationalism, Liberalism, Logical positivism, Marxism, Materialism, Monarchism, Nationalism, Perspectivism, Platonism, Positivism, Postmodernism, Protestantism, Rationalism, Relativism, Republicanism, Romanticism, Scepticism, Scholasticism, Social Democracy, Socialism, Stoicism, Structuralism, Thomism, Utilitarianism, Spenglerism.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nIndo-European religions were: Uralic mythologies, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, Ancient Greek religion, Etruscan religion, and Slavic mythology.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe Eurobarometer Poll 2005 found that, on average, 52% of the citizens of EU member states state that they \\\"believe in God\\\", 27% believe there is some sort of spirit or life force while 18% do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force. 3% declined to answer. According to new polls about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union accounting 72% of EU citizens. Non believer/Agnostic account 16%, Atheist account's 7%, and Muslim 2%.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nChristianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus. And throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science. The notion of \\\"Europe\\\" and the \\\"Western World\\\" has been intimately connected with the concept of \\\"Christianity and Christendom\\\" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe most popular religions of Europe are the following (by dominant religion):\\n*Christianity is the largest religion in Europe, with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves Christian, \\n*Catholicism: Countries with significant Catholic populations are Portugal, Spain, Poland, France, Luxembourg, Belgium, Ireland, Northern Ireland (UK), Italy, Malta, Austria, Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Slovakia and Lithuania. :There are significant Catholic minorities in the Netherlands, southern Germany, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, western and central Belarus, western Ukraine, Hungarian-speaking Romania, Albania, parts of Russia, the Latgale region of Latvia, The Netherlands, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, England (UK), Scotland (UK), and Wales (UK), and indeed small minorities in most of the other European countries. *Eastern Orthodoxy: The countries with significant Orthodox populations are Albania, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine. *Protestantism: Countries with significant Protestant populations are Norway, Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia,. the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland. There are significant minorities in France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary, and indeed small minorities in most European countries. *Islam: Country with a majority Muslim population is Albania. The region of East Thrace (Turkey) and Serbian province of Kosovo and Metohija also have a majority Muslim population.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nAs of 2010, about 5.2% of European citizens identified themselves as Muslims, with many of them living in EU member states like Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK. Outside of the EU also have significant Muslim minorities like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Crimea, Serbia, parts of European Russia and Georgia. *Judaism\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe cuisines of Western countries are diverse by themselves, although there are common characteristics that distinguishes Western cooking from cuisines of Asian countries and others. Compared with traditional cooking of Asian countries, for example, meat is more prominent and substantial in serving-size. Steak in particular is a common dish across the West. Similarly to some Asian cuisines, Western cuisines also put substantial emphasis on sauces as condiments, seasonings, or accompaniments (in part due to the difficulty of seasonings penetrating the often larger pieces of meat used in Western cooking). Many dairy products are utilized in the cooking process, except in nouvelle cuisine. Wheat-flour bread has long been the most common sources of starch in this cuisine, along with pasta, dumplings and pastries, although the potato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since the European colonization of the Americas.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nClothing\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nThe earliest definite examples of needles originate from the Solutrean culture, which existed in France and Spain from 19,000 BC to 15,000 BC. The earliest dyed flax fibers have been found in a cave the Republic of Georgia and date back to 36,000 BP. See Clothing in ancient Rome, 1100–1200 in fashion, 1200–1300 in fashion, 1300–1400 in fashion, 1400–1500 in fashion, 1500–1550 in fashion, 1550–1600 in fashion, 1600–1650 in fashion, 1650–1700 in fashion, Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nEurope's influence on sport is enormous. Indeed, it is difficult to think of a modern sport, apart from basketball and related sports, that does not have its origins in Europe. European sports include:\\n* Association football, which has contested origins between United Kingdom and Italy (where Benito Mussolini insisted the game be called by the name Calcio). What is uncontestable is that the oldest association is The Football Association of England (1863) and the first international match was between Scotland and England (1872). It is now the world's most popular sport and is played throughout Europe. * Cricket has its origins in south eastern Britain. It's popular throughout England and Wales, and parts of Netherlands. It is also popular in other areas and also played in Northwest Europe. It is however very popular worldwide, especially in Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the Indian subcontinent. * Cycling, which is immensely popular as a means of transport, has most of its sporting adherents in Europe, particularly Central Europe. Tour de France is the world's most watched live annual sporting event. The bicycle itself is probably from France (see History of the bicycle).\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n* The discus throw, javelin throw and shot put have their origins in ancient Greece. The Olympics, both ancient and modern, have their origins too in Europe, and have a massive influence globally. * Field Hockey as a modern game, began in 18th Century Britain with Ireland having the oldest federation. It is popular in the British Isles, the Indian subcontinent, Australia and East Asia. Ice hockey, popular in Europe and North America may derive from this sport. * Golf, one of the most popular sports in Europe, Asia and North America, has its origins in Scotland, with the oldest course being at Musselburgh. * Handball, which is popular in Europe and elsewhere, has its origins in antiquity. The modern game is from Northern Europe with Germany having been involved in both the first women's and men's internationals. * Rugby League and Rugby Union which both have similar origins to football. Rugby Union is the older of the two codes and has rules that date from 1845 (see articles: History of rugby league and History of rugby union). They acrimoniously split in the late 19th century over the treatment of injured players.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nRugby league gradually changed its laws over the next century with the end result that today both sports have little in common, apart from the basics. They have both been carried abroad by colonization, particularly to many former British colonies. American Football and Canadian Football are derivatives of rugby. * Tennis which originates from United Kingdom and related games such as Table Tennis derive from the game Real Tennis which is from France. It is popular throughout the world.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nIn addition, Europe has numerous national or regional sports which do not command a large international following outside of emigrant groups. These include:\\n*Alpine Wrestling in Switzerland.\\n*Bandy in Russia, Sweden and Finland\\n*Basque Pelota in parts of Spain and France, and which has been brought to the Americas by emigrants.\\n*Bullfighting in Spain, Portugal, and parts of southern France near the Spanish Border.\\n*Gaelic Football in Ireland, which influenced Australian football rules.\\n*Gaelic Handball (Ireland) which was taken to the United States in the form of American Handball.\\n*Hurling in Ireland.\\n*Korfbal in the Netherlands and Belgium.\\n*Pesäpallo (Boboll) in Finland\\n*Pétanque, Boules, Petanca, Calitx, Irish Road Bowling, Skittles, Bocce, and Bowls and others are variations of bowling games which are popular throughout Europe and have been spread around the world.\\n*Rounders from Britain now popular in northwest Europe from which Baseball derives.\\n*Shinty in Scotland, United Kingdom, which influenced ice hockey in Canada (see also Shinny).\\n*Trotting in southern Europe.\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSome sporting organisations hold European Championships.\\n*European Cricket Council\\n*European Rugby Cup (Club/Regional competition)\\n*European SC Championships\\n*FIRA - Association of European Rugby\\n*IIHF\\n*Mitropa Cup\\n*Rugby League European Federation - European Nations Cup\\n*Sport in the European Union\\n*UEFA\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSome sport competitions feature a European team gathering athletes from different European countries. These teams use the European flag as an emblem. The most famous of these competitions is the Ryder Cup in golf .\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nCapitals of Culture\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nEach year since 1985 one or more cities across Europe are chosen as European Capital of Culture. Here are the past and future capitals:\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n*1985: Athens\\n*1986: Florence\\n*1987: Amsterdam\\n*1988: Berlin\\n*1989: Paris\\n*1990: Glasgow\\n*1991: Dublin\\n*1992: Madrid\\n*1993: Antwerp\\n*1994: Lisbon\\n*1995: Luxembourg\\n*1996: Copenhagen\\n*1997: Thessaloniki\\n*1998: Stockholm\\n*1999: Weimar\\n*2000: Avignon, Bergen, Bologna, Brussels, Helsinki, Kraków, Prague, Reykjavík, Santiago de Compostela\\n*2001: Rotterdam, Porto\\n*2002: Bruges, Salamanca\\n*2003: Graz\\n*2004: Genoa, Lille\\n*2005: Cork\\n*2006: Patras\\n*2007: Sibiu, Luxembourg, Greater Region\\n*2008: Liverpool, Stavanger\\n*2009: Vilnius Linz\\n*2010: Essen (representing the Ruhr), Istanbul, Pécs\\n*2011: Turku, Tallinn\\n*2012: Guimarães, Maribor\\n*2013 Marseille, Košice\\n*2014: Umeå, Riga [4]\\n*2015: Mons, Plzeň\\n*2016: San Sebastián, Wrocław[5]\\n*2017: Aarhus,[6] Paphos\\n*2018: Malta, Netherlands\\n*2019: Matera, Italy\\n*2020: Rijeka, Croatia\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\nSymbols\",\n \"Culture of Europe\\n\\n* European symbols\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the fall of Napoleon in 1814 until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of executed Louis XVI of France reigned in highly conservative fashion, and the exiles returned. They were nonetheless unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution and Napoleon. At the Congress of Vienna they were treated respectfully, but had to give up all the territorial gains made since 1789.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nKing Louis XVI of the House of Bourbon had been overthrown and executed during the French Revolution (1789–1799), which in turn was followed by Napoleon as ruler of France. A coalition of European powers defeated Napoleon in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The Bourbon Restoration lasted from (about) 6 April 1814 until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. There was an interlude in spring 1815—the \\\"Hundred Days\\\"—when the return of Napoleon forced the Bourbons to flee France. When Napoleon was again defeated they returned to power in July.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nDuring the Restoration, the new Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy, unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime, and so it had some limits on its power. The period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but consistent occurrences of civil unrest and disturbances. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nPermanent changes in French society\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which the Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. First of all, France became highly centralized, with all decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganized and made uniform. France was divided into 80+ departments, which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by a prefect appointed by Paris. The complex multiple overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardized legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The Catholic Church lost all its lands and buildings during the Revolution, and these were sold off or came under the control of local governments. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries), and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious people were paid salaries by the state. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became a central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself and put a new emphasis on personal religiosity that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education was centralized, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the entire educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have a critical role in training the elite.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe old aristocracy had returned, and recovered much of the land they owned directly. However they completely lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and the peasants were no longer under their control. The old aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative, and much more supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but was now based in certain elements of the middle class and indeed the peasantry as well. The great masses of the French people were peasants in the countryside, or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights, and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behavior. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt was an important factor in their calculations.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However France was very slow to industrialize, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still localized, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that showed its national pride in the Army and foreign affairs.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nPolitical overview\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne; he was called the \\\"Bourbon pretender\\\" by historiographers, especially by those unfavorable to the restoration of the monarchy. A constitution, the Charter of 1814, was drafted. It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogative for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs a year in direct taxes.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis XVIII was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed to all places of public administration, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was more liberal than his successor Charles X, choosing many centrist cabinets.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis XVIII died in September 1824. He was succeeded by his brother, Charles. Charles X pursued a more conservative form of governance than Louis. His ultra-reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830), which saw his popularity plummet. The king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the outcome of a general election in 1830, through their July Ordinances. The ordinances sparked a revolution against Charles's coup attempt; by 2 August 1830, Charles had fled Paris and abdicated in favour of his grandson Henri, Count of Chambord. Henri's theoretical reign was ended on 9 August when the Chamber of Deputies declared Louis Philippe d'Orléans, who was currently ruling France as regent, King of the French, thus ushering in the July Monarchy.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis XVIII, 1814–1824\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nFirst Restoration (1814)\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand, who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for the throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered a regency for Napoleon's son, François Bonaparte, and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans, Louis Philippe, or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Napoleon's former Marshal, who was in line for the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of the Restoration was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux, Marseille, and Lyons, helped assure the Allies.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen, granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814, which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code, which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties, the peasants' biens nationaux, and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801. However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a \\\"concession and grant\\\", given \\\"by the free exercise of our royal authority\\\".\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nAfter a first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore with the white flag, the titling of Louis as the \\\"XVIII\\\" (as successor to Louis XVII, who never ruled) and as \\\"King of France\\\" rather than \\\"King of the French\\\", and the monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux by the Catholic Church and returning émigrés attempting to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill sentiment towards Louis included the army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe Hundred Days\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nNapoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba. On his Route Napoléon, most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis was forced to flee Paris to Ghent on 19 March. He returned after Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn Louis's absence, a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down, but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nSecond Restoration (1815)\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nTalleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons reigned, as was Fouché, Napoleon's minister of police during the Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror, largely in the south, when supporters of the monarchy sought revenge against those who had supported Napoleon's return, killing 200–300 and forcing thousands to flee. The perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists, or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities were powerless to stop the violence, the King and his ministers sent out their own officials to restore order.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nA Second Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the First. France was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 level. After the Battle of Waterloo, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers; occupation continued until 1818, by around 200,000 soldiers under the command of the Duke of Wellington, and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814, failed to actualize because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu, and Élie, duc Decazes; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable, elected in 1815 and given the nickname \\\"unobtainable\\\" by Louis, due to the overwhelming ultra-royalist majority, threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing trial against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil service members, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who \\\"had had nothing at all to do with the new France\\\", was appointed Prime Minister. The chambre introuvable, meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold the place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicization of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by the militia in July 1816.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nOwing to contrasting standpoints of the chamber and the King, the ultra-royalists began to assert the Chamber of Deputies' rights. This resulted in a concession from the government that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure, granted after the ultra-royalists attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn September 1816, the chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816. Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy. The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering, and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on the Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting. The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as the government continued to consolidate its position.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nBy 1820, the opposition liberals, who with the ultras made up half the chamber, proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. The assassination of the Duc de Berry, the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive, the future Charles X, by a Bonapartist in February 1820, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nRichelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot, were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give the wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election. After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry, gave birth to \\\"miracle child\\\", Henri, seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son, the duc de Reichstadt, remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand, but also Hugo, Lamartine, Vigny, and Nodier, rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to a minimum.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII, and against the Liberal Spanish Government, fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to the British under Napoleon. The French army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, was led by the duc d'Angoulême, the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cadiz, ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in a similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie, the French equivalent of the carbonari. In the 1824 election, another large majority was secured.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis XVIII died on 16 September 1824, and was succeeded by his brother, the comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nCharles X, 1824–1830\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe ascension to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with the ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue, and the last \\\"restraint\\\" (i.e., Louis) on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-Revolutionary years, the ultras saw fit to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Concordat of 11 June 1817 was set to replace the Concordat of 1801, but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi, which many deputies were members of, voted on the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts as parricide. The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused a considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nOn 29 May 1825, Charles was crowned in Reims, in an opulent and spectacular ceremony that was reminiscent of the royal pomp of the coronations of the Ancien Régime. Some innovations were included upon request by Villèle: although Charles was hostile towards the 1814 Charter, commitment to the \\\"constitutional charter\\\" was affirmed with four of Napoleon's generals in attendance. The Reims Cathedral was decorated to portray the union of Altar and Throne, and Charles Percier, the architect, adorned the building with Neo-Gothic décor, in a style that evoked the Middle Ages, rather than the Roman-influenced \\\"Empire style\\\" for which he was renowned. Charles was anointed with the sacred oil said by tradition to have been brought from heaven by a dove in 496; he prostrated himself before the altar; and received the ring, sceptre, hand of justice and then the crown. Charles even touched some people ill with scrofula, a few of whom were reported to have recovered. Hugo, Lamartine and Rossini lauded over the ceremony, while critics saw cause for alarm; Béranger notoriously mocked the king in a song, titled \\\"The Coronation of King Charles the Simple\\\".\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nOthers went as far as to accuse Charles of being a crypto-Jesuit.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn the months preceding the ceremony, the chambers passed legislation that paid an indemnity to émigrés, who had suffered by the confiscation of their lands during the Revolution. The chambers also approved the requirement that all children would inherit an equal share of land thus ending the law of primogeniture. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately, compared to their original investment, and that the redistribution was just and would reconcile émigrés to post-Revolutionary France; whereas, the opposition accused the ultras of taking money from small investors for disloyal nobles. The bill was eventually defeated in the Peers, where there was still a liberal contingent sitting, mainly appointees of Decazes.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nWhen the bill to reimburse émigrés went through in April, at a cost to the state of approximately 988 million francs (le milliard des émigrés), it was financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs, at an interest rate of 3%. Around 18 million francs were paid to the émigrés per year.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe state's payments were slower than expected, as the market value of the bonds fell; a quarter of those reimbursed received only 250 francs a year. Ironically, the main beneficiaries were perhaps the owners of biens nationaux, numbering around one million, as their property had been guaranteed as one of the conditions for the act's passing, which subsequently led to a rise in the value of their land.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture; at least, it would be automatic for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberal Peers and press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. The forcefulness of this criticism prompted the government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824; this, however, only aggravated the ultras' opponents more, and the bill was withdrawn.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats, which hosted Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with others opposed to press censorship laws (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form the Société des amis de la liberté de la presse; Choiseul-Stainville, Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société, Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera, which worked within the confines of legislation, banning the unauthorized assemblage of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (it was associated with Le Globe) and included members such as Guizot, Rémusat, and Barrot. Pamphlets were sent out which evaded the censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIn April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard. The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine. Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response, the Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to be proliferated, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to the northern départments, was holed up in Saint-Omer, was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nBy the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, that was blamed on the government's passing of the law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering the actions of préfects, who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and the Aide-toi; the Aide-toi backed liberals, constitutionnels, and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists).\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac, who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting the formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye. Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose a chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellant to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup, and prominent liberals for a tax strike.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nAt the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned the government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia. France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar. Polignac also initiated French colonization in Algeria; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early June. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution. However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nCharles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in the July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nCharles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord, and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henri V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies, the body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans, to power.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nFall of the Bourbons 1827–1830\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThere is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled the conservative Bourbons.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nBetween 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the Revolution of 1789. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops. In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners, kept the tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the \\\"Year Without a Summer\\\" in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nAt the same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers. This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nWhile the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought a relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded the right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nAlso, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and the political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nBy 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold the official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe Four Ordinances\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nTechnically, the Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While the King retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not preserve his policies with a liberal majority within the Chamber of Deputies. Stark action was required.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nA final no-confidence vote by the liberals, in March 1830, spurred the king into action, and he set about to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. These decrees, known as the \\\"Four Ordinances\\\", or the \\\"Ordinances of Saint-Cloud\\\", were:\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\n# Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies\\n# Restriction of the Press Laws\\n# Restriction of the franchise to only the wealthiest within France\\n# Immediate new elections based upon the new electorate\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nWord spread quickly of the king's intent. On 10 July 1830, before the king had even made his declarations, a group of wealthy, liberal journalists and newspaper proprietors, led by Adolphe Thiers, met in Paris to decide upon a strategy to counter Charles X. It was decided then, nearly three weeks before the Revolution, that in the event of Charles' expected proclamations, the journalistic establishment of Paris would publish vitriolic criticisms of the king's policies in an attempt to mobilize the masses. Thus, when Charles X made his declarations on the 25 July 1830, the liberal journalism machine mobilized, publishing articles and complaints decrying the despotism of the king's actions.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe urban mobs of Paris also mobilized, driven by patriotic fervor and economic hardship, assembling barricades and attacking the infrastructure of Charles X. Within days, the situation escalated beyond the ability of the monarchy to control it. As the Crown moved to shut down liberal periodicals, the radical Parisian masses defended those publications. They also launched attacks against pro-Bourbon presses, and paralyzed the coercive apparatus of the monarchy. Seizing the opportunity, the liberals in Parliament began drafting resolutions, complaints, and censures against the king.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe king finally abdicated on 30 July 1830. Twenty minutes later, his son, Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, who had nominally succeeded as Louis XIX, also abdicated, having lasted what is believed to be the shortest reign on record. The Crown nominally then fell upon the son of Louis Antoine's younger brother, Charles X's grandson, who became Henri V, with Louis-Phillippe, Duc d'Orléans, as Lieutenant-General of the realm. However, the newly empowered Chamber of Deputies declared the throne vacant, and on 9 August, elevated Louis-Philippe, to the throne. Thus, the July Monarchy began.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis-Philippe and the House of Orléans\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLouis-Philippe ascended the throne on the strength of the July Revolution of 1830, and ruled, not as \\\"King of France\\\" but as \\\"King of the French\\\", marking the shift to national sovereignty. The Orléanists remained in power until 1848. Following the ousting of the last king to rule France during the February 1848 Revolution, the French Second Republic was formed with the election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as President (1848–1852). In the French coup of 1851, Napoleon declared himself Emperor Napoleon III of the Second Empire, which lasted from 1852 to 1870.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nPolitical parties under Restoration\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nPolitical parties saw substantial changes of alignment and membership under the Restoration. The Chamber of Deputies oscillated between repressive ultra-royalist phases and progressive liberal phases. Opponents of the monarchy were absent from the political scene, because of the repression of the White Terror. Individuals of influence who had different visions of the French constitutional monarchy clashed.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nAll parties remained fearful of the common people, whom Adolphe Thiers later referred to by the term \\\"cheap multitude\\\". Their political sights were set on a favoritism of class. Political changes in the Chamber were due to abuse by the majority tendency, involving a dissolution and then an inversion of the majority, or critical events; for example, the assassination of the Duc de Berry in 1820.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nDisputes were a power struggle between the powerful (royalty against deputies) rather than a fight between royalty and populism. Although the deputies claimed to defend the interests of the people, most had an important fear of common people, of innovations, of socialism and even of simple measures, such as the extension of voting rights.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe principal political parties during the Restoration were:\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nConstitutionnels Constitutionnels were mostly rich and educated middle-class men: lawyers, senior officials of the Empire, and academics. They feared the triumph of the aristocracy, as much as that of the democrats. They accepted the charter, because it guaranteed freedom and civil equality and created a barrier to the popular masses who were considered unable, because of their ignorance, to be involved in the management of public affairs. Important personalities were Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, François Guizot, and the count of Serre. Their newspapers were Le Courrier français and Le Censeur.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nDoctrinaires Doctrinaires promoted a return to a moderate monarchy and were opposed to the extremists in the early period of the Restoration. The most prominent Doctrinaire newspaper was Le Courrier français.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIndependents\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nIndependents were mostly lower middle class: doctors and lawyers, bourgeoisie, men of law, and, in rural constituencies, traders of national goods. They rejected the charter, considering it too conservative. They rejected the treaties of 1815, the white flag and the pre-eminence of clergy and of nobility. Important personalities were parliamentary monarchist Benjamin Constant, officer of the Empire Maximilien Sebastien Foy, republican lawyer Jacques-Antoine Manuel and Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette. Their newspapers were La Minerve, Le Constitutionnel and Le Globe.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLiberal royalists\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nLiberals appeared as a party in the last years of the Restoration. Liberal royalists preached movement towards more liberty and openness. They wished to lower the taxable quota to support the middle-class as a whole, to the detriment of the aristocracy. Liberals had profited from the emergence of a new middle-class elite, due to the Industrial Revolution, which upset the aristocratic order.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nRepublicans\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nFacing the representatives of the middle class, the Republicans, then situated on the extreme left, addressed the miserable world of the disenfranchised worker. Workers were neither represented, nor listened to. Their demonstrations were repressed or diverted, causing, at most, a reinforcement of parliamentarism, which did not mean democratic evolution, only wider taxation. For some, such as Blanqui, revolution seemed the only solution. Garnier-Pagès, and Louis-Eugène and Éléonore-Louis Godefroi Cavaignac considered themselves to be Republicans, while Cabet and Raspail were active as socialists. Saint-Simon was also active during this period, and made direct appeals to Louis XVIII before his death in 1824.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nUltra-royalists\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nUltra-royalists wished for a return to the Ancien Régime, such as before 1789, with a view toward absolutism: domination by the nobility and \\\"other devoted Christians\\\". They were anti-Republican, anti-democratic, and preached Government on High, by a marked noble elite. They tolerated vote censitaire: a form of democracy limited to those paying taxes above a high threshold. Ultra-royalists were interested in preserving aristocracy and promoting absolutism. They found the Charter of 1814 to be too revolutionary. The ultra-royalists wanted a return to absolute monarchy, the re-establishment of privileges, and a king: Charles X.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nProminent ultra-royalists theorists were Louis de Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. Their parliamentary leaders were François Régis de La Bourdonnaye, comte de La Bretèche and, in 1829, Jules de Polignac. Their main newspapers were La Quotidienne and La Gazette; other royalist papers included the Drapeau Blanc, named after the Bourbon white flag, and the Oriflamme, named after the battle standard of France.\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nPopular culture\",\n \"Bourbon Restoration\\n\\nThe French historical film Jacquou le Croquant, directed by Laurent Boutonnat and starring Gaspard Ulliel and Marie-Josée Croze, is based on the Bourbon Restoration.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nMonarchism is the advocacy of a monarch or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government, independent of any specific monarch; one who espouses a particular monarch is a royalist. Conversely, the opposition to monarchical rule is sometimes referred to as republicanism.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nDepending on the country, a monarchist may advocate for the rule of the person who sits on the throne, a pretender, or someone who would otherwise occupy the throne but has been deposed.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nMonarchical rule is among the oldest political institutions. Monarchy has often claimed legitimacy from a higher power (in early modern Europe the divine right of kings, and in China the Mandate of Heaven).\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nIn England, royalty ceded power elsewhere in a gradual process. In 1215, a group of nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, which guaranteed citizens certain liberties and established that the king's powers were not absolute. In 1687-88, the Glorious Revolution and the overthrow of King James II established the principles of constitutional monarchy, which would later be worked out by Locke and other thinkers. However, absolute monarchy, justified by Hobbes in Leviathan (1651), remained a prominent principle elsewhere. In the 18th century, Voltaire and others encouraged \\\"enlightened absolutism\\\", which was embraced by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II and by Catherine II of Russia.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nIn the late 18th century, the American Revolution and the French Revolution were both additional steps in the weakening of power of European monarchies. Each in its different way exemplified the concept of popular sovereignty upheld by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. 1848 then ushered in a wave of revolutions against the continental European monarchies.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nWorld War I and its aftermath saw the end of three major European monarchies: the Russian Romanov dynasty, the German Hohenzollern dynasty, including all other German monarchies and the Austro-Hungarian Habsburg dynasty.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nThe rise of the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919 provoked an increase in support for monarchism; however, efforts by Hungarian monarchists failed to bring back a royal head of state, and the monarchists settled for a regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, to represent the monarchy until it could be restored. Horthy was regent from 1920 to 1944. In similar wise the 1938 fascist régime of Franco in Spain claimed to have reconstituted the Spanish monarchy in absentia (and in this case ultimately yielded to a restoration, in the person of King Juan Carlos). In 1920s Germany a number of monarchists gathered around the German National People's Party which demanded the return of the Hohenzollern monarchy and an end to the Weimar Republic; the party retained a large base of support until the rise of Nazism in the 1930s.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nWith the arrival of Communism in Eastern Europe by the end of 1947, the remaining Eastern European monarchies, namely the Kingdom of Romania, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Albania, the Kingdom of Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, were all abolished and replaced by socialist republics.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nThe aftermath of World War II also saw the return of monarchist and republican rivalry in Italy, where a referendum was held on whether the state should remain a monarchy or become a republic. The republican side won the vote by a narrow margin, and the modern Republic of Italy was created.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nMonarchism as a political force internationally has substantially diminished since the end of the Second World War, though it had an important role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution and also played a role in the modern political affairs of Nepal. Nepal was one of the last states to have had an absolute monarch, which continued until King Gyanendra was peacefully deposed in May 2008 and the country became a federal republic. One of the world's oldest monarchies was abolished in Ethiopia in 1974 with the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nCurrent monarchies\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nThe majority of current monarchies are constitutional monarchies. In most of these, the monarch wields only symbolic power, although in some, the monarch does play a role in political affairs. In Thailand, for instance, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who has reigned since 1946, has played a critical role in the nation's political agenda and in various military coups. Similarly, in Morocco, King Mohammed VI wields significant, but not absolute power.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nLiechtenstein is a democratic principality whose citizens have voluntarily given more power to their monarch in recent years.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nThere remain a handful of countries in which the monarch is the true ruler. The majority of these countries are oil-producing Arab Islamic monarchies like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Other strong monarchies include Brunei and Swaziland.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nJustifications for monarchism\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nAbsolute monarchy stands as an opposition to anarchism and, additionally from the Age of Enlightenment, liberalism, and communism.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nOtto von Habsburg advocated a form of constitutional monarchy based on the primacy of the supreme judicial function, with hereditary succession, mediation by a tribunal is warranted if suitability is problematic.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nNonpartisan head of state\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nA monarchy has been justified on the grounds that it provides for a nonpartisan head of state, separate from the head of government, and thus ensures that the highest representative of the country, at home and internationally, does not only represent a particular political party, but all people.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nSafeguard for liberty\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nThe International Monarchist League, founded in 1943, which has been very influential in Canada, has always sought to promote monarchy on the grounds that it strengthens popular liberty, both in a democracy and in a dictatorship, because by definition the monarch is not beholden to politicians.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nBritish-American libertarian writer Matthew Feeney, on the occasion of the birth of Prince George of Cambridge, the potential future king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, in 2013, wrote:\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nConnection to the past\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nSince the middle of the 19th century, some monarchists have stopped defending monarchy on the basis of abstract, universal principles applicable to all nations or even on the grounds that a monarchy would be the best or most practical government for the nation in question but prefer invoking local symbolic grounds that they would be a particular nation's link to the past.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nHence, post-19th century debates on whether to preserve a monarchy or to adopt a republican form of government have often been debates over national identity, with the monarch generally serving as a symbol for other issues.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nFor example, in countries like Belgium and the Netherlands anti-monarchist talk is often centered on the perceived symbolism of a monarch contrasting with those nation's political culture of egalitarianism. In Belgium, another factor are the anti-Belgian sentiments of the separatist Flemish movement. The latter see the monarchy as a predominantly francophone institution of which the historical roots lie in the French-speaking elite that ruled Belgium until circa 1950s.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nIn Canada and Australia, by contrast, debates over monarchy represent or represented debates whose driving force concerned each nation's relationship with the United Kingdom and the cultural heritage that this relationship represents.\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nHuman desire for hierarchy\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nIn a 1943 essay in The Spectator, \\\"Equality\\\", British author C.S. Lewis criticized egalitarianism, and its corresponding call for the abolition of monarchy, as contrary to human nature, writing, \\\"Where men are forbidden to honour a king they honour millionaires, athletes, or film-stars instead: even famous prostitutes or gangsters. For spiritual nature, like bodily nature, will be served; deny it food and it will gobble poison.\\\"\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nMonarchists\",\n \"Monarchism\\n\\nAmerican\\n* Loyalist (American Revolution)\\nAustralian\\n* Dame Joan Sutherland (1926–2010) \\n* Tony Abbott (born 1957) \\nAustrian\\n* Georg von Trapp (1880–1947)\\n* Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000)\\n* Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn (1909–1999)\\nBritish\\n* Sir Ian Botham (born 1955) \\n* Dame Judi Dench (born 1934) \\n* Boris Johnson (born 1964)\\n* Michael Heseltine (born 1933)\\n* Sir Elton John (born 1947)\\n* Sir Tom Jones (born 1940)\\n* J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) \\n* C.S. Lewis (1898–1963)\\n* Sir Paul McCartney (born 1942)\\n* Harold Wilson (1916–1995)\\n* Sir Winston Churchill (1874–1965)\\n* David Cameron (born 1966)\\nGerman\\n* Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg (1907–1944)\\nGreek\\n* Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941)\\nJapan\\n* Yoshiko Sakurai (born 1945)\\nNew Zealander\\n* Russell Crowe (born 1964) \\nPolish\\n* Robert Iwaszkiewicz (born 1962)\\n* Radek Sikorski (born 1963)\\n* Janusz Korwin-Mikke (born 1942)\\n* Grzegorz Braun (born 1967)\\n* Michał Marusik (born 1951)\\n* Kazik Staszewski (born 1963)\\n* Robert Makłowicz (born 1963)\\nRussian\\n* Anton Bakov (born 1965)\\nTurkish\\n* Sheikh Nazim (1922-2014)\\n* Abdul Kerim al-Qubrusi (1957-2012)\\n* Kadir Mısıroğlu (born 1933)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1587,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2508"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which autonomous region of Spain are the cities of Cadiz and Cordoba?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Andalusia"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["andalusia andalucía","andalucía autonomous community spain","andalusia","andalucía","eastern andalusia","comunidad autónoma de andalucía","andalusian spain","andalucia autonomous community","andalussiyah","andalucía spain","andalucia spain","andulasia","andalucía autonomous community","andalucía comunidad autónoma de","andalucia province","andulusia","comunidad autonoma de andalucia","andalucia comunidad autonoma de","history of andalusia","andalucia autonomous community spain","andalucian","autonomous community of andalusia","andalusia spain","andalusía","region of eastern andalusia","andalucia"],"string":"[\n \"andalusia andalucía\",\n \"andalucía autonomous community spain\",\n \"andalusia\",\n \"andalucía\",\n \"eastern andalusia\",\n \"comunidad autónoma de andalucía\",\n \"andalusian spain\",\n \"andalucia autonomous community\",\n \"andalussiyah\",\n \"andalucía spain\",\n \"andalucia spain\",\n \"andulasia\",\n \"andalucía autonomous community\",\n \"andalucía comunidad autónoma de\",\n \"andalucia province\",\n \"andulusia\",\n \"comunidad autonoma de andalucia\",\n \"andalucia comunidad autonoma de\",\n \"history of andalusia\",\n \"andalucia autonomous community spain\",\n \"andalucian\",\n \"autonomous community of andalusia\",\n \"andalusia spain\",\n \"andalusía\",\n \"region of eastern andalusia\",\n \"andalucia\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Spain\n\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.","Spain\n\nSpanish territory includes two archipelagos: the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast. It also includes two major exclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, in continental North Africa; and the islands and peñones (rocks) of Alborán, Alhucemas, Chafarinas and Vélez de la Gomera. With an area of 505990 km2, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth largest country in the European continent. By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union.","Spain\n\nModern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. In the early modern period, Spain became one of history's first global colonial empires, leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers, making Spanish the world's second most spoken first language, after Chinese and before English.","Spain\n\nSpain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a middle power and a developed country with the world's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations.","Spain\n\nEtymology","Spain\n\nThe origins of the Roman name Hispania, from which the modern name España was derived, are uncertain due to inadequate evidence. Down the centuries there have been a number of accounts and hypotheses:","Spain\n\nThe Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning \"city of the western world\".","Spain\n\nJesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning \"to forge metals\". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean \"the land where metals are forged\". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning \"island of rabbits\", \"land of rabbits\" or \"edge\", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the \"land of the rabbits\".","Spain\n\nHispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a \"western land\" or \"land of the setting sun\" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.","Spain\n\nThere is the claim that \"Hispania\" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning \"edge\" or \"border\", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.","Spain\n\nTwo 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abrabanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE.","Spain\n\nHistory","Spain\n\nIberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.","Spain\n\nContinued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.","Spain\n\nPrehistory and pre-Roman peoples","Spain\n\nArchaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.","Spain\n\nThe largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Tartessians were in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. A number of trading settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians developed on the Mediterranean coast.","Spain\n\nRoman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom","Spain\n\nDuring the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.","Spain\n\nThe cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.","Spain\n\nThe weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.","Spain\n\nThe Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Douro river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name—Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.","Spain\n\nIsidore of Seville, archbishop of Seville, was an influential philosopher and was much studied in the Middle Ages in Europe. Also, his theories were vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom to a Catholic one, in the Councils of Toledo. This Gothic kingdom was the first Christian kingdom ruling in the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Reconquista it was the referent for the different kingdoms fighting against the Muslim rule.","Spain\n\nMiddle Ages: Muslim invasion and Reconquista","Spain\n\nIn the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.","Spain\n\nUnder Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.","Spain\n\nConversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.","Spain\n\nThe Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.","Spain\n\nCórdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture.","Spain\n\nIn the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.","Spain\n\nThe Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.","Spain\n\nMuslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.","Spain\n\nThe break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a Muslim tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.","Spain\n\nFrom the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. He worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.","Spain\n\nThe Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as \"Spanish\" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses founded in the monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla contain the first written words in both Basque and Spanish, having the first become an influence in the formation of the second as an evolution of Latin.","Spain\n\nIn the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and even Athens. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.","Spain\n\nImperial Spain","Spain\n\nIn 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.\nThat same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. \nThe Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims, and although the tolerance was only partial, it was not until the beginning of the 17th century, following the Revolt of the Alpujarras, that Muslims were finally expelled.","Spain\n\nThe year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although he remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. The colonisation of the Americas started, with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the European cultures and people.","Spain\n\nAs Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.\nWith their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.","Spain\n\nThe unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language.","Spain\n\nSpain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Dutch Revolt, the Morisco Revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish War and wars with France.","Spain\n\nThrough exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations.","Spain\n\nThe rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.","Spain\n\nIn the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates, under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and the renewed threat of an Islamic invasion. This was at a time when Spain was often at war with France.","Spain\n\nThe Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.","Spain\n\nBy the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.","Spain\n\nIn the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.","Spain\n\nThe decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. \nDuring this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.","Spain\n\nThe 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved the kingdom's international standing.","Spain\n\nLiberalism and nation state","Spain\n\nIn 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The ridiculed Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.","Spain\n\nJoseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.","Spain\n\nDuring the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812 a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries.","Spain\n\nSpain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico.","Spain\n\nThe Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s Anti-liberal forces known as Carlists fought against liberals in the Carlist Wars. Liberal forces won, but the conflict between progressive and conservative liberals ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, a more stable monarchic period began characterised by the practice of turnismo (the rotation of government control between progressive and conservative liberals within the Spanish government).","Spain\n\nIn the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of 98 who were conducting an analysis of the country.","Spain\n\nAlthough the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.","Spain\n\nA period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the linguistically distinct regions of Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women and was increasingly dominated by left wing political parties. In the worsening economic situation of the Great Depression, Spanish politics became increasingly chaotic and violent.","Spain\n\nSpanish Civil War and dictatorship","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. For three years the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy fought the Republican side, which was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. In 1939, General Franco emerged victorious and became a dictator.","Spain\n\nThe state as established under Franco was nominally neutral in the Second World War, although sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasized falangism, a form of fascism that emphasized anti-communism, nationalism and Roman Catholicism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.","Spain\n\nAfter World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to cities and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, the favouring of a very conservative form of Roman Catholicism known as National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.","Spain\n\nRestoration of democracy","Spain\n\nIn 1962, Salvador de Madariaga, founder of the Liberal International and the College of Europe, met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich with members of the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in the exile. There were 118 politicians from all factions. At the end of the meetings a resolution in favour of democracy was made.","Spain\n\nWith Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.","Spain\n\nIn the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.\nOn 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.","Spain\n\nDuring the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.","Spain\n\nOn 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.","Spain\n\nOn 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. At 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a plurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or Prime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration.","Spain\n\nThe proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly from around 1 in 50 in 2000 to almost 1 in 8 in 2010 but has since declined. In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–15 Spanish financial crisis and high levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and Catalan independentism served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won elections with 44.6% of votes and Rajoy became the Spanish Prime Minister after having been the leader of the opposition from 2004 to 2011. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.","Spain\n\nGeography","Spain\n\nAt 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47000 km2 smaller than France and 81000 km2 larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.","Spain\n\nSpain lies between latitudes 26° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.","Spain\n\nOn the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and the Principality of Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.","Spain\n\nIslands","Spain\n\nSpain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as (\"places of sovereignty\", or territories under [Spanish] sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.","Spain\n\nLargest inhabited islands of Spain:","Spain\n\nMountains and rivers","Spain\n\nMainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as \"Inner Plateau\") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.","Spain\n\nThere are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.","Spain\n\nClimate","Spain\n\nThree main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: \n* The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm and dry summers. It is dominant in the peninsula, with two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csb Zone, with a more extreme climate, hotter in summer and colder in winter, extends to additional areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. Valladolid, Burgos, León).\n* The semi-arid climate (Bsh, Bsk), located in the southeastern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Murcia and in the Ebro valley. In contrast with the Mediterranean climate, the dry season extends beyond the summer.\n* The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias and partly Galicia. In contrary to the Mediterranean climate, winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.","Spain\n\nApart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada, and a typical desert climate in the zone of Almería and in most parts of the Canary Islands; while in higher areas of the Canary Islands the predominant climate is subtropical.","Spain\n\nThe below-listed list covers the average temperatures of three major cities in Spain; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife which has a significantly different climates to the predominant climate in Spain. More information regarding temperature can be found in city articles and the main article about the Spanish climate.","Spain\n\nFauna and flora","Spain\n\nThe fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.","Spain\n\nThe vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the relief, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors.","Spain\n\nPolitics","Spain\n\nAccording to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 20 full democracies in the world.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.\nThe constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.","Spain\n\nAs a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish administration approved legislation in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act). However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (36.3%). It places Spain 13th on a list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower house. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%). The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.","Spain\n\nGovernment","Spain\n\nSpain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts). The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers of Spain presided over by the Prime Minister, nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.","Spain\n\nThe legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.\n* Head of State\n** King Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014\n* Head of Government\n** Prime Minister of Spain (Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government): Mariano Rajoy Brey, elected 20 November 2011.\n*** Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for the Presidency: Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría.\n* Cabinet\n** Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros) designated by the Prime Minister.","Spain\n\nSpain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías (\"State of Autonomies\"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed regionally, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral and Policía Canaria).","Spain\n\nHuman rights","Spain\n\nThe Government respects the human rights of its citizens; although there are a few problems in some areas, the law and judiciary provide effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners and illegal immigrants. According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.","Spain\n\nSpain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with an 88% of society supporting the gay community compared to 11% who do not.","Spain\n\nAdministrative divisions","Spain\n\nThe Spanish State is integrated by 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are integrated by provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions.","Spain\n\nAutonomies","Spain\n\nAutonomous communities are the first level administrative division in the country. These were created after the 1979 and current constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government to the \"nationalities and regions of Spain\". Autonomous communities were to be integrated by adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economical traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the \"State of Autonomies\".","Spain\n\nThe basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.","Spain\n\nThe government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:\n* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;\n* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain;\n* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organisation within the autonomous community.","Spain\n\nCatalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as \"nationalities\" were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.","Spain\n\nThe autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Aside of fiscal autonomy, the \"historical\" nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid.","Spain\n\nNonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the \"historical nationalities\" and the rest of the regions.","Spain\n\nFinally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast.","Spain\n\nProvinces and municipalities","Spain\n\nAutonomous communities are subdivided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.","Spain\n\nThe current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that are integrated by a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In this cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.","Spain\n\nForeign relations","Spain\n\nAfter the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.","Spain\n\nAs a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to co-ordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.","Spain\n\nSpain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of \"Hispanidad\" or \"Hispanismo\", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture.","Spain\n\n;Territorial disputes\nSpain claims Gibraltar, a 6 km2 Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne.","Spain\n\nThe legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the \"occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law\". The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus, as there has been \"continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period\".","Spain\n\nAnother claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, a claim not recognised by Portugal. Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, therefore claiming that there is no Portuguese territorial waters around the disputed islands. On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views.","Spain\n\nSpain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 m just off the coast of Morocco, 8 km from Ceuta and from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.","Spain\n\nBesides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa; and Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.","Spain\n\nMilitary","Spain\n\nThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: \n* Army (Ejército de Tierra)\n* Navy (Armada)\n* Air Force (Ejército del Aire)","Spain\n\nEconomy","Spain\n\nSpain's capitalist mixed economy is the 16th largest worldwide and the 5th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.","Spain\n\nThe centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favourably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.","Spain\n\nBy the mid-1990s the economy had recommenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment began to drop steadily. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999.","Spain\n\nSince the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest toward Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets.","Spain\n\nSpanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation, Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.","Spain\n\nIn 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world. In 2013 the same survey (now called the \"Where-to-be-born index\"), ranked Spain 28th in the world.","Spain\n\nIn 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012. The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012.","Spain\n\nAgriculture","Spain\n\nCrop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe.","Spain\n\nThough only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40-45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land.","Spain\n\nCitrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the EC.","Spain\n\nTourism","Spain\n\nThe climate of Spain, its geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture and excellent infrastructure, has made Spain's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.","Spain\n\nEnergy","Spain\n\nSpain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy. In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction).","Spain\n\nNon-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p\nEnergimyndigheten&viewdefault&cat\n/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f].","Spain\n\nTransport","Spain\n\nThe Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that \"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution.\"","Spain\n\nSpain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of October 2010, Spain has a total of 3500 km of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains reaching speeds up to 300 km/h. On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.54% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.","Spain\n\nThere are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.","Spain\n\nScience and technology","Spain\n\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Severo Ochoa.","Spain\n\nSee also ASCAMM, Associació Catalana d'Empreses constructores de Motlles i Matrius","Spain\n\nWater supply and sanitation","Spain\n\nWater supply and Sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and generally good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. \nAlmost half of the population is served by private or mixed\nprivate-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts\nwith municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a\nmarket share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de\nBarcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.","Spain\n\nDroughts affect water supply in Southern Spain, which increasingly is turning towards seawater desalination to meet its water needs.","Spain\n\nDemographics","Spain\n\nIn 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain more than doubled since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.","Spain\n\nNative Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.","Spain\n\nIn 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute.","Spain\n\nSubstantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Peru and Mexico. Another 450,000 left in the 17th century. Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil. Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America.","Spain\n\nUrbanisation","Spain\n\n;Metropolitan areas","Spain\n\nSource: \"Áreas urbanas +50\", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013)","Spain\n\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Rank\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Metro area\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Autonomouscommunity\n!colspan=\"2\"| Population\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!Government data\n!Other estimates\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 1 || Madrid || Madrid || 6,052,247 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 5.4 – 6.5 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 2 || Barcelona || Catalonia || 5,030,679 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 3 || Valencia || Valencia || 1,551,585 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.5 – 2.3 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 4 || Seville || Andalusia || 1,294,867 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.2 – 1.3 m\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 5 || Málaga || Andalusia || 953,251 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 6 || Bilbao || Basque Country || 910,578 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 7 || Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés || Asturias || 835,053 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 8 || Zaragoza || Aragon || 746,152 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 9 || Alicante–Elche || Valencia || 698,662 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 10 || Murcia || Murcia || 643,854 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|}","Spain\n\nPeoples","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities—nationalities (a carefully chosen word to avoid the more politically charged \"nations\")—and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians, although to some extent all of the 17 Autonomous Communities will claim a distinct historic identity.","Spain\n\nIt is this last feature of \"shared identity\" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.","Spain\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook (2011), Spain's racial description is presented as \"composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types\" under \"ethnic groups\" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition.","Spain\n\nMinority groups","Spain\n\nSpain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Britons, Germans, French and others.","Spain\n\nThe arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000. There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear.","Spain\n\nHistorically, Sephardi Jews and moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture. The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to sephardi Jews.","Spain\n\nImmigration","Spain\n\nAccording to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.","Spain\n\nWithin the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.","Spain\n\nAnother statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.","Spain\n\nIn 2008, the government instituted a \"Plan of Voluntary Return\" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The program had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer. What the program failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España]. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011","Spain\n\nLanguages","Spain\n\nSpain is openly multilingual, and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect \"all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.Preamble to the Constitution","Spain\n\nSpanish (español)—officially recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that \"all other Spanish languages\"—that is, all other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the \"richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.\"Third article.","Spain\n\nThe other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are:\n* Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre;\n* Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, where its distinct modality of the language is officially known as Valencian (valencià); and\n* Galician (galego) in Galicia","Spain\n\nAs a percentage of the general population, Basque is spoken by 2%, Catalan (or Valencian) by 17%, and Galician by 7% of all Spaniards.","Spain\n\nIn Catalonia, Aranese (aranés), a local variety of the Occitan language, has been declared co-official along with Catalan and Spanish since 2006. It is spoken only in the comarca of Val d'Aran by roughly 6,700 people. Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese group (Asturian – asturianu, also called bable – in Asturias and Leonese – llionés – in Castile and León) and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon.","Spain\n\nIn the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.","Spain\n\nEducation","Spain\n\nState education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system was established by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html La Ley Orgánica 2/2006]. Retrieved 23 September 2009 In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html Ley Orgánica 8/2013]. Retrieved 9 December 2013 Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).","Spain\n\nReligion","Spain\n\nRoman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain, and although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class, and Catholicism is the only religion officially taught. According to an April 2014 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research about 69% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 26% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 59% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church some times a year, 8% some time per month and 14% every Sunday or multiple times per week. Recent polls and surveys have revealed that atheists comprise anywhere from 8% to 20% of the Spanish population.","Spain\n\nAltogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.","Spain\n\nThere have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish misticism was an important intellectual fight against Protestantism with Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun, ahead. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola.","Spain\n\nProtestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.","Spain\n\nA study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were about 1,700,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain , accounting for 3-4% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from Morocco and other African countries. More than 514,000 (30%) of them had Spanish nationality.","Spain\n\nThe recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims.\nAfter the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.","Spain\n\nJudaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion.","Spain\n\nCulture","Spain\n\nCulturally, Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music has been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.","Spain\n\nMonuments and World Heritage Sites","Spain\n\nIt should be noted that after Italy (49) and China (45), Spain is the third country in the world with the most World Heritage Sites. At the present time it has 44 recognised sites, including the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal (the Portuguese part being in the Côa Valley, Guarda), and the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or \"Human treasures\", Spain ranks first in Europe according to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List, tied with Croatia.","Spain\n\n* 1984 — Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín (Granada, Andalusia). * 1984 — Burgos Cathedral (Burgos, Castile-León). * 1984 — Historic Centre of Córdoba (Córdoba, Andalusia). * 1984 — Monastery and Royal Site of El Escorial (Madrid). * 1984 — Works of Antoni Gaudí (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1985 — Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (Asturias, Basque Country and Cantabria regions). * 1985 — Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of Asturias (Asturias). * 1985 — Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches (Ávila, Castile-León). * 1985 — Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct (Segovia, Castile-León). * 1985 — Santiago de Compostela (Old Town) (A Coruña, Galicia). * 1986 — Garajonay National Park (La Gomera, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 1986 — Historic City of Toledo (Toledo, Castile-La Mancha). * 1986 — Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon (Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza in Aragon). * 1986 — Old Town of Cáceres (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1987 — Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (Seville, Andalusia). * 1988 — Old City of Salamanca (Salamanca, Castile-León). * 1991 — Poblet Monastery (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 1993 — Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida (Badajoz, Extremadura).","Spain\n\n* 1993 — Route of Santiago de Compostela (Provinces of Burgos, León and Palencia in Castile-León, Provinces of A Coruña and Lugo in Galicia, La Rioja, Navarre, and the Province of Huesca in Aragon). * 1993 — Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1994 — Doñana National Park (Provinces of Cádiz, Huelva and Seville in Andalusia). * 1996 — Historic Walled Town of Cuenca (Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha). * 1996 — Silk Exchange of Valencia (Valencia). * 1997 — Las Médulas (León, Castile-León). * 1997 — Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1997 — Pirineos – Monte Perdido (Huesca, Aragon – Spanish part / Midi-Pyrénées and Aquitaine – French part). (Shared with France). * 1997 — San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries (La Rioja). * 1998 (2010) — Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Guarda, Norte Region – Portuguese part) and Siega Verde (Salamanca, Castile-León – Spanish part). (Shared with Portugal). * 1998 — Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (Andalusia, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia regions). * 1998 — University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).","Spain\n\n* 1999 — Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Ibiza, Balearic Islands). * 1999 — San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2000 — Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 2000 — Archaeological Site of Atapuerca (Burgos, Castile-León). * 2000 — Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí (Lleida, Catalonia). * 2000 — Palmeral of Elche (Alicante, Valencia). * 2000 — Roman Walls of Lugo (Lugo, Galicia). * 2001 — Aranjuez Cultural Landscape (Madrid). * 2003 — Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (Jaén, Andalusia). * 2006 — Vizcaya Bridge (Biscay, Basque Country). * 2007 — Teide National Park (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2009 — Tower of Hercules (A Coruña, Galicia). * 2011 — Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana (Majorca, Balearic Islands). * 2012 — Heritage of Mercury. Almadén (Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha – Spanish part) and Idrija (Slovene Littoral – Slovenian part). (Shared with Slovenia).","Spain\n\nLiterature","Spain\n\nThe earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).","Spain\n\nDuring the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life.","Spain\n\nOther major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).","Spain\n\nDuring the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.","Spain\n\nThe Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.","Spain\n\nDuring the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.","Spain\n\nDuring the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.","Spain\n\nIn Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general \"Realism\", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.","Spain\n\nThe group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The \"Disaster\" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the 'Generation of 98'.","Spain\n\nThe Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed \"generation\" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.","Spain\n\nLeading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.","Spain\n\nThe Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.","Spain\n\nThe two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. He was also well known by his Iberist ideas.","Spain\n\nArt","Spain\n\nArtists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today and European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.","Spain\n\nDuring the Golden Age we find painters such as El Greco, José de Ribera and Francisco Zurbarán. Also inside Baroque period Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, like Las Meninas or Las Hilanderas.","Spain\n\nFrancisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the raise of state-nations.","Spain\n\nJoaquín Sorolla is a well-known impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.","Spain\n\nCinema","Spain\n\nSpanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.","Spain\n\nActresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz are among those who have become Hollywood stars.","Spain\n\nArchitecture","Spain\n\nDue to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty. Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.","Spain\n\nSimultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.","Spain\n\nThe arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.","Spain\n\nMusic and dance","Spain\n\nSpanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.","Spain\n\nIn the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.","Spain\n\nThousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.","Spain\n\nThe most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.","Spain\n\nCuisine","Spain\n\nSpanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:","Spain\n\nMediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.","Spain\n\nInner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.","Spain\n\nAtlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, like the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.","Spain\n\nSport","Spain\n\nWhile varieties of football had been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by English style association football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team to ever win three back-to-back major international tournaments.","Spain\n\nBasketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.","Spain\n\nRafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain, the game of pelota is very popular.\nAlberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including two Tour de France titles.","Spain\n\nPublic holidays and festivals","Spain\n\nPublic holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.","Spain\n\nThere are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and every year millions of people from all over the world go to Spain to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 to 14 July, the week-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As a result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.","Spain\n\nOther festivals include the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.","Cádiz\n\nCádiz (,; see other pronunciations below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of Cádiz, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.","Cádiz\n\nCádiz, the oldest continuously inhabited city in Spain and one of the oldest in western Europe, has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. The city is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.","Cádiz\n\nSituated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with a wealth of attractive vistas and well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz within the remnants of the city walls is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: Casco Antiguo). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters (barrios), among them El Pópulo, La Viña, and Santa María, which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees supposedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.","Cádiz\n\nToponymy","Cádiz\n\nVery little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as a Gadir or Agadir (), meaning \"The Wall\", \"The Compound\", or (by metonymy) \"The Stronghold\". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the agadir (Tamazight: \"wall\"; Shilha: \"fortified granary\") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology.) The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.","Cádiz\n\nAttic Greek sources hellenized Gadir as tà Gádeira (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as Gḗdeira (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as hè Gadeíra ().","Cádiz\n\nIn Latin, the city was known as Gādēs and its Roman colony as Augusta Urbs Iulia Gaditana (\"The August City of Julia of Cádiz\").","Cádiz\n\nIn Arabic, the Latin name became Qādis (). The Spanish Cádiz derived from this. (The accent mark is necessary to show that the stress is placed on the first syllable of the name.) The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is gaditano.","Cádiz\n\nIn English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as, as, or as. In Spanish, the accent is always on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation is, the local dialect says, or instead. More recently, some English speakers hypercorrect and attempt to employ the Spanish lisp similarly to the British version of \"Ibiza\", leading to pronunciations of Cádiz with /s/ or /θ/ instead of /z/, but keeping the English vowels and the strong /d/.","Cádiz\n\nDemographics","Cádiz\n\nAccording to a 2013 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 123,948 (the second city most populated of the province after Jerez de la Frontera with 215.180 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the comarca composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.","Cádiz\n\nAmong the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their \"footprint\".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.","Cádiz\n\nTwo other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in medieval times. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest 45 m height. (See below.)","Cádiz\n\nCádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.","Cádiz\n\nPopulation density","Cádiz\n\nThe population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. So the entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.","Cádiz\n\nThe table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the \"stats divisions\", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the \"new city\".","Cádiz\n\nArea is in km2 and population density in inhabitants per square kilometer.","Cádiz\n\nHistory","Cádiz\n\nFounded as Gadir or Agadir by Phoenicians from Tyre, Cádiz is sometimes counted as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe.Espinosa, Pedro (2007). EL PAIS. [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Hallado/Cadiz/muro/3000/anos/elpepucul/20070930elpepicul_7/Tes Hallado en Cádiz un muro de 3.000 años] The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France and of Hanno around Western Africa began here. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.","Cádiz\n\nOne of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names \"Tyrian Hercules\" and \"Hercules Gaditanus\". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding Gadeira after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place. ) According to the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, the \"Heracleum\" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the \"pillars of Hercules\".","Cádiz\n\nThe city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as Gades. Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.","Cádiz\n\nThe people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred equites (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: \"Gades\".","Cádiz\n\nAlthough it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').","Cádiz\n\nThe overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 550 as a part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.","Cádiz\n\nUnder Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called Qādis, whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an \"idol\" (sanam Qādis) over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as Salamcadis) in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity.Fear, A.T. \"[http://ddd.uab.cat/pub/faventia/02107570v12-13/02107570v12-13p199.pdf The Tower of Cádiz\". Faventia: Revista de Filologia Clàssica, #12-13, Vol. 1-2 (1990-1991), p. 199-211. Accessed 23 Jul 2013.] Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. The Moors were finally ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.","Cádiz\n\nDuring the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.","Cádiz\n\nThe city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by another English fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.","Cádiz\n\nIn the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.","Cádiz\n\nDuring the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cádiz Cortes decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.","Cádiz\n\nIn recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.","Cádiz\n\nDiocese","Cádiz\n\nThe diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.","Cádiz\n\nHistorically, the diocese counts among its most famous prelates Cardinal Juan de Torquemada, a Dominican theologian and expert on canon law, who took a leading part in the Councils of Basle and Florence, and defended, in his Summe de Ecclesia, the direct power of the pope in temporal matters. His nephew, Tomás de Torquemada, is most closely associated with the 15th century Spanish Inquisition.","Cádiz\n\nMain sights","Cádiz\n\nAmong the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares (plazas), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.","Cádiz\n\nPlazas and their landmark buildings","Cádiz\n\nThe old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the Plaza de Mina, Plaza San Antonio, Plaza de Candelaria, Plaza de San Juan de Dios, and Plaza de España.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de Mina","Cádiz\n\nLocated in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens.","Cádiz\n\nThe houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.","Cádiz\n\nThe Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of Santiago, built in 1635.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de San Francisco and San Francisco Church and Convent","Cádiz\n\nLocated next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza San Antonio","Cádiz\n\nIn the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. It is a beautiful square, surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.","Cádiz\n\nThe plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.","Cádiz\n\nIn 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de Candelaria","Cádiz\n\nThe Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile also, lived in the square.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de la Catedral and the Cathedral","Cádiz\n\nOne of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. It sits on the site of an older cathedral, completed in 1260, which burned down in 1596. The reconstruction, which was not started until 1776, was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero left the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice, it contains rococo elements, and was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral and monasteries from throughout Spain.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de San Juan de Dios and the Old Town Hall","Cádiz\n\nConstruction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the Ayuntamiento is the town hall of Cádiz's Old City. The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the Isabelino) style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de España and the monument to the constitution of 1812","Cádiz\n\nThe Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.","Cádiz\n\nThe goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.","Cádiz\n\nThe lower level of the monument represents a chamber and an empty presidential armchair. The upper level has various inscriptions surmounting the chamber. On each side are bronze figures representing peace and war. In the centre, a pilaster rises to symbolize, in allegorical terms, the principals expressed in the 1812 constitution. At the foot of this pilaster, there is a female figure representing Spain, and, to either side, sculptural groupings representing agriculture and citizenship.","Cádiz\n\nPlaza de Falla and the Gran Teatro Falla (Falla Grand Theater)","Cádiz\n\nThe original Gran Teatro was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the Gran Teatro Falla, in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.","Cádiz\n\nOther sights","Cádiz\n\nTavira tower","Cádiz\n\nIn the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea for arriving merchant ships. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses. The Torre Tavira, named for its original owner, stands as the tallest remaining watchtower. It has a camera obscura, a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc.","Cádiz\n\nAdmiral's House","Cádiz\n\nThe Casa del Almirante is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.","Cádiz\n\nOld customs house","Cádiz\n\nSituated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.","Cádiz\n\nPalacio de Congresos","Cádiz\n\nCádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)","Cádiz\n\nRoman theatre","Cádiz\n\nThe Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.","Cádiz\n\nThe theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his Epistulae ad Familiares ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.","Cádiz\n\nPylons of Cádiz","Cádiz\n\nThe Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are 158 m high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.","Cádiz\n\nCarranza Bridge","Cádiz\n\nLa Pepa Bridge","Cádiz\n\nLa Pepa Bridge, officially \"La Pepa\" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It will cross the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. When the bridge is finished it will be the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in this country.","Cádiz\n\nCity walls and fortifications","Cádiz\n\nLas Puertas de Tierra originated in the 16th century, although much of the original work has disappeared. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city.","Cádiz\n\nEl Arco de los Blancos is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate.","Cádiz\n\nEl Arco de la Rosa (\"Rose Arch\") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.","Cádiz\n\nThe Baluarte de la Candelaria (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.","Cádiz\n\nThe Castle of San Sebastián is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.","Cádiz\n\nThe Castle of Santa Catalina is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.","Cádiz\n\nNotable people born in Cádiz and Cádiz province","Cádiz\n\n*Manuel de Falla, composer\n*Miguel Martínez de Pinillos Sáenz, shio-owner and politician\n*José Manuel Flores, football defender for Swansea City\n*George Meade, Union general of The American Civil War\n*Camarón de la Isla, flamenco singer\n*Paco de Lucía, flamenco guitarist\n*Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, Roman agronomic writer\n*Lucius Cornelius Balbus, consul\n*Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger, general\n*José Celestino Mutis, botanist and mathematician\n*Javier Ruibal musician, singer, songwriter\n*Esteban Piñero Camacho, known as Basty, member of the Spanish band D'NASH\n*Niña Pastori, or María Rosa García García, flamenco singer.\n*Suso, professional footballer for A.C. Milan\n*Rafael Alberti, writer\n*Jose Manuel Caballero, novelist","Cádiz\n\nClimate","Cádiz\n\nCádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate with significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez de la Frontera and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia.","Cádiz\n\nBeaches","Cádiz\n\nCádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to some incredibly beautiful beaches.","Cádiz\n\nLa Playa de la Caleta is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the Barrio de la Viña. It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around 400 m long and 30 m wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie Die Another Day.","Cádiz\n\nLa Playa de la Victoria, in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of 50 m of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants.","Cádiz\n\nLa Playa de Santa María del Mar or Playita de las Mujeres is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.","Cádiz\n\nOther beaches are Torregorda, Cortadura and El Chato.","Cádiz\n\nCarnival","Cádiz\n\nThe Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.","Cádiz\n\nThe Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called chirigotas, who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called comparsas, who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; cuartetos, consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and romanceros, storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.","Cádiz\n\nThe ' (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the Gran Teatro Falla (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.","Cádiz\n\nGastronomy","Cádiz\n\nThe gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of comarca and the city.","Cádiz\n\nTwin towns—sister cities","Cádiz\n\nCádiz is twinned with:\n* Brest, Brittany, France \n* Buenos Aires, Argentina\n* Havana, Cuba\n* Medway, England\n* Montevideo, Uruguay\n* Tangier, Morocco\n* San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA\n* Intramuros, Manila, Philippines\n* Santos, Brazil\n* Dakhla, Western Sahara\n* Indio, California, USA\n* Byblos, Lebanon\n* Spain: La Coruña, Ceuta, Huelva, Móstoles, Las Palmas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Torrevieja\n* Colombia: Cartagena de Indias, La Dorada, Santa Fe de Antioquia, Guaduas, Honda, Ambalema, San Sebastián de Mariquita & Bogotá\n* Mexico: México DF, Puebla, San Pedro Cholula, & Veracruz","Cádiz\n\nOther relations","Cádiz\n\n* Most Ancient European Towns Network","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba (,), also called Cordova in English, is a city in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. It was conquered by invading Islamic armies in the eighth century, and then became the capital of the Islamic Emirate and then Caliphate of Córdoba, including most of the Iberian Peninsula.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIt has been estimated that in the 10th century Córdoba was the most populous city in the world, and under the rule of Caliph Al Hakam II it had also become a centre for education under its Islamic rulers. Al Hakam II opened many libraries in addition to the many medical schools and universities which existed at this time. During these centuries Córdoba became a predominantly Muslim society with minorities living in a restricted second-class status. It returned to Christian rule in 1236, during the Reconquista. Today it is a moderately sized modern city; its population in 2011 was about 330,000. The historic centre was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba has the warmest summer high temperatures in Spain and Europe with average high temperatures around 37 C in July and similar heat in August.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nHistory","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nPrehistory and antiquity","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe first trace of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 42,000 to 35,000 BC In the 8th century BC, during the ancient Tartessos period, a pre-urban settlement existed. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy. The first historical mention of a settlement dates, however, to the Carthaginian expansion across the Guadalquivir, when the general Hamilcar Barca renamed it Kartuba, from Kart-Juba, meaning \"the City of Juba\", the latter being a Numidian commander who had died in a battle nearby. Córdoba was conquered by the Romans in 206 BC. In 169 the Roman consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus founded a Latin colony alongside the pre-existing Iberian settlement. Between 143 and 141 BC the town was besieged by Viriatus. A Roman Forum is known to have existed in the city in 113 BC. The famous Cordoba Treasure, which mixes local and Roman artistic traditions, was buried in the city at this time. It can now be found in the collections of the British Museum.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nAt the time of Julius Caesar, Córdoba was the capital of the Roman province of Hispania Ulterior Baetica. Great Roman philosophers such as Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger, orators such as Seneca the Elder and poets such as Lucan came from Roman Cordoba. Later, it occupied an important place in the Provincia Hispaniae of the Byzantine Empire (552–572) and under the Visigoths, who conquered it in the late 6th century.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIslamic rule","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba was captured in 711 by a Moorish army. Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Moorish rule. The new Moorish commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became a provincial capital, subordinate to the Caliphate of Damascus; in Arabic it was known as قرطبة (Qurṭubah).","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nDifferent areas were allocated for the services in the Saint Vincent Church shared by Christian and Moors, until the former Mosque started to be erected on the same spot under Abd-ar-Rahman I. Abd al-Rahman allowed the Christians to rebuild their ruined churches and purchased the Christian half of the church of St Vincent. In May 766, it was chosen as the capital of the independent Muslim emirate of al-Andalus, later a Caliphate itself. During the caliphate apogee (1000 AD), Córdoba had a population of roughly 500,000 inhabitants, though estimates range between 350,000 and 1,000,000. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world as well as a great cultural, political, financial and economic centre. The Great Mosque of Córdoba dates back to this time. Upon a change of rulers, though, the situation changed quickly. \"The vizier al-Mansur–the unofficial ruler of al-Andalus from 976 to 1002—burned most of the books on philosophy to please the Moorish clergy; most of the others were sold off or perished in the civil strife not long after.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nReinhardt Dozy wrote:","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nRoger Collins wrote:","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nHowever, following al-Mansur's death, internal struggle for power between different factions led to the pillage and destruction of Medina Azahara and other splendid buildings of Córdoba. The city fell into a steady decline in the next decades and after the fall of the caliphate (1031), Córdoba became the capital of a Republican independent taifa. This short-lived state was conquered by Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, lord of Seville, in 1070. In turn, the latter was overthrown by the Almoravids, who were later replaced by the Almohads.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nDuring the latter's domination the city declined, the role of the capital of Muslim al-Andalus having been given to Seville.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nModern history","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nDuring the Spanish Reconquista, Córdoba was captured by King Ferdinand III of Castile on 29 June 1236, after a siege of several months. The city was divided into 14 colaciones, and numerous new church buildings were added.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe city declined, especially after Renaissance times. In the 18th century it was reduced to just 20,000 inhabitants. The population and economy started to increase only in the early 20th century.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nWith the most extensive historical heritages in the world declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO (on 17 December 1984), the city also features a number of modern areas, including the districts of Zoco and the railway station district.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe regional government (the Junta de Andalucía) has for some time been studying the creation of a Córdoba Metropolitan Area that would comprise, in addition to the capital itself, the towns of Villafranca de Córdoba, Obejo, La Carlota, Villaharta, Villaviciosa, Almodóvar del Río and Guadalcázar. The combined population of such an area would be around 351,000.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nGeography","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe city is on the banks of the Guadalquivir river, and its easy access to the mining resources of the Sierra Morena (coal, lead, zinc) satisfies the population's needs.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe city is in a depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir. In the north is the Sierra Morena, which defines the borders of the municipal area.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba is one of the few cities in the world that has a near-exact antipodal city – Hamilton, New Zealand.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nClimate","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). Córdoba has the highest summer average daily temperatures in Europe (averaging in July) and days with temperatures over 40 °C are common in the summer months. August's 24-hour average of is also among the highest in Europe, despite having relatively cool nightly temperatures.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nWinters are mild to cool with isolated frosts. Precipitation is concentrated in the coldest months; this is due to the Atlantic coastal influence. Precipitation is generated by storms from the west that occur most frequently from December through February. This Atlantic characteristic then gives way to a hot summer with significant drought more typical of Mediterranean climates. Annual rain surpasses 600 mm, although there is a recognized inter-annual irregularity.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nRegistered maximum temperatures at the Córdoba Airport (located at 6 km of the city) are (23 July 1995) and (1 August 2003). The minimum temperature ever recorded was (28 January 2005).","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nFile:Cordoba Water Wheel.jpg|Albolafia mill, one of the eleven Mills of the Guadalquivir in Córdoba\nFile:YacimientoCercadilla(4).jpg|Archaeological site of Cercadilla including the remains of one of Maximian's palaces\nFile:Templo romano Córdoba.jpg|Roman temple of Córdoba\nFile:Salon Rico 1.jpg|Part of the Archaeological site of Medina Azahara\nFile:Puerta de Almodovar desde dentro.JPG|Puerta de Almodóvar\nFile:West wall of the Synagogue of Córdoba.JPG|Western wall of the Synagogue of Córdoba\nFile:ConventodelaMerced01.jpg|Palace of Mercy","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nMain sights","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nHistoric architecture","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba has the second largest Old town in Europe, the largest urban area in the world declared World Heritage by UNESCO. The most important building and symbol of the city, the Great Mosque of Córdoba and current cathedral, alongside the Roman bridge, are the best known facet of the city. Other Roman remains include the Roman Temple, the Theatre, Mausoleum, the Colonial Forum, the Forum Adiectum, an amphitheater and the remains of the Palace of the Emperor Maximian in the Archaeological site of Cercadilla, among others.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nNear the cathedral is the old Jewish quarter, which consists of many irregular streets, such as Calleja de las Flores and Calleja del Pañuelo, and which is home to the Synagogue and the Sephardic House. In the extreme southwest of the Old Town is the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, a former royal property and the seat of the Inquisition; adjacent to it are the Royal Stables, a breeding place of the Andalusian horse. Near the stables are located, along the walls, the medieval Baths of the Caliphate. In the south of the Old town and east of the great cathedral, in the Plaza del Potro, is the Posada del Potro, a row of inns mentioned in literary works such as Don Quixote and La Feria de los Discretos and which remained active until 1972. Both the plaza and the inn get their name from the fountain in the centre of the plaza, which represents a foal. Not far from this plaza is the Arco del Portillo (a 14th-century arch).","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nAlong the banks of the Guadalquivir are the Mills of the Guadalquivir, moorish era buildings that took advantage of the water force to grind flour. They include the Albolafia, Alegría, Carbonell, Casillas, , Lope García, Martos, Pápalo, San Antonio, San Lorenzo and San Rafael mills.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nSurrounding the large Old town are the Roman walls: gates include the Puerta de Almodóvar, the Puerta de Sevilla and Puerta del Puente, which are the only three gates remaining from the original thirteen. Towers and fortresses include the Malmuerta Tower, the Belén Tower and the Puerta del Rincón's Tower, and the fortress of the Calahorra Tower and of the Donceles Tower.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nPalace buildings in the Old Town include the Palacio de Viana (14th century) and the Palacio de la Merced among others. On the outskirts of the city lies the Archaeological site of the city of Medina Azahara, which, together with the Alhambra in Granada, is one of the main Spanish-Muslim architectures in Spain.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nOther sights are the Cuesta del Bailío (a staircase connecting the upper and lower part of the city) and the Minaret of San Juan, once part of a mosque.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nFernandine churches","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe city is home to 12 Christian churches that were built (many as transformations of mosques) by Ferdinand III of Castile after the reconquest of the city in the 13th century. They were to act both as churches and as the administrative centres in the neighborhoods into which the city was divided in medieval times. Some of those that remain are:","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n*San Nicolás de la Villa.\n*San Miguel.\n*San Juan y Todos los Santos (also known as Iglesia de la Trinidad).\n*Santa Marina de Aguas Santas.\n* San Agustín. Begun in 1328, it has now an 18th-century appearance. The façade bell tower, with four bells, dates to the 16th century.\n* San Andrés, largely renovated in the 14th and 15th centuries. It has a Renaissance portal (1489) and a bell tower from the same age, while the high altar is a Baroque work by Pedro Duque Cornejo.\n*San Lorenzo.\n* Church of Santiago.\n*San Pedro.\n*Santa María Magdalena. Like the others, it combines Romanesque, Mudéjar and Gothic elements.\n*San Pablo. In the church's garden in the 1990s the ruins of an ancient Roman circus were discovered.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nOther religious structures","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n*San Hipólito. It houses the tombs of Ferdinand IV and Alfonso XI of Castile, kings of Castile and León.\n*San Francisco\n*San Salvador y Santo Domingo de Silos\n*Shrine of Nuestra Señora de Linares\n*Tower of Santo Domingo de Silos\n*Shrine of Nuestra Señora de la Fuensanta\n* Chapel of San Bartolomé\n* Convent of Santa Clara\n* Convent of Santa Cruz\n* Convent of Santa Marta\n*Mezquita Cristo de la Luz. A thousand year old mosque built in the Caliphate period.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nSculptures and memorials","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nScattered throughout the city are ten statues of Archangel Raphael, protector and custodian of the city. These are called Triumphs of Saint Raphael and are located in landmarks such as the Roman Bridge, the Puerta del Puente and the Plaza del Potro.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIn the western part of the Historic Centre are the statue to Seneca (near the Puerta de Almodóvar, a gate of Islamic ordigina), the Statue of Averroes (next to the Puerta de la Luna), and Maimonides (in the plaza de Tiberiades). Further south, near the Puerta de Sevilla, are the sculpture to the poet Ibn Zaydún and the sculpture of the writer and poet Ibn Hazm and, inside the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, the monument to the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThere are also several sculptures placed in plazas of the Old Town. In the central Plaza de las Tendillas is the equestrian statue of the Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, in the Plaza de Capuchinos is the Cristo de los Faroles, in Plaza de la Trinidad is the statue of Luis de Góngora, in the Plaza del Cardenal Salazar is the bust of Ahmad ibn Muhammad abu Yafar al-Gafiqi, in the Plaza de Capuchinas is the statue to the bishop Osio, in Plaza del Conde de Priego is the monument to Manolete and the Campo Santo de los Mártires is a statue to Al-Hakam II and the monument to the lovers.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIn the Jardines de la Agricultura is the monument to the painter Julio Romero de Torres, a bust by sculptor Mateo Inurria, the bust of the poet Julio Aumente and the sculpture dedicated to the gardener Aniceto García Roldán, who was killed in the park. Further south, in the Gardens of the Duke of Rivas, is a statue of the writer and poet Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas made by the sculptor Mariano Benlliure.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIn the Guadalquivir river, near the San Rafael Bridge is the Island of the sculptures, an artificial island with a dozen stone sculptures executed during the International Sculpture Symposium. Up the river, near the Miraflores bridge, is the \"Hombre Río\", a sculpture of a swimmer looking to the sky and whose orientation varies depending from the current.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nGardens, parks and natural environments","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n*Jardines de la Victoria. Within the gardens there are two newly renovated facilities, the old Caseta del Círculo de la Amistad, today Caseta Victoria, and the Kiosko de la música, as well as a small Modernist fountain from the early 20th century. The northern section, called Jardines of Duque de Rivas, features a pergola of neoclassical style, designed by the architect Carlos Sáenz de Santamaría; it is used as an exhibition hall and a café bar. *Jardines de la Agricultura, located between the Jardines de la Victoria and the Paseo de Córdoba: it includes numerous trails that radially converge to a round square which has a fountain or pond. This is known as the duck pond, and, in the centre, has an island with a small building in which these animals live. Scattered throughout the garden are numerous sculptures such as the sculpture in memory of Julio Romero de Torres, the sculpture to the composer Julio Aumente and the bust of Mateo Inurria. In the north is a rose garden in form of a labyrinth. * Parque de Miraflores, located on the south bank of the river Guadalquivir.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIt was designed by the architect Juan Cuenca Montilla as a series of terraces. Among other points of interest as the Salam and Miraflores Bridge and a sculpture by Agustín Ibarrola. * Parque Cruz Conde, located southwest of the city, is an open park and barrier-free park in English gardens style. *Paseo de Cordoba. Located on the underground train tracks, it is a long tour of several km in length with more than 434,000 m². The tour has numerous fountains, including six formed by a portico of falling water which form a waterfall to a pond with four levels. Integrated into the tour is a pond of water from the Roman era, and the building of the old train station of RENFE, now converted into offices of Canal Sur. *Jardines Juan Carlos I, in the Ciudad Jardín neighborhood. It is a fortress which occupies an area of about 12,500 square metres. *Jardines del Conde de Vallellano, located on both sides of the avenue of the same name.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nIt includes a large L-shaped pond with a capacity of 3000 m3 and archaeological remains embedded in the gardens, among which is a Roman cistern from the second half of the 1st century BC. *Parque de la Asomadilla, with a surface of 27 hectares, is the second largest park in Andalusia. The park recreates a Mediterranean forest vegetation, such as hawthorn, pomegranate, hackberry, oak, olive, tamarisk, cypress, elms, pines, oaks and carob trees among others. *Balcón del Guadalquivir\n*Jardines de Colón\n*Sotos de la Albolafia. Declared Natural monument by the Andalusian Autonomous Government, it is located in a stretch of the Guadalquivir river from the Roman Bridge and the San Rafael Bridge, with an area of 21.36 hectares. Host a large variety of birds and is an important point of migration for many birds. *Parque periurbano Los Villares","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nBridges","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba has a total of seven bridges.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n*Roman Bridge, over the Guadalquivir River. It links the area of Campo de la Verdad with Barrio de la Catedral. It was the only bridge of the city for twenty centuries, until the construction of the San Rafael Bridge in the mid-20th century. Built in the early 1st century BC, during the period of Roman rule in Córdoba, probably replacing a more primitive of wood, it has a length of about 250 m and consists of 16 arches. * San Rafael Bridge, consisting of eight arches of 25 m span and a length of 217 m. The width is between parapets, divided into 12 m of cobblestone for four circulations and two tiled concrete sidewalks. It was inaugurated on 29 April 1953 joining the Avenue Corregidor with Plaza de Andalucía. In January 2004, the plaques reading \"His Excellency the Head of State and Generalissimo of all the Armies, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, opened this bridge of the Guadalquivir on 29 April 1953\", which were in each of the entrances of the bridge, each in its own direction, were removed. * Andalusia Bridge, a suspension bridge. * Puente de Miraflores, known as \"the rusty bridge\".","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThis bridge links the Street San Fernando and Ronda de Isasa with the Miraflores peninsula. It was designed by Herrero, Suárez and Casado and inaugurated on 2 May 2003. At first, in 1989, had considered the proposal of the architect-engineer Santiago Calatrava, that would looks like the Lusitania Bridge of Mérida, but was eventually discarded because of is potential impact on the artistic whole of the historic, because with its height could cover the view of the Great Mosque. * Autovía del Sur Bridge. * Abbas Ibn Firnas Bridge, Inaugurated in January 2011 It is part of the variant west of Córdoba. * Puente del Arenal, connecting Avenue Campo de la Verdad with the Recinto Ferial (fairground) of Cordoba.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nPolitics and government","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n;Local administration\nCurrently the mayor of Córdoba is Isabel Ambrosio (PSOE).","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe City Council of Córdoba is divided into different areas: the Presidency, Security, Mobility, Equality and Participation; the Planning, Housing, Infrastructure and Environment; the Economy, Trade, Employment and Management; the Social; the Cultural Services and Tourism. The council holds regular plenary session once a month, but often held extraordinary plenary session to discuss issues and problems affecting the city.[http://www.ayuncordoba.es/portal/servlet/noxml?idturcanaContenido%20M01111408054171~S1275554~NROPLENO.pdf&mime\napplication/pdf Organic Regulations of the plenary of the City Council of Córdoba]","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe Governing Board, chaired by the mayor, consists of five councillors of United Left (IU), two councilors of Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and other three members not elected. The municipal council consists of 29 members: 14 of People's Party, 11 of IU and 4 of PSOE.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n;Administrative division\nSince July 2008, the city is divided into 10 administrative districts, coordinated by the Municipal district boards, which in turn are subdivided into neighbourhoods","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nMuseums","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n* Archeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba\n* Julio Romero de Torres Museum\n* Museum of Fine Arts\n* Dioceses Museum\n* Baths of the Fortress Califal\n* Botanical Museum of Cordova\n* Three Cultures Museum\n* Bullfighting Museum\n* Molino de Martos Hydraulic Museum\n* Museo Palacio de Viana","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nTheatres","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\n* Gran Teatro de Córdoba\n* Teatro Axerquía\n* Teatro Góngora","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nMay celebrations","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nTourism is especially intense in Córdoba during May because of the weather and as this month hosts three festivals.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe May Crosses Festival takes place at the beginning of the month. During three or four days, crosses of around 3 m height are placed in many squares and streets and decorated with flowers and a contest is held to choose the most beautiful one. Usually there is regional food and music near the crosses.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe Patios Festival is celebrated during the second and third week of the month. Many houses of the historic centre open their private patios to the public and compete in a contest. Both the architectonic value and the floral decorations are taken into consideration to choose the winners. It is usually very difficult and expensive to find accommodation in the city during the festival.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba's Fair takes place at the ending of the month and is similar to the better known Sevilla Fair with some differences, mainly that the Sevilla one is private, while the Cordoba one is not.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nPeople","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba was the birthplace of the following philosophers and religious scholars:\n* In Roman times the Stoic philosopher Seneca\n* In Islamic times\n** Abd Allah al-Qaysi, an early jurist responsible for spreading the Zahirite school\n** Ibn Hazm, a major Muslim theologian and legal jurist,\n** Averroes, an important figure in both Muslim and Western philosophy,\n** Mundhir bin Sa'īd al-Ballūṭī, a prominent judge for the Caliph of Cordoba,\n** Ibn Maḍāʾ, the first linguist to write about dependency grammar,\n** al-Qurtubi, a leading jurist of the Maliki school, and\n** Moses Maimonides, a rabbi who radically changed the direction of Jewish philosophy.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba was also the birthplace of\n* The Roman poet Lucan,\n* The medieval Spanish poet Juan de Mena\n* The Renaissance poet Luis de Góngora, who lived most of his life and wrote all his most important works but one in Córdoba.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe Renaissance philosopher Abraham Cohen de Herrera and the Jewish mystic Moses ben Jacob Cordovero both descended from families which lived in Córdoba before the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe painter Julio Romero de Torres (1874–1930).","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nMore recently, several flamenco artists were born here as well, including\n*Vicente Amigo\n*Joaquín Cortés\n*Fosforito\n*Paco Peña\n*Juan Serrano","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nAlso recently\n*Manuel Laureano Rodríguez Sánchez (Manolete), matador\n*Fernando Tejero, actor\n*Gabi Delgado-López, musician","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nTransport","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nThe city is connected by high speed trains to the following Spanish cities: Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Málaga and Zaragoza. More than 20 trains per day connect the downtown area, in 54 minutes, with Málaga María Zambrano station, which provides interchange capability to destinations along the Costa del Sol, including Málaga Airport. The city is also well connected by highways with the rest of the country and Portugal.","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nTwin towns – sister cities","Córdoba, Andalusia\n\nCórdoba is twinned with:"],"string":"[\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish territory includes two archipelagos: the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast. It also includes two major exclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, in continental North Africa; and the islands and peñones (rocks) of Alborán, Alhucemas, Chafarinas and Vélez de la Gomera. With an area of 505990 km2, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth largest country in the European continent. By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nModern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. In the early modern period, Spain became one of history's first global colonial empires, leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers, making Spanish the world's second most spoken first language, after Chinese and before English.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a middle power and a developed country with the world's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe origins of the Roman name Hispania, from which the modern name España was derived, are uncertain due to inadequate evidence. Down the centuries there have been a number of accounts and hypotheses:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning \\\"city of the western world\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning \\\"to forge metals\\\". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean \\\"the land where metals are forged\\\". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning \\\"island of rabbits\\\", \\\"land of rabbits\\\" or \\\"edge\\\", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the \\\"land of the rabbits\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a \\\"western land\\\" or \\\"land of the setting sun\\\" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere is the claim that \\\"Hispania\\\" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning \\\"edge\\\" or \\\"border\\\", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTwo 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abrabanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nContinued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPrehistory and pre-Roman peoples\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArchaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Tartessians were in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. A number of trading settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians developed on the Mediterranean coast.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRoman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Douro river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name—Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIsidore of Seville, archbishop of Seville, was an influential philosopher and was much studied in the Middle Ages in Europe. Also, his theories were vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom to a Catholic one, in the Councils of Toledo. This Gothic kingdom was the first Christian kingdom ruling in the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Reconquista it was the referent for the different kingdoms fighting against the Muslim rule.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMiddle Ages: Muslim invasion and Reconquista\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nUnder Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nConversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCórdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMuslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a Muslim tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFrom the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. He worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as \\\"Spanish\\\" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses founded in the monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla contain the first written words in both Basque and Spanish, having the first become an influence in the formation of the second as an evolution of Latin.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and even Athens. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nImperial Spain\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.\\nThat same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. \\nThe Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims, and although the tolerance was only partial, it was not until the beginning of the 17th century, following the Revolt of the Alpujarras, that Muslims were finally expelled.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although he remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. The colonisation of the Americas started, with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the European cultures and people.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.\\nWith their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Dutch Revolt, the Morisco Revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish War and wars with France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThrough exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates, under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and the renewed threat of an Islamic invasion. This was at a time when Spain was often at war with France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBy the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. \\nDuring this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved the kingdom's international standing.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLiberalism and nation state\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The ridiculed Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJoseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812 a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s Anti-liberal forces known as Carlists fought against liberals in the Carlist Wars. Liberal forces won, but the conflict between progressive and conservative liberals ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, a more stable monarchic period began characterised by the practice of turnismo (the rotation of government control between progressive and conservative liberals within the Spanish government).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of 98 who were conducting an analysis of the country.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAlthough the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nA period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the linguistically distinct regions of Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women and was increasingly dominated by left wing political parties. In the worsening economic situation of the Great Depression, Spanish politics became increasingly chaotic and violent.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish Civil War and dictatorship\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. For three years the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy fought the Republican side, which was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. In 1939, General Franco emerged victorious and became a dictator.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe state as established under Franco was nominally neutral in the Second World War, although sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasized falangism, a form of fascism that emphasized anti-communism, nationalism and Roman Catholicism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAfter World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to cities and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, the favouring of a very conservative form of Roman Catholicism known as National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRestoration of democracy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1962, Salvador de Madariaga, founder of the Liberal International and the College of Europe, met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich with members of the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in the exile. There were 118 politicians from all factions. At the end of the meetings a resolution in favour of democracy was made.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWith Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.\\nOn 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. At 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a plurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or Prime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly from around 1 in 50 in 2000 to almost 1 in 8 in 2010 but has since declined. In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–15 Spanish financial crisis and high levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and Catalan independentism served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won elections with 44.6% of votes and Rajoy became the Spanish Prime Minister after having been the leader of the opposition from 2004 to 2011. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAt 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47000 km2 smaller than France and 81000 km2 larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain lies between latitudes 26° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and the Principality of Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIslands\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as (\\\"places of sovereignty\\\", or territories under [Spanish] sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLargest inhabited islands of Spain:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMountains and rivers\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as \\\"Inner Plateau\\\") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThree main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: \\n* The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm and dry summers. It is dominant in the peninsula, with two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csb Zone, with a more extreme climate, hotter in summer and colder in winter, extends to additional areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. Valladolid, Burgos, León).\\n* The semi-arid climate (Bsh, Bsk), located in the southeastern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Murcia and in the Ebro valley. In contrast with the Mediterranean climate, the dry season extends beyond the summer.\\n* The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias and partly Galicia. In contrary to the Mediterranean climate, winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nApart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada, and a typical desert climate in the zone of Almería and in most parts of the Canary Islands; while in higher areas of the Canary Islands the predominant climate is subtropical.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe below-listed list covers the average temperatures of three major cities in Spain; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife which has a significantly different climates to the predominant climate in Spain. More information regarding temperature can be found in city articles and the main article about the Spanish climate.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFauna and flora\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the relief, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 20 full democracies in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.\\nThe constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish administration approved legislation in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act). However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (36.3%). It places Spain 13th on a list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower house. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%). The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts). The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers of Spain presided over by the Prime Minister, nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.\\n* Head of State\\n** King Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014\\n* Head of Government\\n** Prime Minister of Spain (Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government): Mariano Rajoy Brey, elected 20 November 2011.\\n*** Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for the Presidency: Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría.\\n* Cabinet\\n** Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros) designated by the Prime Minister.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías (\\\"State of Autonomies\\\"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed regionally, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral and Policía Canaria).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHuman rights\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Government respects the human rights of its citizens; although there are a few problems in some areas, the law and judiciary provide effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners and illegal immigrants. According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with an 88% of society supporting the gay community compared to 11% who do not.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish State is integrated by 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are integrated by provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomies\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomous communities are the first level administrative division in the country. These were created after the 1979 and current constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government to the \\\"nationalities and regions of Spain\\\". Autonomous communities were to be integrated by adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economical traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the \\\"State of Autonomies\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:\\n* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;\\n* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain;\\n* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organisation within the autonomous community.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCatalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as \\\"nationalities\\\" were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Aside of fiscal autonomy, the \\\"historical\\\" nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the \\\"historical nationalities\\\" and the rest of the regions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFinally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nProvinces and municipalities\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomous communities are subdivided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that are integrated by a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In this cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAfter the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to co-ordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of \\\"Hispanidad\\\" or \\\"Hispanismo\\\", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n;Territorial disputes\\nSpain claims Gibraltar, a 6 km2 Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the \\\"occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law\\\". The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus, as there has been \\\"continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAnother claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, a claim not recognised by Portugal. Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, therefore claiming that there is no Portuguese territorial waters around the disputed islands. On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 m just off the coast of Morocco, 8 km from Ceuta and from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBesides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa; and Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: \\n* Army (Ejército de Tierra)\\n* Navy (Armada)\\n* Air Force (Ejército del Aire)\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain's capitalist mixed economy is the 16th largest worldwide and the 5th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favourably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBy the mid-1990s the economy had recommenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment began to drop steadily. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSince the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest toward Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation, Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world. In 2013 the same survey (now called the \\\"Where-to-be-born index\\\"), ranked Spain 28th in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012. The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAgriculture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCrop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThough only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40-45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCitrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the EC.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe climate of Spain, its geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture and excellent infrastructure, has made Spain's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEnergy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy. In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNon-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p\\nEnergimyndigheten&viewdefault&cat\\n/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f].\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that \\\"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution.\\\"\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of October 2010, Spain has a total of 3500 km of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains reaching speeds up to 300 km/h. On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.54% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Severo Ochoa.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSee also ASCAMM, Associació Catalana d'Empreses constructores de Motlles i Matrius\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWater supply and Sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and generally good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. \\nAlmost half of the population is served by private or mixed\\nprivate-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts\\nwith municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a\\nmarket share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de\\nBarcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDroughts affect water supply in Southern Spain, which increasingly is turning towards seawater desalination to meet its water needs.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain more than doubled since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNative Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSubstantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Peru and Mexico. Another 450,000 left in the 17th century. Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil. Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nUrbanisation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n;Metropolitan areas\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSource: \\\"Áreas urbanas +50\\\", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013)\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n|- style=\\\"background: #efefef;\\\"\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Rank\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Metro area\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Autonomouscommunity\\n!colspan=\\\"2\\\"| Population\\n|- style=\\\"background: #efefef;\\\"\\n!Government data\\n!Other estimates\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 1 || Madrid || Madrid || 6,052,247 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 5.4 – 6.5 m \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 2 || Barcelona || Catalonia || 5,030,679 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 3 || Valencia || Valencia || 1,551,585 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 1.5 – 2.3 m \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 4 || Seville || Andalusia || 1,294,867 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 1.2 – 1.3 m\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 5 || Málaga || Andalusia || 953,251 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 6 || Bilbao || Basque Country || 910,578 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 7 || Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés || Asturias || 835,053 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 8 || Zaragoza || Aragon || 746,152 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 9 || Alicante–Elche || Valencia || 698,662 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 10 || Murcia || Murcia || 643,854 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|}\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPeoples\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities—nationalities (a carefully chosen word to avoid the more politically charged \\\"nations\\\")—and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians, although to some extent all of the 17 Autonomous Communities will claim a distinct historic identity.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIt is this last feature of \\\"shared identity\\\" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook (2011), Spain's racial description is presented as \\\"composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types\\\" under \\\"ethnic groups\\\" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMinority groups\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Britons, Germans, French and others.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000. There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHistorically, Sephardi Jews and moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture. The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to sephardi Jews.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nImmigration\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWithin the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAnother statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008, the government instituted a \\\"Plan of Voluntary Return\\\" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The program had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer. What the program failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España]. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is openly multilingual, and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect \\\"all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.Preamble to the Constitution\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish (español)—officially recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that \\\"all other Spanish languages\\\"—that is, all other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the \\\"richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.\\\"Third article.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are:\\n* Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre;\\n* Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, where its distinct modality of the language is officially known as Valencian (valencià); and\\n* Galician (galego) in Galicia\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a percentage of the general population, Basque is spoken by 2%, Catalan (or Valencian) by 17%, and Galician by 7% of all Spaniards.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn Catalonia, Aranese (aranés), a local variety of the Occitan language, has been declared co-official along with Catalan and Spanish since 2006. It is spoken only in the comarca of Val d'Aran by roughly 6,700 people. Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese group (Asturian – asturianu, also called bable – in Asturias and Leonese – llionés – in Castile and León) and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nState education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system was established by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html La Ley Orgánica 2/2006]. Retrieved 23 September 2009 In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html Ley Orgánica 8/2013]. Retrieved 9 December 2013 Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRoman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain, and although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class, and Catholicism is the only religion officially taught. According to an April 2014 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research about 69% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 26% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 59% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church some times a year, 8% some time per month and 14% every Sunday or multiple times per week. Recent polls and surveys have revealed that atheists comprise anywhere from 8% to 20% of the Spanish population.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAltogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish misticism was an important intellectual fight against Protestantism with Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun, ahead. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nProtestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nA study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were about 1,700,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain , accounting for 3-4% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from Morocco and other African countries. More than 514,000 (30%) of them had Spanish nationality.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims.\\nAfter the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJudaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCulturally, Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music has been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMonuments and World Heritage Sites\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIt should be noted that after Italy (49) and China (45), Spain is the third country in the world with the most World Heritage Sites. At the present time it has 44 recognised sites, including the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal (the Portuguese part being in the Côa Valley, Guarda), and the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or \\\"Human treasures\\\", Spain ranks first in Europe according to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List, tied with Croatia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1984 — Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín (Granada, Andalusia). * 1984 — Burgos Cathedral (Burgos, Castile-León). * 1984 — Historic Centre of Córdoba (Córdoba, Andalusia). * 1984 — Monastery and Royal Site of El Escorial (Madrid). * 1984 — Works of Antoni Gaudí (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1985 — Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (Asturias, Basque Country and Cantabria regions). * 1985 — Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of Asturias (Asturias). * 1985 — Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches (Ávila, Castile-León). * 1985 — Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct (Segovia, Castile-León). * 1985 — Santiago de Compostela (Old Town) (A Coruña, Galicia). * 1986 — Garajonay National Park (La Gomera, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 1986 — Historic City of Toledo (Toledo, Castile-La Mancha). * 1986 — Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon (Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza in Aragon). * 1986 — Old Town of Cáceres (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1987 — Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (Seville, Andalusia). * 1988 — Old City of Salamanca (Salamanca, Castile-León). * 1991 — Poblet Monastery (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 1993 — Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida (Badajoz, Extremadura).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1993 — Route of Santiago de Compostela (Provinces of Burgos, León and Palencia in Castile-León, Provinces of A Coruña and Lugo in Galicia, La Rioja, Navarre, and the Province of Huesca in Aragon). * 1993 — Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1994 — Doñana National Park (Provinces of Cádiz, Huelva and Seville in Andalusia). * 1996 — Historic Walled Town of Cuenca (Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha). * 1996 — Silk Exchange of Valencia (Valencia). * 1997 — Las Médulas (León, Castile-León). * 1997 — Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1997 — Pirineos – Monte Perdido (Huesca, Aragon – Spanish part / Midi-Pyrénées and Aquitaine – French part). (Shared with France). * 1997 — San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries (La Rioja). * 1998 (2010) — Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Guarda, Norte Region – Portuguese part) and Siega Verde (Salamanca, Castile-León – Spanish part). (Shared with Portugal). * 1998 — Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (Andalusia, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia regions). * 1998 — University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1999 — Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Ibiza, Balearic Islands). * 1999 — San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2000 — Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 2000 — Archaeological Site of Atapuerca (Burgos, Castile-León). * 2000 — Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí (Lleida, Catalonia). * 2000 — Palmeral of Elche (Alicante, Valencia). * 2000 — Roman Walls of Lugo (Lugo, Galicia). * 2001 — Aranjuez Cultural Landscape (Madrid). * 2003 — Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (Jaén, Andalusia). * 2006 — Vizcaya Bridge (Biscay, Basque Country). * 2007 — Teide National Park (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2009 — Tower of Hercules (A Coruña, Galicia). * 2011 — Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana (Majorca, Balearic Islands). * 2012 — Heritage of Mercury. Almadén (Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha – Spanish part) and Idrija (Slovene Littoral – Slovenian part). (Shared with Slovenia).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOther major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general \\\"Realism\\\", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The \\\"Disaster\\\" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the 'Generation of 98'.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed \\\"generation\\\" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLeading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. He was also well known by his Iberist ideas.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArtists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today and European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Golden Age we find painters such as El Greco, José de Ribera and Francisco Zurbarán. Also inside Baroque period Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, like Las Meninas or Las Hilanderas.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFrancisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the raise of state-nations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJoaquín Sorolla is a well-known impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nActresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz are among those who have become Hollywood stars.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDue to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty. Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSimultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMusic and dance\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nInner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAtlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, like the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWhile varieties of football had been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by English style association football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team to ever win three back-to-back major international tournaments.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBasketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain, the game of pelota is very popular.\\nAlberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including two Tour de France titles.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPublic holidays and festivals\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPublic holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and every year millions of people from all over the world go to Spain to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 to 14 July, the week-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As a result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOther festivals include the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz (,; see other pronunciations below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of Cádiz, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz, the oldest continuously inhabited city in Spain and one of the oldest in western Europe, has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. The city is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nSituated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with a wealth of attractive vistas and well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz within the remnants of the city walls is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: Casco Antiguo). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters (barrios), among them El Pópulo, La Viña, and Santa María, which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees supposedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nToponymy\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nVery little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as a Gadir or Agadir (), meaning \\\"The Wall\\\", \\\"The Compound\\\", or (by metonymy) \\\"The Stronghold\\\". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the agadir (Tamazight: \\\"wall\\\"; Shilha: \\\"fortified granary\\\") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology.) The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAttic Greek sources hellenized Gadir as tà Gádeira (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as Gḗdeira (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as hè Gadeíra ().\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn Latin, the city was known as Gādēs and its Roman colony as Augusta Urbs Iulia Gaditana (\\\"The August City of Julia of Cádiz\\\").\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn Arabic, the Latin name became Qādis (). The Spanish Cádiz derived from this. (The accent mark is necessary to show that the stress is placed on the first syllable of the name.) The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is gaditano.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as, as, or as. In Spanish, the accent is always on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation is, the local dialect says, or instead. More recently, some English speakers hypercorrect and attempt to employ the Spanish lisp similarly to the British version of \\\"Ibiza\\\", leading to pronunciations of Cádiz with /s/ or /θ/ instead of /z/, but keeping the English vowels and the strong /d/.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAccording to a 2013 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 123,948 (the second city most populated of the province after Jerez de la Frontera with 215.180 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the comarca composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAmong the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their \\\"footprint\\\".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nTwo other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in medieval times. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest 45 m height. (See below.)\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPopulation density\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. So the entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the \\\"stats divisions\\\", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the \\\"new city\\\".\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nArea is in km2 and population density in inhabitants per square kilometer.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nFounded as Gadir or Agadir by Phoenicians from Tyre, Cádiz is sometimes counted as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe.Espinosa, Pedro (2007). EL PAIS. [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Hallado/Cadiz/muro/3000/anos/elpepucul/20070930elpepicul_7/Tes Hallado en Cádiz un muro de 3.000 años] The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France and of Hanno around Western Africa began here. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOne of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names \\\"Tyrian Hercules\\\" and \\\"Hercules Gaditanus\\\". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding Gadeira after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place. ) According to the Life of Apollonius of Tyana, the \\\"Heracleum\\\" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the \\\"pillars of Hercules\\\".\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as Gades. Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred equites (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography: \\\"Gades\\\".\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAlthough it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 550 as a part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nUnder Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called Qādis, whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an \\\"idol\\\" (sanam Qādis) over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as Salamcadis) in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity.Fear, A.T. \\\"[http://ddd.uab.cat/pub/faventia/02107570v12-13/02107570v12-13p199.pdf The Tower of Cádiz\\\". Faventia: Revista de Filologia Clàssica, #12-13, Vol. 1-2 (1990-1991), p. 199-211. Accessed 23 Jul 2013.] Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. The Moors were finally ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nDuring the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by another English fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nDuring the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cádiz Cortes decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nDiocese\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nHistorically, the diocese counts among its most famous prelates Cardinal Juan de Torquemada, a Dominican theologian and expert on canon law, who took a leading part in the Councils of Basle and Florence, and defended, in his Summe de Ecclesia, the direct power of the pope in temporal matters. His nephew, Tomás de Torquemada, is most closely associated with the 15th century Spanish Inquisition.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nMain sights\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAmong the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares (plazas), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlazas and their landmark buildings\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the Plaza de Mina, Plaza San Antonio, Plaza de Candelaria, Plaza de San Juan de Dios, and Plaza de España.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de Mina\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLocated in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of Santiago, built in 1635.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de San Francisco and San Francisco Church and Convent\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLocated next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza San Antonio\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. It is a beautiful square, surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de Candelaria\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile also, lived in the square.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de la Catedral and the Cathedral\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOne of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. It sits on the site of an older cathedral, completed in 1260, which burned down in 1596. The reconstruction, which was not started until 1776, was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero left the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice, it contains rococo elements, and was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral and monasteries from throughout Spain.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de San Juan de Dios and the Old Town Hall\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nConstruction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the Ayuntamiento is the town hall of Cádiz's Old City. The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the Isabelino) style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de España and the monument to the constitution of 1812\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe lower level of the monument represents a chamber and an empty presidential armchair. The upper level has various inscriptions surmounting the chamber. On each side are bronze figures representing peace and war. In the centre, a pilaster rises to symbolize, in allegorical terms, the principals expressed in the 1812 constitution. At the foot of this pilaster, there is a female figure representing Spain, and, to either side, sculptural groupings representing agriculture and citizenship.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPlaza de Falla and the Gran Teatro Falla (Falla Grand Theater)\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe original Gran Teatro was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the Gran Teatro Falla, in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOther sights\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nTavira tower\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nIn the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea for arriving merchant ships. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses. The Torre Tavira, named for its original owner, stands as the tallest remaining watchtower. It has a camera obscura, a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nAdmiral's House\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Casa del Almirante is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOld customs house\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nSituated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPalacio de Congresos\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nRoman theatre\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his Epistulae ad Familiares ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nPylons of Cádiz\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are 158 m high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCarranza Bridge\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLa Pepa Bridge\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLa Pepa Bridge, officially \\\"La Pepa\\\" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It will cross the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. When the bridge is finished it will be the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in this country.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCity walls and fortifications\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLas Puertas de Tierra originated in the 16th century, although much of the original work has disappeared. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nEl Arco de los Blancos is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nEl Arco de la Rosa (\\\"Rose Arch\\\") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Baluarte de la Candelaria (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Castle of San Sebastián is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Castle of Santa Catalina is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nNotable people born in Cádiz and Cádiz province\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\n*Manuel de Falla, composer\\n*Miguel Martínez de Pinillos Sáenz, shio-owner and politician\\n*José Manuel Flores, football defender for Swansea City\\n*George Meade, Union general of The American Civil War\\n*Camarón de la Isla, flamenco singer\\n*Paco de Lucía, flamenco guitarist\\n*Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, Roman agronomic writer\\n*Lucius Cornelius Balbus, consul\\n*Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger, general\\n*José Celestino Mutis, botanist and mathematician\\n*Javier Ruibal musician, singer, songwriter\\n*Esteban Piñero Camacho, known as Basty, member of the Spanish band D'NASH\\n*Niña Pastori, or María Rosa García García, flamenco singer.\\n*Suso, professional footballer for A.C. Milan\\n*Rafael Alberti, writer\\n*Jose Manuel Caballero, novelist\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate with significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez de la Frontera and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nBeaches\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to some incredibly beautiful beaches.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLa Playa de la Caleta is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the Barrio de la Viña. It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around 400 m long and 30 m wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie Die Another Day.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLa Playa de la Victoria, in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of 50 m of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nLa Playa de Santa María del Mar or Playita de las Mujeres is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOther beaches are Torregorda, Cortadura and El Chato.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCarnival\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called chirigotas, who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called comparsas, who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; cuartetos, consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and romanceros, storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe ' (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the Gran Teatro Falla (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nGastronomy\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nThe gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of comarca and the city.\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nTwin towns—sister cities\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nCádiz is twinned with:\\n* Brest, Brittany, France \\n* Buenos Aires, Argentina\\n* Havana, Cuba\\n* Medway, England\\n* Montevideo, Uruguay\\n* Tangier, Morocco\\n* San Juan, Puerto Rico, USA\\n* Intramuros, Manila, Philippines\\n* Santos, Brazil\\n* Dakhla, Western Sahara\\n* Indio, California, USA\\n* Byblos, Lebanon\\n* Spain: La Coruña, Ceuta, Huelva, Móstoles, Las Palmas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Torrevieja\\n* Colombia: Cartagena de Indias, La Dorada, Santa Fe de Antioquia, Guaduas, Honda, Ambalema, San Sebastián de Mariquita & Bogotá\\n* Mexico: México DF, Puebla, San Pedro Cholula, & Veracruz\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\nOther relations\",\n \"Cádiz\\n\\n* Most Ancient European Towns Network\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba (,), also called Cordova in English, is a city in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. It was conquered by invading Islamic armies in the eighth century, and then became the capital of the Islamic Emirate and then Caliphate of Córdoba, including most of the Iberian Peninsula.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIt has been estimated that in the 10th century Córdoba was the most populous city in the world, and under the rule of Caliph Al Hakam II it had also become a centre for education under its Islamic rulers. Al Hakam II opened many libraries in addition to the many medical schools and universities which existed at this time. During these centuries Córdoba became a predominantly Muslim society with minorities living in a restricted second-class status. It returned to Christian rule in 1236, during the Reconquista. Today it is a moderately sized modern city; its population in 2011 was about 330,000. The historic centre was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba has the warmest summer high temperatures in Spain and Europe with average high temperatures around 37 C in July and similar heat in August.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nPrehistory and antiquity\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe first trace of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 42,000 to 35,000 BC In the 8th century BC, during the ancient Tartessos period, a pre-urban settlement existed. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy. The first historical mention of a settlement dates, however, to the Carthaginian expansion across the Guadalquivir, when the general Hamilcar Barca renamed it Kartuba, from Kart-Juba, meaning \\\"the City of Juba\\\", the latter being a Numidian commander who had died in a battle nearby. Córdoba was conquered by the Romans in 206 BC. In 169 the Roman consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus founded a Latin colony alongside the pre-existing Iberian settlement. Between 143 and 141 BC the town was besieged by Viriatus. A Roman Forum is known to have existed in the city in 113 BC. The famous Cordoba Treasure, which mixes local and Roman artistic traditions, was buried in the city at this time. It can now be found in the collections of the British Museum.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nAt the time of Julius Caesar, Córdoba was the capital of the Roman province of Hispania Ulterior Baetica. Great Roman philosophers such as Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger, orators such as Seneca the Elder and poets such as Lucan came from Roman Cordoba. Later, it occupied an important place in the Provincia Hispaniae of the Byzantine Empire (552–572) and under the Visigoths, who conquered it in the late 6th century.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIslamic rule\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba was captured in 711 by a Moorish army. Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Moorish rule. The new Moorish commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became a provincial capital, subordinate to the Caliphate of Damascus; in Arabic it was known as قرطبة (Qurṭubah).\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nDifferent areas were allocated for the services in the Saint Vincent Church shared by Christian and Moors, until the former Mosque started to be erected on the same spot under Abd-ar-Rahman I. Abd al-Rahman allowed the Christians to rebuild their ruined churches and purchased the Christian half of the church of St Vincent. In May 766, it was chosen as the capital of the independent Muslim emirate of al-Andalus, later a Caliphate itself. During the caliphate apogee (1000 AD), Córdoba had a population of roughly 500,000 inhabitants, though estimates range between 350,000 and 1,000,000. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world as well as a great cultural, political, financial and economic centre. The Great Mosque of Córdoba dates back to this time. Upon a change of rulers, though, the situation changed quickly. \\\"The vizier al-Mansur–the unofficial ruler of al-Andalus from 976 to 1002—burned most of the books on philosophy to please the Moorish clergy; most of the others were sold off or perished in the civil strife not long after.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nReinhardt Dozy wrote:\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nRoger Collins wrote:\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nHowever, following al-Mansur's death, internal struggle for power between different factions led to the pillage and destruction of Medina Azahara and other splendid buildings of Córdoba. The city fell into a steady decline in the next decades and after the fall of the caliphate (1031), Córdoba became the capital of a Republican independent taifa. This short-lived state was conquered by Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, lord of Seville, in 1070. In turn, the latter was overthrown by the Almoravids, who were later replaced by the Almohads.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nDuring the latter's domination the city declined, the role of the capital of Muslim al-Andalus having been given to Seville.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nModern history\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nDuring the Spanish Reconquista, Córdoba was captured by King Ferdinand III of Castile on 29 June 1236, after a siege of several months. The city was divided into 14 colaciones, and numerous new church buildings were added.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe city declined, especially after Renaissance times. In the 18th century it was reduced to just 20,000 inhabitants. The population and economy started to increase only in the early 20th century.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nWith the most extensive historical heritages in the world declared World Heritage Site by UNESCO (on 17 December 1984), the city also features a number of modern areas, including the districts of Zoco and the railway station district.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe regional government (the Junta de Andalucía) has for some time been studying the creation of a Córdoba Metropolitan Area that would comprise, in addition to the capital itself, the towns of Villafranca de Córdoba, Obejo, La Carlota, Villaharta, Villaviciosa, Almodóvar del Río and Guadalcázar. The combined population of such an area would be around 351,000.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe city is on the banks of the Guadalquivir river, and its easy access to the mining resources of the Sierra Morena (coal, lead, zinc) satisfies the population's needs.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe city is in a depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir. In the north is the Sierra Morena, which defines the borders of the municipal area.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba is one of the few cities in the world that has a near-exact antipodal city – Hamilton, New Zealand.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). Córdoba has the highest summer average daily temperatures in Europe (averaging in July) and days with temperatures over 40 °C are common in the summer months. August's 24-hour average of is also among the highest in Europe, despite having relatively cool nightly temperatures.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nWinters are mild to cool with isolated frosts. Precipitation is concentrated in the coldest months; this is due to the Atlantic coastal influence. Precipitation is generated by storms from the west that occur most frequently from December through February. This Atlantic characteristic then gives way to a hot summer with significant drought more typical of Mediterranean climates. Annual rain surpasses 600 mm, although there is a recognized inter-annual irregularity.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nRegistered maximum temperatures at the Córdoba Airport (located at 6 km of the city) are (23 July 1995) and (1 August 2003). The minimum temperature ever recorded was (28 January 2005).\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nFile:Cordoba Water Wheel.jpg|Albolafia mill, one of the eleven Mills of the Guadalquivir in Córdoba\\nFile:YacimientoCercadilla(4).jpg|Archaeological site of Cercadilla including the remains of one of Maximian's palaces\\nFile:Templo romano Córdoba.jpg|Roman temple of Córdoba\\nFile:Salon Rico 1.jpg|Part of the Archaeological site of Medina Azahara\\nFile:Puerta de Almodovar desde dentro.JPG|Puerta de Almodóvar\\nFile:West wall of the Synagogue of Córdoba.JPG|Western wall of the Synagogue of Córdoba\\nFile:ConventodelaMerced01.jpg|Palace of Mercy\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nMain sights\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nHistoric architecture\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba has the second largest Old town in Europe, the largest urban area in the world declared World Heritage by UNESCO. The most important building and symbol of the city, the Great Mosque of Córdoba and current cathedral, alongside the Roman bridge, are the best known facet of the city. Other Roman remains include the Roman Temple, the Theatre, Mausoleum, the Colonial Forum, the Forum Adiectum, an amphitheater and the remains of the Palace of the Emperor Maximian in the Archaeological site of Cercadilla, among others.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nNear the cathedral is the old Jewish quarter, which consists of many irregular streets, such as Calleja de las Flores and Calleja del Pañuelo, and which is home to the Synagogue and the Sephardic House. In the extreme southwest of the Old Town is the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, a former royal property and the seat of the Inquisition; adjacent to it are the Royal Stables, a breeding place of the Andalusian horse. Near the stables are located, along the walls, the medieval Baths of the Caliphate. In the south of the Old town and east of the great cathedral, in the Plaza del Potro, is the Posada del Potro, a row of inns mentioned in literary works such as Don Quixote and La Feria de los Discretos and which remained active until 1972. Both the plaza and the inn get their name from the fountain in the centre of the plaza, which represents a foal. Not far from this plaza is the Arco del Portillo (a 14th-century arch).\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nAlong the banks of the Guadalquivir are the Mills of the Guadalquivir, moorish era buildings that took advantage of the water force to grind flour. They include the Albolafia, Alegría, Carbonell, Casillas, , Lope García, Martos, Pápalo, San Antonio, San Lorenzo and San Rafael mills.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nSurrounding the large Old town are the Roman walls: gates include the Puerta de Almodóvar, the Puerta de Sevilla and Puerta del Puente, which are the only three gates remaining from the original thirteen. Towers and fortresses include the Malmuerta Tower, the Belén Tower and the Puerta del Rincón's Tower, and the fortress of the Calahorra Tower and of the Donceles Tower.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nPalace buildings in the Old Town include the Palacio de Viana (14th century) and the Palacio de la Merced among others. On the outskirts of the city lies the Archaeological site of the city of Medina Azahara, which, together with the Alhambra in Granada, is one of the main Spanish-Muslim architectures in Spain.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nOther sights are the Cuesta del Bailío (a staircase connecting the upper and lower part of the city) and the Minaret of San Juan, once part of a mosque.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nFernandine churches\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe city is home to 12 Christian churches that were built (many as transformations of mosques) by Ferdinand III of Castile after the reconquest of the city in the 13th century. They were to act both as churches and as the administrative centres in the neighborhoods into which the city was divided in medieval times. Some of those that remain are:\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n*San Nicolás de la Villa.\\n*San Miguel.\\n*San Juan y Todos los Santos (also known as Iglesia de la Trinidad).\\n*Santa Marina de Aguas Santas.\\n* San Agustín. Begun in 1328, it has now an 18th-century appearance. The façade bell tower, with four bells, dates to the 16th century.\\n* San Andrés, largely renovated in the 14th and 15th centuries. It has a Renaissance portal (1489) and a bell tower from the same age, while the high altar is a Baroque work by Pedro Duque Cornejo.\\n*San Lorenzo.\\n* Church of Santiago.\\n*San Pedro.\\n*Santa María Magdalena. Like the others, it combines Romanesque, Mudéjar and Gothic elements.\\n*San Pablo. In the church's garden in the 1990s the ruins of an ancient Roman circus were discovered.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nOther religious structures\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n*San Hipólito. It houses the tombs of Ferdinand IV and Alfonso XI of Castile, kings of Castile and León.\\n*San Francisco\\n*San Salvador y Santo Domingo de Silos\\n*Shrine of Nuestra Señora de Linares\\n*Tower of Santo Domingo de Silos\\n*Shrine of Nuestra Señora de la Fuensanta\\n* Chapel of San Bartolomé\\n* Convent of Santa Clara\\n* Convent of Santa Cruz\\n* Convent of Santa Marta\\n*Mezquita Cristo de la Luz. A thousand year old mosque built in the Caliphate period.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nSculptures and memorials\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nScattered throughout the city are ten statues of Archangel Raphael, protector and custodian of the city. These are called Triumphs of Saint Raphael and are located in landmarks such as the Roman Bridge, the Puerta del Puente and the Plaza del Potro.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIn the western part of the Historic Centre are the statue to Seneca (near the Puerta de Almodóvar, a gate of Islamic ordigina), the Statue of Averroes (next to the Puerta de la Luna), and Maimonides (in the plaza de Tiberiades). Further south, near the Puerta de Sevilla, are the sculpture to the poet Ibn Zaydún and the sculpture of the writer and poet Ibn Hazm and, inside the Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos, the monument to the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThere are also several sculptures placed in plazas of the Old Town. In the central Plaza de las Tendillas is the equestrian statue of the Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, in the Plaza de Capuchinos is the Cristo de los Faroles, in Plaza de la Trinidad is the statue of Luis de Góngora, in the Plaza del Cardenal Salazar is the bust of Ahmad ibn Muhammad abu Yafar al-Gafiqi, in the Plaza de Capuchinas is the statue to the bishop Osio, in Plaza del Conde de Priego is the monument to Manolete and the Campo Santo de los Mártires is a statue to Al-Hakam II and the monument to the lovers.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIn the Jardines de la Agricultura is the monument to the painter Julio Romero de Torres, a bust by sculptor Mateo Inurria, the bust of the poet Julio Aumente and the sculpture dedicated to the gardener Aniceto García Roldán, who was killed in the park. Further south, in the Gardens of the Duke of Rivas, is a statue of the writer and poet Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas made by the sculptor Mariano Benlliure.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIn the Guadalquivir river, near the San Rafael Bridge is the Island of the sculptures, an artificial island with a dozen stone sculptures executed during the International Sculpture Symposium. Up the river, near the Miraflores bridge, is the \\\"Hombre Río\\\", a sculpture of a swimmer looking to the sky and whose orientation varies depending from the current.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nGardens, parks and natural environments\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n*Jardines de la Victoria. Within the gardens there are two newly renovated facilities, the old Caseta del Círculo de la Amistad, today Caseta Victoria, and the Kiosko de la música, as well as a small Modernist fountain from the early 20th century. The northern section, called Jardines of Duque de Rivas, features a pergola of neoclassical style, designed by the architect Carlos Sáenz de Santamaría; it is used as an exhibition hall and a café bar. *Jardines de la Agricultura, located between the Jardines de la Victoria and the Paseo de Córdoba: it includes numerous trails that radially converge to a round square which has a fountain or pond. This is known as the duck pond, and, in the centre, has an island with a small building in which these animals live. Scattered throughout the garden are numerous sculptures such as the sculpture in memory of Julio Romero de Torres, the sculpture to the composer Julio Aumente and the bust of Mateo Inurria. In the north is a rose garden in form of a labyrinth. * Parque de Miraflores, located on the south bank of the river Guadalquivir.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIt was designed by the architect Juan Cuenca Montilla as a series of terraces. Among other points of interest as the Salam and Miraflores Bridge and a sculpture by Agustín Ibarrola. * Parque Cruz Conde, located southwest of the city, is an open park and barrier-free park in English gardens style. *Paseo de Cordoba. Located on the underground train tracks, it is a long tour of several km in length with more than 434,000 m². The tour has numerous fountains, including six formed by a portico of falling water which form a waterfall to a pond with four levels. Integrated into the tour is a pond of water from the Roman era, and the building of the old train station of RENFE, now converted into offices of Canal Sur. *Jardines Juan Carlos I, in the Ciudad Jardín neighborhood. It is a fortress which occupies an area of about 12,500 square metres. *Jardines del Conde de Vallellano, located on both sides of the avenue of the same name.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nIt includes a large L-shaped pond with a capacity of 3000 m3 and archaeological remains embedded in the gardens, among which is a Roman cistern from the second half of the 1st century BC. *Parque de la Asomadilla, with a surface of 27 hectares, is the second largest park in Andalusia. The park recreates a Mediterranean forest vegetation, such as hawthorn, pomegranate, hackberry, oak, olive, tamarisk, cypress, elms, pines, oaks and carob trees among others. *Balcón del Guadalquivir\\n*Jardines de Colón\\n*Sotos de la Albolafia. Declared Natural monument by the Andalusian Autonomous Government, it is located in a stretch of the Guadalquivir river from the Roman Bridge and the San Rafael Bridge, with an area of 21.36 hectares. Host a large variety of birds and is an important point of migration for many birds. *Parque periurbano Los Villares\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nBridges\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba has a total of seven bridges.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n*Roman Bridge, over the Guadalquivir River. It links the area of Campo de la Verdad with Barrio de la Catedral. It was the only bridge of the city for twenty centuries, until the construction of the San Rafael Bridge in the mid-20th century. Built in the early 1st century BC, during the period of Roman rule in Córdoba, probably replacing a more primitive of wood, it has a length of about 250 m and consists of 16 arches. * San Rafael Bridge, consisting of eight arches of 25 m span and a length of 217 m. The width is between parapets, divided into 12 m of cobblestone for four circulations and two tiled concrete sidewalks. It was inaugurated on 29 April 1953 joining the Avenue Corregidor with Plaza de Andalucía. In January 2004, the plaques reading \\\"His Excellency the Head of State and Generalissimo of all the Armies, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, opened this bridge of the Guadalquivir on 29 April 1953\\\", which were in each of the entrances of the bridge, each in its own direction, were removed. * Andalusia Bridge, a suspension bridge. * Puente de Miraflores, known as \\\"the rusty bridge\\\".\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThis bridge links the Street San Fernando and Ronda de Isasa with the Miraflores peninsula. It was designed by Herrero, Suárez and Casado and inaugurated on 2 May 2003. At first, in 1989, had considered the proposal of the architect-engineer Santiago Calatrava, that would looks like the Lusitania Bridge of Mérida, but was eventually discarded because of is potential impact on the artistic whole of the historic, because with its height could cover the view of the Great Mosque. * Autovía del Sur Bridge. * Abbas Ibn Firnas Bridge, Inaugurated in January 2011 It is part of the variant west of Córdoba. * Puente del Arenal, connecting Avenue Campo de la Verdad with the Recinto Ferial (fairground) of Cordoba.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nPolitics and government\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n;Local administration\\nCurrently the mayor of Córdoba is Isabel Ambrosio (PSOE).\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe City Council of Córdoba is divided into different areas: the Presidency, Security, Mobility, Equality and Participation; the Planning, Housing, Infrastructure and Environment; the Economy, Trade, Employment and Management; the Social; the Cultural Services and Tourism. The council holds regular plenary session once a month, but often held extraordinary plenary session to discuss issues and problems affecting the city.[http://www.ayuncordoba.es/portal/servlet/noxml?idturcanaContenido%20M01111408054171~S1275554~NROPLENO.pdf&mime\\napplication/pdf Organic Regulations of the plenary of the City Council of Córdoba]\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe Governing Board, chaired by the mayor, consists of five councillors of United Left (IU), two councilors of Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and other three members not elected. The municipal council consists of 29 members: 14 of People's Party, 11 of IU and 4 of PSOE.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n;Administrative division\\nSince July 2008, the city is divided into 10 administrative districts, coordinated by the Municipal district boards, which in turn are subdivided into neighbourhoods\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nMuseums\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n* Archeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba\\n* Julio Romero de Torres Museum\\n* Museum of Fine Arts\\n* Dioceses Museum\\n* Baths of the Fortress Califal\\n* Botanical Museum of Cordova\\n* Three Cultures Museum\\n* Bullfighting Museum\\n* Molino de Martos Hydraulic Museum\\n* Museo Palacio de Viana\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nTheatres\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\n* Gran Teatro de Córdoba\\n* Teatro Axerquía\\n* Teatro Góngora\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nMay celebrations\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nTourism is especially intense in Córdoba during May because of the weather and as this month hosts three festivals.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe May Crosses Festival takes place at the beginning of the month. During three or four days, crosses of around 3 m height are placed in many squares and streets and decorated with flowers and a contest is held to choose the most beautiful one. Usually there is regional food and music near the crosses.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe Patios Festival is celebrated during the second and third week of the month. Many houses of the historic centre open their private patios to the public and compete in a contest. Both the architectonic value and the floral decorations are taken into consideration to choose the winners. It is usually very difficult and expensive to find accommodation in the city during the festival.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba's Fair takes place at the ending of the month and is similar to the better known Sevilla Fair with some differences, mainly that the Sevilla one is private, while the Cordoba one is not.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nPeople\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba was the birthplace of the following philosophers and religious scholars:\\n* In Roman times the Stoic philosopher Seneca\\n* In Islamic times\\n** Abd Allah al-Qaysi, an early jurist responsible for spreading the Zahirite school\\n** Ibn Hazm, a major Muslim theologian and legal jurist,\\n** Averroes, an important figure in both Muslim and Western philosophy,\\n** Mundhir bin Sa'īd al-Ballūṭī, a prominent judge for the Caliph of Cordoba,\\n** Ibn Maḍāʾ, the first linguist to write about dependency grammar,\\n** al-Qurtubi, a leading jurist of the Maliki school, and\\n** Moses Maimonides, a rabbi who radically changed the direction of Jewish philosophy.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba was also the birthplace of\\n* The Roman poet Lucan,\\n* The medieval Spanish poet Juan de Mena\\n* The Renaissance poet Luis de Góngora, who lived most of his life and wrote all his most important works but one in Córdoba.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe Renaissance philosopher Abraham Cohen de Herrera and the Jewish mystic Moses ben Jacob Cordovero both descended from families which lived in Córdoba before the expulsion of the Jews from Spain.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe painter Julio Romero de Torres (1874–1930).\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nMore recently, several flamenco artists were born here as well, including\\n*Vicente Amigo\\n*Joaquín Cortés\\n*Fosforito\\n*Paco Peña\\n*Juan Serrano\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nAlso recently\\n*Manuel Laureano Rodríguez Sánchez (Manolete), matador\\n*Fernando Tejero, actor\\n*Gabi Delgado-López, musician\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nThe city is connected by high speed trains to the following Spanish cities: Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Málaga and Zaragoza. More than 20 trains per day connect the downtown area, in 54 minutes, with Málaga María Zambrano station, which provides interchange capability to destinations along the Costa del Sol, including Málaga Airport. The city is also well connected by highways with the rest of the country and Portugal.\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nTwin towns – sister cities\",\n \"Córdoba, Andalusia\\n\\nCórdoba is twinned with:\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1588,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2509"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which European country colonized Brazil?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Portugal"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["portugul","portugallu","portugalska","pòtigal","portugaul","portugalujo","portuguese republic","iso 3166 1 pt","republic of portugal","portugalsko","portugual","bồ đào nha","portugall","portûnga","bo dao nha","phortaingeil","portugale","portugal","portugál","portugalėjė","portiwgal","phu to ga","portugalija","portugalio","portogallo","phû tô gâ","portegal","república portuguesa","portugāle","phortaingéil","yn phortiugal","portogało","portuga","portugaleje","portekiz","o papagaio","portunga","potigal","portekîz","pertual","portogalo","portugali","portyngal","republica portuguesa","portingale","portúgal","portgual","potiti"],"string":"[\n \"portugul\",\n \"portugallu\",\n \"portugalska\",\n \"pòtigal\",\n \"portugaul\",\n \"portugalujo\",\n \"portuguese republic\",\n \"iso 3166 1 pt\",\n \"republic of portugal\",\n \"portugalsko\",\n \"portugual\",\n \"bồ đào nha\",\n \"portugall\",\n \"portûnga\",\n \"bo dao nha\",\n \"phortaingeil\",\n \"portugale\",\n \"portugal\",\n \"portugál\",\n \"portugalėjė\",\n \"portiwgal\",\n \"phu to ga\",\n \"portugalija\",\n \"portugalio\",\n \"portogallo\",\n \"phû tô gâ\",\n \"portegal\",\n \"república portuguesa\",\n \"portugāle\",\n \"phortaingéil\",\n \"yn phortiugal\",\n \"portogało\",\n \"portuga\",\n \"portugaleje\",\n \"portekiz\",\n \"o papagaio\",\n \"portunga\",\n \"potigal\",\n \"portekîz\",\n \"pertual\",\n \"portogalo\",\n \"portugali\",\n \"portyngal\",\n \"republica portuguesa\",\n \"portingale\",\n \"portúgal\",\n \"portgual\",\n \"potiti\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nModern ethnic Europeans are a recent and ongoing evolution. The original anatomically modern human migrants to Europe from Africa arrived 40,000 years ago; these prehistoric Europeans were predominantly dark skinned, short of stature, lactose intolerant, and looked dramatically different in comparison to modern Europeans. The genetic lineage of Europe mysteriously transformed about 4,500 years ago, with changes in diet, body size and skin pigmentation, when Central Asian and West Asian migrants arrived with taller height and light skin genes, respectively. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms \"ethnic group\" or \"nationality\". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people (without nation state), nationality, national minority, ethnic minority, linguistic community, linguistic group, linguistic minority and genetic haplogroup are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nOverview","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThere are eight peoples of Europe (defined by their language) with more than 30 million members residing in Europe. These eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population:\n# Russians (c. 95 million residing in Europe),\n# Germans (c. 82 million),\n# French (c. 60 million),\n# British (c. 60 million), \n# Italians (55 million), \n# Spanish (c. 50 million),\n# Ukrainians (38–55 million),\n# Poles (c. 38 million).","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nAbout 20–25 million residents (3%) are members of diasporas of non-European origin. The population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nBoth Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups, see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom. Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are not usually discussed in terms of ethnicity, and Switzerland is considered a \"multi-lingual state\" rather than a \"multi-ethnic state\".","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nLinguistic classifications","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nOf the total population of Europe of some 730 million (as of 2005), over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz., Slavic, Italic (Romance) and Germanic. The largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks (about 12 million) and the Albanians (about 8 million). Beside the Indo-European languages there are two other major language families on the European continent: Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, a Mediterranean archipelago. Basque is a linguistic isolate unrelated to any other languages inside or outside of Europe.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIndo-European languages","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThere are approximately 641 million residents in the family of the Indo-European languages divided into linguistic branches and peoples.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nLanguage isolates","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nCaspian","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nKartvelian","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nPontic","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nVasconic","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nMongolic languages","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nSemitic languages","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nEurope has a population of about 2 million ethnic Jews (mostly also counted as part of the ethno-linguistic group of their respective home countries):\n*Ashkenazi Jews (about 1.4 million, mostly German and French)\n*Italian Jews (some 50,000, mostly Italian)\n*Karaites (less than 4,000 in Poland and Lithuania)\n*Mizrahi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French)\n*Romaniotes (some 6,000, mostly Greek)\n*Sephardi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French and Italian)","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nTurkic languages","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nUralic languages","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nBy country","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nPan and Pfeil (2002) distinguish 33 peoples which form the majority population in at least one sovereign state geographically situated in Europe. These majorities range from nearly homogeneous populations as in Albania or Poland, to comparatively slight majorities as in Latvia or Belgium. Montenegro is multiethnic state in which no group forms a majority.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nHistory","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nPrehistoric populations","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly. \nThe Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum groups plus Balto-Slavic and Albanian) are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age (Corded ware, Beaker people). \nThe Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their historical homelands by about 3,000 years ago.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nReconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan and Eteocypriot. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nRegarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nHistorical populations","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:\n*Aegean: Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians.\n*Armenian Highlands/Anatolia: Armenians \n*Balkans: Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.\n*Caucasus: Georgians\n*Italian peninsula: Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies.\n*Western/Central Europe: Celts (list of peoples of Gaul, List of Celtic tribes), Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii and Balts.\n*Iberian peninsula: Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Lusitani, Aquitani, Celtiberians) Basques and Phoenicians ( Carthaginians).\n*Sardinia: Nuragic people, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes.\n*British Isles: Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni.\n*Northern Europe: Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples).\n*Southern Europe: Sicani.\n*Eastern Europe: Scythians, Sarmatians.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nHistorical immigration","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nEthno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:\n*Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean, from about 1200 BC to the fall of Carthage after the Third Punic War in 146 BC. *Iranian influence: Achaemenid control of Thrace (512–343 BC) and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes. *the Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD 70 and records of Jews settling Central Europe (Gaul) from the 5th century (see History of the Jews in Europe). *The Hunnic Empire (5th century), converged with the Barbarian invasions, contributing to the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire\n* Avar Khaganate (c.560s-800), converged with the Slavic migrations, fused into the South Slavic states from the 9th century. * the Bulgars (or proto-Bulgarians), a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs. * the Magyars (Hungarians), a Ugric people, and the Turkic Pechenegs and Khazars, arrived in Europe in about the 8th century (see Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin).","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n* the Arabs conquered Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, some places along the coast of southern Italy, Malta, Hispania and, in the early 11th century, Emirate of Sicily (831–1072) and Al-Andalus (711–1492)\n* the Berber dynasties of the Almoravides and the Almohads ruled much of Spain and Portugal. * exodus of Maghreb Christians \n* the western Kipchaks known as Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century. * the Mongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European Turks and Tatars. *the Romani people (Gypsies) arrived during the Late Middle Ages\n* the Mongol Kalmyks arrived in Kalmykia in the 17th century.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nHistory of European ethnography","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe earliest accounts of European ethnography date to Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nRoman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus.\nJulius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes.\nEthnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes or Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nBook IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (of languages, peoples, realms, armies and cities).\nAhmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples.\nWilliam Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans.\nSaxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nGottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published what is probably the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts. \nIn the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of \"races\", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger \"Caucasian\" group.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski who emphasized the importance of fieldwork. \nThe emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the \"indigenous\" Basques and Sami from other European populations.\nDespite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: \"there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world.\"","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nNational minorities","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the Convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states have signed and ratified the Convention, with the notable exception of France.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIndigenous minorities","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nMost of Europe's indigenous peoples, or ethnic groups known to have the earliest known historical connection to a particular region, have gone extinct or been absorbed by (or, perhaps, contributed to) the dominant cultures. Those that survive are largely confined to remote areas. Groups that have been identified as indigenous include the Sami of northern Scandinavia, the Basques of northern Spain and southern France, the Bretons of western France and a many of the western indigenous peoples of Russia. Groups in Russia include Finno-Ugric peoples such as the Komi and Mordvins of the western Ural Mountains, Samoyedic peoples such as the Nenets people of northern Russia.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nNon-indigenous minorities","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nMany non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have immigrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago, while others immigrated more recently in the 20th century, often from former colonies of the British, French, and Spanish empires.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n*Western Asians\n** Jews: approx. 2.0 million, mostly in the UK, France and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia), originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19. ***Ashkenazi Jews: approx. 1.4 million, mostly in Germany and France, probably via southern Europe in the Roman era and coalescing in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced many to flee. ***Sephardi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman and Roman eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries. ***Mizrahi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East. ***Italqim: approx. 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BCE. ***Romaniotes: approx. 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century CE. ***Crimean Karaites (Karaim): less than 4,000, mostly in Poland and Lithuania. They arrived in Crimea in the Middle Ages. **Assyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well in Russia. **Kurds: approx. 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n**Iraqi diaspora: mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden. **Lebanese diaspora: especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK. **Syrian diaspora: Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. *Africans\n**North Africans (Arabs and Berbers): approx. 5 million, mostly in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. The bulk of North African migrants are Moroccans, although France also has a large number of Algerians. **Horn Africans: approx. 200,000 Somalis, mostly in the UK, Netherlands and Scandinavia. **Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including Afro-Caribbeans and others by descent): approx. 5 million but rapidly growing, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere. *Latin Americans: approx. 2.2 million, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK. See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001). **Brazilians: around 70,000 in Portugal and Italy each, and 50,000 in Germany. ** Chilean refugees escaping the Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands. **Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000). *South Asians: approx.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n3 - 4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France. **Romani (Gypsies): approx. 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and European origin. **Indians: approx. 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Germany and smaller numbers in Ireland. **Pakistanis: approx. 1,000,000, mostly in the UK, but also in Norway and Sweden. **Tamils: approx. 250,000, predominantly in the UK. **Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, the bulk live in the UK. **Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden are destinations for Afghan immigrants since the 1960s. *East Asians\n**Chinese: approx. 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands. **Filipinos: above 1 million, mostly in the UK, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. **Japanese: mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany. **Koreans: 100,000 estimated (excludes a possible 100,000 more in Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram. **Southeast Asians of multiple nationalities, ca.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\ntotal 1 million, such as Indonesians in the Netherlands, Thais in the UK and Sweden, Vietnamese in France and former East Germany, and Cambodians in France. See also Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic. **Mongolians are a sizable community in Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. *North Americans\n**U.S. and Canadian expatriates: American British and Canadian British, Canadiens and Acadians in France, as well Americans/Canadians of European ancestry residing elsewhere in Europe. ***African Americans (i.e. African American British) who are Americans of black/African ancestry reside in other countries. In the 1920s, African-American entertainers established a colony in Paris (African American French) and descendants of World War II/Cold War-era black American soldiers stationed in France, Germany and Italy are well known. *Others\n**European diaspora - Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans (mostly White South Africans of Afrikaaner and British descent), mainly in the UK. **Pacific Islanders: A small population of Tahitians of Polynesian origin in mainland France, Fijians in the United Kingdom from Fiji and Māori in the United Kingdom of the Māori people of New Zealand.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n**Amerindians and Inuit, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK; Inuit in Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women. In Germany, the Native American Association of Germany founded in 1994 as a socio-cultural organization estimates 50,000 North American Indians (descendants) live in the country.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nEuropean identity","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nHistorical","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nMedieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.\nThe Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as \"Japhetites\" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages \"Japhetic\".","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIn this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration period (as it was remembered in early medieval historiography) as follows,\nThe first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.\nFrom Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes. \nThe text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nEuropean culture","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nEuropean culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \"common cultural heritage\". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \n*A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \n*A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \"Great Divergence\";\n*A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \n*A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\n*Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nBerting says that these points fit with \"Europe's most positive realisations\". \nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nReligion","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nSince the High Middle Ages, most of Europe used to be dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations, Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to Slavic regions, Romania, Greece and Georgia. Also The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is in Europe - another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Part of the Catholicism, while centered in the Latin parts, has a significant following also in Germanic and Slavic regions, Hungary, and Ireland (with some in Great Britain).","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nChristianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians. Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIslam has some tradition in the Balkans and Caucasus (the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries). Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus and Turkey. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 47% of the population is Muslim. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. In addition to Turkey and Azerbaijan, Russia has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%).Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/] excluding Turkey. While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nJudaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to the middle of Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nIn modern times, significant secularization has taken place, notably in laicist France in the 19th century and in the 20th century such as Estonia and German Democratic Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf EC.Europa.eu] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nPan-European identity","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\n\"Pan-European identity\" or \"Europatriotism\" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.","Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nFrom the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.","Nation state\n\nA nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \"nation\" resulted in failure\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \"nation\", \"(sovereign) state\", \"nation state\", and \"nationalism\". Connor, who gave the term \"ethnonationalism\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \"The Definitional Dilemma\" (pp. 85ff). \nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \"nation state\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \"Nation state\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.","Nation state\n\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \"nation state.\"","Nation state\n\nHistory and origins","Nation state\n\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \"modernization theories\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.","Nation state\n\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \"fairly\", according to Hobsbawm.","Nation state\n\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.","Nation state\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.","Nation state\n\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.","Nation state\n\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \"Westphalian system\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).","Nation state\n\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \"continental imperialism\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements.","Nation state\n\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.","Nation state\n\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.","Nation state\n\nBefore the nation state","Nation state\n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.","Nation state\n\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.","Nation state\n\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.","Nation state\n\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)","Nation state\n\nCharacteristics","Nation state\n\n\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\"","Nation state\n\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.","Nation state\n\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.","Nation state\n\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.","Nation state\n\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.","Nation state\n\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history.","Nation state\n\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).","Nation state\n\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.","Nation state\n\nIn practice","Nation state\n\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \"home\" ethnicity living in other countries.","Nation state\n\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad. * Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies.","Nation state\n\nThough today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world. * Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010). * Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.","Nation state\n\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland","Nation state\n\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation). * Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage.","Nation state\n\nWhile many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both. * Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho. * Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities. * Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs. * North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.","Nation state\n\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002). * Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc. * Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians. * San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy.","Nation state\n\nThe state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians. * Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.","Nation state\n\nThe notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.","Nation state\n\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.","Nation state\n\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.","Nation state\n\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.","Nation state\n\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.","Nation state\n\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \"Zhonghua minzu\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.","Nation state\n\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \"segment-state\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.","Nation state\n\nExceptional cases","Nation state\n\nUnited Kingdom","Nation state\n\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \"countries within a country\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.","Nation state\n\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \"countries within a country\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \"nation state\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \"multinational state\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).","Nation state\n\nKingdom of the Netherlands","Nation state\n\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \n* Netherlands proper\n* Aruba\n* Curaçao\n* Sint Maarten","Nation state\n\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \"countries\" by the Dutch government.","Nation state\n\nIsrael","Nation state\n\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \"Basic Laws\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.","Nation state\n\nPakistan","Nation state\n\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests.","Nation state\n\nMinorities","Nation state\n\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.","Nation state\n\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.","Nation state\n\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.","Nation state\n\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.","Nation state\n\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).","Nation state\n\nIrredentism","Nation state\n\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.","Nation state\n\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.","Nation state\n\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.","Nation state\n\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.","Nation state\n\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.","Nation state\n\nFuture","Nation state\n\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.","Nation state\n\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.","Nation state\n\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet.","Nation state\n\nClash of civilizations","Nation state\n\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.","Nation state\n\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \"The Clash of Civilizations?\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.","Nation state\n\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \"end of history\".","Nation state\n\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.","Nation state\n\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.","Nation state\n\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:","Nation state\n\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.","Nation state\n\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed.","Nation state\n\nHistoriography","Nation state\n\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.","Brazil\n\nBrazil (; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the world's fifth-largest country by both area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language–and the only one in the Americas. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7491 km. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest and debate regarding deforestation and environmental protection.","Brazil\n\nBrazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, and the 5,570 municipalities.","Brazil\n\nBrazil's economy is the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP (PPP) . A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the world's fastest growing major economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition and influence. Brazil's national development bank plays an important role for the country's economic growth. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP, and the Latin Union. Brazil is a regional power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs, with some analysts identifying it as an emerging global power. One of the world's major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.","Brazil\n\nEtymology","Brazil\n\nIt is likely that the word \"Brazil\" comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology \"red like an ember\", formed from Latin brasa (\"ember\") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium). As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.","Brazil\n\nOne alternative explanation for the country's name comes from the old Gaelic (Irish) tradition of a mythical island to the West called Hy-Brasil or Brasil. Portuguese sailors would have heard of this tradition.","Brazil\n\nThe official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the \"Land of the Holy Cross\" (Terra da Santa Cruz), but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the \"Land of Brazil\" (Terra do Brasil) on account of the brazilwood trade. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Early sailors sometimes also called it the \"Land of Parrots\" (Terra di Papaga).","Brazil\n\nIn the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called \"Pindorama\". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning \"land of the palm trees\".","Brazil\n\nHistory","Brazil\n\nPre-Cabraline era","Brazil\n\nThe earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years. The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.","Brazil\n\nAround the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people, mostly semi-nomadic who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês and Arawaks). The Tupí people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and there were also many subdivision of the other groups.","Brazil\n\nBefore the arrival of Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs. These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war. While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions. Slavery among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socio-economic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.","Brazil\n\nPortuguese colonization","Brazil\n\nThe land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves. Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when King Dom João III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil.","Brazil\n\nHowever, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil, a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America. In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other. By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important exportation product, and slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa, in the slave market of Western Africa (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import, to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.","Brazil\n\nBy the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline, and the discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world. This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers.","Brazil\n\nPortuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras gradually advanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders. In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.","Brazil\n\nThe Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares, and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.","Brazil\n\nUnited Kingdom with Portugal","Brazil\n\nIn late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Brazil. There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges, and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana.","Brazil\n\nWith the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, in order to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for the past six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state. However, such a ploy didn't last long, since the leadership in Portugal resentful with the new status of its larger colony, continued to require the return of court to Lisbon (as postulated by the Liberal Revolution of 1820), as well as groups of Brazilians, impatient for practical and real changes still demanded independence and a republic, as showed by the 1817 Pernambucan Revolt. \nIn 1821, as a demand of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto, D. João VI was unable to hold out any longer, and departed for Lisbon. There he swore oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.","Brazil\n\nIndependent Empire","Brazil\n\nTensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased, and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony. The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the regnal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the foundation of the Empire of Brazil.","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process, spread through northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province. With the last Portuguese soldiers surrendering on 8 March 1824, Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825. \nOn 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissensions with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession, as well as unreconciled with the way that absolutists in Portugal had given to the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the regnal title of Dom Pedro II).","Brazil\n\nAs the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he became of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar of a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.","Brazil\n\nDuring the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished.","Brazil\n\nThe foreign affairs in the monarchy were basically related issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with which Brazil has borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in independence for Uruguay, Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in Brazilian history.","Brazil\n\nOn 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, in attrition with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.","Brazil\n\nEarly republic","Brazil\n\nThe \"early republican government was little more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power\". In 1894, following the unfoldings of two severe crises, an economic along with a military one, the republican civilians rose to power.","Brazil\n\nLittle by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent, that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas supported by most of the military, successfully led the Brazilian Revolution of 1930. Vargas was supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his own supporters.","Brazil\n\nIn the 1930s, three major attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the failed Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, the second was the anti-fascist Brazilian uprising of 1935 led by communists, and the fascist Integralist Movement attempted a coup in May 1938. The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, installed Vargas as a dictator, and began the Estado Novo era, noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.","Brazil\n\nIn foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries in the early years of the republican period, was followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations, after its involvement in World War I. In World War II Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the allied side, after suffering retaliations undertaken by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, due to the country having severed diplomatic relations with Axis powers in the wake of the Pan-American Conference.","Brazil\n\nWith the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with Democracy being \"reinstated\" by the same army that had discontinued it 15 years before. Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.","Brazil\n\nContemporary era","Brazil\n\nSeveral brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide. Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises. The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably, but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960. His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office. His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.","Brazil\n\nThe new regime was intended to be transitory but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968. The oppression was not limited to only those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society, inside and outside the country (through the infamous \"Operation Condor\"). Despite its brutality, like other totalitarian regimes in history, due to an economic boom, known as an \"economic miracle\", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the early 1970s.","Brazil\n\nSlowly however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas, plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Geisel and Golbery. With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began its slow return to democracy, which would be completed during the 1980s.","Brazil\n\nCivilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency, becoming unpopular during his tenure due to his failure in controlling the economic crisis and hyperinflation inherited from the military regime. Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.","Brazil\n\nCollor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real, that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally granted stability to the Brazilian economy, leading Cardoso to be elected that year, and again in 1998.","Brazil\n\nThe peaceful transition of power from Fernando Henrique to his main opposition leader, Luís Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as a proof that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving a long-sought political stability. Lula was succeeded after the elections of 2010 by Dilma Rousseff, the country's first woman president.","Brazil\n\nNationwide protests broke out in 2013 and 2014 primarily over public transport fares and government expenditures on the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff faced a conservative challenger for her re-election bid in the October 26, 2014, runoff, but managed to secure a re-election with just over 51% of votes. Protests resumed in 2015 and 2016 in response to a corruption scandal and a worsening economy, resulting in the impeachment of President Rousseff and her suspension from office pending the outcome of a Senate trial, still ongoing as of June 2016.","Brazil\n\nGeography","Brazil\n\nBrazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior, sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse. Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.","Brazil\n\nBrazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of , including 55455 km2 of water. It spans four time zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.","Brazil\n\nBrazil is the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. It is also the only country to have contiguous territory both inside and outside the tropics.\nBrazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 m and 800 m in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.","Brazil\n\nThe southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1200 m. These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar. In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2994 m, and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.","Brazil\n\nBrazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic. Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.","Brazil\n\nClimate","Brazil\n\nThe climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical. According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil. Many regions have starkly different microclimates.","Brazil\n\nAn equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average 25 °C, with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.","Brazil\n\nOver central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 mm of rain, most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought. Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history, caused approximately half a million deaths. A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.","Brazil\n\nSouth of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year. The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C; winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.","Brazil\n\nBiodiversity and environment","Brazil\n\nBrazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world, with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity. In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions. The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.","Brazil\n\nLarger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests. Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues. Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. Despite its reputation as a ferocious freshwater fish, the red-bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger. Biodiversity can contribute to agriculture, livestock, forestry and fisheries extraction. However, almost all economically exploited species of plants, such as soybeans and coffee, or animals, such as chickens, are imported from other countries, and the economic use of native species still crawls. In the Brazilian GDP, the forest sector represents just over 1% and fishing 0.4%.","Brazil\n\nThe natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, climate change, fire, and invasive species. In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development. Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape. At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including the controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.","Brazil\n\nGovernment and politics","Brazil\n\nThe form of government is that of a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system. The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term, with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Dilma Rousseff, who was inaugurated on 1 January 2011. The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government. Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian Federation is the \"indissoluble union\" of the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District. The Union, the states and the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the \"spheres of government\". The federation is set on five fundamental principles: sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution. The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state/Federal District spheres.","Brazil\n\nAll members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected. Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams. For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.","Brazil\n\nTogether with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.","Brazil\n\nLaw","Brazil\n\nBrazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.","Brazil\n\nThe legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules. , there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution. Municipalities and the Federal District have \"organic laws\" (), which act in a similar way to constitutions. Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms. Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments. There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts. The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.","Brazil\n\nThis system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings. Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube. More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.","Brazil\n\nMilitary","Brazil\n\nThe armed forces of Brazil are the second largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment. It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservist annually.","Brazil\n\nNumbering close to 236,000 active personnel, the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command, and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared (Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist, 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile) and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile) to act anywhere in the country, in short time, the external aggression hypothesis. The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor. The Navy once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two dreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.","Brazil\n\nIt's the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, NAe São Paulo, and one of the ten navies of the world to operate this type of ship. The Air Force, it is the largest in Latin America has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67 thousand military.","Brazil\n\nBrazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War. Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbours and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other. The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government. It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti and East Timor.","Brazil\n\nForeign policy","Brazil\n\nBrazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations. According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.","Brazil\n\nBrazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power. Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.","Brazil\n\nAn increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries. Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels. Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year that includes:\n* technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30 million in 2010 provided directly by the Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC))\n* an estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise provided by Brazilian institutions specialising in technical cooperation","Brazil\n\nIn addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million). This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India. The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a \"global model in waiting.\"","Brazil\n\nLaw enforcement and crime","Brazil\n\nIn Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or estadual powers. The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.","Brazil\n\nThe country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of intentional homicide of the world. The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants. However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.","Brazil\n\nBrazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992. The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about two hundred thousand accommodations.","Brazil\n\nAdministrative divisions","Brazil\n\nBrazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one Federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and Municipalities. States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.","Brazil\n\nThe states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects.","Brazil\n\nMunicipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government. Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).","Brazil\n\nEconomy","Brazil\n\nBrazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's eight largest economy at market exchange rates and the seventh largest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests.","Brazil\n\nIts current GDP (PPP) per capita is $15,153 in 2014 putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors Brazil has a labor force of over a 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).","Brazil\n\nThe country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries. Brazil has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years. It has become the fourth largest car market in the world. Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef. In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in value of exports.","Brazil\n\nBrazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998 and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.","Brazil\n\nBrazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion, then a record sum. Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006. One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period. Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007. Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.","Brazil\n\nBetween 1993 and 2010, 7012 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazilian firms have been announced. The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with 115 billion USD of transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia Vale do Rio Doce acquired Inco in a tender offer valued at US$18.9 billion.","Brazil\n\nCorruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market. Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges. Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012. \nThe purchasing power in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.","Brazil\n\nComponents and energy","Brazil\n\nBrazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007. Brazil is one of the largest producer of oranges, coffee, sugar cane, cassava and sisal, soybeans and papayas.","Brazil\n\nThe industry — from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables— accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product. Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.","Brazil\n\nBrazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005. Recent oil discoveries in the Pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oil production. The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.","Brazil\n\nTourism","Brazil\n\nTourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 5 million visitors in 2010, ranking in terms of international tourist arrivals as the second destination in South America, and third in Latin America after Mexico and Argentina. Revenues from international tourists reached billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis. Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and billion in receipts were reached in 2011.","Brazil\n\nNatural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo city.","Brazil\n\nIn terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States. See Table 4, pp. 18–19 and Country/Economy Profile: Brazil, pp. 116–117. Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.","Brazil\n\nAccording to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), international travel to Brazil accelerated in 2000, particularly during 2004 and 2005. However, in 2006 a slow-down took place, and international arrivals had almost no growth in 2007–08. In spite of this trend, revenues from international tourism continued to rise, from USD 4 billion in 2005 to 5 billion in 2007, despite 330 000 fewer arrivals. This favorable trend is the result of the strong devaluation of the US dollar against the Brazilian Real, which began in 2004, but which makes Brazil a more expensive international destination. This trend changed in 2009, when both visitors and revenues fell as a result of the Great Recession of 2008–09. Click on the link \"UNWTO Tourism Highlights\" to access the pdf report. By 2010, the industry had recovered, and arrivals grew above 2006 levels to 5.2 million international visitors, and receipts from these visitors reached USD 6 billion. In 2011 the historical record was reached with 5.4 million visitors and billion in receipts.","Brazil\n\nDespite continuing record-breaking international tourism revenues, the number of Brazilian tourists travelling overseas has been growing steadily since 2003, resulting in a net negative foreign exchange balance, as more money is spent abroad by Brazilians than comes in as receipts from international tourists visiting Brazil. Tourism expenditures abroad grew from USD 5.8 billion in 2006, to USD 8.2 billion in 2007, a 42% increase, representing a net deficit of USD 3.3 billion in 2007, as compared to USD 1.5 billion in 2006, a 125% increase from the previous year. This trend is caused by Brazilians taking advantage of the stronger Real to travel and making relatively cheaper expenditures abroad. Brazilians traveling overseas in 2006 represented 4% of the country's population.","Brazil\n\nIn 2005, tourism contributed with 3.2% of the country's revenues from exports of goods and services, and represented 7% of direct and indirect employment in the Brazilian economy. In 2006 direct employment in the sector reached 1.9 million people. Domestic tourism is a fundamental market segment for the industry, as 51 million people traveled throughout the country in 2005, and direct revenues from Brazilian tourists reached USD 22 billion, 5.6 times more receipts than international tourists in 2005.","Brazil\n\nIn 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Foz do Iguaçu, São Paulo, Florianópolis and Salvador were the most visited cities by international tourists for leisure trips. The most popular destinations for business trips were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre. In 2006 Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza were the most popular destinations for business trips.","Brazil\n\nInfrastructure","Brazil\n\nScience and technology","Brazil\n\nTechnological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies. Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellite. Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).","Brazil\n\nThe country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where extracts 73% of its reserves.\nUranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% from its electricity from hydroelectricity ) and the country's first nuclear submarine will be delivered in 2015 (by France). Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences. And Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC. According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the 61 world's largest developer of information technology.","Brazil\n\nBrazil also has a large number of outstanding scientific personalities. Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont, Evaristo Conrado Engelberg, Manuel Dias de Abreu, Andreas Pavel e Nélio José Nicolai. Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson), Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil), José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of UNESCO Science Prize), Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of Fields Medal) and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).","Brazil\n\nTransport","Brazil\n\nBrazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184140 km (114,425 mi) in 2002.","Brazil\n\nThe first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luis, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra. President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways. Kubitschek was responsible for the installation of major car manufacturers in the country (Volkswagen, Ford and General Motors arrived in Brazil during his rule) and one of the points used to attract them was, of course, support for the construction of highways. With the implementation of Fiat in 1976 ending an automobile market closed loop, from the end of the 1990s the country has received large foreign direct investments installing in its territory other major car manufacturers and utilities, such as Iveco, Renault, Peugeot, Citroen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Hyundai, Toyota among others. Brazil is the seventh most important country in the auto industry.","Brazil\n\nBrazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30875 km in 2002, as compared with 31848 km in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007. The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina and Fortaleza.","Brazil\n\nThe country has an extensive rail network of in length, the tenth largest network in the world. Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers.","Brazil\n\nThere are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States. São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.","Brazil\n\nFor freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões- Amazonas waterway ( with 6 m minimum depth). The country also has of waterways.","Brazil\n\nCoastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important. Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36,3 hours on average.","Brazil\n\nWater supply and sanitation","Brazil\n\nAmong the achievements in the water supply and sanitation sector is an increase in access to water piped on premises \nfrom 79% to 92% between 1990 and 2010; an increase in access to Improved sanitation from 68% to 79% in the same period; \na functioning national system to finance water and sanitation \ninfrastructure; a high level of cost recovery compared to most other \ndeveloping countries; as well as a number of notable technical and \nfinancial innovations such as Condominial sewerage and an output-based subsidy for treated wastewater called PRODES.","Brazil\n\nAmong the challenges is the still high number of poor Brazilians living in urban slums (Favela)\nand in rural areas without access to piped water or sanitation; water \nscarcity in the Northeast of Brazil; water pollution, especially in the \nSouth-East of the country; the low share of collected wastewater that is\nbeing treated (35% in 2000); and long-standing tensions between the \nfederal, state and municipal governments about their respective roles in\nthe sector.","Brazil\n\nHealth","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian public health system, the National Health System (SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government. The public health services are universal and available to all citizens of the country for free. Nevertheless, millions of affluent Brazilians have private health care coverage.","Brazil\n\nAccording to the Brazilian Government, the most serious health problems are: \n* Childhood mortality: about 2.51% of childhood mortality, reaching 3.77% in the northeast region.\n* Motherhood mortality: about 73.1 deaths per 100,000 born children in 2002.\n* Mortality by non-transmissible illness: 151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants caused by heart and circulatory diseases, along with 72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants caused by cancer.\n* Mortality caused by external causes (transportation, violence and suicide): 71.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants (14.9% of all deaths in the country), reaching 82.3 deaths in the southeast region.","Brazil\n\nIn 2002, Brazil accounted for 40% of malaria cases in the Americas. Nearly 99% are concentrated in the Legal Amazon Region, which is home to not more than 12% of the population.","Brazil\n\nEducation","Brazil\n\nThe Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Federal Government, States, Federal District and municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.","Brazil\n\nAccording to the IBGE, in 2011, the literacy rate of the population was 90.4%, meaning that 13 million (9.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country; functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population. Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, where 19.9% of the population is illiterate.","Brazil\n\nHigher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different options of specialization in academic or professional careers. Depending on the choice, students can improve their educational background with courses of post-graduate studies or broad sense. To attend a higher education institution is required, by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education, completing all levels of education suited to the needs of all students of teaching kindergarten, elementary and medium, provided the student does not hold any disability, whether physical, mental, visual or hearing.","Brazil\n\nMedia and communication","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian press has its beginnings in 1808 with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, hitherto forbidden any activity of the press – was the publication of newspapers or books. The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808, with the creation of the Royal Printing, National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.","Brazil\n\nThe Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808. Largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo (from the state of São Paulo), Super Notícia (Minas Gerais 296.799), O Globo (RJ 277.876) and O Estado de S. Paulo (SP 235.217).","Brazil\n\nRadio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of \"Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro.\"","Brazil\n\nTelevision in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand. Since then television has grown in the country, creating large public networks such as Globo, SBT, Record and Bandeirantes. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67% of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007. In May 2010, Brazil launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.","Brazil\n\nDemographics","Brazil\n\nThe population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million (), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1 and 83.75% of the population defined as urban. The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.","Brazil\n\nThe first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478. From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived. Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years and to 72.6 years in 2007. \nIt has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050 thus completing the demographic transition.","Brazil\n\nIn 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48% and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor. Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.","Brazil\n\nRace and ethnicity","Brazil\n\nAccording to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.","Brazil\n\nIn 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.","Brazil\n\nSince the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable miscegenation between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).","Brazil\n\nBrazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different \"racial\" groups. Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward. Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).","Brazil\n\nThe brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno) is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives). People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.","Brazil\n\nHigher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba and also in northern Maranhão, southern Minas Gerais and in eastern Rio de Janeiro. From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.","Brazil\n\nReligion","Brazil\n\nReligion in Brazil formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples. This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities, and in some instances, Allan Kardec's Spiritism (a religion which incorporates elements of spiritualism and Christianity). Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century, and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population. The most common Protestant denominations are Pentecostal and Evangelical ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.","Brazil\n\nRoman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population. According to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% other Christian denominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian religions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam; 0.01% Amerindian religions; 0.59% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have no religion.","Brazil\n\nHowever, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly. After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 7% of the population as of the 2000 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country. Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.","Brazil\n\nUrbanization","Brazil\n\nAccording to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. \nThe largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley) and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).","Brazil\n\nLanguage","Brazil\n\nThe official language of Brazil is Portuguese (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. The most famous exception to this is a strong sign language law that was passed by the National Congress of Brazil. Legally recognized in 2002, the law was regulated in 2005. The law mandates the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access (\"inclusion\") to deaf people.","Brazil\n\nBrazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only. As a result, the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese). These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.","Brazil\n\nBrazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.","Brazil\n\nIn 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.","Brazil\n\nMinority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants. In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil, being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes), Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.","Brazil\n\nThere are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language. Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul, and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.","Brazil\n\nLearning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory education system (primary and secondary education, there called ensino fundamental and ensino médio respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to secondary students.","Brazil\n\nCulture","Brazil\n\nThe core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire. Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.","Brazil\n\nSome aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil. The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.","Brazil\n\nBrazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century) to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.","Brazil\n\nMusic","Brazil\n\nThe music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements. Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism. The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.","Brazil\n\nPopular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list. Maracatu and Afoxê are two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals. The sport of capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.","Brazil\n\nChoro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint. Bossa nova is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. The phrase \"bossa nova\" means literally \"new trend\". A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.","Brazil\n\nLiterature","Brazil\n\nBrazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.","Brazil\n\nBrazil produced significant works in Romanticism — novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara. Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Week of Modern Art in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature, while Post-Modernism brought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Bandeira.","Brazil\n\nCuisine","Brazil\n\nBrazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences. Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish; and regional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta and acarajé.","Brazil\n\nThe national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.","Brazil\n\nAn average meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef and salad. Often, it's mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants. Popular snacks are pastel (a pastry); coxinha (chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm.","Brazil\n\nBrazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with a guava jam known as goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, popsicles and ice cream.","Brazil\n\nCinema","Brazil\n\nThe Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city. The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time. The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.","Brazil\n\nDuring the 1960s the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.","Brazil\n\nDuring the 1990s Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (1997) and Central do Brasil (1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes, being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival.","Brazil\n\nSports","Brazil\n\nThe most popular sport in Brazil is football. The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.","Brazil\n\nVolleyball, basketball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup.","Brazil\n\nSome sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football, futsal (indoor football) and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira, Vale tudo, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.","Brazil\n\nIn auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship eight times.","Brazil\n\nBrazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.","Brazil\n\nSão Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007. On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games and second in Latin America after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.","Brazil\n\nNational holidays"],"string":"[\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nModern ethnic Europeans are a recent and ongoing evolution. The original anatomically modern human migrants to Europe from Africa arrived 40,000 years ago; these prehistoric Europeans were predominantly dark skinned, short of stature, lactose intolerant, and looked dramatically different in comparison to modern Europeans. The genetic lineage of Europe mysteriously transformed about 4,500 years ago, with changes in diet, body size and skin pigmentation, when Central Asian and West Asian migrants arrived with taller height and light skin genes, respectively. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms \\\"ethnic group\\\" or \\\"nationality\\\". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people (without nation state), nationality, national minority, ethnic minority, linguistic community, linguistic group, linguistic minority and genetic haplogroup are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nOverview\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThere are eight peoples of Europe (defined by their language) with more than 30 million members residing in Europe. These eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population:\\n# Russians (c. 95 million residing in Europe),\\n# Germans (c. 82 million),\\n# French (c. 60 million),\\n# British (c. 60 million), \\n# Italians (55 million), \\n# Spanish (c. 50 million),\\n# Ukrainians (38–55 million),\\n# Poles (c. 38 million).\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nAbout 20–25 million residents (3%) are members of diasporas of non-European origin. The population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nBoth Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups, see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom. Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are not usually discussed in terms of ethnicity, and Switzerland is considered a \\\"multi-lingual state\\\" rather than a \\\"multi-ethnic state\\\".\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nLinguistic classifications\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nOf the total population of Europe of some 730 million (as of 2005), over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz., Slavic, Italic (Romance) and Germanic. The largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks (about 12 million) and the Albanians (about 8 million). Beside the Indo-European languages there are two other major language families on the European continent: Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, a Mediterranean archipelago. Basque is a linguistic isolate unrelated to any other languages inside or outside of Europe.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIndo-European languages\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThere are approximately 641 million residents in the family of the Indo-European languages divided into linguistic branches and peoples.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nLanguage isolates\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nCaspian\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nKartvelian\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nPontic\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nVasconic\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nMongolic languages\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nSemitic languages\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nEurope has a population of about 2 million ethnic Jews (mostly also counted as part of the ethno-linguistic group of their respective home countries):\\n*Ashkenazi Jews (about 1.4 million, mostly German and French)\\n*Italian Jews (some 50,000, mostly Italian)\\n*Karaites (less than 4,000 in Poland and Lithuania)\\n*Mizrahi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French)\\n*Romaniotes (some 6,000, mostly Greek)\\n*Sephardi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French and Italian)\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nTurkic languages\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nUralic languages\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nBy country\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nPan and Pfeil (2002) distinguish 33 peoples which form the majority population in at least one sovereign state geographically situated in Europe. These majorities range from nearly homogeneous populations as in Albania or Poland, to comparatively slight majorities as in Latvia or Belgium. Montenegro is multiethnic state in which no group forms a majority.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nPrehistoric populations\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly. \\nThe Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum groups plus Balto-Slavic and Albanian) are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age (Corded ware, Beaker people). \\nThe Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their historical homelands by about 3,000 years ago.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nReconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan and Eteocypriot. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nRegarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nHistorical populations\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:\\n*Aegean: Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians.\\n*Armenian Highlands/Anatolia: Armenians \\n*Balkans: Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.\\n*Caucasus: Georgians\\n*Italian peninsula: Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies.\\n*Western/Central Europe: Celts (list of peoples of Gaul, List of Celtic tribes), Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii and Balts.\\n*Iberian peninsula: Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Lusitani, Aquitani, Celtiberians) Basques and Phoenicians ( Carthaginians).\\n*Sardinia: Nuragic people, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes.\\n*British Isles: Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni.\\n*Northern Europe: Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples).\\n*Southern Europe: Sicani.\\n*Eastern Europe: Scythians, Sarmatians.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nHistorical immigration\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nEthno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:\\n*Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean, from about 1200 BC to the fall of Carthage after the Third Punic War in 146 BC. *Iranian influence: Achaemenid control of Thrace (512–343 BC) and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes. *the Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD 70 and records of Jews settling Central Europe (Gaul) from the 5th century (see History of the Jews in Europe). *The Hunnic Empire (5th century), converged with the Barbarian invasions, contributing to the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire\\n* Avar Khaganate (c.560s-800), converged with the Slavic migrations, fused into the South Slavic states from the 9th century. * the Bulgars (or proto-Bulgarians), a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs. * the Magyars (Hungarians), a Ugric people, and the Turkic Pechenegs and Khazars, arrived in Europe in about the 8th century (see Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin).\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n* the Arabs conquered Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, some places along the coast of southern Italy, Malta, Hispania and, in the early 11th century, Emirate of Sicily (831–1072) and Al-Andalus (711–1492)\\n* the Berber dynasties of the Almoravides and the Almohads ruled much of Spain and Portugal. * exodus of Maghreb Christians \\n* the western Kipchaks known as Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century. * the Mongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European Turks and Tatars. *the Romani people (Gypsies) arrived during the Late Middle Ages\\n* the Mongol Kalmyks arrived in Kalmykia in the 17th century.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nHistory of European ethnography\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe earliest accounts of European ethnography date to Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nRoman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus.\\nJulius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes.\\nEthnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes or Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nBook IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (of languages, peoples, realms, armies and cities).\\nAhmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples.\\nWilliam Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans.\\nSaxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nGottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published what is probably the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts. \\nIn the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of \\\"races\\\", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger \\\"Caucasian\\\" group.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski who emphasized the importance of fieldwork. \\nThe emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the \\\"indigenous\\\" Basques and Sami from other European populations.\\nDespite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: \\\"there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world.\\\"\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nNational minorities\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nThe member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the Convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states have signed and ratified the Convention, with the notable exception of France.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIndigenous minorities\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nMost of Europe's indigenous peoples, or ethnic groups known to have the earliest known historical connection to a particular region, have gone extinct or been absorbed by (or, perhaps, contributed to) the dominant cultures. Those that survive are largely confined to remote areas. Groups that have been identified as indigenous include the Sami of northern Scandinavia, the Basques of northern Spain and southern France, the Bretons of western France and a many of the western indigenous peoples of Russia. Groups in Russia include Finno-Ugric peoples such as the Komi and Mordvins of the western Ural Mountains, Samoyedic peoples such as the Nenets people of northern Russia.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nNon-indigenous minorities\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nMany non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have immigrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago, while others immigrated more recently in the 20th century, often from former colonies of the British, French, and Spanish empires.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n*Western Asians\\n** Jews: approx. 2.0 million, mostly in the UK, France and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia), originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19. ***Ashkenazi Jews: approx. 1.4 million, mostly in Germany and France, probably via southern Europe in the Roman era and coalescing in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced many to flee. ***Sephardi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman and Roman eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries. ***Mizrahi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East. ***Italqim: approx. 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BCE. ***Romaniotes: approx. 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century CE. ***Crimean Karaites (Karaim): less than 4,000, mostly in Poland and Lithuania. They arrived in Crimea in the Middle Ages. **Assyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well in Russia. **Kurds: approx. 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n**Iraqi diaspora: mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden. **Lebanese diaspora: especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK. **Syrian diaspora: Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. *Africans\\n**North Africans (Arabs and Berbers): approx. 5 million, mostly in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. The bulk of North African migrants are Moroccans, although France also has a large number of Algerians. **Horn Africans: approx. 200,000 Somalis, mostly in the UK, Netherlands and Scandinavia. **Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including Afro-Caribbeans and others by descent): approx. 5 million but rapidly growing, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere. *Latin Americans: approx. 2.2 million, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK. See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001). **Brazilians: around 70,000 in Portugal and Italy each, and 50,000 in Germany. ** Chilean refugees escaping the Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands. **Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000). *South Asians: approx.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n3 - 4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France. **Romani (Gypsies): approx. 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and European origin. **Indians: approx. 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Germany and smaller numbers in Ireland. **Pakistanis: approx. 1,000,000, mostly in the UK, but also in Norway and Sweden. **Tamils: approx. 250,000, predominantly in the UK. **Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, the bulk live in the UK. **Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden are destinations for Afghan immigrants since the 1960s. *East Asians\\n**Chinese: approx. 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands. **Filipinos: above 1 million, mostly in the UK, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. **Japanese: mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany. **Koreans: 100,000 estimated (excludes a possible 100,000 more in Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram. **Southeast Asians of multiple nationalities, ca.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\ntotal 1 million, such as Indonesians in the Netherlands, Thais in the UK and Sweden, Vietnamese in France and former East Germany, and Cambodians in France. See also Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic. **Mongolians are a sizable community in Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic. *North Americans\\n**U.S. and Canadian expatriates: American British and Canadian British, Canadiens and Acadians in France, as well Americans/Canadians of European ancestry residing elsewhere in Europe. ***African Americans (i.e. African American British) who are Americans of black/African ancestry reside in other countries. In the 1920s, African-American entertainers established a colony in Paris (African American French) and descendants of World War II/Cold War-era black American soldiers stationed in France, Germany and Italy are well known. *Others\\n**European diaspora - Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans (mostly White South Africans of Afrikaaner and British descent), mainly in the UK. **Pacific Islanders: A small population of Tahitians of Polynesian origin in mainland France, Fijians in the United Kingdom from Fiji and Māori in the United Kingdom of the Māori people of New Zealand.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n**Amerindians and Inuit, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK; Inuit in Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women. In Germany, the Native American Association of Germany founded in 1994 as a socio-cultural organization estimates 50,000 North American Indians (descendants) live in the country.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nEuropean identity\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nHistorical\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nMedieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.\\nThe Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as \\\"Japhetites\\\" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages \\\"Japhetic\\\".\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIn this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration period (as it was remembered in early medieval historiography) as follows,\\nThe first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.\\nFrom Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes. \\nThe text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nEuropean culture\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nEuropean culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \\\"common cultural heritage\\\". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \\n*A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \\n*A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \\\"Great Divergence\\\";\\n*A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \\n*A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\\n*Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nBerting says that these points fit with \\\"Europe's most positive realisations\\\". \\nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nSince the High Middle Ages, most of Europe used to be dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations, Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to Slavic regions, Romania, Greece and Georgia. Also The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is in Europe - another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Part of the Catholicism, while centered in the Latin parts, has a significant following also in Germanic and Slavic regions, Hungary, and Ireland (with some in Great Britain).\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nChristianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians. Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIslam has some tradition in the Balkans and Caucasus (the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries). Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus and Turkey. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 47% of the population is Muslim. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. In addition to Turkey and Azerbaijan, Russia has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%).Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/] excluding Turkey. While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nJudaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to the middle of Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nIn modern times, significant secularization has taken place, notably in laicist France in the 19th century and in the 20th century such as Estonia and German Democratic Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf EC.Europa.eu] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nPan-European identity\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\n\\\"Pan-European identity\\\" or \\\"Europatriotism\\\" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.\",\n \"Ethnic groups in Europe\\n\\nFrom the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \\\"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \\\"nation\\\" resulted in failure\\\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \\\"nation\\\", \\\"(sovereign) state\\\", \\\"nation state\\\", and \\\"nationalism\\\". Connor, who gave the term \\\"ethnonationalism\\\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \\\"The Definitional Dilemma\\\" (pp. 85ff). \\nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \\\"nation state\\\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \\\"Nation state\\\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \\\"nation state.\\\"\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistory and origins\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \\\"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\\\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \\\"modernization theories\\\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \\\"fairly\\\", according to Hobsbawm.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \\\"Westphalian system\\\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \\\"continental imperialism\\\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nBefore the nation state\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nCharacteristics\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n\\\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\\\"\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn practice\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \\\"home\\\" ethnicity living in other countries.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad. * Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThough today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world. * Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010). * Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation). * Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nWhile many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both. * Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho. * Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities. * Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs. * North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002). * Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc. * Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians. * San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians. * Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe notion of a unifying \\\"national identity\\\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \\\"Zhonghua minzu\\\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \\\"segment-state\\\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \\\"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\\\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nExceptional cases\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nUnited Kingdom\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \\\"countries within a country\\\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \\\"countries within a country\\\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \\\"nation state\\\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \\\"multinational state\\\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nKingdom of the Netherlands\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \\n* Netherlands proper\\n* Aruba\\n* Curaçao\\n* Sint Maarten\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \\\"countries\\\" by the Dutch government.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIsrael\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \\\"Basic Laws\\\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nPakistan\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nMinorities\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentism\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nFuture\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nClash of civilizations\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \\\"The Clash of Civilizations?\\\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \\\"end of history\\\".\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistoriography\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil (; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (, ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the world's fifth-largest country by both area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language–and the only one in the Americas. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7491 km. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest and debate regarding deforestation and environmental protection.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, and the 5,570 municipalities.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's economy is the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP (PPP) . A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the world's fastest growing major economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition and influence. Brazil's national development bank plays an important role for the country's economic growth. Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP, and the Latin Union. Brazil is a regional power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs, with some analysts identifying it as an emerging global power. One of the world's major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIt is likely that the word \\\"Brazil\\\" comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology \\\"red like an ember\\\", formed from Latin brasa (\\\"ember\\\") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium). As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nOne alternative explanation for the country's name comes from the old Gaelic (Irish) tradition of a mythical island to the West called Hy-Brasil or Brasil. Portuguese sailors would have heard of this tradition.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the \\\"Land of the Holy Cross\\\" (Terra da Santa Cruz), but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the \\\"Land of Brazil\\\" (Terra do Brasil) on account of the brazilwood trade. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Early sailors sometimes also called it the \\\"Land of Parrots\\\" (Terra di Papaga).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called \\\"Pindorama\\\". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning \\\"land of the palm trees\\\".\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nPre-Cabraline era\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years. The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAround the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people, mostly semi-nomadic who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês and Arawaks). The Tupí people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and there were also many subdivision of the other groups.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBefore the arrival of Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs. These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war. While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions. Slavery among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socio-economic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nPortuguese colonization\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves. Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when King Dom João III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHowever, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil, a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America. In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other. By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important exportation product, and slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa, in the slave market of Western Africa (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import, to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBy the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline, and the discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world. This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nPortuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras gradually advanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders. In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares, and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nUnited Kingdom with Portugal\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Brazil. There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges, and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nWith the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, in order to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for the past six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state. However, such a ploy didn't last long, since the leadership in Portugal resentful with the new status of its larger colony, continued to require the return of court to Lisbon (as postulated by the Liberal Revolution of 1820), as well as groups of Brazilians, impatient for practical and real changes still demanded independence and a republic, as showed by the 1817 Pernambucan Revolt. \\nIn 1821, as a demand of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto, D. João VI was unable to hold out any longer, and departed for Lisbon. There he swore oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIndependent Empire\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased, and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony. The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the regnal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the foundation of the Empire of Brazil.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process, spread through northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province. With the last Portuguese soldiers surrendering on 8 March 1824, Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825. \\nOn 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissensions with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession, as well as unreconciled with the way that absolutists in Portugal had given to the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the regnal title of Dom Pedro II).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAs the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he became of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly. In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar of a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state. This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nDuring the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850, as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe foreign affairs in the monarchy were basically related issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with which Brazil has borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in independence for Uruguay, Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in Brazilian history.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nOn 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, in attrition with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nEarly republic\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe \\\"early republican government was little more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power\\\". In 1894, following the unfoldings of two severe crises, an economic along with a military one, the republican civilians rose to power.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLittle by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent, that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas supported by most of the military, successfully led the Brazilian Revolution of 1930. Vargas was supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his own supporters.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn the 1930s, three major attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the failed Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, the second was the anti-fascist Brazilian uprising of 1935 led by communists, and the fascist Integralist Movement attempted a coup in May 1938. The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, installed Vargas as a dictator, and began the Estado Novo era, noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries in the early years of the republican period, was followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations, after its involvement in World War I. In World War II Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the allied side, after suffering retaliations undertaken by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, due to the country having severed diplomatic relations with Axis powers in the wake of the Pan-American Conference.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nWith the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with Democracy being \\\"reinstated\\\" by the same army that had discontinued it 15 years before. Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nContemporary era\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSeveral brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide. Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises. The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably, but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960. His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office. His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe new regime was intended to be transitory but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968. The oppression was not limited to only those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society, inside and outside the country (through the infamous \\\"Operation Condor\\\"). Despite its brutality, like other totalitarian regimes in history, due to an economic boom, known as an \\\"economic miracle\\\", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the early 1970s.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSlowly however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas, plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Geisel and Golbery. With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began its slow return to democracy, which would be completed during the 1980s.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCivilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency, becoming unpopular during his tenure due to his failure in controlling the economic crisis and hyperinflation inherited from the military regime. Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCollor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real, that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally granted stability to the Brazilian economy, leading Cardoso to be elected that year, and again in 1998.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe peaceful transition of power from Fernando Henrique to his main opposition leader, Luís Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as a proof that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving a long-sought political stability. Lula was succeeded after the elections of 2010 by Dilma Rousseff, the country's first woman president.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nNationwide protests broke out in 2013 and 2014 primarily over public transport fares and government expenditures on the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff faced a conservative challenger for her re-election bid in the October 26, 2014, runoff, but managed to secure a re-election with just over 51% of votes. Protests resumed in 2015 and 2016 in response to a corruption scandal and a worsening economy, resulting in the impeachment of President Rousseff and her suspension from office pending the outcome of a Senate trial, still ongoing as of June 2016.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior, sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse. Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of , including 55455 km2 of water. It spans four time zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. It is also the only country to have contiguous territory both inside and outside the tropics.\\nBrazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 m and 800 m in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1200 m. These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar. In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2994 m, and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic. Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical. According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil. Many regions have starkly different microclimates.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAn equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average 25 °C, with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nOver central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 mm of rain, most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought. Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history, caused approximately half a million deaths. A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSouth of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year. The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C; winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBiodiversity and environment\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world, with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity. In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions. The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLarger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests. Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues. Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. Despite its reputation as a ferocious freshwater fish, the red-bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger. Biodiversity can contribute to agriculture, livestock, forestry and fisheries extraction. However, almost all economically exploited species of plants, such as soybeans and coffee, or animals, such as chickens, are imported from other countries, and the economic use of native species still crawls. In the Brazilian GDP, the forest sector represents just over 1% and fishing 0.4%.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, climate change, fire, and invasive species. In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development. Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape. At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including the controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nGovernment and politics\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe form of government is that of a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system. The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term, with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Dilma Rousseff, who was inaugurated on 1 January 2011. The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government. Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian Federation is the \\\"indissoluble union\\\" of the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District. The Union, the states and the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the \\\"spheres of government\\\". The federation is set on five fundamental principles: sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution. The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state/Federal District spheres.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAll members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected. Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams. For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTogether with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLaw\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules. , there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution. Municipalities and the Federal District have \\\"organic laws\\\" (), which act in a similar way to constitutions. Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms. Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments. There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts. The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThis system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings. Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube. More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe armed forces of Brazil are the second largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment. It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservist annually.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nNumbering close to 236,000 active personnel, the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command, and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared (Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist, 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile) and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile) to act anywhere in the country, in short time, the external aggression hypothesis. The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor. The Navy once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two dreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIt's the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, NAe São Paulo, and one of the ten navies of the world to operate this type of ship. The Air Force, it is the largest in Latin America has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67 thousand military.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War. Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbours and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other. The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government. It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti and East Timor.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nForeign policy\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations. According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power. Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAn increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries. Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels. Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year that includes:\\n* technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30 million in 2010 provided directly by the Brazilian Cooperation Agency (ABC))\\n* an estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise provided by Brazilian institutions specialising in technical cooperation\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million). This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India. The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a \\\"global model in waiting.\\\"\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLaw enforcement and crime\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or estadual powers. The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of intentional homicide of the world. The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants. However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992. The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about two hundred thousand accommodations.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one Federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and Municipalities. States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nMunicipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government. Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's eight largest economy at market exchange rates and the seventh largest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIts current GDP (PPP) per capita is $15,153 in 2014 putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors Brazil has a labor force of over a 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries. Brazil has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years. It has become the fourth largest car market in the world. Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef. In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in value of exports.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998 and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion, then a record sum. Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006. One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period. Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007. Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBetween 1993 and 2010, 7012 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazilian firms have been announced. The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with 115 billion USD of transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia Vale do Rio Doce acquired Inco in a tender offer valued at US$18.9 billion.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCorruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market. Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges. Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012. \\nThe purchasing power in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nComponents and energy\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007. Brazil is one of the largest producer of oranges, coffee, sugar cane, cassava and sisal, soybeans and papayas.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe industry — from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables— accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product. Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005. Recent oil discoveries in the Pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oil production. The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 5 million visitors in 2010, ranking in terms of international tourist arrivals as the second destination in South America, and third in Latin America after Mexico and Argentina. Revenues from international tourists reached billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis. Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and billion in receipts were reached in 2011.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nNatural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo city.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States. See Table 4, pp. 18–19 and Country/Economy Profile: Brazil, pp. 116–117. Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAccording to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), international travel to Brazil accelerated in 2000, particularly during 2004 and 2005. However, in 2006 a slow-down took place, and international arrivals had almost no growth in 2007–08. In spite of this trend, revenues from international tourism continued to rise, from USD 4 billion in 2005 to 5 billion in 2007, despite 330 000 fewer arrivals. This favorable trend is the result of the strong devaluation of the US dollar against the Brazilian Real, which began in 2004, but which makes Brazil a more expensive international destination. This trend changed in 2009, when both visitors and revenues fell as a result of the Great Recession of 2008–09. Click on the link \\\"UNWTO Tourism Highlights\\\" to access the pdf report. By 2010, the industry had recovered, and arrivals grew above 2006 levels to 5.2 million international visitors, and receipts from these visitors reached USD 6 billion. In 2011 the historical record was reached with 5.4 million visitors and billion in receipts.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nDespite continuing record-breaking international tourism revenues, the number of Brazilian tourists travelling overseas has been growing steadily since 2003, resulting in a net negative foreign exchange balance, as more money is spent abroad by Brazilians than comes in as receipts from international tourists visiting Brazil. Tourism expenditures abroad grew from USD 5.8 billion in 2006, to USD 8.2 billion in 2007, a 42% increase, representing a net deficit of USD 3.3 billion in 2007, as compared to USD 1.5 billion in 2006, a 125% increase from the previous year. This trend is caused by Brazilians taking advantage of the stronger Real to travel and making relatively cheaper expenditures abroad. Brazilians traveling overseas in 2006 represented 4% of the country's population.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 2005, tourism contributed with 3.2% of the country's revenues from exports of goods and services, and represented 7% of direct and indirect employment in the Brazilian economy. In 2006 direct employment in the sector reached 1.9 million people. Domestic tourism is a fundamental market segment for the industry, as 51 million people traveled throughout the country in 2005, and direct revenues from Brazilian tourists reached USD 22 billion, 5.6 times more receipts than international tourists in 2005.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Foz do Iguaçu, São Paulo, Florianópolis and Salvador were the most visited cities by international tourists for leisure trips. The most popular destinations for business trips were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre. In 2006 Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza were the most popular destinations for business trips.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nInfrastructure\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTechnological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies. Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellite. Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where extracts 73% of its reserves.\\nUranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% from its electricity from hydroelectricity ) and the country's first nuclear submarine will be delivered in 2015 (by France). Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences. And Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC. According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the 61 world's largest developer of information technology.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil also has a large number of outstanding scientific personalities. Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont, Evaristo Conrado Engelberg, Manuel Dias de Abreu, Andreas Pavel e Nélio José Nicolai. Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson), Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil), José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of UNESCO Science Prize), Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of Fields Medal) and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184140 km (114,425 mi) in 2002.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luis, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra. President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways. Kubitschek was responsible for the installation of major car manufacturers in the country (Volkswagen, Ford and General Motors arrived in Brazil during his rule) and one of the points used to attract them was, of course, support for the construction of highways. With the implementation of Fiat in 1976 ending an automobile market closed loop, from the end of the 1990s the country has received large foreign direct investments installing in its territory other major car manufacturers and utilities, such as Iveco, Renault, Peugeot, Citroen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Hyundai, Toyota among others. Brazil is the seventh most important country in the auto industry.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30875 km in 2002, as compared with 31848 km in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007. The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina and Fortaleza.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe country has an extensive rail network of in length, the tenth largest network in the world. Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThere are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States. São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nFor freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões- Amazonas waterway ( with 6 m minimum depth). The country also has of waterways.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCoastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important. Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36,3 hours on average.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAmong the achievements in the water supply and sanitation sector is an increase in access to water piped on premises \\nfrom 79% to 92% between 1990 and 2010; an increase in access to Improved sanitation from 68% to 79% in the same period; \\na functioning national system to finance water and sanitation \\ninfrastructure; a high level of cost recovery compared to most other \\ndeveloping countries; as well as a number of notable technical and \\nfinancial innovations such as Condominial sewerage and an output-based subsidy for treated wastewater called PRODES.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAmong the challenges is the still high number of poor Brazilians living in urban slums (Favela)\\nand in rural areas without access to piped water or sanitation; water \\nscarcity in the Northeast of Brazil; water pollution, especially in the \\nSouth-East of the country; the low share of collected wastewater that is\\nbeing treated (35% in 2000); and long-standing tensions between the \\nfederal, state and municipal governments about their respective roles in\\nthe sector.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian public health system, the National Health System (SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government. The public health services are universal and available to all citizens of the country for free. Nevertheless, millions of affluent Brazilians have private health care coverage.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAccording to the Brazilian Government, the most serious health problems are: \\n* Childhood mortality: about 2.51% of childhood mortality, reaching 3.77% in the northeast region.\\n* Motherhood mortality: about 73.1 deaths per 100,000 born children in 2002.\\n* Mortality by non-transmissible illness: 151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants caused by heart and circulatory diseases, along with 72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants caused by cancer.\\n* Mortality caused by external causes (transportation, violence and suicide): 71.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants (14.9% of all deaths in the country), reaching 82.3 deaths in the southeast region.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 2002, Brazil accounted for 40% of malaria cases in the Americas. Nearly 99% are concentrated in the Legal Amazon Region, which is home to not more than 12% of the population.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Federal Government, States, Federal District and municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAccording to the IBGE, in 2011, the literacy rate of the population was 90.4%, meaning that 13 million (9.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country; functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population. Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, where 19.9% of the population is illiterate.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHigher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different options of specialization in academic or professional careers. Depending on the choice, students can improve their educational background with courses of post-graduate studies or broad sense. To attend a higher education institution is required, by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education, completing all levels of education suited to the needs of all students of teaching kindergarten, elementary and medium, provided the student does not hold any disability, whether physical, mental, visual or hearing.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nMedia and communication\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian press has its beginnings in 1808 with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, hitherto forbidden any activity of the press – was the publication of newspapers or books. The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808, with the creation of the Royal Printing, National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808. Largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo (from the state of São Paulo), Super Notícia (Minas Gerais 296.799), O Globo (RJ 277.876) and O Estado de S. Paulo (SP 235.217).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nRadio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of \\\"Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro.\\\"\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nTelevision in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand. Since then television has grown in the country, creating large public networks such as Globo, SBT, Record and Bandeirantes. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67% of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007. In May 2010, Brazil launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million (), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1 and 83.75% of the population defined as urban. The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478. From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived. Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years and to 72.6 years in 2007. \\nIt has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050 thus completing the demographic transition.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48% and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor. Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nRace and ethnicity\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAccording to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSince the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable miscegenation between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different \\\"racial\\\" groups. Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward. Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno) is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives). People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHigher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba and also in northern Maranhão, southern Minas Gerais and in eastern Rio de Janeiro. From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nReligion in Brazil formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples. This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities, and in some instances, Allan Kardec's Spiritism (a religion which incorporates elements of spiritualism and Christianity). Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century, and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population. The most common Protestant denominations are Pentecostal and Evangelical ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nRoman Catholicism is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the world's largest Catholic population. According to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% other Christian denominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian religions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam; 0.01% Amerindian religions; 0.59% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have no religion.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nHowever, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly. After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 7% of the population as of the 2000 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country. Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nUrbanization\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAccording to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. \\nThe largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley) and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe official language of Brazil is Portuguese (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. The most famous exception to this is a strong sign language law that was passed by the National Congress of Brazil. Legally recognized in 2002, the law was regulated in 2005. The law mandates the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access (\\\"inclusion\\\") to deaf people.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian Portuguese has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and more recent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, and in minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few influences from the Amerindian and African languages, especially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocabulary only. As a result, the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese). These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nMinority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants. In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil, being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes), Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThere are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language. Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul, and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLearning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory education system (primary and secondary education, there called ensino fundamental and ensino médio respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to secondary students.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire. Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSome aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil. The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century) to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements. Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism. The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nPopular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list. Maracatu and Afoxê are two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals. The sport of capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nChoro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulations and full of syncopation and counterpoint. Bossa nova is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s. The phrase \\\"bossa nova\\\" means literally \\\"new trend\\\". A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil produced significant works in Romanticism — novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara. Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Week of Modern Art in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature, while Post-Modernism brought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabral de Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Vinicius de Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, Cecília Meireles, and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, João Guimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Bandeira.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences. Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish; and regional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta and acarajé.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nAn average meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef and salad. Often, it's mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants. Popular snacks are pastel (a pastry); coxinha (chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with a guava jam known as goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, popsicles and ice cream.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city. The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time. The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nDuring the 1960s the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nDuring the 1990s Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (1997) and Central do Brasil (1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes, being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nThe most popular sport in Brazil is football. The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nVolleyball, basketball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. The Brazil men's national volleyball team, for example, currently holds the titles of the World League, World Grand Champions Cup, World Championship and the World Cup.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSome sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football, futsal (indoor football) and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira, Vale tudo, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nIn auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship eight times.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nBrazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup. The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nSão Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007. On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games and second in Latin America after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.\",\n \"Brazil\\n\\nNational holidays\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1589,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2510"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which country was defeated by the USSR in the Winter War of 1939?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Finland"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["etymology of finland","finn land","suomen tasavalta","republiken finland","iso 3166 1 fi","finlande","fin land","finnland","republic of finland","finland","finland during world war ii","finland s","northern finland","name of finland"],"string":"[\n \"etymology of finland\",\n \"finn land\",\n \"suomen tasavalta\",\n \"republiken finland\",\n \"iso 3166 1 fi\",\n \"finlande\",\n \"fin land\",\n \"finnland\",\n \"republic of finland\",\n \"finland\",\n \"finland during world war ii\",\n \"finland s\",\n \"northern finland\",\n \"name of finland\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union (), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (), abbreviated to USSR (), was a socialist state on the Eurasian continent that existed from 1922 to 1991. A union of multiple subnational Soviet republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. The Soviet Union was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the provisional government that had replaced the Tsar. They established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (renamed Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1936), beginning a civil war between the revolutionary \"Reds\" and the counter-revolutionary \"Whites.\" The Red Army entered several territories of the former Russian Empire and helped local Communists take power through soviets, which nominally acted on behalf of workers and peasants. In 1922, the Communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism (which he created), and initiated a centrally planned economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and post-war dominance of Eastern Europe.","Soviet Union\n\nStalin also fomented political paranoia, and conducted the Great Purge to remove opponents of his from the Communist Party through the mass arbitrary arrest of many people (military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike) who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.","Soviet Union\n\nAt the beginning of World War II, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany; the treaty delayed confrontation between the two countries. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.","Soviet Union\n\nFollowing Stalin's death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as \"de-Stalinization\" and \"Khrushchev's Thaw\", occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.","Soviet Union\n\nIn the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well. Central authorities initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup, resulting in the banning of the Communist Party. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation is the legal successor of the USSR.","Soviet Union\n\nGeography, climate and environment","Soviet Union\n\nWith an area of 22402200 km2, the Soviet Union was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by the Russian Federation. Covering a sixth of Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America. The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across 11 time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union had the world's longest border, like Russia, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. Across the Bering Strait was the United States. The Soviet Union bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajikistan, at . The Soviet Union also included most of the world's largest lake, the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal, the world's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia.","Soviet Union\n\nHistory","Soviet Union\n\nThe last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the February Revolution, due in part to the strain of fighting in World War I, which lacked public support. A short-lived Russian Provisional Government took power, to be overthrown in the October Revolution (N.S. 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasian Soviet republics, each ruled by local Bolshevik parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, the term \"Soviet Russia\" - strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic - was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.","Soviet Union\n\nRevolution and foundation","Soviet Union\n\nModern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the Decembrist revolt of 1825. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities.","Soviet Union\n\nA spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.","Soviet Union\n\nAt the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as \"Soviets\", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.","Soviet Union\n\nA long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established Republic of Finland, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Latvia, and the Republic of Lithuania.","Soviet Union\n\nUnification of republics","Soviet Union\n\nOn 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.","Soviet Union\n\nOn 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the British Empire. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.","Soviet Union\n\nAn intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10 to 15-year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional power stations, including ten large hydroelectric power plants, and numerous electric-powered large industrial enterprises. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931.","Soviet Union\n\nStalin era","Soviet Union\n\nFrom its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the economic policy of \"War communism\" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.","Soviet Union\n\nThe stated purpose of the one-party state was to ensure that capitalist exploitation would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of democratic centralism would be most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a \"troika\" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.","Soviet Union\n\nOn 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union and, by the end of the 1920s, established totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Grigory Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1928, Stalin introduced the First Five-Year Plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the \"lead by example\" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.","Soviet Union\n\nFamines ensued, causing millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the execution or detainment of many \"Old Bolsheviks\" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, in 1937 and 1938, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years that averages to over one thousand executions a day. According to historian Geoffrey Hosking, \"...excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million.\" Yet despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before World War II.","Soviet Union\n\n1930s","Soviet Union\n\nThe early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the West and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to formally recognize Stalin's Communist government and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two nations. In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.","Soviet Union\n\nIn December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new Soviet Constitution. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who By contrast, Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have viewed the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.","Soviet Union\n\nThe late 1930s saw a shift towards the Axis powers. In 1939, almost a year after the United Kingdom and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the USSR dealt with the Nazis as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The nonaggression pact made possible Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland. In late November of the same year, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Joseph Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland.","Soviet Union\n\nIn the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.","Soviet Union\n\nWorld War II","Soviet Union\n\nAlthough it has been debated whether the Soviet Union intended to invade Germany once it was strong enough, Germany itself broke the treaty and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, starting what was known in the USSR as the \"Great Patriotic War\". The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow, aided by an unusually harsh winter. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to the Germans from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.","Soviet Union\n\nThe same year, the USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. During the war, the Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the Soviet Union had official relations with practically every nation by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.","Soviet Union\n\nCold War","Soviet Union\n\nDuring the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe, while turning them into satellite states, binding them in a military alliance (the Warsaw Pact) in 1955, and an economic organization (The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon) from 1949 to 1991, the latter a counterpart to the European Economic Community. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly using mostly proxies.","Soviet Union\n\nKhrushchev era","Soviet Union\n\nStalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the power struggle by the mid-1950s. He shortly aftwerward denounced Stalin's use of repression in 1956 and proceeded to ease Stalin's repressive controls over party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.","Soviet Union\n\nBecause Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders (in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1940), the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in Hungary and Poland in 1956.","Soviet Union\n\nIn the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's rapprochement with the West and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR.","Soviet Union\n\nDuring this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexey Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966 and the first moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.","Soviet Union\n\nKhrushchev initiated \"The Thaw\", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the Soviet Union. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing living standards to rise dramatically while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well.","Soviet Union\n\nKhrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the United States to remove enemy nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.","Soviet Union\n\nBrezhnev era","Soviet Union\n\nFollowing the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion along with the earlier invasions of Eastern European states by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which claimed the right of the Soviet Union to violate the sovereignty of any country that attempted to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism.","Soviet Union\n\nBrezhnev presided over a period of détente with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.","Soviet Union\n\nIn October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of \"standstill\", with an aging and ossified top political leadership.","Soviet Union\n\nGorbachev era","Soviet Union\n\nTwo developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in Beyond Oil that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so that the USSR's hard currency reserves became depleted.","Soviet Union\n\nBrezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev.","Soviet Union\n\nGorbachev made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called perestroika. His policy of glasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship.","Soviet Union\n\nGorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its nine-year war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s, , which paved the way for Revolutions of 1989. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East Germany and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain came down.","Soviet Union\n\nIn the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the \"War of Laws\".","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1989, the Russian SFSR, which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.","Soviet Union\n\nA referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those nine republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics.","Soviet Union\n\nThe signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterward the Party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.","Soviet Union\n\nDissolution","Soviet Union\n\nThe remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December, all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December, when Ukraine, the second most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale.","Soviet Union\n\nOn 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.","Soviet Union\n\nThe following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. The Soviet Army originally remained under overall CIS command, but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.","Soviet Union\n\nFollowing the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991 Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the Soviet Union.","Soviet Union\n\nThe dissolution of the Soviet Union was followed by a severe economic contraction and catastrophic fall in living standards in post-Soviet states including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, and income inequality, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994.","Soviet Union\n\nPost-Soviet states","Soviet Union\n\nThe analysis of the succession of states with respect to the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal continuator state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council. The Baltic states are not successor states to the Soviet Union; they are instead considered to have de jure continuity with their pre-World War II governments through the non-recognition of the original Soviet incorporation in 1940. The other 11 post-Soviet states are considered newly-independent successor states to the Soviet Union.","Soviet Union\n\nThere are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognized post-Soviet states, but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.","Soviet Union\n\nPolitics","Soviet Union\n\nThere were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the ultimate policymaker in the country.","Soviet Union\n\nCommunist Party","Soviet Union\n\nAt the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. The Central Committee in turn voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952–1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the USSR. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state largely through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin in 1941–1953 and Khrushchev in 1958–1964 were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.","Soviet Union\n\nIn practice, however, the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.","Soviet Union\n\nGovernment","Soviet Union\n\nThe Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets and Central Executive Committee) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, the powers and functions of the Supreme Soviet were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the Soviet government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990.","Soviet Union\n\nLocal authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.","Soviet Union\n\nThe state security police (the KGB and its predecessor agencies) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Stalinist terror, but after the death of Stalin, the state security police was brought under strict party control. Under Yuri Andropov, KGB chairman in 1967–1982 and General Secretary from 1982 to 1983, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.","Soviet Union\n\nSeparation of power and reform","Soviet Union\n\nThe Union constitutions, which were promulgated in 1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Joseph Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.","Soviet Union\n\nBetween 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.","Soviet Union\n\nTensions grew between the union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and Communist Party hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged an abortive coup attempt. Following the failed coup, the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power \"in the period of transition\". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.","Soviet Union\n\nJudicial system","Soviet Union\n\nThe judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defense attorney collaborate to establish the truth.","Soviet Union\n\nAdministrative divisions","Soviet Union\n\nConstitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Belarus (SSRs), or federal states, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, the Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs were formed from parts of the Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, the Tajik SSR was split off from the Uzbek SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent Armenian, Georgian and Azerbaijan SSRs being elevated to Union Republics, while the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, the Moldavian SSR was formed from parts of the Ukrainian SSR and Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. The Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian SSRs were also admitted into the union. The Karelo-Finnish SSR was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).","Soviet Union\n\nEconomy","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a planned economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate the circulation of money, as well as private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse caused by the war, Lenin replaced War Communism with the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalising free trade and private ownership of smaller businesses. The economy quickly recovered.","Soviet Union\n\nFollowing a lengthy debate among the members of Politburo over the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Joseph Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which greatly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. Preparation for war was one of the main driving forces behind industrialization, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalistic world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. During the war, the Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation and required extensive reconstruction.","Soviet Union\n\nBy the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a very small share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. Still the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the Soviet Union became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.","Soviet Union\n\nFrom the 1930s until its collapse in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. In practice, however, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ad hoc intervention by superiors. All key economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were normally denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. Final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice the actual prices were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (between producer factories etc.) were widespread.","Soviet Union\n\nA number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and healthcare. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defense were assigned higher priority than the production of consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited choice. Under command economy, consumers had almost no influence over production, so the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up alongside the planned one at low levels, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. Legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.","Soviet Union\n\nAlthough statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy experienced comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of increase in capital was only surpassed by Japan).","Soviet Union\n\nOverall, between 1960 and 1989, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income of Soviet Union in 1989 should have been twice as high as it was considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to low productivity of capital in the Soviet Union. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living actually declined as a result of Stalin's despotism, and while there was a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation.","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev tried to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of perestroika. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises, but did not yet allow it to be replaced by market incentives, ultimately resulting in a sharp decline in production output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and property was still largely state-owned until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. For most of the period after World War II up to its collapse, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world by GDP (PPP), and was 3rd in the world during the middle of the 1980s to 1989, though in per capita terms the Soviet GDP was behind that of the First World countries.","Soviet Union\n\nEnergy","Soviet Union\n\nThe need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6 percent. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40 percent of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5 percent during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World (pre-Gorbachev era).","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of 82000 km for crude oil and another 206500 km for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.","Soviet Union\n\nScience and technology","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% who received such a degree in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.","Soviet Union\n\nProject Socrates, under the Reagan administration, determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the Soviet Union was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology, while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, in addition, the Soviet Union's technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. It was this significant lack of flexibility that was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.","Soviet Union\n\nTransport","Soviet Union\n\nTransport was a key component of the nation's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to bad maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.","Soviet Union\n\nSoviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burden from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.","Soviet Union\n\nDespite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.","Soviet Union\n\nDemographics","Soviet Union\n\nExcess deaths over the course of World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, \"... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million.\"","Soviet Union\n\nThe birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.","Soviet Union\n\nThe late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.","Soviet Union\n\nEducation","Soviet Union\n\nBefore 1917, education was not free in the Russian Empire and was therefore either inaccessible or barely accessible for many children from lower-class working and peasant families. Estimates from 1917 recorded that 75–85 percent of the Russian population was illiterate.","Soviet Union\n\nAnatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. At the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. People who were literate were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Joseph Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to Soviet reforms in education. In the aftermath of the Great Patriotic War, the country's educational system expanded dramatically. This expansion had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all Soviet children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the work force had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.","Soviet Union\n\nThe country's system of education was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the U.S.","Soviet Union\n\nEthnic groups","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union was a very ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).","Soviet Union\n\nAll citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians shared close cultural ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.","Soviet Union\n\nFile:Ethnic map USSR 1941.jpg|Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941\nFile:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1926.jpg|Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1926 census)\nFile:Soviet Union Muslim Population 1979 (full).png|Map showing the distribution of Muslims within the Soviet Union in 1979\nFile:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1979.jpg|Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1979 census)","Soviet Union\n\nHealth","Soviet Union\n\nIn 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, \"Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice\". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, this at the time being a revolutionary concept. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the healthcare system of the Soviet Union was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, the Soviet health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision.","Soviet Union\n\nMinister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such Soviet successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered.","Soviet Union\n\nAfter the socialist revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s, when the life expectancy in the Soviet Union surpassed that of the United States. It remained stable during most years, although in the 1970s, it went down slightly, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on this. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was highest, while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union. The USSR had several centers of excellence, such as the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex, founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon Svyatoslav Fyodorov.","Soviet Union\n\nLanguage","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet government headed by Vladimir Lenin gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was very successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, that language would attain \"official language\" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the Soviet government retreated from this policy, most notable under Stalin's regime, where education was discontinued in languages which were not widespread enough. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During the Great Patriotic War, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.","Soviet Union\n\nAs the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian de facto functioned as an official language, as the \"language of interethnic communication\" (), but only assumed the de jure status as the official national language in 1990.","Soviet Union\n\nReligion","Soviet Union\n\nThe religious made up a significant minority of the Soviet Union prior to break up. In 1990, the religious makeup was 20% Russian Orthodox, 10% Muslim, 7% Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, Georgian Orthodox, and Roman Catholic, less than 1% Jewish and 60% atheist.","Soviet Union\n\nChristianity and Islam had the greatest number of adherents among the Soviet state's religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the Soviet Union's largest Christian denomination. About 90 percent of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias concentrated in Azerbaijan. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant sects.","Soviet Union\n\nReligious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.","Soviet Union\n\nIn Soviet law, the \"freedom to hold religious services\" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.","Soviet Union\n\nThe 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a secular state also decreed that \"the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately.\" Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929, a half-decade into Stalin's rule, included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90 percent of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.","Soviet Union\n\nConvinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past with most Soviet Christians, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s.Janz 1998, pp. 38–39. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during the Soviet war with Nazi Germany. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after Hitler attacked the Soviet Union, churches were reopened, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the Soviet Union even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.","Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet establishment under General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev's leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.","Soviet Union\n\nReligious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the Soviet government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20 percent of the Soviet population as \"active religious believers.\"","Soviet Union\n\nWomen","Soviet Union\n\nSoviet efforts to expand social, political and economic opportunities for women constitute \"the earliest and perhaps most far-reaching attempt ever undertaken to transform the status and role of women.\"","Soviet Union\n\nCulture","Soviet Union\n\nThe culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's 69-year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918–1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, for example Nikolay Gumilyov (shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime) and Yevgeny Zamyatin (banned).","Soviet Union\n\nThe government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.","Soviet Union\n\nLater, during Stalin's rule, Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, for example Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.","Soviet Union\n\nFollowing the Khrushchev Thaw of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed characterized by conformist public life and intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms were again permissible, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as samizdat, developed during this late period. In architecture the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch.","Soviet Union\n\nIn the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the Soviet Union in the media & press.","Winter War\n\nThe Winter War (, , ) was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940. It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939 (three months after the outbreak of World War II), and ended with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939.","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet Union ostensibly sought to claim parts of Finnish territory, demanding—amongst other concessions—that Finland cede substantial border territories in exchange for land elsewhere, claiming security reasons, primarily the protection of Leningrad, which was only 32 km from the Finnish border. (Though the border that was \"only 32 km\" from Leningrad was the end of a narrow finger of coastline about 15 km long by \n5 km wide; most of the Finnish border was more than 50 km from Leningrad. ) Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country. Many sources conclude that the Soviet Union had intended to conquer all of Finland, and use the establishment of the puppet Finnish Communist government and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocols as proof of this, while other sources argue against the idea of a full Soviet conquest.","Winter War\n\nThe Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937. With more than 30,000 of its officers executed or imprisoned, including most of those of the highest ranks, the Red Army in 1939 had many inexperienced senior and mid-level officers. Because of these factors, and high morale in the Finnish forces, Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months, much longer than the Soviets expected.Ries (1988), pp. 79–80","Winter War\n\nHowever, after reorganization and adoption of different tactics, the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders. Finland then agreed to cede more territory than originally demanded by the Soviet Union in 1939; the Soviets, having conquered the areas they demanded from Finland but at a cost of heavier losses in troops than anticipated, accepted this offer.","Winter War\n\nHostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded territory representing 11% of its land area and 30% of its economy to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the country's international reputation suffered. While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland, Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands. They gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga, providing a buffer for Leningrad, and territory in northern Finland. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation.","Winter War\n\nThe end of the war cancelled the Franco-British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia. Some authors would suggest that the official statement by Sweden, Norway and Denmark of February 1940, declaring they would not allow British troops to use their territories on their way to Finland, was a factor in Finland's decision of starting peace talks with Russia. One of the major goals of the projected Franco-British operation had been to take control of northern Sweden's iron ore and cut its deliveries to Germany. For this reason it was also a major factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung, Nazi Germany's invasion of Denmark and Norway.","Winter War\n\nBackground","Winter War\n\nPolitics of Finland","Winter War\n\nUntil the beginning of the 19th century, Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden. In 1809, to protect their imperial capital, Saint Petersburg, the Russians conquered Finland and converted it into an autonomous buffer state within the Russian Empire. The Grand Duchy of Finland enjoyed wide autonomy within the Empire until the end of the 19th century, when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen the central government and unify the Empire through Russification. While abortive because of Russia's internal strife, these attempts ruined Russia's relations with the Finns and increased support for Finnish self-determination movements.","Winter War\n\nThe outbreak of the First World War and the collapse of the Russian Empire during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War of 1917–1920 gave Finland a window of opportunity; on 6 December 1917, the Senate of Finland declared the nation's independence. The new Bolshevik Russian government was weak, and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence. Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a short civil war and the expulsion of Bolshevik troops.","Winter War\n\nFinland joined the League of Nations in 1920, from which it sought security guarantees, but Finland's primary goal was cooperation with the Scandinavian countries. The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide-ranging cooperation, but were more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland islands than on military exercises, or the stockpiling and deployment of materiel. Nevertheless, the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy. Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia.","Winter War\n\nThe 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland. The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931, and the Lapua Movement organised anti-communist violence, which culminated in a failed uprising in 1932. Thereafter the ultra-nationalist Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) had a minor presence—at most 14 seats out of 200 in the Finnish parliament. By the late 1930s, the export-oriented Finnish economy was growing and the nation had almost solved its problems with extreme political movements.","Winter War\n\nSoviet–Finnish relations and politics","Winter War\n\nAfter the Soviet involvement in the Finnish Civil War in 1918, no formal peace treaty was signed. In 1918 and 1919, Finnish volunteer forces conducted two unsuccessful military incursions across the Russian border: the Viena and Aunus expeditions. In 1920, Finnish communists based in Soviet Russia attempted to assassinate the former Finnish White Guards Commander-in-Chief General CGE Mannerheim. On 14 October 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, confirming the new Finnish–Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper. In addition, Finland received Petsamo, with its ice-free harbour on the Arctic Ocean. Despite the signing of the treaty, relations between the two countries remained strained. The Finnish government allowed volunteers to cross the border to support the East Karelian Uprising in 1921, and Finnish communists in the Soviet Union continued to prepare for a revanche and staged a cross-border raid into Finland, called the \"Pork mutiny\", in 1922.","Winter War\n\nIn 1932 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Finland, which was reaffirmed for a ten-year period in 1934. However, relations between the two countries remained largely de minimis. While foreign trade in Finland was booming, less than 1% of Finnish trade was with the Soviet Union. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations.","Winter War\n\nDuring Joseph Stalin's rule, Soviet propaganda painted Finland's leadership as a \"vicious and reactionary Fascist clique\". Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim and Väinö Tanner, the leader of the Finnish Social Democratic Party, were targeted for particular scorn. With Stalin gaining absolute power through the Great Purge of 1938, the Soviet Union changed its foreign policy toward Finland in the late 1930s. The Soviet Union began pursuing the reconquest of the provinces of Tsarist Russia lost during the chaos of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. The Soviet leadership believed that the old empire had ideal security and territorial possessions, and wanted the newly christened city of Leningrad to enjoy a similar security.","Winter War\n\nNegotiations","Winter War\n\nIn April 1938, an NKVD agent, Boris Yartsev contacted the Finnish foreign minister Rudolf Holsti and Prime Minister Aimo Cajander, stating that the Soviet Union did not trust Germany and that war was considered possible between the two countries. The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather \"advance to meet the enemy\". Finnish representatives assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that the country would resist any armed incursion. Yartsev suggested that Finland cede or lease some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad; Finland refused.","Winter War\n\nNegotiations continued throughout 1938 without results. Finnish reception of Soviet entreaties was decidedly cool, as the violent collectivisation and purges in Stalin's Soviet Union resulted in a poor opinion of the country. In addition, most of the Finnish communist elite in the Soviet Union had been executed during the Great Purge, further tarnishing the Soviet Union's image in Finland. At the same time, Finland was trying to negotiate a military cooperation plan with Sweden, hoping to jointly defend the Åland Islands.","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939. The pact was nominally a non-aggression treaty, but it included a secret protocol in which the Eastern European countries were divided into spheres of interest. Finland fell into the Soviet sphere. On 1 September 1939, Germany began its invasion of Poland and two days later Great Britain and France declared war against Germany. Shortly afterwards (17 September 1939), the Soviets invaded eastern Poland. The Baltic states were later forced to accept treaties allowing the Soviets to establish military bases and to station troops on their soil. The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum, signing the corresponding agreement in September. Latvia and Lithuania followed in October. Unlike the Baltic states, Finland started a gradual mobilisation under the guise of \"additional refresher training.\"Turtola (1999a), pp. 38–41","Winter War\n\nThe Soviets had already started an intensive mobilisation near the Finnish border in 1938–1939. However, assault troops thought necessary for the invasion did not begin deployment until October 1939. Operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November.Ries (1988), pp. 55–56","Winter War\n\nWar preparations","Winter War\n\nOn 5 October 1939, the Soviet Union invited a Finnish delegation to Moscow for negotiations. J.K. Paasikivi, the Finnish ambassador to Sweden, was sent to Moscow to represent the Finnish government. The Soviets demanded that the border between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 km east of Viipuri and that the Finns destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. They also demanded the cession of islands in the Gulf of Finland as well as the Kalastajansaarento peninsula. Furthermore, the Finns would have to lease the Hanko Peninsula for thirty years and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange, the Soviet Union would cede two municipalities with twice the territory demanded from Finland. Accepting Soviet demands would have forced the Finns to dismantle their defences in Finnish Karelia.","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet offer divided the Finnish government, but it was eventually rejected. On 31 October, in the assembly of the Supreme Soviet, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov announced Soviet demands in public. The Finns made two counteroffers whereby Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union, which would double the distance between Leningrad and the Finnish border, far less than the Soviets had demanded, as well as the islands in the Gulf of Finland. From the Soviet point of view the negotiations were finished.","Winter War\n\nShelling of Mainila","Winter War\n\nOn 26 November 1939, a border incident was reported near the village of Mainila. A Soviet border guard post had been shelled by an unknown party resulting, according to Soviet reports, in the deaths of four and injuries of nine border guards. Research conducted by several Finnish and Russian historians later concluded that the shelling was carried out from the Soviet side of the border by an NKVD unit with the purpose of providing the Soviet Union with a casus belli and a pretext to withdraw from the non-aggression pact.","Winter War\n\nMolotov claimed that it was a Finnish artillery attack and demanded that Finland apologise for the incident and move its forces beyond a line 20 - away from the border. Finland denied responsibility for the attack, rejected the demands, and called for a joint Finnish–Soviet commission to examine the incident. The Soviet Union then claimed that the Finnish response was hostile, renounced the non-aggression pact and severed diplomatic relations with Finland on 28 November. In the following years, Soviet historiography described the incident as a Finnish provocation. Doubt on the official Soviet version was cast only in the late 1980s, in the times of glasnost. However, the issue continued to divide Russian historiography even after the collapse of the Soviet Union.","Winter War\n\nRussian President Vladimir Putin said on 14 March 2013 at a meeting with military historians that Stalin launched the war to \"correct mistakes\" made in drawing the border with Finland after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution.","Winter War\n\nSoviet political and military offensive","Winter War\n\nOn 30 November 1939, Soviet forces invaded Finland with 21 divisions, totaling some 450,000 men, and bombed Helsinki. Later the Finnish statesman J. K. Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack without a declaration of war violated three different non-aggression pacts: the Treaty of Tartu signed in 1920, the non-aggression pact between Finland and the Soviet Union signed in 1932 and again in 1934, and also the Covenant of the League of Nations, which the Soviet Union signed in 1934. C.G.E. Mannerheim was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces after the Soviet attack. In further reshuffling, the Finnish government named Risto Ryti as the new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister.","Winter War\n\nOn 1 December 1939, the Soviet Union formed a puppet government called the Finnish Democratic Republic, which was headed by O. W. Kuusinen. The government was also called \"The Terijoki Government,\" after the village of Terijoki, which was the first settlement captured by the advancing Soviet army. After the war, the puppet government was disbanded. From the very outset of the war, working-class Finns stood behind the legal government in Helsinki. Finnish national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the spirit of the Winter War.","Winter War\n\nAt the start of the Winter War, Finland brought up the matter of the Soviet invasion before the League of Nations. The League expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939 and exhorted its members to aid Finland.","Winter War\n\nSoviet advance to the Mannerheim Line","Winter War\n\nSoviet military plan","Winter War\n\nAt the beginning of the war, total victory over Finland was expected within a few weeks. The Red Army had just finished the invasion of eastern Poland at a cost of fewer than 1,000 casualties, due to Poland having been attacked by Germany from the west just two weeks prior. Stalin's expectations of a quick Soviet triumph were backed up by the politician Andrei Zhdanov and military strategist Kliment Voroshilov, but other generals had their doubts. The chief of staff of the Red Army, Boris Shaposhnikov, advocated a serious buildup, extensive logistical and fire support preparations, and a rational order of battle, deploying the army's best units. Zhdanov's military commander Kirill Meretskov reported at the start of the hostilities: \"The terrain of coming operations is split by lakes, rivers, swamps, and is almost entirely covered by forests ... The proper use of our forces will be difficult\". However, these doubts were not reflected in his troop deployments. Meretskov announced publicly that the Finnish campaign would take at the most two weeks. Soviet soldiers had even been warned not to cross the border into Sweden by mistake.","Winter War\n\nStalin's purges had devastated the officer corps of the Red Army; those purged included three of its five marshals, 220 of its 264 division-level commanders or higher, and 36,761 officers of all ranks. Fewer than half of the officers remained in total. They were commonly replaced by soldiers who were less competent but more loyal to their superiors. Furthermore, unit commanders were superseded by a political commissar, who ratified military decisions on their political merits, further complicating the Soviet chain of command. This system of dual command destroyed the independence of commanding officers.","Winter War\n\nAfter the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, the Soviet high command had divided into two factions. One side was represented by Spanish Civil War veterans General Pavel Rychagov representing the Red Air Force, Soviet tank expert General Dmitry Pavlov, and Stalin's favorite general, Marshal Grigory Kulik, chief of artillery. The other side was led by Khalkhin Gol veterans General Georgy Zhukov (Red Army) and General G. P. Kravchenko (Red Air Force). Under this divided command structure, the lessons of the Soviet Union's \"first real war on a massive scale using tanks, artillery, and aircraft\" at Nomonhan went unheeded. As a result, during the Winter War, Russian BT tanks were less successful and it took the Soviet Union three months and over a million men to do what Zhukov did at Khalkhin Gol in ten days.","Winter War\n\nSoviet order of battle","Winter War\n\nSoviet generals were impressed by the success of the German Blitzkrieg tactics. However, the Blitzkrieg had been tailored to central European conditions with a dense, well-mapped network of paved roads. Armies fighting in central Europe had recognised supply and communications centres, which could be easily targeted by armoured vehicle regiments. Finnish army centres, by contrast, were deep inside the country. There were no paved roads, and even gravel or dirt roads were scarce; most of the terrain consisted of trackless forests and swamps. Waging a Blitzkrieg in Finland was a highly difficult proposition, and the Red Army failed to meet the level of tactical coordination and local initiative required to execute Blitzkrieg tactics in the Finnish theatre.","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet forces were positioned as follows: \n* The 7th Army, comprising nine divisions, a tank corps and three tank brigades, was located on the Karelian Isthmus. Its objective was the city of Viipuri. The force was later divided into the Seventh and 13th armies.\n* The 8th Army, comprising six divisions and a tank brigade, was located north of Lake Ladoga. Its mission was to execute a flanking manoeuvre around the northern shore of Lake Ladoga to strike at the rear of the Mannerheim Line.\n* The 9th Army was positioned to strike into central Finland. It was composed of three divisions with one additional division on its way. Its mission was to thrust westward to cut Finland in half.\n* The 14th Army, comprising three divisions,was based in Murmansk. Its objective was to capture the Arctic port of Petsamo and then advance to the town of Rovaniemi.","Winter War\n\nFinnish order of battle","Winter War\n\nThe Finnish strategy was dictated by geography. The frontier with the Soviet Union was more than 1000 km long but was mostly impassable except along a handful of unpaved roads. In pre-war calculations, the Finnish General Staff, which had established its wartime headquarters at Mikkeli, estimated seven Soviet divisions on the Isthmus and no more than five along the whole border north of Lake Ladoga. In that case, the manpower ratio would favour the attacker by three to one. The true ratio was much higher; for example, 12 Soviet divisions were deployed to the north of Lake Ladoga.","Winter War\n\nAn even greater problem than lack of soldiers was the lack of materiel; foreign shipments of anti-tank weapons and aircraft were arriving in small quantities. The ammunition situation was alarming, as stockpiles had cartridges, shells, and fuel only to last 19–60 days. The ammunition situation was alleviated somewhat because many Finns were armed with Mosin–Nagant rifles dating from the Finnish Civil War and updated infantry weapons capable of chambering the 7.62×54mmR cartridges used by Soviet forces. Some Finnish soldiers maintained their ammunition supply by looting the bodies of dead Soviet soldiers. The ammunition shortage meant the Finns could seldom afford counterbattery or saturation fire. Finnish tank forces were operationally non-existent.","Winter War\n\nThe Finnish forces were positioned as follows: \n* The Army of the Isthmus was composed of six divisions under the command of Hugo Österman. The II. Army Corps was positioned on its right flank and the III. Army Corps was positioned on its left flank.\n* The IV. Army Corps was located north of Lake Ladoga. It was composed of two divisions under Juho Heiskanen, who was soon replaced by Woldemar Hägglund.\n* The North Finland Group was a collection of Civic Guards, border guards, and drafted reservist units under Wiljo Tuompo.","Winter War\n\nWeapons","Winter War\n\nFirst battles","Winter War\n\nThe Mannerheim Line, an array of Finnish defence structures, was located on the Karelian Isthmus about 30 to from the Soviet border. The Red Army soldiers on the Isthmus numbered 250,000 facing 130,000 Finns. The Finnish command deployed a covering force of about 21,000 men in the area in front of the Mannerheim Line in order to delay and damage the Red Army before it reached the line.","Winter War\n\nIn combat, the biggest cause of confusion among Finnish soldiers were Soviet tanks. The Finns had few anti-tank weapons and insufficient training in modern anti-tank tactics. However, the favoured Soviet armoured tactic was a simple frontal charge, the weaknesses of which could be exploited. The Finns learned that at close range, tanks could be dealt with in many ways; for example, logs and crowbars jammed into the bogie wheels would often immobilise a tank. Soon, Finns fielded a better ad hoc weapon, the Molotov cocktail. It was a glass bottle filled with flammable liquids, with a simple hand-lit fuse. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Finnish Alko corporation and bundled with matches with which to light them. Eighty Soviet tanks were destroyed in the border-zone fighting.","Winter War\n\nBy 6 December, all the Finnish covering forces had withdrawn to the Mannerheim Line. The Red Army began its first major attack against the Line in Taipale—the area between the shore of Lake Ladoga, the Taipale river and the Suvanto waterway. Along the Suvanto sector, the Finns had a slight advantage of elevation and dry ground to dig into. The Finnish artillery had scouted the area and made fire plans in advance, anticipating a Soviet assault. The Battle of Taipale began with a forty-hour Soviet artillery preparation. After the barrage, the Soviet infantry attacked across open ground but was repulsed with heavy casualties. From 6 December to 12 December, the Red Army continued trying to engage using only one division. The Red Army next strengthened its artillery and brought tanks and the 10th Rifle Division to the Taipale front. On 14 December, the bolstered Soviet forces launched a new attack but were pushed back again. A third Soviet division entered the fight but performed poorly and panicked under shell fire. The assaults continued without success, and the Red Army suffered heavy losses.","Winter War\n\nOne typical Soviet attack during the battle lasted just an hour but left 1,000 dead and 27 tanks strewn on the ice.Trotter (2002), pp. 76–78","Winter War\n\nNorth of Lake Ladoga on the Ladoga Karelia front, the defending Finnish units relied on the terrain. Ladoga Karelia, as a large forest wilderness, did not have road networks for the modern Red Army. However, the Soviet 8th Army had extended a new railroad line to the border, which could double the supply capability on the front. But on 12 December, the advancing Soviet 139th Rifle Division, supported by the 56th Rifle Division, was defeated by a much smaller Finnish force under Paavo Talvela in Tolvajärvi, the first Finnish victory of the war.","Winter War\n\nIn central and northern Finland, roads were few and the terrain hostile. The Finns did not expect large-scale Soviet attacks, but the Soviets sent eight divisions, heavily supported by armour and artillery. The 155th Rifle Division attacked at Lieksa, and further north the 44th attacked at Kuhmo. The 163rd Rifle Division was deployed at Suomussalmi and charged with cutting Finland in half by marching the Raate Road. In Finnish Lapland, the Soviet 88th and 122nd Rifle Divisions attacked at Salla. The Arctic port of Petsamo was attacked by the 104th Mountain Rifle Division by sea and land, supported by naval gunfire.","Winter War\n\nDefence of Finland","Winter War\n\nWeather conditions","Winter War\n\nThe winter of 1939–1940 was exceptionally cold. One location on the Karelian Isthmus experienced a record low temperature of on 16 January 1940. At the beginning of the war, only those Finnish soldiers who were in active service had uniforms and weapons. The rest had to make do with their own clothing, which for many soldiers was their normal winter clothing with semblance of an insignia added. Finnish soldiers were skilled in cross-country skiing.","Winter War\n\nThe cold, snow, forest, and long hours of darkness were factors that the Finns could use to their advantage. The Finns dressed in layers, and the ski troopers wore a lightweight white snow cape. This snow-camouflage made the ski troopers almost invisible as the Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet columns. At the beginning of the war, Soviet tanks were painted in standard olive drab and men dressed in regular khaki uniforms. Not until late January 1940 did the Soviets paint their equipment white and issue snowsuits to their infantry.","Winter War\n\nMost Soviet soldiers had proper winter clothes, but this was not the case with every unit. In the battle of Suomussalmi, many Soviet soldiers died of frostbite. The Soviet troops also lacked skill in skiing, so soldiers were restricted to movement by road and were forced to move in long columns. Furthermore, the Red Army lacked proper winter tents, and men had to sleep in improvised shelters. Some Soviet units had frostbite casualties as high as 10% even before crossing the Finnish border. The cold weather did confer one advantage: Soviet tanks were able to move more easily over frozen terrain and bodies of water, rather than being immobilised in swamps and mud.","Winter War\n\nFinnish tactics","Winter War\n\nIn battles from Ladoga Karelia all the way north to the Arctic port of Petsamo, the Finns used guerrilla tactics. The Red Army was superior in numbers and materiel, but the Finns used the advantages of speed, tactics, and economy of force. Particularly on the Ladoga Karelia front and during the battle of Raate road, the Finns isolated smaller portions of numerically superior Soviet forces. With Soviet forces divided into smaller pieces, the Finns could deal with them individually and attack from all sides.","Winter War\n\nFor many of the encircled Soviet troops in a pocket (called a motti in Finnish, meaning a bundle of wood), just staying alive was an ordeal comparable to combat. The men were freezing and starving and endured poor sanitary conditions. Historian William R. Trotter describes these conditions thus: \"The Soviet soldier had no choice. If he refused to fight, he would be shot. If he tried to sneak through the forest, he would freeze to death. And surrender was no option for him; Soviet propaganda had told him how the Finns would torture prisoners to death.\"","Winter War\n\nDefense of the Mannerheim Line","Winter War\n\nThe terrain on the Karelian Isthmus did not allow the exercise of guerilla tactics, so the Finns were forced to resort to the more conventional Mannerheim Line, with its flanks protected by large bodies of water. Soviet propaganda claimed that it was as strong as or even stronger than the Maginot Line. Finnish historians, for their part, have belittled the line's strength, insisting that it was mostly conventional trenches and log-covered dugouts.","Winter War\n\nThe Finns had built 221 strong-points along the Karelian Isthmus, mostly in the early 1920s. Many were extended in the late 1930s. Despite these defensive preparations, even the most fortified section of the Mannerheim Line had only one reinforced concrete bunker per kilometre. Overall, the line was weaker than similar lines in mainland Europe. According to the Finns, the real strength of the line were the \"stubborn defenders with a lot of sisu\" – a Finnish idiom roughly translated as \"guts, fighting spirit.\"","Winter War\n\nOn the eastern side of the isthmus, the Red Army attempted to break through the Mannerheim Line in the battle of Taipale. On the western side, Soviet units faced the Finnish line at Summa, near the city of Viipuri, on 16 December. The Finns had built 41 reinforced concrete bunkers in the Summa area, making the defensive line in this area stronger than anywhere else on the Karelian Isthmus. However, because of a mistake in planning, the nearby Munasuo swamp had a 1 km-wide gap in the line. During the first battle of Summa, a number of Soviet tanks broke through the thin line on 19 December, but the Soviets could not benefit from the situation because of insufficient cooperation between branches of service. The Finns remained in their trenches, allowing the Soviet tanks to move freely behind the Finnish line, as the Finns had no proper anti-tank weapons. However, the Finns succeeded in repelling the main Soviet assault. The tanks, stranded behind enemy lines, attacked the strongpoints at random until they were eventually destroyed, 20 in all. By 22 December, the battle ended in a Finnish victory.Laaksonen (1999), pp. 411–412","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet advance was stopped at the Mannerheim Line. Red Army troops suffered from poor morale and a shortage of supplies, eventually refusing to participate in more suicidal frontal attacks. The Finns, led by General Harald Öhquist, decided to launch a counterattack and encircle three Soviet divisions into a motti near Viipuri on 23 December. Öhquist's plan was bold, and it failed. The Finns lost 1,300 men, and the Soviets were later estimated to have lost a similar number.","Winter War\n\nBattles in Ladoga Karelia","Winter War\n\nThe strength of the Red Army north of Lake Ladoga (in Ladoga Karelia) surprised the Finnish General Staff. Two Finnish divisions were deployed there: the 12th Division led by Lauri Tiainen and the 13th Division led by Hannu Hannuksela. They also had a support group of three brigades, bringing their total strength to over 30,000. The Soviets deployed a division for almost every road leading west to the Finnish border. The Eighth Army was led by Ivan Khabarov, who was replaced by Grigori Shtern on 13 December. The Soviets' mission was to destroy the Finnish troops in the area of Ladoga Karelia and advance into the area between Sortavala and Joensuu within 10 days. The Soviets had a 3:1 advantage in manpower and a 5:1 advantage in artillery, as well as air supremacy.","Winter War\n\nFinnish forces panicked and retreated in front of the overwhelming Red Army. The commander of the Finnish IV Army Corps was replaced by Woldemar Hägglund on 4 December.Juutilainen (1999a), p. 506 On 7 December, in the middle of the Ladoga Karelian front, Finnish units retreated near the small stream of Kollaa. The waterway itself did not offer protection, but alongside there were ridges up to 10 m high. The battle of Kollaa lasted until the end of the war. A memorable quote, \"Kollaa holds\" () became a legendary motto among the Finns. Further contributing to the legend of Kollaa was the sniper Simo Häyhä, dubbed \"the White Death\" by Soviets, who served in the Kollaa front. To the north, the Finns retreated from Ägläjärvi to Tolvajärvi on 5 December and then repelled a Soviet offensive in the battle of Tolvajärvi on 11 December.","Winter War\n\nIn the south, two Soviet divisions were united on the northern side of the Lake Ladoga coastal road. As before, these divisions were trapped as the more mobile Finnish units were able to counterattack from the north to flank the Soviet columns. On 19 December, the Finns temporarily ceased their assaults, as the soldiers were exhausted. It was not until the period 6–16 January 1940 that the Finns went on the offensive again, cutting Soviet division into smaller groups of different-sized mottis.","Winter War\n\nContrary to Finnish expectations, the encircled Soviet divisions did not try to break through to the east but instead entrenched. They were expecting reinforcements and supplies to arrive by air. As the Finns lacked the necessary heavy artillery equipment and were short of men, they often did not directly attack mottis they had created; instead, they worked to eliminate only the most dangerous threats. Often the motti tactic was not applied as part of planned doctrine but as a Finnish adaptation to the behaviour of Soviet troops under fire.","Winter War\n\nIn spite of the cold and hunger, the Soviet troops did not surrender easily but fought bravely, often entrenching their tanks to be used as pillboxes and building timber dugouts. Some specialist Finnish soldiers were called in to attack the mottis; the most famous of them was Major Matti Aarnio, or \"Motti-Matti,\" as he became known.Juutilainen (1999a), pp. 516–517","Winter War\n\nIn northern Karelia, Soviet forces were outmanoeuvred at Ilomantsi and Lieksa. The Finns used effective guerrilla tactics, taking special advantage of superior skiing skills and snow-white layered clothing and executing many surprise ambushes and raids. By the end of December, the Soviets decided to retreat and transfer resources to more critical fronts.Vuorenmaa (1999), pp. 559–561","Winter War\n\nSuomussalmi–Raate double operation","Winter War\n\nThe Suomussalmi–Raate was a double operation, which would later be used by military academics as a classic example of what well-led troops and innovative tactics can do against a much larger adversary. Suomussalmi was a small provincial town of 4,000. The area has long lakes, many wild forests and few roads. The Finnish command believed that the Soviets would not attack here, but the Red Army committed two divisions to the area with orders to cross the wilderness, capture the city of Oulu and effectively cut Finland in two. There were two roads leading to Suomussalmi from the frontier: the northern Juntusranta road and the southern Raate road.","Winter War\n\nThe battle of Raate road, which occurred during the month-long battle of Suomussalmi, resulted in one of the largest losses in the Winter War. The Soviet 44th and parts of the 163rd Rifle Divisions, comprising about 14,000 troops, were almost completely destroyed by a Finnish ambush as they marched along the forest road. A small unit blocked the Soviet advance while Finnish Colonel Hjalmar Siilasvuo and his 9th Division cut off the retreat route, split the enemy force into smaller fragments, and then proceeded to destroy the remnants in detail as they retreated. The Soviets suffered 7,000–9,000 casualties, while the Finnish units lost only 400 men. In addition, the Finnish troops captured dozens of tanks, artillery pieces, anti-tank guns, hundreds of trucks, almost 2,000 horses, thousands of rifles, and much-needed ammunition and medical supplies.","Winter War\n\nFinnish Lapland","Winter War\n\nIn Finnish Lapland, the forests gradually thin out until in the north there are no trees at all. Thus, the area offers more room for tank deployment, but it is vastly underpopulated and experiences copious snowfall. The Finns expected nothing more than raiding parties and reconnaissance patrols, but instead the Soviets sent full divisions.Trotter (2002), pp. 171–174 On 11 December, the Finns rearranged the defence of Lapland and detached the Lapland Group from the North Finland Group. The group was placed under the command of Kurt Wallenius.","Winter War\n\nIn southern Lapland, near the tiny rural village of Salla, the Soviet force advanced with two divisions, the 88th and 112th, totalling 35,000 men. In the battle of Salla the Soviets advanced easily to Salla, where the road forked. The northern branch moved toward Pelkosenniemi while the rest pushed on toward Kemijärvi. On 17 December, the Soviet northern group, comprising an infantry regiment, a battalion, and a company of tanks, was outflanked by a Finnish battalion. The 112th retreated, leaving much of its heavy equipment and vehicles behind. Following this success, the Finns shuttled reinforcements down to the defensive line in front of Kemijärvi. The Soviets hammered the defensive line without success. The Finns counterattacked, and the Soviets were pushed back to a new defensive line where they stayed for the rest of the war.","Winter War\n\nTo the north was Finland's only ice-free port in the Arctic, Petsamo. The Finns did not have the manpower to defend it fully as the main front was down the Karelian Isthmus. In the battle of Petsamo, the Soviet 104th division attacked the Finnish 104th Independent Cover Company. The Finns gave up Petsamo easily and concentrated on delaying actions. The area was treeless, windy, and relatively low, offering little defensible terrain. However, during the winter, the Finns in Lapland had the advantage of almost constant darkness and extreme temperatures. The Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet supply lines and patrols. As a result, the Soviet movements were halted by the efforts of one-fifth as many Finns.","Winter War\n\nSoviet breakthrough of the Mannerheim Line","Winter War\n\nRed Army reforms and offensive preparations","Winter War\n\nJoseph Stalin was not pleased with the results of the first month of the Finnish campaign. The Red Army had been humiliated. By the third week of the war, Soviet propaganda was working hard to explain the failures of the Soviet army to the populace: blaming bad terrain and harsh climate, and falsely claiming that the Mannerheim Line was stronger than the Maginot Line, and that the Americans had sent 1,000 of their best pilots to Finland. Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov was given full authority over operations in the Finnish theatre, and he ordered the suspension of frontal assaults in late December. Kliment Voroshilov was replaced with Semyon Timoshenko as the commander of the Soviet forces in the war on 7 January.","Winter War\n\nThe main focus of the Soviet attack was switched to the Karelian Isthmus. Timoshenko and Zhdanov reorganised and tightened control between different branches of service in the Red Army. They also changed tactical doctrines to meet the realities of the situation. All Soviet forces on the Karelian Isthmus were divided into two armies: the 7th and the 13th Armies. The 7th Army, now under Kirill Meretskov, would concentrate 75% of its strength against the 16 km stretch of the Mannerheim Line between Taipale and the Munasuo swamp. Tactics would be basic: an armoured wedge for the initial breakthrough, followed by the main infantry and vehicle assault force. The Red Army would prepare by pinpointing the Finnish frontline fortifications. The 123rd Assault Division then rehearsed the assault on life-size mockups. The Soviets shipped massive numbers of new tanks and artillery pieces to the theatre. Troops were increased from ten divisions to 25–26 divisions, six or seven tank brigades and several independent tank platoons, totalling 600,000 men.Laaksonen (1999), pp. 424–425 On 1 February, the Red Army began a massive offensive, firing 300,000 shells into the Finnish line in the first 24 hours of the bombardment.","Winter War\n\nSoviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus","Winter War\n\nAlthough the Karelian Isthmus front was less active in January than in December, the Soviets began increasing bombardments, wearing down the defenders and softening their fortifications. During daylight hours, the Finns took shelter inside their fortifications from the bombardments and repaired damage during the night. The situation led quickly to war exhaustion among the Finns, who lost over 3,000 men in trench warfare. The Soviets also made occasional small infantry assaults with one or two companies. Because of the shortage of ammunition, Finnish artillery emplacements were under orders to fire only against directly threatening ground attacks. On 1 February, the Soviets further escalated their artillery and air bombardments.","Winter War\n\nAlthough the Soviets refined their tactics and morale improved, the generals were still willing to accept massive losses in order to reach their objectives. Attacks were screened by smoke, heavy artillery, and armour support, but the infantry charged in the open and in dense formations. Unlike their tactics in December, Soviet tanks advanced in smaller numbers. The Finns could not easily eliminate tanks if infantry troops protected them.Laaksonen (1999), p. 430 After 10 days of round-the-clock artillery barrages, the Soviets achieved a breakthrough on the western Karelian Isthmus in the second battle of Summa.","Winter War\n\nOn 11 February, the Soviets had about 460,000 men, over 3,350 artillery pieces, about 3,000 tanks and about 1,300 aircraft deployed on the Karelian Isthmus. The Red Army was constantly receiving new recruits after the breakthrough. Opposing them the Finns had eight divisions, totalling about 150,000 men. One by one, the defenders' strongholds crumbled under the Soviet attacks and the Finns were forced to retreat. On 15 February, Mannerheim authorised a general retreat of the Second Corps to the Intermediate Line. On the eastern side of the isthmus, the Finns continued to resist Soviet assaults, repelling them in the battle of Taipale.","Winter War\n\nPeace negotiations","Winter War\n\nAlthough the Finns attempted to re‑open negotiations with Moscow by every means during the war, the Soviets did not respond. In early January, Finnish communist Hella Wuolijoki contacted the Finnish government. She offered to contact Moscow through the Soviet Union's ambassador to Sweden, Alexandra Kollontai. Wuolijoki departed for Stockholm and met Kollontai secretly at a hotel. Soon Molotov decided to extend recognition to the Ryti–Tanner government as the legal government of Finland and put an end to the puppet Terijoki Government of Kuusinen that the Soviets had set up.","Winter War\n\nBy mid-February, it became clear that the Finnish forces were rapidly approaching exhaustion. For the Soviets, casualties were high, the situation was a source of political embarrassment to the Soviet regime, and there was a risk of Franco-British intervention. Furthermore, with the spring thaw approaching, the Soviet forces risked becoming bogged down in the forests. The Finnish foreign minister Väinö Tanner arrived in Stockholm on 12 February and negotiated the peace terms with the Soviets through the Swedes. German representatives, not aware that the negotiations were underway, suggested on 17 February that Finland negotiate with the Soviet Union.","Winter War\n\nBoth Germany and Sweden were keen to see an end to the Winter War. The Germans feared losing iron ore fields in northern Sweden and threatened to attack at once if the Swedes granted the Allied forces right of passage. The Germans even had a theoretical invasion plan called the Studie Nord against Scandinavian countries, which later became the full-blown Operation Weserübung. As the Finnish Cabinet hesitated in the face of the harsh Soviet conditions, Sweden's King Gustav V made a public statement on 19 February in which he confirmed having declined Finnish pleas for support from Swedish troops. On 25 February, the Soviet peace terms were spelled out in detail. On 29 February, the Finnish government accepted the Soviet terms in principle and was willing to enter into negotiations.","Winter War\n\nLast days of war","Winter War\n\nOn 5 March, the Red Army advanced 10 to past the Mannerheim Line and entered the suburbs of Viipuri. That same day, the Red Army established a beachhead on the western Gulf of Viipuri. The Finns proposed an armistice on that day, but the Soviets, wanting to keep the pressure on the Finnish government, declined the offer the next day. The Finnish peace delegation went to Moscow via Stockholm and arrived on 7 March. The Soviets made further demands as their military position was strong and improving. On 9 March, the Finnish military situation on the Karelian Isthmus was dire as troops were experiencing heavy casualties. In addition, artillery ammunition supplies were exhausted and weapons were wearing out. The Finnish government, noting that the hoped-for Franco-British military expedition would not arrive in time, as Norway and Sweden had not given the Allies right of passage, had little choice but to accept the Soviet terms. The formal peace treaty was signed in Moscow on 12 March. A cease-fire took effect the next day at noon Leningrad time, 11 a.m. Helsinki time.","Winter War\n\nAerial warfare","Winter War\n\nSoviet Air Force","Winter War\n\nThe Soviet Union enjoyed air superiority throughout the war. The Soviet Air Force, supporting the Red Army's invasion with about 2,500 aircraft (the most common of which was the Tupolev SB) was not as effective as the Soviets might have hoped. The material damage by the bomb raids was slight as Finland did not offer many valuable targets for strategic bombing. Very often, targets were small village depots with little value. The country had only a few modern highways in the interior, therefore making railway systems the main targets for bombers. The rail tracks were cut thousands of times, but they were easy to repair and the Finns usually had trains running again in a matter of hours. The Soviet air force learned from its early mistakes, and by late February they instituted more effective tactics.","Winter War\n\nThe largest bombing raid against the capital of Finland, Helsinki, occurred on the first day of the war. The capital was bombed only a few times thereafter. All in all, Finland lost only 5% of total man-hour production time because of Soviet bombings. Nevertheless, Soviet air attacks affected thousands of civilians, killing 957, as the Soviets recorded 2,075 bombing attacks in 516 localities. The city of Viipuri, a major Soviet objective close to the Karelian Isthmus front, was almost levelled by nearly 12,000 bombs. No attacks on civilian targets were mentioned in Soviet radio or newspaper reports. In January 1940, the Pravda continued to stress that no civilian targets in Finland had been struck, even by accident.Tillotson (1993), p. 157","Winter War\n\nFinnish Air Force","Winter War\n\nAt the beginning of the war, Finland had a very small air force, with only 114 combat planes fit for duty. Missions were very limited, and fighter aircraft were mainly used to repel Soviet bombers. Strategic bombings could also double as opportunities for military reconnaissance. Old-fashioned and few in number, aircraft could not offer support for Finnish ground troops. In spite of losses, the number of planes in the Finnish Air Force had risen by over 50% by the end of the war. The Finns received shipments of British, French, Italian, Swedish and American aircraft.","Winter War\n\nFinnish fighter pilots would often fly their motley collection of planes into Soviet formations that outnumbered them 10 or even 20 times. Finnish fighters shot down a confirmed 200 Soviet aircraft, losing 62 of their own. In addition, Finnish anti-aircraft guns brought down more than 300 enemy aircraft. Many times, a Finnish forward air base consisted of a frozen lake, a windsock, a telephone set and some tents. Air-raid warnings were given by Finnish women organised by the Lotta Svärd. In addition to combat, it is estimated that the Soviet air force lost about 400 aircraft because of inclement weather, lack of fuel and tools, and during transportation to the front. The Soviet Air Force flew approximately 44,000 sorties during the war.","Winter War\n\nNaval warfare","Winter War\n\nNaval activity","Winter War\n\nNaval activity during the Winter War was low. The Baltic Sea began to freeze over by the end of December, which made the movement of warships very difficult; by mid-winter, only ice breakers and submarines could still move. The other reason for low naval activity was the nature of Soviet Navy forces in the area. The Baltic Fleet was a coastal defence force which did not have the training, logistical structure, or landing craft to undertake large-scale operations. The Baltic Fleet possessed two battleships, one heavy cruiser, almost 20 destroyers, 50 motor torpedo boats, 52 submarines, and other miscellaneous vessels. The Soviets used naval bases in Paldiski, Tallinn and Liepāja for their operations.","Winter War\n\nThe Finnish Navy was a coastal defence force with two coastal defence ships, five submarines, four gunboats, seven motor torpedo boats, one minelayer and six minesweepers. The two coastal defence ships, and , were moved to the harbour in Turku where they were used to bolster the air defences. Their anti-aircraft guns shot down one or two planes over the city, and the ships remained there for the rest of the war. In addition to its role in coastal defence, the Finnish Navy protected the Åland islands and Finnish merchant vessels in the Baltic Sea.Elfvegren (1999), p. 678","Winter War\n\nSoviet aircraft bombed Finnish vessels and harbours and dropped mines into Finnish seaways. Still, the Finnish merchant ship losses were low; only five ships were lost to Soviet action. World War II, which had started before the Winter War, proved more costly for the Finnish merchant vessels, with 26 lost due to hostile action in 1939 and 1940.","Winter War\n\nCoastal artillery","Winter War\n\nIn addition to its navy, Finland had coastal artillery batteries to defend important harbors and naval bases along its coast. Most batteries were left over from the Imperial Russian period, with 152 mm guns being the most numerous. However, Finland attempted to modernize its old guns and installed a number of new batteries, the largest of which featured a 305 mm gun battery originally intended to block the Gulf of Finland to Soviet ships with the help of batteries on the Estonian side.","Winter War\n\nThe first naval battle took place on 1 December, near the island of Russarö, 5 km south of Hanko. That day, the weather was fair and the visibility excellent. The Finns spotted the Soviet cruiser and two destroyers. After the ships were at a range of 24 km, the Finns opened fire with 234 mm coastal guns. After five minutes of firing by four coastal guns, the cruiser had been damaged by near misses and retreated. The destroyers remained undamaged, but Kirov suffered 17 dead and 30 wounded. The Soviets already knew the locations of the Finnish coastal batteries, but were surprised by their range.","Winter War\n\nThe coastal artillery had a greater effect upon the land war by helping to reinforce the defence in conjunction with army artillery. Two sets of fortress artillery made significant contributions to the early battles on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ladoga Karelia. These were located at Kaarnajoki on the eastern isthmus and at Mantsi on the northeastern shore of Lake Ladoga. The fortress of Koivisto provided similar support from the southwestern coast of the isthmus. Coastal artillery had the ability to fire high-explosive shells of 152 mm calibre to a range of 25 km.","Winter War\n\nPropaganda","Winter War\n\nOn the first day of war Soviet aircraft bombed Helsinki, inflicting substantial damage and casualties. In response to international criticism, Vyacheslav Molotov stated that the Soviet Air Force was not bombing Finnish cities, but rather dropping humanitarian aid to the starving Finnish population. The Finns, who were not starving, soon ironically dubbed the bombs \"Molotov's bread baskets\", and named the improvised incendiary device that they used to counter Soviet tanks the \"Molotov cocktail\", as \"a drink to go with the food\".","Winter War\n\nForeign support","Winter War\n\nForeign volunteers","Winter War\n\nWorld opinion largely supported the Finnish cause, and the Soviet aggression was generally deemed unjustified. The World War had not yet directly affected France, the UK or the United States; the Winter War was the only real fighting in Europe at that time and thus held major world interest. Several foreign organisations sent material aid, and many countries granted credit and military materiel to Finland. Nazi Germany allowed arms to pass through Sweden to Finland, but after a Swedish newspaper made this fact public, Adolf Hitler initiated a policy of silence towards Finland, as part of improved German–Soviet relations following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.","Winter War\n\nVolunteers arrived from various countries. By far the largest foreign contingent came from neighbouring Sweden, which provided nearly 8,760 volunteers during the war. The Swedish Volunteer Corps (Svenska Frivilligkåren), formed from the Swedes, the Norwegians (727 men) and the Danes (1,010 men), fought on the northern front at Salla during the last weeks of the war. A Swedish unit of Gloster Gladiators, named \"the Flight Regiment 19\" (Lentorykmentti 19, LeR19; 19. flygflottilj, F19) also participated. Swedish AA-batteries with Bofors 40mm-guns were responsible for the air defence of northern Finland and the city of Turku. Volunteers arrived from Estonia, Italy and Hungary. Also, 350 American nationals of Finnish background volunteered, and 210 volunteers of other nationalities made it to Finland before the war ended. Max Manus, a Norwegian, fought in the Winter War before returning to Norway and achieving fame as a resistance fighter against the Nazi occupation of Norway. In total, Finland received 12,000 volunteers, 50 of whom died during the war.","Winter War\n\nFranco-British intervention plans","Winter War\n\nFrance had been one of the earliest supporters of Finland during the Winter War. The French saw an opportunity to weaken Germany's major ally if the Finns were to attack the Soviet Union. France had other motives as well, because it preferred to have a major war in a remote part of Europe over one on French soil. France planned to re‑arm the Polish exile units and transport them to the Finnish Arctic port of Petsamo. Another scheme was to execute a massive air strike with Turkish cooperation against the Caucasus oil fields.","Winter War\n\nThe British, for their part, wanted to block the flow of iron ore from Swedish mines to Germany because the Swedes supplied up to 40% of Germany's need. The matter was raised by the British Admiral Reginald Plunkett on 18 September 1939, and the next day Winston Churchill brought up the subject in the Cabinet. On 11 December, Churchill opined that the British should gain a foothold in Scandinavia with the objective of helping the Finns but without a war on the Soviet Union. Because of the heavy German reliance on Swedish iron, Hitler had made it clear to the Swedish government in December that any Allied troops on Swedish soil would immediately provoke a German invasion.","Winter War\n\nOn 19 December, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier introduced his plan to the General Staff and the British War Cabinet. In his plan, Daladier created linkage between the war in Finland and the iron ore in Sweden. There was a danger of Finland's collapse under Soviet hegemony. In turn, Nazi Germany could occupy both Norway and Sweden. These two dictatorships could divide Scandinavia between them, as they had already done with Poland. The main motivation of the French and the British was to reduce the German war-making ability.Edwards (2006), p. 146","Winter War\n\nThe Military Coordination Committee met the next day in London, and two days later the French plan was put forward. The Supreme War Council elected to send notes to Norway and Sweden on 27 December in which they urged the Norwegians and Swedes to help Finland and offer the Allies their support. Norway and Sweden rejected the offer on 5 January 1940. The Allies then came up with a new plan, in which they would demand that Norway and Sweden give them right of passage by citing the League of Nations resolution as justification. The expedition troops would disembark at the Norwegian port of Narvik and proceed by rail toward Finland, passing through the Swedish ore fields on the way. This demand was sent to Norway and Sweden on 6 January, but it too was rejected six days later.","Winter War\n\nStymied but not yet dissuaded from the possibility of action, the Allies formulated a new plan on 29 January. First, the Finns would make a formal request for assistance. Then the Allies would ask Norway and Sweden for permission to move the \"volunteers\" across their territory. Finally, in order to protect the supply line from German actions, the Allies would send additional units ashore at Namsos, Bergen, and Trondheim. The operation would require 100,000 British and 35,000 French soldiers with naval and air support. The supply convoys would sail on 12 March and the landings would begin on 20 March.","Winter War\n\nPeace of Moscow","Winter War\n\nThe Moscow Peace Treaty was signed on 12 March 1940 and went into effect the following day. Finland ceded a portion of Karelia—the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga. The area included Finland's second largest city of Viipuri, much of Finland's industrialised territory, and significant parts still held by Finland's army—all in all, 11% of the territory and 30% of the economic assets of pre-war Finland. Twelve percent of Finland's population, some 422,000 Karelians, were evacuated and lost their homes.","Winter War\n\nFinland also had to cede a part of the region of Salla, the Kalastajansaarento peninsula in the Barents Sea, and four islands in the Gulf of Finland. The Hanko Peninsula was leased to the Soviet Union as a military base for 30 years. The region of Petsamo, captured by the Red Army during the war, was returned to Finland according to the treaty.","Winter War\n\nFinnish concessions and territorial losses exceeded those demanded by the Soviets pre-war. Before the war, the Soviet Union demanded that the frontier between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 km east of Viipuri, Finland's second-largest city, to the line between Koivisto and Lipola. In addition, the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Finland should also cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari, Tytärsaari, and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland. In the north, the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento peninsula. Furthermore, the Finns should lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for thirty years, and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange the Soviet Union would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia, an area twice as large as the territories demanded from the Finns.","Winter War\n\nIn addition to obtaining all of their pre-war demands, the Soviets acquired the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga. The Soviets also obtained part of the Salla region, while retaining possession of Repola and Porajärvi.","Winter War\n\nAftermath","Winter War\n\nFinnish views","Winter War\n\nThe 105-day war had a profound and depressing effect in Finland. Meaningful international support was minimal and arrived late, and the German blockade had prevented most armament shipments. The 15-month period between the Winter War and the Continuation War was later called the Interim Peace.","Winter War\n\nAfter the end of the war, the situation of the Finnish army on the Karelian Isthmus had been the subject of debate in Finland. Orders were already issued to prepare a retreat to the next line of defence in the Taipale sector. Estimates of how long the Red Army could have been held in these kinds of retreat-and-stand operations varied from a few days to a few weeks, or to a couple of months at most.","Winter War\n\nThe Karelian evacuees established an interest group Karjalan Liitto. The group was to defend Karelian rights and interests and to find a way to return ceded regions of Karelia to Finland.","Winter War\n\nSoviet views","Winter War\n\nDuring the period between the war and the perestroika in the late 1980s, Soviet historiography leaned solely on Vyacheslav Molotov's speeches on the Winter War. In his radio speech of 29 November 1939, Molotov argued that the Soviet Union had tried to negotiate guarantees of security for Leningrad for two months. However, the Finns had taken a hostile stance to \"please foreign imperialists\". Finland had undertaken military provocation, and the Soviet Union could no longer hold to non-aggression pacts. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union did not want to occupy or annex Finland; the goal was purely to secure Leningrad.Vihavainen (1999), pp. 893–896","Winter War\n\nAnother source later used widely in Soviet historiography was Molotov's speech in front of the Supreme Soviet on 29 March 1940, in which he blamed Western countries for starting the war and argued that they had used Finland as a proxy to fight the Soviet Union. The Western Allies had furthermore tried to take neutral Sweden and Norway along with them. Thus, the \"masterminds\" behind the war were the UK and France, but also Sweden, the United States, and Italy, who had issued massive amounts of materiel, money, and men to Finland. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union was merciful in peace terms, as the problem of Leningrad security had been solved.","Winter War\n\nMilitary consequences","Winter War\n\nThe Supreme Military Soviet command met in April 1940, reviewed the lessons of the Finnish campaign, and recommended reforms. The role of frontline political commissars was reduced and old-fashioned ranks and forms of discipline were reintroduced. Clothing, equipment, and tactics for winter operations were improved. However, not all of these reforms had been completed when the Germans began Operation Barbarossa 15 months later.","Winter War\n\nThe same year, Finland and Sweden negotiated a military alliance, but the negotiations ended once it became clear that both Germany and the Soviet Union opposed such an alliance.","Winter War\n\nGermany","Winter War\n\nThe Winter War was a political success for the Germans. Both the Red Army and the League of Nations were humiliated, and the Allied Supreme War Council had been revealed to be chaotic and powerless. However, the German policy of neutrality was not popular in the homeland, and relations with Italy had suffered badly. After the Peace of Moscow, Germany did not hesitate to move to improve ties with Finland, and within two weeks Finno-German relations were at the top of the agenda.Edwards (2006), pp. 277–279","Winter War\n\nPerhaps more importantly, the very poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful.","Winter War\n\nDuring the Interim Peace, Finland established close ties with Germany in hopes of a chance to reclaim areas ceded to the Soviet Union. Three days after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the Continuation War began.","Winter War\n\nWestern Allies","Winter War\n\nThe Winter War put in question the organisation and effectiveness of the Red Army as well as the Western Allies. The Supreme War Council was unable to formulate a workable plan, revealing its total unsuitability to make effective war in either Britain or France. This failure led to the collapse of the Daladier government in France.","World War II\n\nWorld War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of \"total war\", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (in which approximately one million were killed, and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.","World War II\n\nThe Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic.","World War II\n\nIn June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.","World War II\n\nThe Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.","World War II\n\nThe war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.","World War II\n\nWorld War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.","World War II\n\nChronology","World War II\n\nThe start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931.","World War II\n\nOthers follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935.; ; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191.For 1941 see ; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same \"European Civil War\" or \"Second Thirty Years War\": ; . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.","World War II\n\nThe exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945). A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities. A treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues.","World War II\n\nBackground","World War II\n\nEurope","World War II\n\nWorld War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.","World War II\n\nTo prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.","World War II\n\nDespite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.","World War II\n\nThe German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\".","World War II\n\nAdolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. It was at this time that political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.","World War II\n\nHoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front; however, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.","World War II\n\nHitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936. He encountered little opposition from other European powers. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year.","World War II\n\nAsia","World War II\n\nThe Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.","World War II\n\nToo weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.","World War II\n\nPre-war events","World War II\n\nItalian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)","World War II\n\nThe Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.","World War II\n\nSpanish Civil War (1936–39)","World War II\n\nWhen civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians..Tony Judt said that the \"communist strategy in Spain turns out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in Eastern Europe after 1945.\" See \nThe Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with both sides during the Second World War, but never concluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory.","World War II\n\nJapanese invasion of China (1937)","World War II\n\nIn July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese. Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9.","World War II\n\nIn March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.","World War II\n\nSoviet-Japanese border conflicts","World War II\n\nIn the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.","World War II\n\nEuropean occupations and agreements","World War II\n\nIn Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland.","World War II\n\nAlthough all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region.","World War II\n\nGreatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.","World War II\n\nIn August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights to \"spheres of influence\" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated Poland.","World War II\n\nThe situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a \"doubtful neutral\" that needed to either yield to his demands or be \"liquidated\" to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future \"unavoidable\" war with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict. On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.","World War II\n\nIn response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.","World War II\n\nCourse of the war","World War II\n\nWar breaks out in Europe (1939–40)","World War II\n\nOn 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border. Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth—Australia (3 September), Canada (10 September), New Zealand (3 September), and South Africa (6 September)—declared war on Germany. However, initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted French probe into the Saarland.., observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, \"[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so.\" The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.","World War II\n\nGermany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.","World War II\n\nOn 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October. Poland's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. After the defeat of Poland's armed forces, the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army. About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war. Poland's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France.","World War II\n\nOn 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October, saying \"Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government.\" After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940.","World War II\n\nAfter signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of \"mutual assistance\". Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.","World War II\n\nIn June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.","World War II\n\nWestern Europe (1940–41)","World War II\n\nIn April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.","World War II\n\nGermany launched an offensive against France and, adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands. The U.S. in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to protect Greenland, laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively. The French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. As a result, the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment.","World War II\n\nOn 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.","World War II\n\nThe Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.","World War II\n\nUsing newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck. Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.","World War II\n\nThroughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow \"cash and carry\" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.","World War II\n\nAlthough Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an \"arsenal for democracy\" and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the British war effort. In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air offensive, the \"early elimination\" of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups, and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany.","World War II\n\nAt the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact. Romania would make a major contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.","World War II\n\nMediterranean (1940–41)","World War II\n\nItaly began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started the Greco-Italian War because of Mussolini's jealousy of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred. The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian oil.","World War II\n\nIn December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.","World War II\n\nThe Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of March they had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.","World War II\n\nBy late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British-encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.","World War II\n\nThe Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria, then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.","World War II\n\nAxis attack on the USSR (1941)","World War II\n\nWith the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.","World War II\n\nHitler believed that Britain's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.","World War II\n\nOn 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum (\"living space\") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.","World War II\n\nAlthough the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.","World War II\n\nThe diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields. In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.","World War II\n\nBy October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.","World War II\n\nBy early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 - west.","World War II\n\nWar breaks out in the Pacific (1941)","World War II\n\nIn 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing economic pressure. During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina. Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions soon followed.","World War II\n\nIn August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.","World War II\n\nGerman successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.","World War II\n\nSince early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\".","World War II\n\nFrustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November it presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and to supply oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;: \"The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S.","World War II\n\npressure.\", listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that \"the threat to Japan was not purely economic.\" the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.","World War II\n\nJapan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.","World War II\n\nThese attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.","World War II\n\nAxis advance stalls (1942–43)","World War II\n\nIn January 1942, the Big Four (the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China) and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.","World War II\n\nDuring 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, lead to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.","World War II\n\nAt the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies.\nThe British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.","World War II\n\nPacific (1942–43)","World War II\n\nBy the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.","World War II\n\nIn early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force centered on two American fleet carriers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.","World War II\n\nWith its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.","World War II\n\nBoth plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.","World War II\n\nEastern Front (1942–43)","World War II\n\nDespite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.","World War II\n\nBy mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk.","World War II\n\nWestern Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942–43)","World War II\n\nExploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.","World War II\n\nIn August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.","World War II\n\nIn early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.","World War II\n\nAllies gain momentum (1943–44)","World War II\n\nAfter the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the U.S. with support from Australian and New Zealand forces began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.","World War II\n\nIn the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. Also, in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.","World War II\n\nOn 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.","World War II\n\nOn 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies. Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.","World War II\n\nGerman operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.","World War II\n\nFrom November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. . In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and most lethal siege in history.","World War II\n\nThe following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.; .The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy (). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella (; ), Fosse Ardeatine (), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema (), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre.","World War II\n\nThe Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province.","World War II\n\nAllies close in (1944)","World War II\n\nOn 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,: \"Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war.\" the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.","World War II\n\nOn 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation. However, the largest of these in Warsaw where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians and a national uprising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans. The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.","World War II\n\nIn September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland later shifted to the Allied side.","World War II\n\nBy the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.","World War II\n\nIn the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.","World War II\n\nAxis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)","World War II\n\nOn 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February, US, British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.","World War II\n\nIn February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. American and Soviet forces joined on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.","World War II\n\nSeveral changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.","World War II\n\nGerman forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.","World War II\n\nIn the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. On the night of 9–10 March, B-29 bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 people within a few hours. Over the next five months, American bombers firebombed 66 other Japanese cities, causing the destruction of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of between 350,000–500,000 Japanese civilians.","World War II\n\nIn May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time American bombers were destroying Japanese cities, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.","World War II\n\nOn 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.","World War II\n\nThe Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government was internally divided on whether to make peace and did not respond. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Like the Japanese cities previously bombed by American airmen, the US and its allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity, to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000–500,000 Allied troops and millions of Japanese troops and civilians. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.","World War II\n\nAftermath","World War II\n\nThe Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.","World War II\n\nGermany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north-east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR.","World War II\n\nIn an effort to maintain peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations..The UDHR is viewable here [http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/]. The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—formed the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.","World War II\n\nGermany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR.","World War II\n\nPost-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.","World War II\n\nIn Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.","World War II\n\nIn China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.","World War II\n\nThe global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years. .","World War II\n\nRecovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. . The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, continued relative economic decline for decades.","World War II\n\nThe Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.","World War II\n\nImpact","World War II\n\nCasualties and war crimes","World War II\n\nEstimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 75 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. \nMany of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass-bombings, disease, and starvation.","World War II\n\nThe Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.","World War II\n\nOf the total number of deaths in World War II, approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million. civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs (including Ukrainians and Belarusians) —Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups. Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia, and retribution-related killings were committed just after the war ended.","World War II\n\nIn Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million ), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.","World War II\n\nAxis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and, sometimes on prisoners of war.","World War II\n\nThe Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.","World War II\n\nThe mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees by the German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo, and German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes. The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the death of more than 600,000 German civilians. However, no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.","World War II\n\nConcentration camps, slave labour, and genocide","World War II\n\nThe German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles, and 4 million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.","World War II\n\nIn addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis. Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war. Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million. Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD.","World War II\n\nJapanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.","World War II\n\nAccording to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: \"manual laborers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.","World War II\n\nOn 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast. Canada had a similar program. In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned..","World War II\n\nIn accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union. In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.","World War II\n\nOccupation","World War II\n\nIn Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.","World War II\n\nIn the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.","World War II\n\nIn Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks. During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4000000 oilbbl of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to , 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.","World War II\n\nHome fronts and production","World War II\n\nIn Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.","World War II\n\nThough the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.","World War II\n\nAdvances in technology and warfare","World War II\n\nAircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.","World War II\n\nAdvances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.","World War II\n\nIn the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.","World War II\n\nLand warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.","World War II\n\nAt the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.","World War II\n\nThe portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.","World War II\n\nMost major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel."],"string":"[\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union (), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (), abbreviated to USSR (), was a socialist state on the Eurasian continent that existed from 1922 to 1991. A union of multiple subnational Soviet republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. The Soviet Union was a one-party state, governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the provisional government that had replaced the Tsar. They established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (renamed Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1936), beginning a civil war between the revolutionary \\\"Reds\\\" and the counter-revolutionary \\\"Whites.\\\" The Red Army entered several territories of the former Russian Empire and helped local Communists take power through soviets, which nominally acted on behalf of workers and peasants. In 1922, the Communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism (which he created), and initiated a centrally planned economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and post-war dominance of Eastern Europe.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nStalin also fomented political paranoia, and conducted the Great Purge to remove opponents of his from the Communist Party through the mass arbitrary arrest of many people (military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike) who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAt the beginning of World War II, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany; the treaty delayed confrontation between the two countries. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFollowing Stalin's death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as \\\"de-Stalinization\\\" and \\\"Khrushchev's Thaw\\\", occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost and perestroika. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well. Central authorities initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup, resulting in the banning of the Communist Party. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation is the legal successor of the USSR.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nGeography, climate and environment\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nWith an area of 22402200 km2, the Soviet Union was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by the Russian Federation. Covering a sixth of Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America. The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across 11 time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union had the world's longest border, like Russia, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. Across the Bering Strait was the United States. The Soviet Union bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajikistan, at . The Soviet Union also included most of the world's largest lake, the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal, the world's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the February Revolution, due in part to the strain of fighting in World War I, which lacked public support. A short-lived Russian Provisional Government took power, to be overthrown in the October Revolution (N.S. 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasian Soviet republics, each ruled by local Bolshevik parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, the term \\\"Soviet Russia\\\" - strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic - was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nRevolution and foundation\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nModern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the Decembrist revolt of 1825. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nA spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAt the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as \\\"Soviets\\\", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nA long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established Republic of Finland, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Latvia, and the Republic of Lithuania.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nUnification of republics\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nOn 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nOn 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the British Empire. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAn intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10 to 15-year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional power stations, including ten large hydroelectric power plants, and numerous electric-powered large industrial enterprises. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nStalin era\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFrom its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the economic policy of \\\"War communism\\\" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe stated purpose of the one-party state was to ensure that capitalist exploitation would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of democratic centralism would be most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a \\\"troika\\\" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nOn 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union and, by the end of the 1920s, established totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Grigory Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1928, Stalin introduced the First Five-Year Plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the \\\"lead by example\\\" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFamines ensued, causing millions of deaths; surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to Gulags to do forced labour. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the execution or detainment of many \\\"Old Bolsheviks\\\" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, in 1937 and 1938, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years that averages to over one thousand executions a day. According to historian Geoffrey Hosking, \\\"...excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million.\\\" Yet despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before World War II.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\n1930s\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the West and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to formally recognize Stalin's Communist government and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two nations. In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new Soviet Constitution. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who By contrast, Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have viewed the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe late 1930s saw a shift towards the Axis powers. In 1939, almost a year after the United Kingdom and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the USSR dealt with the Nazis as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The nonaggression pact made possible Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland. In late November of the same year, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Joseph Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with the Empire of Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nWorld War II\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAlthough it has been debated whether the Soviet Union intended to invade Germany once it was strong enough, Germany itself broke the treaty and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, starting what was known in the USSR as the \\\"Great Patriotic War\\\". The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow, aided by an unusually harsh winter. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to the Germans from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe same year, the USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. During the war, the Soviet Union together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered as the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II and later became the Four Policemen which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the Soviet Union had official relations with practically every nation by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nCold War\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nDuring the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe, while turning them into satellite states, binding them in a military alliance (the Warsaw Pact) in 1955, and an economic organization (The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon) from 1949 to 1991, the latter a counterpart to the European Economic Community. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly using mostly proxies.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nKhrushchev era\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nStalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the power struggle by the mid-1950s. He shortly aftwerward denounced Stalin's use of repression in 1956 and proceeded to ease Stalin's repressive controls over party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBecause Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders (in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1940), the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in Hungary and Poland in 1956.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's rapprochement with the West and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nDuring this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexey Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966 and the first moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nKhrushchev initiated \\\"The Thaw\\\", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the Soviet Union. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing living standards to rise dramatically while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nKhrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the United States to remove enemy nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBrezhnev era\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFollowing the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion along with the earlier invasions of Eastern European states by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which claimed the right of the Soviet Union to violate the sovereignty of any country that attempted to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBrezhnev presided over a period of détente with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of \\\"standstill\\\", with an aging and ossified top political leadership.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nGorbachev era\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nTwo developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in Beyond Oil that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so that the USSR's hard currency reserves became depleted.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBrezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nGorbachev made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called perestroika. His policy of glasnost freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nGorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its nine-year war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s, , which paved the way for Revolutions of 1989. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East Germany and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain came down.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the \\\"War of Laws\\\".\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1989, the Russian SFSR, which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nA referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those nine republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterward the Party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nDissolution\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December, all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December, when Ukraine, the second most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nOn 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. The Soviet Army originally remained under overall CIS command, but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFollowing the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991 Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe dissolution of the Soviet Union was followed by a severe economic contraction and catastrophic fall in living standards in post-Soviet states including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, and income inequality, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nPost-Soviet states\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe analysis of the succession of states with respect to the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal continuator state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council. The Baltic states are not successor states to the Soviet Union; they are instead considered to have de jure continuity with their pre-World War II governments through the non-recognition of the original Soviet incorporation in 1940. The other 11 post-Soviet states are considered newly-independent successor states to the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThere are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognized post-Soviet states, but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThere were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the ultimate policymaker in the country.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nCommunist Party\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAt the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. The Central Committee in turn voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952–1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the USSR. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state largely through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin in 1941–1953 and Khrushchev in 1958–1964 were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the largely ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn practice, however, the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets and Central Executive Committee) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, the powers and functions of the Supreme Soviet were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the Soviet government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nLocal authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe state security police (the KGB and its predecessor agencies) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Stalinist terror, but after the death of Stalin, the state security police was brought under strict party control. Under Yuri Andropov, KGB chairman in 1967–1982 and General Secretary from 1982 to 1983, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nSeparation of power and reform\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Union constitutions, which were promulgated in 1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Joseph Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBetween 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nTensions grew between the union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and Communist Party hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged an abortive coup attempt. Following the failed coup, the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power \\\"in the period of transition\\\". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nJudicial system\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defense attorney collaborate to establish the truth.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nConstitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Belarus (SSRs), or federal states, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, the Uzbek and Turkmen SSRs were formed from parts of the Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, the Tajik SSR was split off from the Uzbek SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent Armenian, Georgian and Azerbaijan SSRs being elevated to Union Republics, while the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, the Moldavian SSR was formed from parts of the Ukrainian SSR and Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. The Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian SSRs were also admitted into the union. The Karelo-Finnish SSR was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a planned economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate the circulation of money, as well as private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse caused by the war, Lenin replaced War Communism with the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalising free trade and private ownership of smaller businesses. The economy quickly recovered.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFollowing a lengthy debate among the members of Politburo over the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Joseph Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which greatly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. Preparation for war was one of the main driving forces behind industrialization, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalistic world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. During the war, the Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation and required extensive reconstruction.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBy the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a very small share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. Still the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the Soviet Union became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFrom the 1930s until its collapse in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. In practice, however, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ad hoc intervention by superiors. All key economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were normally denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. Final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice the actual prices were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (between producer factories etc.) were widespread.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nA number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and healthcare. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defense were assigned higher priority than the production of consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited choice. Under command economy, consumers had almost no influence over production, so the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up alongside the planned one at low levels, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. Legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAlthough statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy experienced comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of increase in capital was only surpassed by Japan).\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nOverall, between 1960 and 1989, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income of Soviet Union in 1989 should have been twice as high as it was considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to low productivity of capital in the Soviet Union. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living actually declined as a result of Stalin's despotism, and while there was a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev tried to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of perestroika. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises, but did not yet allow it to be replaced by market incentives, ultimately resulting in a sharp decline in production output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and property was still largely state-owned until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. For most of the period after World War II up to its collapse, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world by GDP (PPP), and was 3rd in the world during the middle of the 1980s to 1989, though in per capita terms the Soviet GDP was behind that of the First World countries.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nEnergy\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6 percent. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40 percent of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5 percent during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World (pre-Gorbachev era).\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of 82000 km for crude oil and another 206500 km for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% who received such a degree in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nProject Socrates, under the Reagan administration, determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the Soviet Union was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology, while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, in addition, the Soviet Union's technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. It was this significant lack of flexibility that was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nTransport was a key component of the nation's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to bad maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nSoviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burden from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nDespite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nExcess deaths over the course of World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, \\\"... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million.\\\"\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nBefore 1917, education was not free in the Russian Empire and was therefore either inaccessible or barely accessible for many children from lower-class working and peasant families. Estimates from 1917 recorded that 75–85 percent of the Russian population was illiterate.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAnatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. At the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. People who were literate were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Joseph Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to Soviet reforms in education. In the aftermath of the Great Patriotic War, the country's educational system expanded dramatically. This expansion had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all Soviet children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the work force had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe country's system of education was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the U.S.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nEthnic groups\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet Union was a very ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAll citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians shared close cultural ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFile:Ethnic map USSR 1941.jpg|Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941\\nFile:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1926.jpg|Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1926 census)\\nFile:Soviet Union Muslim Population 1979 (full).png|Map showing the distribution of Muslims within the Soviet Union in 1979\\nFile:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1979.jpg|Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the RSFSR (1979 census)\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, \\\"Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice\\\". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, this at the time being a revolutionary concept. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the healthcare system of the Soviet Union was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, the Soviet health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nMinister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such Soviet successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAfter the socialist revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s, when the life expectancy in the Soviet Union surpassed that of the United States. It remained stable during most years, although in the 1970s, it went down slightly, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on this. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was highest, while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union. The USSR had several centers of excellence, such as the Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex, founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon Svyatoslav Fyodorov.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet government headed by Vladimir Lenin gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was very successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, that language would attain \\\"official language\\\" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the Soviet government retreated from this policy, most notable under Stalin's regime, where education was discontinued in languages which were not widespread enough. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During the Great Patriotic War, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nAs the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian de facto functioned as an official language, as the \\\"language of interethnic communication\\\" (), but only assumed the de jure status as the official national language in 1990.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe religious made up a significant minority of the Soviet Union prior to break up. In 1990, the religious makeup was 20% Russian Orthodox, 10% Muslim, 7% Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, Georgian Orthodox, and Roman Catholic, less than 1% Jewish and 60% atheist.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nChristianity and Islam had the greatest number of adherents among the Soviet state's religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the Soviet Union's largest Christian denomination. About 90 percent of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias concentrated in Azerbaijan. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant sects.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nReligious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn Soviet law, the \\\"freedom to hold religious services\\\" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a secular state also decreed that \\\"the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately.\\\" Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929, a half-decade into Stalin's rule, included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90 percent of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nConvinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past with most Soviet Christians, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s.Janz 1998, pp. 38–39. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during the Soviet war with Nazi Germany. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after Hitler attacked the Soviet Union, churches were reopened, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the Soviet Union even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe Soviet establishment under General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev's leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nReligious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the Soviet government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20 percent of the Soviet population as \\\"active religious believers.\\\"\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nWomen\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nSoviet efforts to expand social, political and economic opportunities for women constitute \\\"the earliest and perhaps most far-reaching attempt ever undertaken to transform the status and role of women.\\\"\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's 69-year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918–1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, for example Nikolay Gumilyov (shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime) and Yevgeny Zamyatin (banned).\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nThe government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nLater, during Stalin's rule, Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, for example Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nFollowing the Khrushchev Thaw of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed characterized by conformist public life and intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms were again permissible, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as samizdat, developed during this late period. In architecture the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch.\",\n \"Soviet Union\\n\\nIn the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the Soviet Union in the media & press.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Winter War (, , ) was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940. It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939 (three months after the outbreak of World War II), and ended with the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. The League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet Union ostensibly sought to claim parts of Finnish territory, demanding—amongst other concessions—that Finland cede substantial border territories in exchange for land elsewhere, claiming security reasons, primarily the protection of Leningrad, which was only 32 km from the Finnish border. (Though the border that was \\\"only 32 km\\\" from Leningrad was the end of a narrow finger of coastline about 15 km long by \\n5 km wide; most of the Finnish border was more than 50 km from Leningrad. ) Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country. Many sources conclude that the Soviet Union had intended to conquer all of Finland, and use the establishment of the puppet Finnish Communist government and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocols as proof of this, while other sources argue against the idea of a full Soviet conquest.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937. With more than 30,000 of its officers executed or imprisoned, including most of those of the highest ranks, the Red Army in 1939 had many inexperienced senior and mid-level officers. Because of these factors, and high morale in the Finnish forces, Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months, much longer than the Soviets expected.Ries (1988), pp. 79–80\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nHowever, after reorganization and adoption of different tactics, the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders. Finland then agreed to cede more territory than originally demanded by the Soviet Union in 1939; the Soviets, having conquered the areas they demanded from Finland but at a cost of heavier losses in troops than anticipated, accepted this offer.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nHostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded territory representing 11% of its land area and 30% of its economy to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the country's international reputation suffered. While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland, Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands. They gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga, providing a buffer for Leningrad, and territory in northern Finland. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe end of the war cancelled the Franco-British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia. Some authors would suggest that the official statement by Sweden, Norway and Denmark of February 1940, declaring they would not allow British troops to use their territories on their way to Finland, was a factor in Finland's decision of starting peace talks with Russia. One of the major goals of the projected Franco-British operation had been to take control of northern Sweden's iron ore and cut its deliveries to Germany. For this reason it was also a major factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung, Nazi Germany's invasion of Denmark and Norway.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nPolitics of Finland\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nUntil the beginning of the 19th century, Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden. In 1809, to protect their imperial capital, Saint Petersburg, the Russians conquered Finland and converted it into an autonomous buffer state within the Russian Empire. The Grand Duchy of Finland enjoyed wide autonomy within the Empire until the end of the 19th century, when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen the central government and unify the Empire through Russification. While abortive because of Russia's internal strife, these attempts ruined Russia's relations with the Finns and increased support for Finnish self-determination movements.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe outbreak of the First World War and the collapse of the Russian Empire during the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War of 1917–1920 gave Finland a window of opportunity; on 6 December 1917, the Senate of Finland declared the nation's independence. The new Bolshevik Russian government was weak, and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence. Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a short civil war and the expulsion of Bolshevik troops.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinland joined the League of Nations in 1920, from which it sought security guarantees, but Finland's primary goal was cooperation with the Scandinavian countries. The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide-ranging cooperation, but were more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland islands than on military exercises, or the stockpiling and deployment of materiel. Nevertheless, the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy. Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland. The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931, and the Lapua Movement organised anti-communist violence, which culminated in a failed uprising in 1932. Thereafter the ultra-nationalist Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) had a minor presence—at most 14 seats out of 200 in the Finnish parliament. By the late 1930s, the export-oriented Finnish economy was growing and the nation had almost solved its problems with extreme political movements.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet–Finnish relations and politics\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAfter the Soviet involvement in the Finnish Civil War in 1918, no formal peace treaty was signed. In 1918 and 1919, Finnish volunteer forces conducted two unsuccessful military incursions across the Russian border: the Viena and Aunus expeditions. In 1920, Finnish communists based in Soviet Russia attempted to assassinate the former Finnish White Guards Commander-in-Chief General CGE Mannerheim. On 14 October 1920, Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu, confirming the new Finnish–Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper. In addition, Finland received Petsamo, with its ice-free harbour on the Arctic Ocean. Despite the signing of the treaty, relations between the two countries remained strained. The Finnish government allowed volunteers to cross the border to support the East Karelian Uprising in 1921, and Finnish communists in the Soviet Union continued to prepare for a revanche and staged a cross-border raid into Finland, called the \\\"Pork mutiny\\\", in 1922.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn 1932 the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Finland, which was reaffirmed for a ten-year period in 1934. However, relations between the two countries remained largely de minimis. While foreign trade in Finland was booming, less than 1% of Finnish trade was with the Soviet Union. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nDuring Joseph Stalin's rule, Soviet propaganda painted Finland's leadership as a \\\"vicious and reactionary Fascist clique\\\". Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim and Väinö Tanner, the leader of the Finnish Social Democratic Party, were targeted for particular scorn. With Stalin gaining absolute power through the Great Purge of 1938, the Soviet Union changed its foreign policy toward Finland in the late 1930s. The Soviet Union began pursuing the reconquest of the provinces of Tsarist Russia lost during the chaos of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. The Soviet leadership believed that the old empire had ideal security and territorial possessions, and wanted the newly christened city of Leningrad to enjoy a similar security.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNegotiations\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn April 1938, an NKVD agent, Boris Yartsev contacted the Finnish foreign minister Rudolf Holsti and Prime Minister Aimo Cajander, stating that the Soviet Union did not trust Germany and that war was considered possible between the two countries. The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border but would rather \\\"advance to meet the enemy\\\". Finnish representatives assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality and that the country would resist any armed incursion. Yartsev suggested that Finland cede or lease some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad; Finland refused.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNegotiations continued throughout 1938 without results. Finnish reception of Soviet entreaties was decidedly cool, as the violent collectivisation and purges in Stalin's Soviet Union resulted in a poor opinion of the country. In addition, most of the Finnish communist elite in the Soviet Union had been executed during the Great Purge, further tarnishing the Soviet Union's image in Finland. At the same time, Finland was trying to negotiate a military cooperation plan with Sweden, hoping to jointly defend the Åland Islands.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939. The pact was nominally a non-aggression treaty, but it included a secret protocol in which the Eastern European countries were divided into spheres of interest. Finland fell into the Soviet sphere. On 1 September 1939, Germany began its invasion of Poland and two days later Great Britain and France declared war against Germany. Shortly afterwards (17 September 1939), the Soviets invaded eastern Poland. The Baltic states were later forced to accept treaties allowing the Soviets to establish military bases and to station troops on their soil. The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum, signing the corresponding agreement in September. Latvia and Lithuania followed in October. Unlike the Baltic states, Finland started a gradual mobilisation under the guise of \\\"additional refresher training.\\\"Turtola (1999a), pp. 38–41\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviets had already started an intensive mobilisation near the Finnish border in 1938–1939. However, assault troops thought necessary for the invasion did not begin deployment until October 1939. Operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November.Ries (1988), pp. 55–56\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nWar preparations\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 5 October 1939, the Soviet Union invited a Finnish delegation to Moscow for negotiations. J.K. Paasikivi, the Finnish ambassador to Sweden, was sent to Moscow to represent the Finnish government. The Soviets demanded that the border between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 km east of Viipuri and that the Finns destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. They also demanded the cession of islands in the Gulf of Finland as well as the Kalastajansaarento peninsula. Furthermore, the Finns would have to lease the Hanko Peninsula for thirty years and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange, the Soviet Union would cede two municipalities with twice the territory demanded from Finland. Accepting Soviet demands would have forced the Finns to dismantle their defences in Finnish Karelia.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet offer divided the Finnish government, but it was eventually rejected. On 31 October, in the assembly of the Supreme Soviet, Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov announced Soviet demands in public. The Finns made two counteroffers whereby Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union, which would double the distance between Leningrad and the Finnish border, far less than the Soviets had demanded, as well as the islands in the Gulf of Finland. From the Soviet point of view the negotiations were finished.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nShelling of Mainila\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 26 November 1939, a border incident was reported near the village of Mainila. A Soviet border guard post had been shelled by an unknown party resulting, according to Soviet reports, in the deaths of four and injuries of nine border guards. Research conducted by several Finnish and Russian historians later concluded that the shelling was carried out from the Soviet side of the border by an NKVD unit with the purpose of providing the Soviet Union with a casus belli and a pretext to withdraw from the non-aggression pact.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nMolotov claimed that it was a Finnish artillery attack and demanded that Finland apologise for the incident and move its forces beyond a line 20 - away from the border. Finland denied responsibility for the attack, rejected the demands, and called for a joint Finnish–Soviet commission to examine the incident. The Soviet Union then claimed that the Finnish response was hostile, renounced the non-aggression pact and severed diplomatic relations with Finland on 28 November. In the following years, Soviet historiography described the incident as a Finnish provocation. Doubt on the official Soviet version was cast only in the late 1980s, in the times of glasnost. However, the issue continued to divide Russian historiography even after the collapse of the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nRussian President Vladimir Putin said on 14 March 2013 at a meeting with military historians that Stalin launched the war to \\\"correct mistakes\\\" made in drawing the border with Finland after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet political and military offensive\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 30 November 1939, Soviet forces invaded Finland with 21 divisions, totaling some 450,000 men, and bombed Helsinki. Later the Finnish statesman J. K. Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack without a declaration of war violated three different non-aggression pacts: the Treaty of Tartu signed in 1920, the non-aggression pact between Finland and the Soviet Union signed in 1932 and again in 1934, and also the Covenant of the League of Nations, which the Soviet Union signed in 1934. C.G.E. Mannerheim was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces after the Soviet attack. In further reshuffling, the Finnish government named Risto Ryti as the new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 1 December 1939, the Soviet Union formed a puppet government called the Finnish Democratic Republic, which was headed by O. W. Kuusinen. The government was also called \\\"The Terijoki Government,\\\" after the village of Terijoki, which was the first settlement captured by the advancing Soviet army. After the war, the puppet government was disbanded. From the very outset of the war, working-class Finns stood behind the legal government in Helsinki. Finnish national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the spirit of the Winter War.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAt the start of the Winter War, Finland brought up the matter of the Soviet invasion before the League of Nations. The League expelled the Soviet Union on 14 December 1939 and exhorted its members to aid Finland.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet advance to the Mannerheim Line\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet military plan\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAt the beginning of the war, total victory over Finland was expected within a few weeks. The Red Army had just finished the invasion of eastern Poland at a cost of fewer than 1,000 casualties, due to Poland having been attacked by Germany from the west just two weeks prior. Stalin's expectations of a quick Soviet triumph were backed up by the politician Andrei Zhdanov and military strategist Kliment Voroshilov, but other generals had their doubts. The chief of staff of the Red Army, Boris Shaposhnikov, advocated a serious buildup, extensive logistical and fire support preparations, and a rational order of battle, deploying the army's best units. Zhdanov's military commander Kirill Meretskov reported at the start of the hostilities: \\\"The terrain of coming operations is split by lakes, rivers, swamps, and is almost entirely covered by forests ... The proper use of our forces will be difficult\\\". However, these doubts were not reflected in his troop deployments. Meretskov announced publicly that the Finnish campaign would take at the most two weeks. Soviet soldiers had even been warned not to cross the border into Sweden by mistake.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nStalin's purges had devastated the officer corps of the Red Army; those purged included three of its five marshals, 220 of its 264 division-level commanders or higher, and 36,761 officers of all ranks. Fewer than half of the officers remained in total. They were commonly replaced by soldiers who were less competent but more loyal to their superiors. Furthermore, unit commanders were superseded by a political commissar, who ratified military decisions on their political merits, further complicating the Soviet chain of command. This system of dual command destroyed the independence of commanding officers.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAfter the Battles of Khalkhin Gol, the Soviet high command had divided into two factions. One side was represented by Spanish Civil War veterans General Pavel Rychagov representing the Red Air Force, Soviet tank expert General Dmitry Pavlov, and Stalin's favorite general, Marshal Grigory Kulik, chief of artillery. The other side was led by Khalkhin Gol veterans General Georgy Zhukov (Red Army) and General G. P. Kravchenko (Red Air Force). Under this divided command structure, the lessons of the Soviet Union's \\\"first real war on a massive scale using tanks, artillery, and aircraft\\\" at Nomonhan went unheeded. As a result, during the Winter War, Russian BT tanks were less successful and it took the Soviet Union three months and over a million men to do what Zhukov did at Khalkhin Gol in ten days.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet order of battle\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet generals were impressed by the success of the German Blitzkrieg tactics. However, the Blitzkrieg had been tailored to central European conditions with a dense, well-mapped network of paved roads. Armies fighting in central Europe had recognised supply and communications centres, which could be easily targeted by armoured vehicle regiments. Finnish army centres, by contrast, were deep inside the country. There were no paved roads, and even gravel or dirt roads were scarce; most of the terrain consisted of trackless forests and swamps. Waging a Blitzkrieg in Finland was a highly difficult proposition, and the Red Army failed to meet the level of tactical coordination and local initiative required to execute Blitzkrieg tactics in the Finnish theatre.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet forces were positioned as follows: \\n* The 7th Army, comprising nine divisions, a tank corps and three tank brigades, was located on the Karelian Isthmus. Its objective was the city of Viipuri. The force was later divided into the Seventh and 13th armies.\\n* The 8th Army, comprising six divisions and a tank brigade, was located north of Lake Ladoga. Its mission was to execute a flanking manoeuvre around the northern shore of Lake Ladoga to strike at the rear of the Mannerheim Line.\\n* The 9th Army was positioned to strike into central Finland. It was composed of three divisions with one additional division on its way. Its mission was to thrust westward to cut Finland in half.\\n* The 14th Army, comprising three divisions,was based in Murmansk. Its objective was to capture the Arctic port of Petsamo and then advance to the town of Rovaniemi.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish order of battle\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Finnish strategy was dictated by geography. The frontier with the Soviet Union was more than 1000 km long but was mostly impassable except along a handful of unpaved roads. In pre-war calculations, the Finnish General Staff, which had established its wartime headquarters at Mikkeli, estimated seven Soviet divisions on the Isthmus and no more than five along the whole border north of Lake Ladoga. In that case, the manpower ratio would favour the attacker by three to one. The true ratio was much higher; for example, 12 Soviet divisions were deployed to the north of Lake Ladoga.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAn even greater problem than lack of soldiers was the lack of materiel; foreign shipments of anti-tank weapons and aircraft were arriving in small quantities. The ammunition situation was alarming, as stockpiles had cartridges, shells, and fuel only to last 19–60 days. The ammunition situation was alleviated somewhat because many Finns were armed with Mosin–Nagant rifles dating from the Finnish Civil War and updated infantry weapons capable of chambering the 7.62×54mmR cartridges used by Soviet forces. Some Finnish soldiers maintained their ammunition supply by looting the bodies of dead Soviet soldiers. The ammunition shortage meant the Finns could seldom afford counterbattery or saturation fire. Finnish tank forces were operationally non-existent.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Finnish forces were positioned as follows: \\n* The Army of the Isthmus was composed of six divisions under the command of Hugo Österman. The II. Army Corps was positioned on its right flank and the III. Army Corps was positioned on its left flank.\\n* The IV. Army Corps was located north of Lake Ladoga. It was composed of two divisions under Juho Heiskanen, who was soon replaced by Woldemar Hägglund.\\n* The North Finland Group was a collection of Civic Guards, border guards, and drafted reservist units under Wiljo Tuompo.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nWeapons\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFirst battles\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Mannerheim Line, an array of Finnish defence structures, was located on the Karelian Isthmus about 30 to from the Soviet border. The Red Army soldiers on the Isthmus numbered 250,000 facing 130,000 Finns. The Finnish command deployed a covering force of about 21,000 men in the area in front of the Mannerheim Line in order to delay and damage the Red Army before it reached the line.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn combat, the biggest cause of confusion among Finnish soldiers were Soviet tanks. The Finns had few anti-tank weapons and insufficient training in modern anti-tank tactics. However, the favoured Soviet armoured tactic was a simple frontal charge, the weaknesses of which could be exploited. The Finns learned that at close range, tanks could be dealt with in many ways; for example, logs and crowbars jammed into the bogie wheels would often immobilise a tank. Soon, Finns fielded a better ad hoc weapon, the Molotov cocktail. It was a glass bottle filled with flammable liquids, with a simple hand-lit fuse. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Finnish Alko corporation and bundled with matches with which to light them. Eighty Soviet tanks were destroyed in the border-zone fighting.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nBy 6 December, all the Finnish covering forces had withdrawn to the Mannerheim Line. The Red Army began its first major attack against the Line in Taipale—the area between the shore of Lake Ladoga, the Taipale river and the Suvanto waterway. Along the Suvanto sector, the Finns had a slight advantage of elevation and dry ground to dig into. The Finnish artillery had scouted the area and made fire plans in advance, anticipating a Soviet assault. The Battle of Taipale began with a forty-hour Soviet artillery preparation. After the barrage, the Soviet infantry attacked across open ground but was repulsed with heavy casualties. From 6 December to 12 December, the Red Army continued trying to engage using only one division. The Red Army next strengthened its artillery and brought tanks and the 10th Rifle Division to the Taipale front. On 14 December, the bolstered Soviet forces launched a new attack but were pushed back again. A third Soviet division entered the fight but performed poorly and panicked under shell fire. The assaults continued without success, and the Red Army suffered heavy losses.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOne typical Soviet attack during the battle lasted just an hour but left 1,000 dead and 27 tanks strewn on the ice.Trotter (2002), pp. 76–78\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNorth of Lake Ladoga on the Ladoga Karelia front, the defending Finnish units relied on the terrain. Ladoga Karelia, as a large forest wilderness, did not have road networks for the modern Red Army. However, the Soviet 8th Army had extended a new railroad line to the border, which could double the supply capability on the front. But on 12 December, the advancing Soviet 139th Rifle Division, supported by the 56th Rifle Division, was defeated by a much smaller Finnish force under Paavo Talvela in Tolvajärvi, the first Finnish victory of the war.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn central and northern Finland, roads were few and the terrain hostile. The Finns did not expect large-scale Soviet attacks, but the Soviets sent eight divisions, heavily supported by armour and artillery. The 155th Rifle Division attacked at Lieksa, and further north the 44th attacked at Kuhmo. The 163rd Rifle Division was deployed at Suomussalmi and charged with cutting Finland in half by marching the Raate Road. In Finnish Lapland, the Soviet 88th and 122nd Rifle Divisions attacked at Salla. The Arctic port of Petsamo was attacked by the 104th Mountain Rifle Division by sea and land, supported by naval gunfire.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nDefence of Finland\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nWeather conditions\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe winter of 1939–1940 was exceptionally cold. One location on the Karelian Isthmus experienced a record low temperature of on 16 January 1940. At the beginning of the war, only those Finnish soldiers who were in active service had uniforms and weapons. The rest had to make do with their own clothing, which for many soldiers was their normal winter clothing with semblance of an insignia added. Finnish soldiers were skilled in cross-country skiing.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe cold, snow, forest, and long hours of darkness were factors that the Finns could use to their advantage. The Finns dressed in layers, and the ski troopers wore a lightweight white snow cape. This snow-camouflage made the ski troopers almost invisible as the Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet columns. At the beginning of the war, Soviet tanks were painted in standard olive drab and men dressed in regular khaki uniforms. Not until late January 1940 did the Soviets paint their equipment white and issue snowsuits to their infantry.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nMost Soviet soldiers had proper winter clothes, but this was not the case with every unit. In the battle of Suomussalmi, many Soviet soldiers died of frostbite. The Soviet troops also lacked skill in skiing, so soldiers were restricted to movement by road and were forced to move in long columns. Furthermore, the Red Army lacked proper winter tents, and men had to sleep in improvised shelters. Some Soviet units had frostbite casualties as high as 10% even before crossing the Finnish border. The cold weather did confer one advantage: Soviet tanks were able to move more easily over frozen terrain and bodies of water, rather than being immobilised in swamps and mud.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish tactics\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn battles from Ladoga Karelia all the way north to the Arctic port of Petsamo, the Finns used guerrilla tactics. The Red Army was superior in numbers and materiel, but the Finns used the advantages of speed, tactics, and economy of force. Particularly on the Ladoga Karelia front and during the battle of Raate road, the Finns isolated smaller portions of numerically superior Soviet forces. With Soviet forces divided into smaller pieces, the Finns could deal with them individually and attack from all sides.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFor many of the encircled Soviet troops in a pocket (called a motti in Finnish, meaning a bundle of wood), just staying alive was an ordeal comparable to combat. The men were freezing and starving and endured poor sanitary conditions. Historian William R. Trotter describes these conditions thus: \\\"The Soviet soldier had no choice. If he refused to fight, he would be shot. If he tried to sneak through the forest, he would freeze to death. And surrender was no option for him; Soviet propaganda had told him how the Finns would torture prisoners to death.\\\"\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nDefense of the Mannerheim Line\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe terrain on the Karelian Isthmus did not allow the exercise of guerilla tactics, so the Finns were forced to resort to the more conventional Mannerheim Line, with its flanks protected by large bodies of water. Soviet propaganda claimed that it was as strong as or even stronger than the Maginot Line. Finnish historians, for their part, have belittled the line's strength, insisting that it was mostly conventional trenches and log-covered dugouts.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Finns had built 221 strong-points along the Karelian Isthmus, mostly in the early 1920s. Many were extended in the late 1930s. Despite these defensive preparations, even the most fortified section of the Mannerheim Line had only one reinforced concrete bunker per kilometre. Overall, the line was weaker than similar lines in mainland Europe. According to the Finns, the real strength of the line were the \\\"stubborn defenders with a lot of sisu\\\" – a Finnish idiom roughly translated as \\\"guts, fighting spirit.\\\"\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn the eastern side of the isthmus, the Red Army attempted to break through the Mannerheim Line in the battle of Taipale. On the western side, Soviet units faced the Finnish line at Summa, near the city of Viipuri, on 16 December. The Finns had built 41 reinforced concrete bunkers in the Summa area, making the defensive line in this area stronger than anywhere else on the Karelian Isthmus. However, because of a mistake in planning, the nearby Munasuo swamp had a 1 km-wide gap in the line. During the first battle of Summa, a number of Soviet tanks broke through the thin line on 19 December, but the Soviets could not benefit from the situation because of insufficient cooperation between branches of service. The Finns remained in their trenches, allowing the Soviet tanks to move freely behind the Finnish line, as the Finns had no proper anti-tank weapons. However, the Finns succeeded in repelling the main Soviet assault. The tanks, stranded behind enemy lines, attacked the strongpoints at random until they were eventually destroyed, 20 in all. By 22 December, the battle ended in a Finnish victory.Laaksonen (1999), pp. 411–412\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet advance was stopped at the Mannerheim Line. Red Army troops suffered from poor morale and a shortage of supplies, eventually refusing to participate in more suicidal frontal attacks. The Finns, led by General Harald Öhquist, decided to launch a counterattack and encircle three Soviet divisions into a motti near Viipuri on 23 December. Öhquist's plan was bold, and it failed. The Finns lost 1,300 men, and the Soviets were later estimated to have lost a similar number.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nBattles in Ladoga Karelia\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe strength of the Red Army north of Lake Ladoga (in Ladoga Karelia) surprised the Finnish General Staff. Two Finnish divisions were deployed there: the 12th Division led by Lauri Tiainen and the 13th Division led by Hannu Hannuksela. They also had a support group of three brigades, bringing their total strength to over 30,000. The Soviets deployed a division for almost every road leading west to the Finnish border. The Eighth Army was led by Ivan Khabarov, who was replaced by Grigori Shtern on 13 December. The Soviets' mission was to destroy the Finnish troops in the area of Ladoga Karelia and advance into the area between Sortavala and Joensuu within 10 days. The Soviets had a 3:1 advantage in manpower and a 5:1 advantage in artillery, as well as air supremacy.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish forces panicked and retreated in front of the overwhelming Red Army. The commander of the Finnish IV Army Corps was replaced by Woldemar Hägglund on 4 December.Juutilainen (1999a), p. 506 On 7 December, in the middle of the Ladoga Karelian front, Finnish units retreated near the small stream of Kollaa. The waterway itself did not offer protection, but alongside there were ridges up to 10 m high. The battle of Kollaa lasted until the end of the war. A memorable quote, \\\"Kollaa holds\\\" () became a legendary motto among the Finns. Further contributing to the legend of Kollaa was the sniper Simo Häyhä, dubbed \\\"the White Death\\\" by Soviets, who served in the Kollaa front. To the north, the Finns retreated from Ägläjärvi to Tolvajärvi on 5 December and then repelled a Soviet offensive in the battle of Tolvajärvi on 11 December.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn the south, two Soviet divisions were united on the northern side of the Lake Ladoga coastal road. As before, these divisions were trapped as the more mobile Finnish units were able to counterattack from the north to flank the Soviet columns. On 19 December, the Finns temporarily ceased their assaults, as the soldiers were exhausted. It was not until the period 6–16 January 1940 that the Finns went on the offensive again, cutting Soviet division into smaller groups of different-sized mottis.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nContrary to Finnish expectations, the encircled Soviet divisions did not try to break through to the east but instead entrenched. They were expecting reinforcements and supplies to arrive by air. As the Finns lacked the necessary heavy artillery equipment and were short of men, they often did not directly attack mottis they had created; instead, they worked to eliminate only the most dangerous threats. Often the motti tactic was not applied as part of planned doctrine but as a Finnish adaptation to the behaviour of Soviet troops under fire.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn spite of the cold and hunger, the Soviet troops did not surrender easily but fought bravely, often entrenching their tanks to be used as pillboxes and building timber dugouts. Some specialist Finnish soldiers were called in to attack the mottis; the most famous of them was Major Matti Aarnio, or \\\"Motti-Matti,\\\" as he became known.Juutilainen (1999a), pp. 516–517\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn northern Karelia, Soviet forces were outmanoeuvred at Ilomantsi and Lieksa. The Finns used effective guerrilla tactics, taking special advantage of superior skiing skills and snow-white layered clothing and executing many surprise ambushes and raids. By the end of December, the Soviets decided to retreat and transfer resources to more critical fronts.Vuorenmaa (1999), pp. 559–561\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSuomussalmi–Raate double operation\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Suomussalmi–Raate was a double operation, which would later be used by military academics as a classic example of what well-led troops and innovative tactics can do against a much larger adversary. Suomussalmi was a small provincial town of 4,000. The area has long lakes, many wild forests and few roads. The Finnish command believed that the Soviets would not attack here, but the Red Army committed two divisions to the area with orders to cross the wilderness, capture the city of Oulu and effectively cut Finland in two. There were two roads leading to Suomussalmi from the frontier: the northern Juntusranta road and the southern Raate road.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe battle of Raate road, which occurred during the month-long battle of Suomussalmi, resulted in one of the largest losses in the Winter War. The Soviet 44th and parts of the 163rd Rifle Divisions, comprising about 14,000 troops, were almost completely destroyed by a Finnish ambush as they marched along the forest road. A small unit blocked the Soviet advance while Finnish Colonel Hjalmar Siilasvuo and his 9th Division cut off the retreat route, split the enemy force into smaller fragments, and then proceeded to destroy the remnants in detail as they retreated. The Soviets suffered 7,000–9,000 casualties, while the Finnish units lost only 400 men. In addition, the Finnish troops captured dozens of tanks, artillery pieces, anti-tank guns, hundreds of trucks, almost 2,000 horses, thousands of rifles, and much-needed ammunition and medical supplies.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish Lapland\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn Finnish Lapland, the forests gradually thin out until in the north there are no trees at all. Thus, the area offers more room for tank deployment, but it is vastly underpopulated and experiences copious snowfall. The Finns expected nothing more than raiding parties and reconnaissance patrols, but instead the Soviets sent full divisions.Trotter (2002), pp. 171–174 On 11 December, the Finns rearranged the defence of Lapland and detached the Lapland Group from the North Finland Group. The group was placed under the command of Kurt Wallenius.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn southern Lapland, near the tiny rural village of Salla, the Soviet force advanced with two divisions, the 88th and 112th, totalling 35,000 men. In the battle of Salla the Soviets advanced easily to Salla, where the road forked. The northern branch moved toward Pelkosenniemi while the rest pushed on toward Kemijärvi. On 17 December, the Soviet northern group, comprising an infantry regiment, a battalion, and a company of tanks, was outflanked by a Finnish battalion. The 112th retreated, leaving much of its heavy equipment and vehicles behind. Following this success, the Finns shuttled reinforcements down to the defensive line in front of Kemijärvi. The Soviets hammered the defensive line without success. The Finns counterattacked, and the Soviets were pushed back to a new defensive line where they stayed for the rest of the war.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nTo the north was Finland's only ice-free port in the Arctic, Petsamo. The Finns did not have the manpower to defend it fully as the main front was down the Karelian Isthmus. In the battle of Petsamo, the Soviet 104th division attacked the Finnish 104th Independent Cover Company. The Finns gave up Petsamo easily and concentrated on delaying actions. The area was treeless, windy, and relatively low, offering little defensible terrain. However, during the winter, the Finns in Lapland had the advantage of almost constant darkness and extreme temperatures. The Finns executed guerrilla attacks against Soviet supply lines and patrols. As a result, the Soviet movements were halted by the efforts of one-fifth as many Finns.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet breakthrough of the Mannerheim Line\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nRed Army reforms and offensive preparations\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nJoseph Stalin was not pleased with the results of the first month of the Finnish campaign. The Red Army had been humiliated. By the third week of the war, Soviet propaganda was working hard to explain the failures of the Soviet army to the populace: blaming bad terrain and harsh climate, and falsely claiming that the Mannerheim Line was stronger than the Maginot Line, and that the Americans had sent 1,000 of their best pilots to Finland. Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov was given full authority over operations in the Finnish theatre, and he ordered the suspension of frontal assaults in late December. Kliment Voroshilov was replaced with Semyon Timoshenko as the commander of the Soviet forces in the war on 7 January.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe main focus of the Soviet attack was switched to the Karelian Isthmus. Timoshenko and Zhdanov reorganised and tightened control between different branches of service in the Red Army. They also changed tactical doctrines to meet the realities of the situation. All Soviet forces on the Karelian Isthmus were divided into two armies: the 7th and the 13th Armies. The 7th Army, now under Kirill Meretskov, would concentrate 75% of its strength against the 16 km stretch of the Mannerheim Line between Taipale and the Munasuo swamp. Tactics would be basic: an armoured wedge for the initial breakthrough, followed by the main infantry and vehicle assault force. The Red Army would prepare by pinpointing the Finnish frontline fortifications. The 123rd Assault Division then rehearsed the assault on life-size mockups. The Soviets shipped massive numbers of new tanks and artillery pieces to the theatre. Troops were increased from ten divisions to 25–26 divisions, six or seven tank brigades and several independent tank platoons, totalling 600,000 men.Laaksonen (1999), pp. 424–425 On 1 February, the Red Army began a massive offensive, firing 300,000 shells into the Finnish line in the first 24 hours of the bombardment.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet offensive on the Karelian Isthmus\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAlthough the Karelian Isthmus front was less active in January than in December, the Soviets began increasing bombardments, wearing down the defenders and softening their fortifications. During daylight hours, the Finns took shelter inside their fortifications from the bombardments and repaired damage during the night. The situation led quickly to war exhaustion among the Finns, who lost over 3,000 men in trench warfare. The Soviets also made occasional small infantry assaults with one or two companies. Because of the shortage of ammunition, Finnish artillery emplacements were under orders to fire only against directly threatening ground attacks. On 1 February, the Soviets further escalated their artillery and air bombardments.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAlthough the Soviets refined their tactics and morale improved, the generals were still willing to accept massive losses in order to reach their objectives. Attacks were screened by smoke, heavy artillery, and armour support, but the infantry charged in the open and in dense formations. Unlike their tactics in December, Soviet tanks advanced in smaller numbers. The Finns could not easily eliminate tanks if infantry troops protected them.Laaksonen (1999), p. 430 After 10 days of round-the-clock artillery barrages, the Soviets achieved a breakthrough on the western Karelian Isthmus in the second battle of Summa.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 11 February, the Soviets had about 460,000 men, over 3,350 artillery pieces, about 3,000 tanks and about 1,300 aircraft deployed on the Karelian Isthmus. The Red Army was constantly receiving new recruits after the breakthrough. Opposing them the Finns had eight divisions, totalling about 150,000 men. One by one, the defenders' strongholds crumbled under the Soviet attacks and the Finns were forced to retreat. On 15 February, Mannerheim authorised a general retreat of the Second Corps to the Intermediate Line. On the eastern side of the isthmus, the Finns continued to resist Soviet assaults, repelling them in the battle of Taipale.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nPeace negotiations\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAlthough the Finns attempted to re‑open negotiations with Moscow by every means during the war, the Soviets did not respond. In early January, Finnish communist Hella Wuolijoki contacted the Finnish government. She offered to contact Moscow through the Soviet Union's ambassador to Sweden, Alexandra Kollontai. Wuolijoki departed for Stockholm and met Kollontai secretly at a hotel. Soon Molotov decided to extend recognition to the Ryti–Tanner government as the legal government of Finland and put an end to the puppet Terijoki Government of Kuusinen that the Soviets had set up.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nBy mid-February, it became clear that the Finnish forces were rapidly approaching exhaustion. For the Soviets, casualties were high, the situation was a source of political embarrassment to the Soviet regime, and there was a risk of Franco-British intervention. Furthermore, with the spring thaw approaching, the Soviet forces risked becoming bogged down in the forests. The Finnish foreign minister Väinö Tanner arrived in Stockholm on 12 February and negotiated the peace terms with the Soviets through the Swedes. German representatives, not aware that the negotiations were underway, suggested on 17 February that Finland negotiate with the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nBoth Germany and Sweden were keen to see an end to the Winter War. The Germans feared losing iron ore fields in northern Sweden and threatened to attack at once if the Swedes granted the Allied forces right of passage. The Germans even had a theoretical invasion plan called the Studie Nord against Scandinavian countries, which later became the full-blown Operation Weserübung. As the Finnish Cabinet hesitated in the face of the harsh Soviet conditions, Sweden's King Gustav V made a public statement on 19 February in which he confirmed having declined Finnish pleas for support from Swedish troops. On 25 February, the Soviet peace terms were spelled out in detail. On 29 February, the Finnish government accepted the Soviet terms in principle and was willing to enter into negotiations.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nLast days of war\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 5 March, the Red Army advanced 10 to past the Mannerheim Line and entered the suburbs of Viipuri. That same day, the Red Army established a beachhead on the western Gulf of Viipuri. The Finns proposed an armistice on that day, but the Soviets, wanting to keep the pressure on the Finnish government, declined the offer the next day. The Finnish peace delegation went to Moscow via Stockholm and arrived on 7 March. The Soviets made further demands as their military position was strong and improving. On 9 March, the Finnish military situation on the Karelian Isthmus was dire as troops were experiencing heavy casualties. In addition, artillery ammunition supplies were exhausted and weapons were wearing out. The Finnish government, noting that the hoped-for Franco-British military expedition would not arrive in time, as Norway and Sweden had not given the Allies right of passage, had little choice but to accept the Soviet terms. The formal peace treaty was signed in Moscow on 12 March. A cease-fire took effect the next day at noon Leningrad time, 11 a.m. Helsinki time.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAerial warfare\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet Air Force\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Soviet Union enjoyed air superiority throughout the war. The Soviet Air Force, supporting the Red Army's invasion with about 2,500 aircraft (the most common of which was the Tupolev SB) was not as effective as the Soviets might have hoped. The material damage by the bomb raids was slight as Finland did not offer many valuable targets for strategic bombing. Very often, targets were small village depots with little value. The country had only a few modern highways in the interior, therefore making railway systems the main targets for bombers. The rail tracks were cut thousands of times, but they were easy to repair and the Finns usually had trains running again in a matter of hours. The Soviet air force learned from its early mistakes, and by late February they instituted more effective tactics.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe largest bombing raid against the capital of Finland, Helsinki, occurred on the first day of the war. The capital was bombed only a few times thereafter. All in all, Finland lost only 5% of total man-hour production time because of Soviet bombings. Nevertheless, Soviet air attacks affected thousands of civilians, killing 957, as the Soviets recorded 2,075 bombing attacks in 516 localities. The city of Viipuri, a major Soviet objective close to the Karelian Isthmus front, was almost levelled by nearly 12,000 bombs. No attacks on civilian targets were mentioned in Soviet radio or newspaper reports. In January 1940, the Pravda continued to stress that no civilian targets in Finland had been struck, even by accident.Tillotson (1993), p. 157\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish Air Force\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAt the beginning of the war, Finland had a very small air force, with only 114 combat planes fit for duty. Missions were very limited, and fighter aircraft were mainly used to repel Soviet bombers. Strategic bombings could also double as opportunities for military reconnaissance. Old-fashioned and few in number, aircraft could not offer support for Finnish ground troops. In spite of losses, the number of planes in the Finnish Air Force had risen by over 50% by the end of the war. The Finns received shipments of British, French, Italian, Swedish and American aircraft.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish fighter pilots would often fly their motley collection of planes into Soviet formations that outnumbered them 10 or even 20 times. Finnish fighters shot down a confirmed 200 Soviet aircraft, losing 62 of their own. In addition, Finnish anti-aircraft guns brought down more than 300 enemy aircraft. Many times, a Finnish forward air base consisted of a frozen lake, a windsock, a telephone set and some tents. Air-raid warnings were given by Finnish women organised by the Lotta Svärd. In addition to combat, it is estimated that the Soviet air force lost about 400 aircraft because of inclement weather, lack of fuel and tools, and during transportation to the front. The Soviet Air Force flew approximately 44,000 sorties during the war.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNaval warfare\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNaval activity\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nNaval activity during the Winter War was low. The Baltic Sea began to freeze over by the end of December, which made the movement of warships very difficult; by mid-winter, only ice breakers and submarines could still move. The other reason for low naval activity was the nature of Soviet Navy forces in the area. The Baltic Fleet was a coastal defence force which did not have the training, logistical structure, or landing craft to undertake large-scale operations. The Baltic Fleet possessed two battleships, one heavy cruiser, almost 20 destroyers, 50 motor torpedo boats, 52 submarines, and other miscellaneous vessels. The Soviets used naval bases in Paldiski, Tallinn and Liepāja for their operations.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Finnish Navy was a coastal defence force with two coastal defence ships, five submarines, four gunboats, seven motor torpedo boats, one minelayer and six minesweepers. The two coastal defence ships, and , were moved to the harbour in Turku where they were used to bolster the air defences. Their anti-aircraft guns shot down one or two planes over the city, and the ships remained there for the rest of the war. In addition to its role in coastal defence, the Finnish Navy protected the Åland islands and Finnish merchant vessels in the Baltic Sea.Elfvegren (1999), p. 678\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet aircraft bombed Finnish vessels and harbours and dropped mines into Finnish seaways. Still, the Finnish merchant ship losses were low; only five ships were lost to Soviet action. World War II, which had started before the Winter War, proved more costly for the Finnish merchant vessels, with 26 lost due to hostile action in 1939 and 1940.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nCoastal artillery\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn addition to its navy, Finland had coastal artillery batteries to defend important harbors and naval bases along its coast. Most batteries were left over from the Imperial Russian period, with 152 mm guns being the most numerous. However, Finland attempted to modernize its old guns and installed a number of new batteries, the largest of which featured a 305 mm gun battery originally intended to block the Gulf of Finland to Soviet ships with the help of batteries on the Estonian side.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe first naval battle took place on 1 December, near the island of Russarö, 5 km south of Hanko. That day, the weather was fair and the visibility excellent. The Finns spotted the Soviet cruiser and two destroyers. After the ships were at a range of 24 km, the Finns opened fire with 234 mm coastal guns. After five minutes of firing by four coastal guns, the cruiser had been damaged by near misses and retreated. The destroyers remained undamaged, but Kirov suffered 17 dead and 30 wounded. The Soviets already knew the locations of the Finnish coastal batteries, but were surprised by their range.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe coastal artillery had a greater effect upon the land war by helping to reinforce the defence in conjunction with army artillery. Two sets of fortress artillery made significant contributions to the early battles on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ladoga Karelia. These were located at Kaarnajoki on the eastern isthmus and at Mantsi on the northeastern shore of Lake Ladoga. The fortress of Koivisto provided similar support from the southwestern coast of the isthmus. Coastal artillery had the ability to fire high-explosive shells of 152 mm calibre to a range of 25 km.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nPropaganda\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn the first day of war Soviet aircraft bombed Helsinki, inflicting substantial damage and casualties. In response to international criticism, Vyacheslav Molotov stated that the Soviet Air Force was not bombing Finnish cities, but rather dropping humanitarian aid to the starving Finnish population. The Finns, who were not starving, soon ironically dubbed the bombs \\\"Molotov's bread baskets\\\", and named the improvised incendiary device that they used to counter Soviet tanks the \\\"Molotov cocktail\\\", as \\\"a drink to go with the food\\\".\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nForeign support\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nForeign volunteers\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nWorld opinion largely supported the Finnish cause, and the Soviet aggression was generally deemed unjustified. The World War had not yet directly affected France, the UK or the United States; the Winter War was the only real fighting in Europe at that time and thus held major world interest. Several foreign organisations sent material aid, and many countries granted credit and military materiel to Finland. Nazi Germany allowed arms to pass through Sweden to Finland, but after a Swedish newspaper made this fact public, Adolf Hitler initiated a policy of silence towards Finland, as part of improved German–Soviet relations following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nVolunteers arrived from various countries. By far the largest foreign contingent came from neighbouring Sweden, which provided nearly 8,760 volunteers during the war. The Swedish Volunteer Corps (Svenska Frivilligkåren), formed from the Swedes, the Norwegians (727 men) and the Danes (1,010 men), fought on the northern front at Salla during the last weeks of the war. A Swedish unit of Gloster Gladiators, named \\\"the Flight Regiment 19\\\" (Lentorykmentti 19, LeR19; 19. flygflottilj, F19) also participated. Swedish AA-batteries with Bofors 40mm-guns were responsible for the air defence of northern Finland and the city of Turku. Volunteers arrived from Estonia, Italy and Hungary. Also, 350 American nationals of Finnish background volunteered, and 210 volunteers of other nationalities made it to Finland before the war ended. Max Manus, a Norwegian, fought in the Winter War before returning to Norway and achieving fame as a resistance fighter against the Nazi occupation of Norway. In total, Finland received 12,000 volunteers, 50 of whom died during the war.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFranco-British intervention plans\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFrance had been one of the earliest supporters of Finland during the Winter War. The French saw an opportunity to weaken Germany's major ally if the Finns were to attack the Soviet Union. France had other motives as well, because it preferred to have a major war in a remote part of Europe over one on French soil. France planned to re‑arm the Polish exile units and transport them to the Finnish Arctic port of Petsamo. Another scheme was to execute a massive air strike with Turkish cooperation against the Caucasus oil fields.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe British, for their part, wanted to block the flow of iron ore from Swedish mines to Germany because the Swedes supplied up to 40% of Germany's need. The matter was raised by the British Admiral Reginald Plunkett on 18 September 1939, and the next day Winston Churchill brought up the subject in the Cabinet. On 11 December, Churchill opined that the British should gain a foothold in Scandinavia with the objective of helping the Finns but without a war on the Soviet Union. Because of the heavy German reliance on Swedish iron, Hitler had made it clear to the Swedish government in December that any Allied troops on Swedish soil would immediately provoke a German invasion.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nOn 19 December, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier introduced his plan to the General Staff and the British War Cabinet. In his plan, Daladier created linkage between the war in Finland and the iron ore in Sweden. There was a danger of Finland's collapse under Soviet hegemony. In turn, Nazi Germany could occupy both Norway and Sweden. These two dictatorships could divide Scandinavia between them, as they had already done with Poland. The main motivation of the French and the British was to reduce the German war-making ability.Edwards (2006), p. 146\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Military Coordination Committee met the next day in London, and two days later the French plan was put forward. The Supreme War Council elected to send notes to Norway and Sweden on 27 December in which they urged the Norwegians and Swedes to help Finland and offer the Allies their support. Norway and Sweden rejected the offer on 5 January 1940. The Allies then came up with a new plan, in which they would demand that Norway and Sweden give them right of passage by citing the League of Nations resolution as justification. The expedition troops would disembark at the Norwegian port of Narvik and proceed by rail toward Finland, passing through the Swedish ore fields on the way. This demand was sent to Norway and Sweden on 6 January, but it too was rejected six days later.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nStymied but not yet dissuaded from the possibility of action, the Allies formulated a new plan on 29 January. First, the Finns would make a formal request for assistance. Then the Allies would ask Norway and Sweden for permission to move the \\\"volunteers\\\" across their territory. Finally, in order to protect the supply line from German actions, the Allies would send additional units ashore at Namsos, Bergen, and Trondheim. The operation would require 100,000 British and 35,000 French soldiers with naval and air support. The supply convoys would sail on 12 March and the landings would begin on 20 March.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nPeace of Moscow\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Moscow Peace Treaty was signed on 12 March 1940 and went into effect the following day. Finland ceded a portion of Karelia—the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga. The area included Finland's second largest city of Viipuri, much of Finland's industrialised territory, and significant parts still held by Finland's army—all in all, 11% of the territory and 30% of the economic assets of pre-war Finland. Twelve percent of Finland's population, some 422,000 Karelians, were evacuated and lost their homes.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinland also had to cede a part of the region of Salla, the Kalastajansaarento peninsula in the Barents Sea, and four islands in the Gulf of Finland. The Hanko Peninsula was leased to the Soviet Union as a military base for 30 years. The region of Petsamo, captured by the Red Army during the war, was returned to Finland according to the treaty.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish concessions and territorial losses exceeded those demanded by the Soviets pre-war. Before the war, the Soviet Union demanded that the frontier between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 km east of Viipuri, Finland's second-largest city, to the line between Koivisto and Lipola. In addition, the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. Finland should also cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari, Tytärsaari, and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland. In the north, the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento peninsula. Furthermore, the Finns should lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for thirty years, and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there. In exchange the Soviet Union would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia, an area twice as large as the territories demanded from the Finns.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nIn addition to obtaining all of their pre-war demands, the Soviets acquired the entire Karelian Isthmus as well as a large swath of land north of Lake Ladoga. The Soviets also obtained part of the Salla region, while retaining possession of Repola and Porajärvi.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAftermath\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nFinnish views\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe 105-day war had a profound and depressing effect in Finland. Meaningful international support was minimal and arrived late, and the German blockade had prevented most armament shipments. The 15-month period between the Winter War and the Continuation War was later called the Interim Peace.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAfter the end of the war, the situation of the Finnish army on the Karelian Isthmus had been the subject of debate in Finland. Orders were already issued to prepare a retreat to the next line of defence in the Taipale sector. Estimates of how long the Red Army could have been held in these kinds of retreat-and-stand operations varied from a few days to a few weeks, or to a couple of months at most.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Karelian evacuees established an interest group Karjalan Liitto. The group was to defend Karelian rights and interests and to find a way to return ceded regions of Karelia to Finland.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nSoviet views\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nDuring the period between the war and the perestroika in the late 1980s, Soviet historiography leaned solely on Vyacheslav Molotov's speeches on the Winter War. In his radio speech of 29 November 1939, Molotov argued that the Soviet Union had tried to negotiate guarantees of security for Leningrad for two months. However, the Finns had taken a hostile stance to \\\"please foreign imperialists\\\". Finland had undertaken military provocation, and the Soviet Union could no longer hold to non-aggression pacts. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union did not want to occupy or annex Finland; the goal was purely to secure Leningrad.Vihavainen (1999), pp. 893–896\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nAnother source later used widely in Soviet historiography was Molotov's speech in front of the Supreme Soviet on 29 March 1940, in which he blamed Western countries for starting the war and argued that they had used Finland as a proxy to fight the Soviet Union. The Western Allies had furthermore tried to take neutral Sweden and Norway along with them. Thus, the \\\"masterminds\\\" behind the war were the UK and France, but also Sweden, the United States, and Italy, who had issued massive amounts of materiel, money, and men to Finland. According to Molotov, the Soviet Union was merciful in peace terms, as the problem of Leningrad security had been solved.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nMilitary consequences\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Supreme Military Soviet command met in April 1940, reviewed the lessons of the Finnish campaign, and recommended reforms. The role of frontline political commissars was reduced and old-fashioned ranks and forms of discipline were reintroduced. Clothing, equipment, and tactics for winter operations were improved. However, not all of these reforms had been completed when the Germans began Operation Barbarossa 15 months later.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe same year, Finland and Sweden negotiated a military alliance, but the negotiations ended once it became clear that both Germany and the Soviet Union opposed such an alliance.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nGermany\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Winter War was a political success for the Germans. Both the Red Army and the League of Nations were humiliated, and the Allied Supreme War Council had been revealed to be chaotic and powerless. However, the German policy of neutrality was not popular in the homeland, and relations with Italy had suffered badly. After the Peace of Moscow, Germany did not hesitate to move to improve ties with Finland, and within two weeks Finno-German relations were at the top of the agenda.Edwards (2006), pp. 277–279\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nPerhaps more importantly, the very poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nDuring the Interim Peace, Finland established close ties with Germany in hopes of a chance to reclaim areas ceded to the Soviet Union. Three days after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the Continuation War began.\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nWestern Allies\",\n \"Winter War\\n\\nThe Winter War put in question the organisation and effectiveness of the Red Army as well as the Western Allies. The Supreme War Council was unable to formulate a workable plan, revealing its total unsuitability to make effective war in either Britain or France. This failure led to the collapse of the Daladier government in France.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWorld War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of \\\"total war\\\", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (in which approximately one million were killed, and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWorld War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nChronology\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOthers follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935.; ; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191.For 1941 see ; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same \\\"European Civil War\\\" or \\\"Second Thirty Years War\\\": ; . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945). A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities. A treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBackground\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nEurope\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWorld War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nTo prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nDespite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \\\"New Roman Empire\\\".\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAdolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. It was at this time that political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nHoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front; however, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nHitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936. He encountered little opposition from other European powers. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAsia\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nToo weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nPre-war events\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nItalian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nSpanish Civil War (1936–39)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWhen civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians..Tony Judt said that the \\\"communist strategy in Spain turns out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in Eastern Europe after 1945.\\\" See \\nThe Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with both sides during the Second World War, but never concluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nJapanese invasion of China (1937)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese. Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nSoviet-Japanese border conflicts\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nEuropean occupations and agreements\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAlthough all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \\\"war-mongers\\\" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGreatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to \\\"encircle\\\" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights to \\\"spheres of influence\\\" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated Poland.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a \\\"doubtful neutral\\\" that needed to either yield to his demands or be \\\"liquidated\\\" to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future \\\"unavoidable\\\" war with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict. On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nCourse of the war\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWar breaks out in Europe (1939–40)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border. Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth—Australia (3 September), Canada (10 September), New Zealand (3 September), and South Africa (6 September)—declared war on Germany. However, initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted French probe into the Saarland.., observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, \\\"[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so.\\\" The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGermany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October. Poland's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. After the defeat of Poland's armed forces, the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army. About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war. Poland's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October, saying \\\"Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government.\\\" After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAfter signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of \\\"mutual assistance\\\". Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWestern Europe (1940–41)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGermany launched an offensive against France and, adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands. The U.S. in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to protect Greenland, laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively. The French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. As a result, the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nUsing newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck. Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThroughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow \\\"cash and carry\\\" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAlthough Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an \\\"arsenal for democracy\\\" and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the British war effort. In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air offensive, the \\\"early elimination\\\" of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups, and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAt the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact. Romania would make a major contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nMediterranean (1940–41)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nItaly began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started the Greco-Italian War because of Mussolini's jealousy of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred. The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian oil.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of March they had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British-encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria, then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAxis attack on the USSR (1941)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWith the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nHitler believed that Britain's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum (\\\"living space\\\") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAlthough the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields. In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 - west.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWar breaks out in the Pacific (1941)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing economic pressure. During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina. Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions soon followed.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGerman successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nSince early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any \\\"neighboring countries\\\".\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nFrustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November it presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and to supply oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;: \\\"The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\npressure.\\\", listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that \\\"the threat to Japan was not purely economic.\\\" the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nJapan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThese attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAxis advance stalls (1942–43)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn January 1942, the Big Four (the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China) and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nDuring 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, lead to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAt the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies.\\nThe British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nPacific (1942–43)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force centered on two American fleet carriers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWith its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBoth plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nEastern Front (1942–43)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nDespite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nWestern Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942–43)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nExploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and \\\"de-house\\\" the civilian population.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAllies gain momentum (1943–44)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAfter the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the U.S. with support from Australian and New Zealand forces began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. Also, in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies. Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGerman operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nFrom November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. . In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and most lethal siege in history.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.; .The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy (). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella (; ), Fosse Ardeatine (), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema (), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAllies close in (1944)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,: \\\"Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war.\\\" the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\\\"Operation Bagration\\\") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation. However, the largest of these in Warsaw where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians and a national uprising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans. The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland later shifted to the Allied side.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nBy the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAxis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February, US, British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. American and Soviet forces joined on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nSeveral changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGerman forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. On the night of 9–10 March, B-29 bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 people within a few hours. Over the next five months, American bombers firebombed 66 other Japanese cities, causing the destruction of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of between 350,000–500,000 Japanese civilians.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time American bombers were destroying Japanese cities, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that \\\"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\\\". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government was internally divided on whether to make peace and did not respond. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Like the Japanese cities previously bombed by American airmen, the US and its allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity, to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000–500,000 Allied troops and millions of Japanese troops and civilians. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAftermath\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGermany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north-east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn an effort to maintain peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations..The UDHR is viewable here [http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/]. The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—formed the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nGermany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nPost-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years. .\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nRecovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. . The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, continued relative economic decline for decades.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nImpact\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nCasualties and war crimes\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nEstimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 75 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. \\nMany of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass-bombings, disease, and starvation.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOf the total number of deaths in World War II, approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million. civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs (including Ukrainians and Belarusians) —Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups. Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia, and retribution-related killings were committed just after the war ended.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million ), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAxis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and, sometimes on prisoners of war.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees by the German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo, and German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes. The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the death of more than 600,000 German civilians. However, no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nConcentration camps, slave labour, and genocide\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles, and 4 million others who were deemed \\\"unworthy of life\\\" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis. Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war. Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million. Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nJapanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAccording to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: \\\"manual laborers\\\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOn 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast. Canada had a similar program. In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned..\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union. In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nOccupation\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the \\\"inferior people\\\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks. During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4000000 oilbbl of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to , 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nHome fronts and production\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThough the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAdvances in technology and warfare\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAdvances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nIn the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nLand warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nAt the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nThe portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.\",\n \"World War II\\n\\nMost major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1590,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2511"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"What is the name of the bay between northern Spain and western France, known for its rough seas?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Bay of Biscay"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["bizkaiko golkoa","cantabrian sea","french bay","golfe de gascogne","gulf of biscay","golfo de vizcaya","gulf of gascony","golf de gasconha","bay of biscay"],"string":"[\n \"bizkaiko golkoa\",\n \"cantabrian sea\",\n \"french bay\",\n \"golfe de gascogne\",\n \"gulf of biscay\",\n \"golfo de vizcaya\",\n \"gulf of gascony\",\n \"golf de gasconha\",\n \"bay of biscay\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Spain\n\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.","Spain\n\nSpanish territory includes two archipelagos: the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast. It also includes two major exclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, in continental North Africa; and the islands and peñones (rocks) of Alborán, Alhucemas, Chafarinas and Vélez de la Gomera. With an area of 505990 km2, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth largest country in the European continent. By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union.","Spain\n\nModern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. In the early modern period, Spain became one of history's first global colonial empires, leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers, making Spanish the world's second most spoken first language, after Chinese and before English.","Spain\n\nSpain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a middle power and a developed country with the world's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations.","Spain\n\nEtymology","Spain\n\nThe origins of the Roman name Hispania, from which the modern name España was derived, are uncertain due to inadequate evidence. Down the centuries there have been a number of accounts and hypotheses:","Spain\n\nThe Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning \"city of the western world\".","Spain\n\nJesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning \"to forge metals\". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean \"the land where metals are forged\". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning \"island of rabbits\", \"land of rabbits\" or \"edge\", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the \"land of the rabbits\".","Spain\n\nHispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a \"western land\" or \"land of the setting sun\" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.","Spain\n\nThere is the claim that \"Hispania\" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning \"edge\" or \"border\", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.","Spain\n\nTwo 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abrabanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE.","Spain\n\nHistory","Spain\n\nIberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.","Spain\n\nContinued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.","Spain\n\nPrehistory and pre-Roman peoples","Spain\n\nArchaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.","Spain\n\nThe largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Tartessians were in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. A number of trading settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians developed on the Mediterranean coast.","Spain\n\nRoman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom","Spain\n\nDuring the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.","Spain\n\nThe cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.","Spain\n\nThe weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.","Spain\n\nThe Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Douro river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name—Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.","Spain\n\nIsidore of Seville, archbishop of Seville, was an influential philosopher and was much studied in the Middle Ages in Europe. Also, his theories were vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom to a Catholic one, in the Councils of Toledo. This Gothic kingdom was the first Christian kingdom ruling in the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Reconquista it was the referent for the different kingdoms fighting against the Muslim rule.","Spain\n\nMiddle Ages: Muslim invasion and Reconquista","Spain\n\nIn the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.","Spain\n\nUnder Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.","Spain\n\nConversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.","Spain\n\nThe Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.","Spain\n\nCórdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture.","Spain\n\nIn the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.","Spain\n\nThe Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.","Spain\n\nMuslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.","Spain\n\nThe break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a Muslim tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.","Spain\n\nFrom the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. He worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.","Spain\n\nThe Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as \"Spanish\" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses founded in the monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla contain the first written words in both Basque and Spanish, having the first become an influence in the formation of the second as an evolution of Latin.","Spain\n\nIn the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and even Athens. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.","Spain\n\nImperial Spain","Spain\n\nIn 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.\nThat same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. \nThe Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims, and although the tolerance was only partial, it was not until the beginning of the 17th century, following the Revolt of the Alpujarras, that Muslims were finally expelled.","Spain\n\nThe year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although he remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. The colonisation of the Americas started, with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the European cultures and people.","Spain\n\nAs Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.\nWith their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.","Spain\n\nThe unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language.","Spain\n\nSpain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Dutch Revolt, the Morisco Revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish War and wars with France.","Spain\n\nThrough exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations.","Spain\n\nThe rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.","Spain\n\nIn the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates, under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and the renewed threat of an Islamic invasion. This was at a time when Spain was often at war with France.","Spain\n\nThe Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.","Spain\n\nBy the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.","Spain\n\nIn the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.","Spain\n\nThe decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. \nDuring this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.","Spain\n\nThe 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved the kingdom's international standing.","Spain\n\nLiberalism and nation state","Spain\n\nIn 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The ridiculed Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.","Spain\n\nJoseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.","Spain\n\nDuring the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812 a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries.","Spain\n\nSpain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico.","Spain\n\nThe Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s Anti-liberal forces known as Carlists fought against liberals in the Carlist Wars. Liberal forces won, but the conflict between progressive and conservative liberals ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, a more stable monarchic period began characterised by the practice of turnismo (the rotation of government control between progressive and conservative liberals within the Spanish government).","Spain\n\nIn the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of 98 who were conducting an analysis of the country.","Spain\n\nAlthough the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.","Spain\n\nA period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the linguistically distinct regions of Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women and was increasingly dominated by left wing political parties. In the worsening economic situation of the Great Depression, Spanish politics became increasingly chaotic and violent.","Spain\n\nSpanish Civil War and dictatorship","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. For three years the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy fought the Republican side, which was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. In 1939, General Franco emerged victorious and became a dictator.","Spain\n\nThe state as established under Franco was nominally neutral in the Second World War, although sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasized falangism, a form of fascism that emphasized anti-communism, nationalism and Roman Catholicism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.","Spain\n\nAfter World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to cities and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, the favouring of a very conservative form of Roman Catholicism known as National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.","Spain\n\nRestoration of democracy","Spain\n\nIn 1962, Salvador de Madariaga, founder of the Liberal International and the College of Europe, met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich with members of the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in the exile. There were 118 politicians from all factions. At the end of the meetings a resolution in favour of democracy was made.","Spain\n\nWith Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.","Spain\n\nIn the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.\nOn 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.","Spain\n\nDuring the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.","Spain\n\nOn 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.","Spain\n\nOn 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. At 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a plurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or Prime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration.","Spain\n\nThe proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly from around 1 in 50 in 2000 to almost 1 in 8 in 2010 but has since declined. In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–15 Spanish financial crisis and high levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and Catalan independentism served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won elections with 44.6% of votes and Rajoy became the Spanish Prime Minister after having been the leader of the opposition from 2004 to 2011. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.","Spain\n\nGeography","Spain\n\nAt 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47000 km2 smaller than France and 81000 km2 larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.","Spain\n\nSpain lies between latitudes 26° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.","Spain\n\nOn the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and the Principality of Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.","Spain\n\nIslands","Spain\n\nSpain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as (\"places of sovereignty\", or territories under [Spanish] sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.","Spain\n\nLargest inhabited islands of Spain:","Spain\n\nMountains and rivers","Spain\n\nMainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as \"Inner Plateau\") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.","Spain\n\nThere are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.","Spain\n\nClimate","Spain\n\nThree main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: \n* The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm and dry summers. It is dominant in the peninsula, with two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csb Zone, with a more extreme climate, hotter in summer and colder in winter, extends to additional areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. Valladolid, Burgos, León).\n* The semi-arid climate (Bsh, Bsk), located in the southeastern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Murcia and in the Ebro valley. In contrast with the Mediterranean climate, the dry season extends beyond the summer.\n* The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias and partly Galicia. In contrary to the Mediterranean climate, winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.","Spain\n\nApart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada, and a typical desert climate in the zone of Almería and in most parts of the Canary Islands; while in higher areas of the Canary Islands the predominant climate is subtropical.","Spain\n\nThe below-listed list covers the average temperatures of three major cities in Spain; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife which has a significantly different climates to the predominant climate in Spain. More information regarding temperature can be found in city articles and the main article about the Spanish climate.","Spain\n\nFauna and flora","Spain\n\nThe fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.","Spain\n\nThe vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the relief, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors.","Spain\n\nPolitics","Spain\n\nAccording to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 20 full democracies in the world.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.\nThe constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.","Spain\n\nAs a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish administration approved legislation in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act). However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (36.3%). It places Spain 13th on a list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower house. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%). The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.","Spain\n\nGovernment","Spain\n\nSpain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts). The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers of Spain presided over by the Prime Minister, nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.","Spain\n\nThe legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.\n* Head of State\n** King Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014\n* Head of Government\n** Prime Minister of Spain (Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government): Mariano Rajoy Brey, elected 20 November 2011.\n*** Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for the Presidency: Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría.\n* Cabinet\n** Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros) designated by the Prime Minister.","Spain\n\nSpain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías (\"State of Autonomies\"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed regionally, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral and Policía Canaria).","Spain\n\nHuman rights","Spain\n\nThe Government respects the human rights of its citizens; although there are a few problems in some areas, the law and judiciary provide effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners and illegal immigrants. According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.","Spain\n\nSpain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with an 88% of society supporting the gay community compared to 11% who do not.","Spain\n\nAdministrative divisions","Spain\n\nThe Spanish State is integrated by 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are integrated by provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions.","Spain\n\nAutonomies","Spain\n\nAutonomous communities are the first level administrative division in the country. These were created after the 1979 and current constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government to the \"nationalities and regions of Spain\". Autonomous communities were to be integrated by adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economical traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the \"State of Autonomies\".","Spain\n\nThe basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.","Spain\n\nThe government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:\n* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;\n* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain;\n* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organisation within the autonomous community.","Spain\n\nCatalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as \"nationalities\" were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.","Spain\n\nThe autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Aside of fiscal autonomy, the \"historical\" nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid.","Spain\n\nNonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the \"historical nationalities\" and the rest of the regions.","Spain\n\nFinally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast.","Spain\n\nProvinces and municipalities","Spain\n\nAutonomous communities are subdivided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.","Spain\n\nThe current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that are integrated by a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In this cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.","Spain\n\nForeign relations","Spain\n\nAfter the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.","Spain\n\nAs a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to co-ordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.","Spain\n\nSpain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of \"Hispanidad\" or \"Hispanismo\", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture.","Spain\n\n;Territorial disputes\nSpain claims Gibraltar, a 6 km2 Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne.","Spain\n\nThe legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the \"occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law\". The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus, as there has been \"continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period\".","Spain\n\nAnother claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, a claim not recognised by Portugal. Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, therefore claiming that there is no Portuguese territorial waters around the disputed islands. On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views.","Spain\n\nSpain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 m just off the coast of Morocco, 8 km from Ceuta and from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.","Spain\n\nBesides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa; and Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.","Spain\n\nMilitary","Spain\n\nThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: \n* Army (Ejército de Tierra)\n* Navy (Armada)\n* Air Force (Ejército del Aire)","Spain\n\nEconomy","Spain\n\nSpain's capitalist mixed economy is the 16th largest worldwide and the 5th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.","Spain\n\nThe centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favourably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.","Spain\n\nBy the mid-1990s the economy had recommenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment began to drop steadily. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999.","Spain\n\nSince the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest toward Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets.","Spain\n\nSpanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation, Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.","Spain\n\nIn 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world. In 2013 the same survey (now called the \"Where-to-be-born index\"), ranked Spain 28th in the world.","Spain\n\nIn 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012. The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012.","Spain\n\nAgriculture","Spain\n\nCrop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe.","Spain\n\nThough only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40-45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land.","Spain\n\nCitrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the EC.","Spain\n\nTourism","Spain\n\nThe climate of Spain, its geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture and excellent infrastructure, has made Spain's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.","Spain\n\nEnergy","Spain\n\nSpain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy. In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction).","Spain\n\nNon-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p\nEnergimyndigheten&viewdefault&cat\n/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f].","Spain\n\nTransport","Spain\n\nThe Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that \"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution.\"","Spain\n\nSpain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of October 2010, Spain has a total of 3500 km of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains reaching speeds up to 300 km/h. On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.54% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.","Spain\n\nThere are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.","Spain\n\nScience and technology","Spain\n\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Severo Ochoa.","Spain\n\nSee also ASCAMM, Associació Catalana d'Empreses constructores de Motlles i Matrius","Spain\n\nWater supply and sanitation","Spain\n\nWater supply and Sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and generally good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. \nAlmost half of the population is served by private or mixed\nprivate-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts\nwith municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a\nmarket share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de\nBarcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.","Spain\n\nDroughts affect water supply in Southern Spain, which increasingly is turning towards seawater desalination to meet its water needs.","Spain\n\nDemographics","Spain\n\nIn 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain more than doubled since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.","Spain\n\nNative Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.","Spain\n\nIn 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute.","Spain\n\nSubstantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Peru and Mexico. Another 450,000 left in the 17th century. Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil. Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America.","Spain\n\nUrbanisation","Spain\n\n;Metropolitan areas","Spain\n\nSource: \"Áreas urbanas +50\", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013)","Spain\n\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Rank\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Metro area\n!rowspan=\"2\"| Autonomouscommunity\n!colspan=\"2\"| Population\n|- style=\"background: #efefef;\"\n!Government data\n!Other estimates\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 1 || Madrid || Madrid || 6,052,247 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 5.4 – 6.5 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 2 || Barcelona || Catalonia || 5,030,679 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 3 || Valencia || Valencia || 1,551,585 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.5 – 2.3 m \n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 4 || Seville || Andalusia || 1,294,867 || style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1.2 – 1.3 m\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 5 || Málaga || Andalusia || 953,251 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 6 || Bilbao || Basque Country || 910,578 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 7 || Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés || Asturias || 835,053 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 8 || Zaragoza || Aragon || 746,152 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 9 || Alicante–Elche || Valencia || 698,662 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|- style=\"text-align:right;\"\n| 10 || Murcia || Murcia || 643,854 || style=\"background:silver;\"|\n|}","Spain\n\nPeoples","Spain\n\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities—nationalities (a carefully chosen word to avoid the more politically charged \"nations\")—and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians, although to some extent all of the 17 Autonomous Communities will claim a distinct historic identity.","Spain\n\nIt is this last feature of \"shared identity\" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.","Spain\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook (2011), Spain's racial description is presented as \"composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types\" under \"ethnic groups\" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition.","Spain\n\nMinority groups","Spain\n\nSpain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Britons, Germans, French and others.","Spain\n\nThe arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000. There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear.","Spain\n\nHistorically, Sephardi Jews and moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture. The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to sephardi Jews.","Spain\n\nImmigration","Spain\n\nAccording to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.","Spain\n\nWithin the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.","Spain\n\nAnother statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.","Spain\n\nIn 2008, the government instituted a \"Plan of Voluntary Return\" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The program had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer. What the program failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España]. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011","Spain\n\nLanguages","Spain\n\nSpain is openly multilingual, and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect \"all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.Preamble to the Constitution","Spain\n\nSpanish (español)—officially recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that \"all other Spanish languages\"—that is, all other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the \"richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.\"Third article.","Spain\n\nThe other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are:\n* Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre;\n* Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, where its distinct modality of the language is officially known as Valencian (valencià); and\n* Galician (galego) in Galicia","Spain\n\nAs a percentage of the general population, Basque is spoken by 2%, Catalan (or Valencian) by 17%, and Galician by 7% of all Spaniards.","Spain\n\nIn Catalonia, Aranese (aranés), a local variety of the Occitan language, has been declared co-official along with Catalan and Spanish since 2006. It is spoken only in the comarca of Val d'Aran by roughly 6,700 people. Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese group (Asturian – asturianu, also called bable – in Asturias and Leonese – llionés – in Castile and León) and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon.","Spain\n\nIn the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.","Spain\n\nEducation","Spain\n\nState education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system was established by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html La Ley Orgánica 2/2006]. Retrieved 23 September 2009 In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html Ley Orgánica 8/2013]. Retrieved 9 December 2013 Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).","Spain\n\nReligion","Spain\n\nRoman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain, and although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class, and Catholicism is the only religion officially taught. According to an April 2014 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research about 69% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 26% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 59% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church some times a year, 8% some time per month and 14% every Sunday or multiple times per week. Recent polls and surveys have revealed that atheists comprise anywhere from 8% to 20% of the Spanish population.","Spain\n\nAltogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.","Spain\n\nThere have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish misticism was an important intellectual fight against Protestantism with Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun, ahead. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola.","Spain\n\nProtestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.","Spain\n\nA study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were about 1,700,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain , accounting for 3-4% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from Morocco and other African countries. More than 514,000 (30%) of them had Spanish nationality.","Spain\n\nThe recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims.\nAfter the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.","Spain\n\nJudaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion.","Spain\n\nCulture","Spain\n\nCulturally, Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music has been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.","Spain\n\nMonuments and World Heritage Sites","Spain\n\nIt should be noted that after Italy (49) and China (45), Spain is the third country in the world with the most World Heritage Sites. At the present time it has 44 recognised sites, including the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal (the Portuguese part being in the Côa Valley, Guarda), and the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or \"Human treasures\", Spain ranks first in Europe according to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List, tied with Croatia.","Spain\n\n* 1984 — Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín (Granada, Andalusia). * 1984 — Burgos Cathedral (Burgos, Castile-León). * 1984 — Historic Centre of Córdoba (Córdoba, Andalusia). * 1984 — Monastery and Royal Site of El Escorial (Madrid). * 1984 — Works of Antoni Gaudí (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1985 — Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (Asturias, Basque Country and Cantabria regions). * 1985 — Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of Asturias (Asturias). * 1985 — Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches (Ávila, Castile-León). * 1985 — Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct (Segovia, Castile-León). * 1985 — Santiago de Compostela (Old Town) (A Coruña, Galicia). * 1986 — Garajonay National Park (La Gomera, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 1986 — Historic City of Toledo (Toledo, Castile-La Mancha). * 1986 — Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon (Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza in Aragon). * 1986 — Old Town of Cáceres (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1987 — Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (Seville, Andalusia). * 1988 — Old City of Salamanca (Salamanca, Castile-León). * 1991 — Poblet Monastery (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 1993 — Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida (Badajoz, Extremadura).","Spain\n\n* 1993 — Route of Santiago de Compostela (Provinces of Burgos, León and Palencia in Castile-León, Provinces of A Coruña and Lugo in Galicia, La Rioja, Navarre, and the Province of Huesca in Aragon). * 1993 — Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1994 — Doñana National Park (Provinces of Cádiz, Huelva and Seville in Andalusia). * 1996 — Historic Walled Town of Cuenca (Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha). * 1996 — Silk Exchange of Valencia (Valencia). * 1997 — Las Médulas (León, Castile-León). * 1997 — Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1997 — Pirineos – Monte Perdido (Huesca, Aragon – Spanish part / Midi-Pyrénées and Aquitaine – French part). (Shared with France). * 1997 — San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries (La Rioja). * 1998 (2010) — Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Guarda, Norte Region – Portuguese part) and Siega Verde (Salamanca, Castile-León – Spanish part). (Shared with Portugal). * 1998 — Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (Andalusia, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia regions). * 1998 — University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).","Spain\n\n* 1999 — Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Ibiza, Balearic Islands). * 1999 — San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2000 — Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 2000 — Archaeological Site of Atapuerca (Burgos, Castile-León). * 2000 — Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí (Lleida, Catalonia). * 2000 — Palmeral of Elche (Alicante, Valencia). * 2000 — Roman Walls of Lugo (Lugo, Galicia). * 2001 — Aranjuez Cultural Landscape (Madrid). * 2003 — Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (Jaén, Andalusia). * 2006 — Vizcaya Bridge (Biscay, Basque Country). * 2007 — Teide National Park (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2009 — Tower of Hercules (A Coruña, Galicia). * 2011 — Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana (Majorca, Balearic Islands). * 2012 — Heritage of Mercury. Almadén (Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha – Spanish part) and Idrija (Slovene Littoral – Slovenian part). (Shared with Slovenia).","Spain\n\nLiterature","Spain\n\nThe earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).","Spain\n\nDuring the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life.","Spain\n\nOther major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).","Spain\n\nDuring the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.","Spain\n\nThe Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.","Spain\n\nDuring the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.","Spain\n\nDuring the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.","Spain\n\nIn Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general \"Realism\", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.","Spain\n\nThe group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The \"Disaster\" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the 'Generation of 98'.","Spain\n\nThe Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed \"generation\" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.","Spain\n\nLeading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.","Spain\n\nThe Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.","Spain\n\nThe two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. He was also well known by his Iberist ideas.","Spain\n\nArt","Spain\n\nArtists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today and European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.","Spain\n\nDuring the Golden Age we find painters such as El Greco, José de Ribera and Francisco Zurbarán. Also inside Baroque period Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, like Las Meninas or Las Hilanderas.","Spain\n\nFrancisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the raise of state-nations.","Spain\n\nJoaquín Sorolla is a well-known impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.","Spain\n\nCinema","Spain\n\nSpanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.","Spain\n\nActresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz are among those who have become Hollywood stars.","Spain\n\nArchitecture","Spain\n\nDue to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty. Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.","Spain\n\nSimultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.","Spain\n\nThe arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.","Spain\n\nMusic and dance","Spain\n\nSpanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.","Spain\n\nIn the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.","Spain\n\nThousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.","Spain\n\nThe most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.","Spain\n\nCuisine","Spain\n\nSpanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:","Spain\n\nMediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.","Spain\n\nInner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.","Spain\n\nAtlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, like the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.","Spain\n\nSport","Spain\n\nWhile varieties of football had been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by English style association football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team to ever win three back-to-back major international tournaments.","Spain\n\nBasketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.","Spain\n\nRafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain, the game of pelota is very popular.\nAlberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including two Tour de France titles.","Spain\n\nPublic holidays and festivals","Spain\n\nPublic holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.","Spain\n\nThere are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and every year millions of people from all over the world go to Spain to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 to 14 July, the week-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As a result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.","Spain\n\nOther festivals include the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León."],"string":"[\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Along with France and Morocco, it is one of only three countries to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Extending to , the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish territory includes two archipelagos: the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast. It also includes two major exclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, in continental North Africa; and the islands and peñones (rocks) of Alborán, Alhucemas, Chafarinas and Vélez de la Gomera. With an area of 505990 km2, Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe, the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the fourth largest country in the European continent. By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nModern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago. Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE, after which the region was named Hispania. In the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century, following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the centuries-long reconquest, or Reconquista, of the peninsula from the Moors in 1492. In the early modern period, Spain became one of history's first global colonial empires, leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers, making Spanish the world's second most spoken first language, after Chinese and before English.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a middle power and a developed country with the world's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity. It is a member of the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many other international organisations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe origins of the Roman name Hispania, from which the modern name España was derived, are uncertain due to inadequate evidence. Down the centuries there have been a number of accounts and hypotheses:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Renaissance scholar Antonio de Nebrija proposed that the word Hispania evolved from the Iberian word Hispalis, meaning \\\"city of the western world\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the term span is the Phoenician word spy, meaning \\\"to forge metals\\\". Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean \\\"the land where metals are forged\\\". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician I-Shpania, meaning \\\"island of rabbits\\\", \\\"land of rabbits\\\" or \\\"edge\\\", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the \\\"land of the rabbits\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHispania may derive from the poetic use of the term Hesperia, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a \\\"western land\\\" or \\\"land of the setting sun\\\" (Hesperia, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as Hesperia ultima.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere is the claim that \\\"Hispania\\\" derives from the Basque word Ezpanna meaning \\\"edge\\\" or \\\"border\\\", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTwo 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abrabanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España (Spain) took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c. 350 BCE.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came under the rule of the Roman Empire. During the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process that took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas. A global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nContinued wars and other problems eventually led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire and left the country politically unstable. Prior to the Second World War, Spain suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of an authoritarian government, which oversaw a period of stagnation that was followed by a surge in the growth of the economy. Eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPrehistory and pre-Roman peoples\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArchaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, the Homo antecessor. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago. The best known artifacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula, from the northeast to the southeast. The Celts inhabited much of the inner and Atlantic sides of the peninsula, from the northwest to the southwest. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Tartessians were in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. A number of trading settlements of Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians developed on the Mediterranean coast.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRoman Empire and the Gothic Kingdom\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Second Punic War, an expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast from roughly 210 to 205 BCE. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, though they had control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe cultures of the Celtic and Iberian populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at differing rates in different parts of Hispania. Local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century CE. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe weakening of the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction in Hispania began in 409, when the Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans, crossed the Rhine and ravaged Gaul until the Visigoths drove them into Iberia that same year. The Suebi established a kingdom in what is today modern Galicia and northern Portugal. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: but even in modified form, the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Alans' allies, the Hasdingi Vandals, established a kingdom in Gallaecia, too, occupying largely the same region but extending farther south to the Douro river. The Silingi Vandals occupied the region that still bears a form of their name—Vandalusia, modern Andalusia, in Spain. The Byzantines established an enclave, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving the Roman empire throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIsidore of Seville, archbishop of Seville, was an influential philosopher and was much studied in the Middle Ages in Europe. Also, his theories were vital to the conversion of the Visigothic Kingdom to a Catholic one, in the Councils of Toledo. This Gothic kingdom was the first Christian kingdom ruling in the Iberian Peninsula, and in the Reconquista it was the referent for the different kingdoms fighting against the Muslim rule.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMiddle Ages: Muslim invasion and Reconquista\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nUnder Islamic law, Christians and Jews were given the subordinate status of dhimmi. This status permitted Christians and Jews to practice their religions as People of the Book but they were required to pay a special tax and had legal and social rights inferior to those of Muslims.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nConversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The muladíes (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Muslim community in the Iberian Peninsula was itself diverse and beset by social tensions. The Berber people of North Africa, who had provided the bulk of the invading armies, clashed with the Arab leadership from the Middle East. Over time, large Moorish populations became established, especially in the Guadalquivir River valley, the coastal plain of Valencia, the Ebro River valley and (towards the end of this period) in the mountainous region of Granada.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCórdoba, the capital of the caliphate since Abd-ar-Rahman III, was the largest, richest and most sophisticated city in western Europe. Mediterranean trade and cultural exchange flourished. Muslims imported a rich intellectual tradition from the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim and Jewish scholars played an important part in reviving and expanding classical Greek learning in Western Europe. Some important philosophers at the time were Averroes, Ibn Arabi and Maimonides. The Romanised cultures of the Iberian Peninsula interacted with Muslim and Jewish cultures in complex ways, giving the region a distinctive culture. Outside the cities, where the vast majority lived, the land ownership system from Roman times remained largely intact as Muslim leaders rarely dispossessed landowners and the introduction of new crops and techniques led to an expansion of agriculture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 11th century, the Muslim holdings fractured into rival Taifa kingdoms, allowing the small Christian states the opportunity to greatly enlarge their territories. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads restored unity upon the Muslim holdings, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and saw a revival in Muslim fortunes. This re-united Islamic state experienced more than a century of successes that partially reversed Christian gains.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Reconquista (Reconquest) was the centuries-long period in which Christian rule was re-established over the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista is viewed as beginning with the Battle of Covadonga won by Don Pelayo in 722 and was concurrent with the period of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula. The Christian army's victory over Muslim forces led to the creation of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias along the northwestern coastal mountains. Shortly after, in 739, Muslim forces were driven from Galicia, which was to eventually host one of medieval Europe's holiest sites, Santiago de Compostela and was incorporated into the new Christian kingdom. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMuslim armies had also moved north of the Pyrenees but they were defeated by Frankish forces at the Battle of Poitiers, Frankia. Later, Frankish forces established Christian counties on the southern side of the Pyrenees. These areas were to grow into the kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of Iberia was along the Ebro and Douro valleys.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe break-up of Al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms helped the long embattled Iberian Christian kingdoms gain the initiative. The capture of the strategically central city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. Following a great Muslim resurgence in the 12th century, the great Moorish strongholds in the south fell to Christian Spain in the 13th century—Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The last Nasrid sultanate of Granada, a Muslim tributary state would finally surrender in 1492 to the Catholic monarchs Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFrom the mid 13th century, literature and philosophy started to flourish again in the Christian peninsular kingdoms, based on Roman and Gothic traditions. An important philosopher from this time is Ramon Llull. Abraham Cresques was a prominent Jewish cartographer. Roman law and its institutions were the model for the legislators. The king Alfonso X of Castile focused on strengthening this Roman and Gothic past, and also on linking the Iberian Christian kingdoms with the rest of medieval European Christendom. He worked for being elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and published the Siete Partidas code. The Toledo School of Translators is the name that commonly describes the group of scholars who worked together in the city of Toledo during the 12th and 13th centuries, to translate many of the philosophical and scientific works from Classical Arabic, Ancient Greek, and Ancient Hebrew. The Islamic transmission of the classics is the main Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Castilian language—more commonly known (especially later in history and at present) as \\\"Spanish\\\" after becoming the national language and lingua franca of Spain—evolved from Vulgar Latin, as did other Romance languages of Spain like the Catalan, Asturian and Galician languages, as well as other Romance languages in Latin Europe. Basque, the only non-Romance language in Spain, continued evolving from Early Basque to Medieval. The Glosas Emilianenses founded in the monasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla contain the first written words in both Basque and Spanish, having the first become an influence in the formation of the second as an evolution of Latin.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 13th and 14th centuries, the Marinid Muslim sect based in North Africa invaded and established some enclaves on the southern coast but failed in their attempt to re-establish Muslim rule in Iberia and were soon driven out. The 13th century also witnessed the Crown of Aragon, centred in Spain's north east, expand its reach across islands in the Mediterranean, to Sicily and even Athens. Around this time the universities of Palencia (1212/1263) and Salamanca (1218/1254) were established. The Black Death of 1348 and 1349 devastated Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nImperial Spain\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands and in 1492, the combined forces of Castile and Aragon captured the Emirate of Granada, ending the last remnant of a 781-year presence of Islamic rule in Iberia.\\nThat same year, Spain's Jews were ordered to convert to Catholicism or face expulsion from Spanish territories during the Spanish Inquisition. \\nThe Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance toward Muslims, and although the tolerance was only partial, it was not until the beginning of the 17th century, following the Revolt of the Alpujarras, that Muslims were finally expelled.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas, although he remained convinced that he had reached the Orient. The colonisation of the Americas started, with conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. Miscegenation was the rule between the native and the European cultures and people.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs Renaissance New Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand centralised royal power at the expense of local nobility, and the word España, whose root is the ancient name Hispania, began to be commonly used to designate the whole of the two kingdoms.\\nWith their wide-ranging political, legal, religious and military reforms, Spain emerged as the first world power.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country, in social, political, laws, currency and language.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain was Europe's leading power throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Revolt of the Comuneros, the Dutch Revolt, the Morisco Revolt, clashes with the Ottomans, the Anglo-Spanish War and wars with France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThrough exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded to include vast areas in the Americas, islands in the Asia-Pacific area, areas of Italy, cities in Northern Africa, as well as parts of what are now France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. The first circumnavigation of the world was carried out in 1519–1521. It was the first empire on which it was said that the sun never set. This was an Age of Discovery, with daring explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Spanish explorers brought back precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants, and played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century, Spain was confronted by unrelenting challenges from all sides. Barbary pirates, under the aegis of the rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, disrupted life in many coastal areas through their slave raids and the renewed threat of an Islamic invasion. This was at a time when Spain was often at war with France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Protestant Reformation dragged the kingdom ever more deeply into the mire of religiously charged wars. The result was a country forced into ever expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBy the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal (with whom it had been united in a personal union of the crowns from 1580 to 1640) and the Netherlands, and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and the Netherlands; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as one of the leading powers on the Continent. \\nDuring this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. Long united only by the Crown, a true Spanish state was established when the first Bourbon king, Philip V, united the crowns of Castile and Aragon into a single state, abolishing many of the old regional privileges and laws.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The new Bourbon monarchy drew on the French system of modernising the administration and the economy. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. Military assistance for the rebellious British colonies in the American War of Independence improved the kingdom's international standing.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLiberalism and nation state\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, then ensured that Spain allied herself with France in the brief War of the Third Coalition which ended with the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. Napoleon's troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The ridiculed Spanish king abdicated in favour of Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJoseph Bonaparte was seen as a puppet monarch and was regarded with scorn by the Spanish. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many nationalist uprisings across the country against the Bonapartist regime. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Napoleon was forced to intervene personally, defeating several Spanish armies and forcing a British army to retreat. However, further military action by Spanish armies, guerrillas and Wellington's British-Portuguese forces, combined with Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia, led to the ousting of the French imperial armies from Spain in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812 a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime Ferdinand VII dismissed the Cortes Generales and was determined to rule as an absolute monarch. These events foreshadowed the conflict between conservatives and liberals in the 19th and early 20th centuries.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain's conquest by France benefited Latin American anti-colonialists who resented the Imperial Spanish government's policies that favored Spanish-born citizens (Peninsulars) over those born overseas (Criollos) and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 Spain's American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that ended Spanish control over its mainland colonies in the Americas. King Ferdinand VII's attempt to re-assert control proved futile as he faced opposition not only in the colonies but also in Spain and army revolts followed, led by liberal officers. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s Anti-liberal forces known as Carlists fought against liberals in the Carlist Wars. Liberal forces won, but the conflict between progressive and conservative liberals ended in a weak early constitutional period. After the Glorious Revolution of 1868 and the short-lived First Spanish Republic, a more stable monarchic period began characterised by the practice of turnismo (the rotation of government control between progressive and conservative liberals within the Spanish government).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. El Desastre (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of 98 who were conducting an analysis of the country.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAlthough the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little peace; Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa, with the colonisation of Western Sahara, Spanish Morocco and Equatorial Guinea. It remained neutral during World War I (see Spain in World War I). The heavy losses suffered during the Rif War in Morocco brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nA period of authoritarian rule under General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923–1931) ended with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. The Republic offered political autonomy to the linguistically distinct regions of Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia and gave voting rights to women and was increasingly dominated by left wing political parties. In the worsening economic situation of the Great Depression, Spanish politics became increasingly chaotic and violent.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish Civil War and dictatorship\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. For three years the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy fought the Republican side, which was supported by the Soviet Union, Mexico and International Brigades but it was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of Non-Intervention. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. In 1939, General Franco emerged victorious and became a dictator.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe state as established under Franco was nominally neutral in the Second World War, although sympathetic to the Axis. The only legal party under Franco's post civil war regime was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, formed in 1937; the party emphasized falangism, a form of fascism that emphasized anti-communism, nationalism and Roman Catholicism. Given Franco's opposition to competing political parties, the party was renamed the National Movement (Movimiento Nacional) in 1949.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAfter World War II Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialization, a mass internal migration from rural areas to cities and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterized by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, the favouring of a very conservative form of Roman Catholicism known as National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRestoration of democracy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 1962, Salvador de Madariaga, founder of the Liberal International and the College of Europe, met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich with members of the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in the exile. There were 118 politicians from all factions. At the end of the meetings a resolution in favour of democracy was made.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWith Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism has coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but has continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.\\nOn 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. On 30 May 1982 Spain joined NATO, following a referendum. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) after the latter won the 1996 General Elections; at that point the PSOE had served almost 14 consecutive years in office.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn 11 March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Spanish history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque group ETA, evidence soon emerged indicating Islamist involvement. Because of the proximity of the 2004 election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. At 14 March elections, PSOE, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, obtained a plurality, enough to form a new cabinet with Rodríguez Zapatero as the new Presidente del Gobierno or Prime Minister of Spain, thus succeeding the former PP administration.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly from around 1 in 50 in 2000 to almost 1 in 8 in 2010 but has since declined. In 2005 the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–15 Spanish financial crisis and high levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and Catalan independentism served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. In 2011 Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won elections with 44.6% of votes and Rajoy became the Spanish Prime Minister after having been the leader of the opposition from 2004 to 2011. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAt 505992 km2, Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47000 km2 smaller than France and 81000 km2 larger than the US state of California. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain lies between latitudes 26° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOn the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar (a British overseas territory) and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and the Principality of Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIslands\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as (\\\"places of sovereignty\\\", or territories under [Spanish] sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a plaza de soberanía. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLargest inhabited islands of Spain:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMountains and rivers\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMainland Spain is a mountainous country, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3718 m active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as \\\"Inner Plateau\\\") is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (Tajo), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (Duero), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (Miño). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThree main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: \\n* The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm and dry summers. It is dominant in the peninsula, with two varieties: Csa and Csb according to the Köppen climate classification. The Csb Zone, with a more extreme climate, hotter in summer and colder in winter, extends to additional areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. Valladolid, Burgos, León).\\n* The semi-arid climate (Bsh, Bsk), located in the southeastern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Murcia and in the Ebro valley. In contrast with the Mediterranean climate, the dry season extends beyond the summer.\\n* The oceanic climate (Cfb), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the region of Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias and partly Galicia. In contrary to the Mediterranean climate, winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nApart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada, and a typical desert climate in the zone of Almería and in most parts of the Canary Islands; while in higher areas of the Canary Islands the predominant climate is subtropical.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe below-listed list covers the average temperatures of three major cities in Spain; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife which has a significantly different climates to the predominant climate in Spain. More information regarding temperature can be found in city articles and the main article about the Spanish climate.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFauna and flora\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the relief, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floristic characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, biotic factors.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the Democracy Index of the EIU, Spain is one of the 20 full democracies in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.\\nThe constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. Impatient with the slow pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The constitution also specifies that Spain has no state religion and that all are free to practice and believe as they wish.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish administration approved legislation in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life (Gender Equality Act). However, in the legislative branch, as of July 2010 only 128 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (36.3%). It places Spain 13th on a list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower house. In the Senate, the ratio is even lower, since there are only 79 women out of 263 (30.0%). The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the Cortes Generales (General Courts). The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers of Spain presided over by the Prime Minister, nominated and appointed by the monarch and confirmed by the Congress of Deputies following legislative elections. By political custom established by King Juan Carlos since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, the king's nominees have all been from parties who maintain a plurality of seats in the Congress.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados) with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and a Senate (Senado) with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms.\\n* Head of State\\n** King Felipe VI, since 19 June 2014\\n* Head of Government\\n** Prime Minister of Spain (Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government): Mariano Rajoy Brey, elected 20 November 2011.\\n*** Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for the Presidency: Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría.\\n* Cabinet\\n** Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros) designated by the Prime Minister.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is organisationally structured as a so-called Estado de las Autonomías (\\\"State of Autonomies\\\"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all Autonomous Communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed regionally, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see Mossos d'Esquadra, Ertzaintza, Policía Foral and Policía Canaria).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHuman rights\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Government respects the human rights of its citizens; although there are a few problems in some areas, the law and judiciary provide effective means of addressing individual instances of abuse. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners and illegal immigrants. According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with an 88% of society supporting the gay community compared to 11% who do not.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish State is integrated by 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities, both groups being the highest or first-order administrative division in the country. Autonomous communities are integrated by provinces, of which there are 50 in total, and in turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. In Catalonia, two additional divisions exist, the comarques (sing. comarca) and the vegueries (sing. vegueria) both of which have administrative powers; comarques being aggregations of municipalities, and the vegueries being aggregations of comarques. The concept of a comarca exists in all autonomous communities, however, unlike Catalonia, these are merely historical or geographical subdivisions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomies\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomous communities are the first level administrative division in the country. These were created after the 1979 and current constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government to the \\\"nationalities and regions of Spain\\\". Autonomous communities were to be integrated by adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economical traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the \\\"State of Autonomies\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe government of all autonomous communities must be based on a division of powers comprising:\\n* a Legislative Assembly whose members must be elected by universal suffrage according to the system of proportional representation and in which all areas that integrate the territory are fairly represented;\\n* a Government Council, with executive and administrative functions headed by a president, elected by the Legislative Assembly and nominated by the King of Spain;\\n* a Supreme Court of Justice, under the Supreme Court of the State, which head the judicial organisation within the autonomous community.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCatalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as \\\"nationalities\\\" were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also took that denomination in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and regional governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Aside of fiscal autonomy, the \\\"historical\\\" nationalities—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the Policía Autónoma Andaluza in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNonetheless, recent amendments to existing Statutes of Autonomy or the promulgation of new Statutes altogether, have reduced the asymmetry between the powers originally granted to the \\\"historical nationalities\\\" and the rest of the regions.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFinally, along with the 17 autonomous communities, two autonomous cities are also part of the State of Autonomies and are first-order territorial divisions: Ceuta and Melilla. These are two exclaves located in the northern African coast.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nProvinces and municipalities\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAutonomous communities are subdivided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are integrated by municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that are integrated by a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In this cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAfter the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to co-ordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the historically liberal concept of \\\"Hispanidad\\\" or \\\"Hispanismo\\\", as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n;Territorial disputes\\nSpain claims Gibraltar, a 6 km2 Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Then a Spanish town, it was conquered by an Anglo-Dutch force in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish throne.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe legal situation concerning Gibraltar was settled in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht, in which Spain ceded the territory in perpetuity to the British Crown stating that, should the British abandon this post, it would be offered to Spain first. Since the 1940s Spain has called for the return of Gibraltar. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians strongly oppose this, along with any proposal of shared sovereignty. UN resolutions call on the United Kingdom and Spain, both EU members, to reach an agreement over the status of Gibraltar.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish claim makes a distinction between the isthmus that connects the Rock to the Spanish mainland on the one hand, and the Rock and city of Gibraltar on the other. While the Rock and city were ceded by the Treaty of Utrecht, Spain asserts that the \\\"occupation of the isthmus is illegal and against the principles of International Law\\\". The United Kingdom relies on de facto arguments of possession by prescription in relation to the isthmus, as there has been \\\"continuous possession [of the isthmus] over a long period\\\".\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAnother claim by Spain is about the Savage Islands, a claim not recognised by Portugal. Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, therefore claiming that there is no Portuguese territorial waters around the disputed islands. On 5 July 2013, Spain sent a letter to the UN expressing these views.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain claims the sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. The island lies 250 m just off the coast of Morocco, 8 km from Ceuta and from mainland Spain. Its sovereignty is disputed between Spain and Morocco. It was the subject of an armed incident between the two countries in 2002. The incident ended when both countries agreed to return to the status quo ante which existed prior to the Moroccan occupation of the island. The islet is now deserted and without any sign of sovereignty.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBesides the Perejil Island, the Spanish-held territories claimed by other countries are two: Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the plazas de soberanía islets off the northern coast of Africa; and Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas Españolas). Their Commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: \\n* Army (Ejército de Tierra)\\n* Navy (Armada)\\n* Air Force (Ejército del Aire)\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain's capitalist mixed economy is the 16th largest worldwide and the 5th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe centre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 7.6% in October 2006, a rate that compared favourably to many other European countries, and especially with the early 1990s when it stood at over 20%. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include high inflation, a large underground economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, together with the United States and UK.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBy the mid-1990s the economy had recommenced the growth that had been disrupted by the global recession of the early 1990s. The strong economic growth helped the government to reduce the government debt as a percentage of GDP and Spain's high unemployment began to drop steadily. With the government budget in balance and inflation under control Spain was admitted into the Eurozone in 1999.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSince the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. This early global expansion is a competitive advantage over its competitors and European neighbours. The reason for this early expansion is the booming interest toward Spanish language and culture in Asia and Africa and a corporate culture that learned to take risks in unstable markets.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator ), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation, Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2005 the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Spain among the top 10 in the world. In 2013 the same survey (now called the \\\"Where-to-be-born index\\\"), ranked Spain 28th in the world.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2010, the Basque city of Bilbao was awarded with the Lee Kuan Yew World City Prize, and its mayor at the time, Iñaki Azkuna, was awarded the World Mayor Prize in 2012. The Basque capital city of Vitoria-Gasteiz received the European Green Capital Award in 2012.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAgriculture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCrop areas were farmed in two highly diverse manners. Areas relying on non-irrigated cultivation (secano), which made up 85% of the entire crop area, depended solely on rainfall as a source of water. They included the humid regions of the north and the northwest, as well as vast arid zones that had not been irrigated. The much more productive regions devoted to irrigated cultivation (regadío) accounted for 3 million hectares in 1986, and the government hoped that this area would eventually double, as it already had doubled since 1950. Particularly noteworthy was the development in Almería—one of the most arid and desolate provinces of Spain—of winter crops of various fruits and vegetables for export to Europe.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThough only about 17% of Spain's cultivated land was irrigated, it was estimated to be the source of between 40-45% of the gross value of crop production and of 50% of the value of agricultural exports. More than half of the irrigated area was planted in corn, fruit trees, and vegetables. Other agricultural products that benefited from irrigation included grapes, cotton, sugar beets, potatoes, legumes, olive trees, mangos, strawberries, tomatoes, and fodder grasses. Depending on the nature of the crop, it was possible to harvest two successive crops in the same year on about 10% of the country's irrigated land.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCitrus fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, olive oil, and wine—Spain's traditional agricultural products—continued to be important in the 1980s. In 1983 they represented 12%, 12%, 8%, 6%, and 4%, respectively, of the country's agricultural production. Because of the changed diet of an increasingly affluent population, there was a notable increase in the consumption of livestock, poultry, and dairy products. Meat production for domestic consumption became the single most important agricultural activity, accounting for 30% of all farm-related production in 1983. Increased attention to livestock was the reason that Spain became a net importer of grains. Ideal growing conditions, combined with proximity to important north European markets, made citrus fruits Spain's leading export. Fresh vegetables and fruits produced through intensive irrigation farming also became important export commodities, as did sunflower seed oil that was produced to compete with the more expensive olive oils in oversupply throughout the Mediterranean countries of the EC.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe climate of Spain, its geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture and excellent infrastructure, has made Spain's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEnergy\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is one of the world's leading countries in the development and production of renewable energy. In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 42,976 GWh, which accounted for 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached an instantaneous historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine (2 power plants under construction).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNon-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p\\nEnergimyndigheten&viewdefault&cat\\n/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f].\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that \\\"the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution.\\\"\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of October 2010, Spain has a total of 3500 km of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains reaching speeds up to 300 km/h. On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.54% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca (23 million passengers), Málaga (13 million passengers), Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) (11 million passengers), Alicante (10 million passengers) and smaller, with the number of passengers between 4 and 10 million, for example Tenerife (two airports), Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Ibiza, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura. Also, more than 30 airports with the number of passengers below 4 million.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries science in Spain was held back by severe political instability and consequent economic underdevelopment. Despite the conditions, some important scientists and engineers emerged. The most notable were Miguel Servet, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Narcís Monturiol i Estarriol, Celedonio Calatayud, Juan de la Cierva, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo and Severo Ochoa.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSee also ASCAMM, Associació Catalana d'Empreses constructores de Motlles i Matrius\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWater supply and sanitation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWater supply and Sanitation in Spain is characterized by universal access and generally good service quality, while tariffs are among the lowest in the EU. \\nAlmost half of the population is served by private or mixed\\nprivate-public water companies, which operate under concession contracts\\nwith municipalities. The largest of the private water companies, with a\\nmarket share of about 50% of the private concessions, is Aguas de\\nBarcelona (Agbar). However, the large cities are all served by public companies except Barcelona and Valencia. The largest public company is Canal de Isabel II, which serves the metropolitan area of Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDroughts affect water supply in Southern Spain, which increasingly is turning towards seawater desalination to meet its water needs.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain more than doubled since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nNative Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic islands, where many choose to live their retirement or telecommute.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSubstantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. Around 240,000 Spaniards emigrated in the 16th century, mostly to Peru and Mexico. Another 450,000 left in the 17th century. Between 1846 and 1932 it is estimated that nearly 5 million Spaniards emigrated to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil. Approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries between 1960 and 1975. During the same period perhaps 300,000 went to Latin America.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nUrbanisation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n;Metropolitan areas\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSource: \\\"Áreas urbanas +50\\\", Ministry of Public Works and Transport (2013)\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n|- style=\\\"background: #efefef;\\\"\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Rank\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Metro area\\n!rowspan=\\\"2\\\"| Autonomouscommunity\\n!colspan=\\\"2\\\"| Population\\n|- style=\\\"background: #efefef;\\\"\\n!Government data\\n!Other estimates\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 1 || Madrid || Madrid || 6,052,247 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 5.4 – 6.5 m \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 2 || Barcelona || Catalonia || 5,030,679 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 3 || Valencia || Valencia || 1,551,585 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 1.5 – 2.3 m \\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 4 || Seville || Andalusia || 1,294,867 || style=\\\"text-align:left;\\\"| 1.2 – 1.3 m\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 5 || Málaga || Andalusia || 953,251 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 6 || Bilbao || Basque Country || 910,578 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 7 || Oviedo–Gijón–Avilés || Asturias || 835,053 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 8 || Zaragoza || Aragon || 746,152 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 9 || Alicante–Elche || Valencia || 698,662 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|- style=\\\"text-align:right;\\\"\\n| 10 || Murcia || Murcia || 643,854 || style=\\\"background:silver;\\\"|\\n|}\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPeoples\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities—nationalities (a carefully chosen word to avoid the more politically charged \\\"nations\\\")—and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one. Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians, Andalusians and Valencians, although to some extent all of the 17 Autonomous Communities will claim a distinct historic identity.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIt is this last feature of \\\"shared identity\\\" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook (2011), Spain's racial description is presented as \\\"composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types\\\" under \\\"ethnic groups\\\" instead of the usual breakdown of ethnic composition.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMinority groups\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Britons, Germans, French and others.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe arrival of the gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000. There are also the mercheros (also quinquis), a formerly nomadic minority group. Their origin is unclear.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nHistorically, Sephardi Jews and moriscos are the main minority groups originated in Spain and with a contribution to Spanish culture. The Spanish government is offering Spanish nationality to sephardi Jews.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nImmigration\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAccording to the Spanish government there were 5.7 million foreign residents in Spain in 2011, or 12% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWithin the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAnother statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the Financial Times reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn 2008, the government instituted a \\\"Plan of Voluntary Return\\\" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The program had little effect; during its first two months, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer. What the program failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners.[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España]. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpain is openly multilingual, and the constitution establishes that the nation will protect \\\"all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions.Preamble to the Constitution\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish (español)—officially recognised in the constitution as Castilian (castellano)—is the official language of the entire country, and it is the right and duty of every Spaniard to know the language. The constitution also establishes that \\\"all other Spanish languages\\\"—that is, all other languages of Spain—will also be official in their respective autonomous communities in accordance to their Statutes, their organic regional legislations, and that the \\\"richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.\\\"Third article.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe other official languages of Spain, co-official with Spanish are:\\n* Basque (euskara) in the Basque Country and Navarre;\\n* Catalan (català) in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and in the Valencian Community, where its distinct modality of the language is officially known as Valencian (valencià); and\\n* Galician (galego) in Galicia\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAs a percentage of the general population, Basque is spoken by 2%, Catalan (or Valencian) by 17%, and Galician by 7% of all Spaniards.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn Catalonia, Aranese (aranés), a local variety of the Occitan language, has been declared co-official along with Catalan and Spanish since 2006. It is spoken only in the comarca of Val d'Aran by roughly 6,700 people. Other Romance minority languages, though not official, have special recognition, such as the Astur-Leonese group (Asturian – asturianu, also called bable – in Asturias and Leonese – llionés – in Castile and León) and Aragonese (aragonés) in Aragon.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the North African Spanish autonomous city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English and German are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nState education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system was established by the 2006 educational law, LOE (Ley Orgánica de Educación), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html La Ley Orgánica 2/2006]. Retrieved 23 September 2009 In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer LOMCE law (Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called Ley Wert (Wert Law).[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html Ley Orgánica 8/2013]. Retrieved 9 December 2013 Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRoman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain, and although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class, and Catholicism is the only religion officially taught. According to an April 2014 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research about 69% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2% other faith, and about 26% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 59% hardly ever or never go to church, 15% go to church some times a year, 8% some time per month and 14% every Sunday or multiple times per week. Recent polls and surveys have revealed that atheists comprise anywhere from 8% to 20% of the Spanish population.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAltogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month. Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere have been four Spanish Popes. Damasus I, Calixtus III, Alexander VI and Benedict XIII. Spanish misticism was an important intellectual fight against Protestantism with Teresa of Ávila, a reformist nun, ahead. The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius of Loyola.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nProtestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nA study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were about 1,700,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain , accounting for 3-4% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from Morocco and other African countries. More than 514,000 (30%) of them had Spanish nationality.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Muslims.\\nAfter the Reconquista in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents in Spanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJudaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain prior to its expulsion.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCulturally, Spain is a Western country. Almost every aspect of Spanish life is permeated by its Roman heritage, making Spain one of the major Latin countries of Europe. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to Catholicism, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music has been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMonuments and World Heritage Sites\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIt should be noted that after Italy (49) and China (45), Spain is the third country in the world with the most World Heritage Sites. At the present time it has 44 recognised sites, including the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal (the Portuguese part being in the Côa Valley, Guarda), and the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or \\\"Human treasures\\\", Spain ranks first in Europe according to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List, tied with Croatia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1984 — Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín (Granada, Andalusia). * 1984 — Burgos Cathedral (Burgos, Castile-León). * 1984 — Historic Centre of Córdoba (Córdoba, Andalusia). * 1984 — Monastery and Royal Site of El Escorial (Madrid). * 1984 — Works of Antoni Gaudí (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1985 — Cave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (Asturias, Basque Country and Cantabria regions). * 1985 — Monuments of Oviedo and the Kingdom of Asturias (Asturias). * 1985 — Old Town of Ávila with its Extra-Muros Churches (Ávila, Castile-León). * 1985 — Old Town of Segovia and its Aqueduct (Segovia, Castile-León). * 1985 — Santiago de Compostela (Old Town) (A Coruña, Galicia). * 1986 — Garajonay National Park (La Gomera, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 1986 — Historic City of Toledo (Toledo, Castile-La Mancha). * 1986 — Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon (Provinces of Teruel and Zaragoza in Aragon). * 1986 — Old Town of Cáceres (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1987 — Cathedral, Alcázar and Archivo de Indias in Seville (Seville, Andalusia). * 1988 — Old City of Salamanca (Salamanca, Castile-León). * 1991 — Poblet Monastery (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 1993 — Archaeological Ensemble of Mérida (Badajoz, Extremadura).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1993 — Route of Santiago de Compostela (Provinces of Burgos, León and Palencia in Castile-León, Provinces of A Coruña and Lugo in Galicia, La Rioja, Navarre, and the Province of Huesca in Aragon). * 1993 — Royal Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe (Cáceres, Extremadura). * 1994 — Doñana National Park (Provinces of Cádiz, Huelva and Seville in Andalusia). * 1996 — Historic Walled Town of Cuenca (Cuenca, Castile-La Mancha). * 1996 — Silk Exchange of Valencia (Valencia). * 1997 — Las Médulas (León, Castile-León). * 1997 — Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau in Barcelona (Barcelona, Catalonia). * 1997 — Pirineos – Monte Perdido (Huesca, Aragon – Spanish part / Midi-Pyrénées and Aquitaine – French part). (Shared with France). * 1997 — San Millán Yuso and Suso Monasteries (La Rioja). * 1998 (2010) — Prehistoric Rock Art Sites in the Côa Valley (Guarda, Norte Region – Portuguese part) and Siega Verde (Salamanca, Castile-León – Spanish part). (Shared with Portugal). * 1998 — Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin on the Iberian Peninsula (Andalusia, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, Catalonia, Murcia and Valencia regions). * 1998 — University and Historic Precinct of Alcalá de Henares (Madrid).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\n* 1999 — Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Ibiza, Balearic Islands). * 1999 — San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2000 — Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco (Tarragona, Catalonia). * 2000 — Archaeological Site of Atapuerca (Burgos, Castile-León). * 2000 — Catalan Romanesque Churches of the Vall de Boí (Lleida, Catalonia). * 2000 — Palmeral of Elche (Alicante, Valencia). * 2000 — Roman Walls of Lugo (Lugo, Galicia). * 2001 — Aranjuez Cultural Landscape (Madrid). * 2003 — Renaissance Monumental Ensembles of Úbeda and Baeza (Jaén, Andalusia). * 2006 — Vizcaya Bridge (Biscay, Basque Country). * 2007 — Teide National Park (Tenerife, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands). * 2009 — Tower of Hercules (A Coruña, Galicia). * 2011 — Cultural Landscape of the Serra de Tramuntana (Majorca, Balearic Islands). * 2012 — Heritage of Mercury. Almadén (Ciudad Real, Castile-La Mancha – Spanish part) and Idrija (Slovene Littoral – Slovenian part). (Shared with Slovenia).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLiterature\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe earliest recorded examples of vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked, the Kharjas (Jarchas).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Reconquista, the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOther major plays from the medieval times were Mester de Juglaría, Mester de Clerecía, Coplas por la muerte de su padre or El Libro de buen amor (The Book of Good Love).\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Renaissance the major plays are La Celestina and El Lazarillo de Tormes, while many religious literature was created with poets as Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa de Jesús, etc.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Baroque is the most important period for Spanish culture. We are in the times of the Spanish Empire. The famous Don Quijote de La Mancha by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Enlightenment we find names such as Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Romanticism, José Zorrilla created one of the most emblematic figures in European literature in Don Juan Tenorio. Other writers from this period are Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, José de Espronceda, Rosalía de Castro or Mariano José de Larra.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn Realism we find names such as Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) or Vicente Blasco Ibáñez and Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general \\\"Realism\\\", Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of romanticised or stylised presentations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe group that has become known as the Generation of 1898 was marked by the destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by US gunboats in 1898, which provoked a cultural crisis in Spain. The \\\"Disaster\\\" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of Regeneracionismo. For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the 'Generation of 98'.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo. The next supposed \\\"generation\\\" of Spanish writers following those of '98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nLeading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Maria Zambrano, Eugeni d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of '98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. Salvador de Madariaga, another prominent intellectual and writer, was one of the founders of the College of Europe and the composer of the constitutive manifest of the Liberal International.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe Generation of 1927, where poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of regeneracionistas and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe two main writers in the second half of the 20th century were the Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Camilo José Cela and Miguel Delibes. Spain is one of the countries with the most number of laureates with the Nobel Prize in Literature, and with Latin American laureates they made the Spanish language literature one of the most laureates of all. The Spanish writers are: José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Vicente Aleixandre and Camilo José Cela. The Portuguese writer José Saramago, also awarded with the prize, lived for many years in Spain and spoke both Portuguese and Spanish. He was also well known by his Iberist ideas.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArtists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today and European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDuring the Golden Age we find painters such as El Greco, José de Ribera and Francisco Zurbarán. Also inside Baroque period Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, like Las Meninas or Las Hilanderas.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nFrancisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the raise of state-nations.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nJoaquín Sorolla is a well-known impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem, Isabel Coixet, Alejandro Amenábar, Icíar Bollaín and brothers David Trueba and Fernando Trueba.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nActresses Sara Montiel and Penélope Cruz are among those who have become Hollywood stars.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nDue to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensive Roman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty. Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex in Granada.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSimultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMusic and dance\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nIn the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThe most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or gaiteros, mainly in Asturias and Galicia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSpanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nMediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito (fried fish); several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia and arròs negre (black rice) from Catalonia.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nInner Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nAtlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like caldo gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, like the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based polbo á feira and shellfish dishes.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nWhile varieties of football had been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by English style association football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team to ever win three back-to-back major international tournaments.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nBasketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nRafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain, the game of pelota is very popular.\\nAlberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including two Tour de France titles.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPublic holidays and festivals\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nPublic holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragon and throughout Spain.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nThere are many festivals and festivities in Spain. Some of them are known worldwide, and every year millions of people from all over the world go to Spain to experience one of these festivals. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the encierro, or the running of the bulls, which happens at 8:00 am from 7 to 14 July, the week-long celebration involves many other traditional and folkloric events. Its events were central to the plot of The Sun Also Rises, by Ernest Hemingway, which brought it to the general attention of English-speaking people. As a result, it has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year.\",\n \"Spain\\n\\nOther festivals include the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1591,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2512"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which city linked by canal with Rotterdam and Amsterdam, is the seat of the Netherlands government?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"The Hague"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["s gravenhage","haig","s 60gravenshage","municipality of hague","un locode nlhag","hague","den hague","gravenhage","hauge","lahey","den haag","hague netherlands","den hagg"],"string":"[\n \"s gravenhage\",\n \"haig\",\n \"s 60gravenshage\",\n \"municipality of hague\",\n \"un locode nlhag\",\n \"hague\",\n \"den hague\",\n \"gravenhage\",\n \"hauge\",\n \"lahey\",\n \"den haag\",\n \"hague netherlands\",\n \"den hagg\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam ( or; ) is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety. In 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europe's largest port and has a population of 630,383 (, city proper), ranking second in the Netherlands. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people[http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?VWT&DM\nSLNL&PA37230ned&D1\n17&D245,70,92,483&D3\n169&HD150505-0308&LA\nEN&HDRG2&STB\nG1,T Population growth; regions per month], CBS StatLine, 20151,404,963 Greater Rijnmond ()1,173,272 Rotterdam Metro ()1,033,629 Rotterdam Urban () 630,383 Rotterdam Municipality () and the Rotterdam The Hague urban area makes for the 168th most populous urban area in the world. Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000.","Rotterdam\n\nThe city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life and its maritime heritage. The near-complete destruction of Rotterdam's city centre during World War II (known as the Rotterdam Blitz) has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed 8th in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit and was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.","Rotterdam\n\nThe port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdam's logistic success is based on its strategic location on the North Sea, directly at the mouth of the Nieuwe Maas (New Meuse) channel leading into the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, including the highly industrialized Ruhr region. The extensive distribution system including rail, roads and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname \"Gateway to Europe\", and, conversely; \"Gateway to the World\" in Europe.","Rotterdam\n\nHistory","Rotterdam\n\nThe settlement at the lower end of the fen stream Rotte (or Rotta, as it was then known, from rot, 'muddy' and a, 'water', thus 'muddy water') dates from at least 900 CE. Around 1150, large floods in the area ended development, leading to the construction of protective dikes and dams, including Schielands Hoge Zeedijk ('Schieland’s High Sea Dike') along the northern banks of the present-day Nieuwe Maas. A dam on the Rotte or 'Rotterdam' was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat ('High Street').","Rotterdam\n\nOn 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. Around the year 1350 , a shipping canal, the Rotterdamse Schie was completed, which provided Rotterdam access to the larger towns in the north, allowing it to become a local trans-shipment centre between the Netherlands, England and Germany, and to urbanize.","Rotterdam\n\nThe port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six 'chambers' of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), the Dutch East India Company.","Rotterdam\n\nThe greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the south bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdam's rapid growth and success. When completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m.","Rotterdam\n\nDuring World War I the city was the world's largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality and its strategic location in between Great-Britain, Germany and German-occupied Belgium. Many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes. From there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters and escaped Allied POW's.","Rotterdam\n\nDuring World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, but his forces met unexpectedly fierce resistance. The Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitler's bombing Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities. The heart of Rotterdam was almost completely destroyed by the Luftwaffe. Some 80,000 civilians were made homeless and 900 were killed; a relatively low number given that many had fled the city because of the warfare and bombing going on in Rotterdam since the start of the invasion three days earlier. The City Hall survived the bombing. Ossip Zadkine later attempted to capture the event with his statue De Verwoeste Stad ('The Destroyed City'). The statue stands near the Leuvehaven, not far from the Erasmusbrug in the centre of the city, on the north shore of the river Nieuwe Maas.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam was gradually rebuilt from the 1950s through to the 1970s. It remained quite windy and open until the city councils from the 1980s on began developing an active architectural policy. Daring and new styles of apartments, office buildings and recreation facilities resulted in a more 'livable' city centre with a new skyline. In the 1990s, the Kop van Zuid was built on the south bank of the river as a new business centre.\nRotterdam was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.","Rotterdam\n\nGeography","Rotterdam\n\n'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge'). The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nThe city centre is located on the northern bank of the Nieuwe Maas, although recent urban development has extended the centre to parts of southern Rotterdam known as De Kop van Zuid ('the Head of South', i.e. the northern part of southern Rotterdam). From its inland core, Rotterdam reaches the North Sea by a swathe of predominantly harbour area.","Rotterdam\n\nBuilt mostly behind dikes, large parts of the Rotterdam are below sea level. For instance, the Prins Alexander Polder in the northeast of Rotterdam extends 6 m below sea level, or rather below Normaal Amsterdams Peil (NAP) or 'Amsterdam Ordnance Datum'. The lowest point in the Netherlands ( below NAP) is situated just to the east of Rotterdam, in the municipality of Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel.","Rotterdam\n\nThe Rotte river no longer joins the Nieuwe Maas directly. Since the early 1980s, when the construction of Rotterdam’s second subway line interfered with the Rotte’s course, its waters have been pumped through a pipe into the Nieuwe Maas via the Boerengat.","Rotterdam\n\nBetween the summers of 2003 and 2008, an artificial beach was created at the Boompjeskade along the Nieuwe Maas, between the Erasmus Bridge and the Willems Bridge. Swimming was not possible, digging pits was limited to the height of the layer of sand, about 50 cm. Alternatively people go the beach of Hoek van Holland (which is a Rotterdam district) or one of the beaches in Zeeland: Renesse or the Zuid Hollandse Eilanden: Ouddorp, Oostvoorne.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam forms the centre of the Rijnmond conurbation, bordering the conurbation surrounding The Hague to the north-west. The two conurbations are close enough to be a single conurbation. They share the Rotterdam The Hague Airport and a light rail system called RandstadRail. Consideration is being given to creating an official Metropolitan region Rotterdam The Hague (Metropoolregio Rotterdam Den Haag), which would have a combined population approaching 2.5 million.","Rotterdam\n\nOn its turn, the Rijnmond conurbation is part of the southern wing (the Zuidvleugel) of the Randstad, which is one of the most important economic and densely populated areas in the north-west of Europe. Having a population of 7.1 million, the Randstad is the sixth-largest urban area in Europe (after Moscow, London, Paris, Istanbul, and the Rhein-Ruhr Area). The Zuidvleugel, situated in the province of South Holland, has a population of around 3 million.","Rotterdam\n\nClimate","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to all of the Netherlands. Located near to the coast, its climate is slightly milder than locations further inland.","Rotterdam\n\nDemographics","Rotterdam\n\nOverall the demographics differ per city area. According to a recent area analysis, the city centre has a singles population of 70%, between the ages of 20 and 40, considerably more than other city areas. Also the city centre has a much larger population of people with higher education and higher income. Nonetheless, 80% of the homes are rented, not owned. The city centre also has a higher percentage (51% vs 45%) of foreign-born citizens (Dutch: allochtonen). The majority (70%) of shops are also run by foreign-born citizens.","Rotterdam\n\nComposition","Rotterdam\n\nOn 1 January 2007 (source: Statistics Netherlands), the municipality covered an area of 319 km2 (206.44 km2 of which is land) with a population of 603,425. It is part of a larger metropolitan area with a total population (including Dordrecht and surrounding cities) of approximately 1.6 million. In 1965, the municipal population of Rotterdam reached its peak of 731,000, but by 1984 it had decreased to 555,000 as a result of suburbanization.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam consists of 14 submunicipalities: Centrum ('Center'), Charlois (including Heijplaat), Delfshaven, Feijenoord, Hillegersberg-Schiebroek, Hoek van Holland, Hoogvliet, IJsselmonde, Kralingen-Crooswijk, Noord, Overschie, Prins Alexander (the most populous submunicipality with around 85,000 inhabitants), and Rozenburg. One other area, Pernis, does have an official submunicipality status since 3 March 2010.","Rotterdam\n\nThe current size of the municipality of Rotterdam is the result of the amalgamation of the following former municipalities, some of which now are a submunicipality:","Rotterdam\n\n*Delfshaven (added on 30 January 1886)\n*Charlois (added on 28 February 1895)\n*Kralingen (added on 28 February 1895)\n*Hoogvliet (added on 1 May 1934)\n*Pernis (added on 1 May 1934)\n*Hillegersberg (added on 1 August 1941)\n*IJsselmonde (added on 1 August 1941)\n*Overschie (added on 1 August 1941)\n*Schiebroek (added on 1 August 1941)\n*Rozenburg (added on 18 March 2010)","Rotterdam\n\nEthnic make-up","Rotterdam\n\nIn the Netherlands, Rotterdam has the highest percentage of foreigners from non-industrialised nations. They form a large part of Rotterdam's multi ethnic and multicultural diversity. 47.7% of the population are of non Dutch origins or have at least one parent born outside the country. There are 80,000 Muslims, constituting 13% of the population. The mayor of Rotterdam, Ahmed Aboutaleb, is of Moroccan descent and is a practicing Muslim. The city is home to the largest Dutch Antillean community. The city also has its own China Town at the (West-) Kruiskade, close to the central railway station.","Rotterdam\n\nEconomy","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has always been one of the main centres of the shipping industry in the Netherlands. From the Rotterdam Chamber of the VOC, the world's first multinational, established in 1602, to the merchant shipping leader Royal Nedlloyd established in 1970, with its corporate headquarters located in the landmark building the 'Willemswerf' in 1988. In 1997, Nedlloyd merged with the British shipping industry leader P&O forming the third largest merchant shipping company in the world. The Anglo-Dutch P&O Nedlloyd was bought by the Danish giant corporation 'AP Moller Maersk' in 2005 and its Dutch operations are still headquartered in the 'Willemswerf'.","Rotterdam\n\nNowadays, well-known companies with headquarters in Rotterdam are consumers goods company Unilever, asset management firm Robeco, energy company Eneco, dredging company Van Oord, oil company Shell Downstream, terminal operator Vopak,commodity trading company Vitol and architecture firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture.\nIt is also home to the regional headquarters of chemical company LyondellBasell, commodities trading company Glencore, pharmaceutical company Pfizer, logistics companies Stolt-Nielsen, electrical equipment company ABB Group and consumer goods company Procter & Gamble. Furthermore, Rotterdam has the Dutch headquarters of Allianz, Maersk, Petrobras, Samskip, Louis Dreyfus Group and Aon.","Rotterdam\n\nThe City of Rotterdam makes use of the services of semi-government companies Roteb (to take care of sanitation, waste management and assorted services) and the Port of Rotterdam Authority (to maintain the Port of Rotterdam). Both these companies were once municipal bodies, now they are autonomous entities, owned by the City.","Rotterdam\n\nBeing the largest port and one of the largest cities of the country, Rotterdam attracts many people seeking jobs, especially in the cheap labour segment. The city's unemployment rate is 8.5%, twice the national average.","Rotterdam\n\nTogether with Eindhoven (Brainport) and Amsterdam (Airport), Rotterdam (Seaport) forms the foundation of the Dutch economy.","Rotterdam\n\nPorts","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland and into France. In 2004 Shanghai took over as the world's busiest port. In 2006, Rotterdam was the world's seventh largest container port in terms of twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) handled.","Rotterdam\n\nThe port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed.","Rotterdam\n\nShopping","Rotterdam\n\nWell-known streets in Rotterdam are the shopping center the Lijnbaan (the first set of pedestrian streets of the country, opened in 1953), the Hoogstraat, the Coolsingel with the city hall, and the Weena, which runs from the Central Station to the Hofplein (square). A modern shopping venue is the Beurstraverse (\"Stock Exchange Traverse\"), better known by its informal name 'Koopgoot' ('Buying/Shopping Gutter', after its subterranean position), which crosses the Coolsingel below street level). The Kruiskade is a more upscale shopping street, with retailers like Michael Kors, 7 For All Mankind, Calvin Klein, Hugo Boss, Tommy Hilfiger and the Dutch well known men's clothier Oger. Another upscale shopping venue is a flagship store of De Bijenkorf. Located a little more to the east is the Market Hall, with lots of small retailers inside. This hall is also one of Rotterdam's famous architectural landmarks.","Rotterdam\n\nThe main shopping venue in the south of Rotterdam is Zuidplein, which lies close to Ahoy' Rotterdam, an accommodation center for shows, exhibitions, sporting events, concerts and congresses. Another prominent shopping center, called Alexandrium (sometimes still called by its former name Oosterhof), lies in the east of Rotterdam. It includes a large kitchen and furniture center.","Rotterdam\n\nEducation","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has one major university, the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR), named after one of the city's famous former inhabitants, Desiderius Erasmus. The Woudestein campus houses (among others) Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University. In Financial Times' 2005 rankings it placed 29th globally and 7th in Europe. In the 2009 rankings of Masters of Management, the school reached first place with the CEMS Master in Management and a tenth place with its RSM Master in Management. The university is also home to Europe's largest student association, STAR Study Association Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University and the world's largest student association, AIESEC, has its international office in the city.","Rotterdam\n\nThe Willem de Kooning Academy Rotterdam's main art school, which is part of the Hogeschool Rotterdam. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious art schools in the Netherlands and the number 1 in Advertising and Copywriting. Part of the Willem de Kooning Academy is the Piet Zwart Institute for postgraduate studies and research in Fine Art, Media Design and Retail Design. The Piet Zwart Institute boasts a selective roster of emerging international artists.","Rotterdam\n\nThe Hoboken campus of EUR houses the Dijkzigt (general) hospital, the Sophia Hospital (for children) and the Medical Department of the University. These are known collectively as the Erasmus Medical Center, which is ranked third worldwide for medical research, behind the Harvard University and Johns Hopkins University. The Erasmus Medical Center ranks as the top European institution in clinical medicine according to the Times Higher Education rankings.","Rotterdam\n\nThere are also three Hogescholen (Universities of applied sciences) in Rotterdam. These schools award their students a professional Bachelor's degree and postgraduate or Master's degree. The three Hogescholen are Hogeschool Rotterdam, Hogeschool INHOLLAND and Hogeschool voor Muziek en Dans (uni for music and dance) which is also known as CodArts.","Rotterdam\n\nAs there are many international and American schools scattered across Europe such as ASH (American International School of the Hague) Rotterdam also has its own international/American school by the name AISR (American International School of Rotterdam). At AISR children receive a multicultural education in a culturally diverse community and it offers the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Program.","Rotterdam\n\nUnique to the city is the Shipping & Transport College which offers masters, bachelors and vocational diplomas on all levels.","Rotterdam\n\nCulture","Rotterdam\n\nAlongside Porto, Rotterdam was European Capital of Culture in 2001. The city has its own orchestra, the Rotterdam Philharmonic, with its well-regarded young music director Yannick Nézet-Séguin; a large congress and concert building called De Doelen; several theaters (including the new Luxor) and movie theatres; and the Ahoy Rotterdam complex in the south of the city, which is used for pop concerts, exhibitions, tennis tournaments, and other activities. A major zoo called Diergaarde Blijdorp is situated at the northwest side of Rotterdam, complete with a walkthrough sea aquarium called the Oceanium. The city is home to the Willem de Kooning Academy and Piet Zwart Institute.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam features some urban architecture projects, nightlife, and many summer festivals celebrating the city's multicultural population and identity, such as the Caribbean-inspired \"Summer Carnival\", the Dance Parade, Rotterdam 666, the Metropolis pop festival and the World Port days. In the years 2005–2011 the city struggled with venues for popmusic. Many of the venues suffered severe financial problems. This resulted in the disappearance of the major music venues Nighttown and WATT and smaller stages such as Waterfront, Exit, and Heidegger. Currently the city has a few venues for pop music like Rotown, Poortgebouw. The venue WORM focuses on experimental music and related cutting edge subcultural music.\nThere are also the International Film Festival in January, the Poetry International Festival in June, the North Sea Jazz Festival in July, the Valery Gergiev Festival in September, September in Rotterdam and the World of the Witte de With. In June 1970, The Holland Pop Festival (which featured Jefferson Airplane, The Byrds, Canned Heat, It's a Beautiful Day, and Santana) was held and filmed at the Stamping Grounds in Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nThere is a healthy competition with Amsterdam, which is often viewed as the cultural capital of the Netherlands. There is a saying: \"Amsterdam to party, Den Haag (The Hague) to live, Rotterdam to work\". Another one, more popular by Rotterdammers, is \"Money is earned in Rotterdam, distributed in The Hague and spent in Amsterdam\". Another saying that reflects both the rivalry between Rotterdam and Amsterdam is \"Amsterdam has it, Rotterdam doesn't need it\".","Rotterdam\n\nIt is also the home of Gabber, a type of hardcore electronic music popular in the mid-1990s, with hard beats and samples. Groups like Neophyte and Rotterdam Terror Corps (RTC) started in Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nThe main cultural organisations in Amsterdam, such as the Concertgebouw and Holland Festival, have joint forces with similar organisations in Rotterdam, via A'R'dam. In 2007 these organisations published with plans for co-operation. One of the goals is to strengthen the international position of culture and art in the Netherlands in the international context.","Rotterdam\n\nMuseums","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has many museums.\nWell known museums are the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, the Netherlands Architecture Institute, the Wereldmuseum, the Kunsthal, Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art and the Maritime Museum Rotterdam. The Historical Museum Rotterdam has changed into Museum Rotterdam which aims to exhibit Rotterdam as a contemporary transnational city, and not a past city.","Rotterdam\n\nOther museums include the tax museum and the nature historical museum. At the historical shipyard and museum Scheepswerf 'De Delft' the reconstruction of ship of the line Delft can be visited.","Rotterdam\n\nArchitecture","Rotterdam\n\nIn 1898, the 45 m high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.\nIn the first decades of the 20th century, some influential architecture in the modern style was built in Rotterdam. Notable are the Van Nelle fabriek (1929) a monument of modern factory design by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt, the Jugendstil clubhouse of the Royal Maas Yacht Club designed by Hooijkaas jr. en Brinkman (1909), and Feyenoord's football stadium De Kuip (1936) also by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt. The architect J. J. P. Oud was a famous Rotterdammer in those days. The Van Nelle Factory has since 2014 the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site.\nDuring the early stages of World War II the center of Rotterdam was bombed by the Germans, destroying many of the older buildings in the center of the city. After initial crisis re-construction the center of Rotterdam has become the site of ambitious new architecture.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is also famous for its Lijnbaan 1952 by architects Broek en Bakema, Peperklip by architect Carel Weeber, Kubuswoningen or cube houses designed by architect Piet Blom 1984.","Rotterdam\n\nThe newest landmark in Rotterdam is the Market Hall, designed by architect firm MVRDV. In addition to that there are many international well known architects based in Rotterdam like O.M.A (Rem Koolhaas), Neutelings & Riedijk and Erick van Egeraat to name a few. Two architectural landmarks are located in the Lloydkwartier: the STC college building and the Schiecentrale 4b.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam also houses several of the tallest structures in the Netherlands.\n* The Erasmusbrug (1996) is a 790-meter (2,600 ft) cable stayed bridge linking the north and south of Rotterdam. It is held up by a 138 m tall pylon with a characteristic bend, earning the bridge its nickname 'De Zwaan' ('the Swan').\n* Rotterdam has the tallest residential building in the Netherlands: the New Orleans Tower ().\n* Rotterdam is also home to the tallest office building 'Maastoren' () which houses Deloitte. This office tower surpassed the 'Delftse Poort' (160 m) which houses Nationale-Nederlanden insurance company, part of ING Group as tallest office tower in 2009. \n* The city also houses the 186 m tall Euromast, which has long been a major tourist attraction. It was built in 1960, initially reaching a height of 101 m; in 1970, the Euromast was extended by 85 m to its current height.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has a reputation in being a platform for architectural development and education through the Berlage Institute, a postgraduate laboratory of architecture, and the NAi (Netherlands Architecture Institute), which is open to the public and has a variety of good exhibitions on architecture and urban planning issues.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is standing in the best European SkylineTop together with Frankfurt, London, Madrid, Paris, Warsaw and Moscow.\nOver 30 new highrise projects are being developed at the moment.","Rotterdam\n\nHighrise buildings that are currently being built:","Rotterdam\n\n* First Rotterdam, a large building with a height of 130 m at Weena. It is expected to be completed in 2015.\n* Boston & Seattle, two buildings with a height of 70 m each are being built at Kop van Zuid. They are expected to be completed in 2017.","Rotterdam\n\nSports","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam calls itself Sportstad (City of Sports). The city annually organises several world-renowned sporting events. Some examples are the Rotterdam Marathon, the World Port Tournament, and the Rotterdam World Tennis Tournament. Rotterdam also organises one race of the Red Bull Air Race World Championship and the car racing event Monaco aan de Maas (Monaco at the Meuse).","Rotterdam\n\nThe city is also the home of many sports clubs and some historic and iconic athletes.","Rotterdam\n\nFootball","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is the home of three professional football clubs, being first tier clubs Feyenoord, Excelsior and Sparta.","Rotterdam\n\nFeyenoord, founded in 1908 and the dominant of the three professional clubs, has won fourteen national titles since the introduction of professional football in the Netherlands. It won the European Cup (current Champions league) as the first Dutch club in 1970, and won the World Cup for club teams in the same year. In 1974, they were the first Dutch club to win the UEFA Cup and in 2002, Feyenoord won the UEFA Cup again. In 2008, the year of their 100-year-anniversary, Feyenoord won the KNVB-cup.","Rotterdam\n\nSeating 51,480, its 1931 stadium, called Stadion Feijenoord but popularly known as De Kuip ('the Tub'), is the second largest in the country, after the Amsterdam Arena. De Kuip, located in the southeast of the city, has hosted many international football games, including the final of Euro 2000 and has been awarded a FIFA 5 star ranking. There are concrete plans to build a new stadium with a capacity of at least 80,000 seats.","Rotterdam\n\nSparta, founded in 1888 and situated in the northwest of Rotterdam, won the national title six times; Excelsior (founded 1902), in the northeast, has never won any.","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam also has three fourth tier clubs, SC Feijenoord (Feyenoord Amateurs), PVV DOTO and TOGR.\nRotterdam is and has been the home to many great football players and coaches, among whom:","Rotterdam\n\nMarathon","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has its own annual international marathon, which offers one of the fastest courses in the world. From 1985 until 1998, the world record was set in Rotterdam, first by Carlos Lopes and later in 1988 by Belayneh Densamo.","Rotterdam\n\nIn 1998, the world record for women was set by Tegla Loroupe, in a time of 2:20.47. Loroupe won the Rotterdam Marathon three consecutive times, from 1997 to 1999.","Rotterdam\n\nThe current track record for men is held by Duncan Kibet, who ran a time of 2:04.27 in 2009. The female record was set in 2012, when Tiki Gelana finished the race in 2:18.58. Gelana went on to become the 2012 Olympic champion in London, a few months later.","Rotterdam\n\nThe marathon starts and ends on the Coolsingel in the heart of Rotterdam. It attracts a total of 900.000 visitors.","Rotterdam\n\nTennis","Rotterdam\n\nSince 1972, Rotterdam hosts the indoor hard court ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, part of the ATP Tour. The event was first organised in 1972, when it was won by Arthur Ashe. Ashe went on to win the tournament two more times, making him the singles title record holder.","Rotterdam\n\nFormer Wimbledon winner Richard Krajicek became the tournament director after his retirement in 2000. The latest edition of the tournament attracted a total of 116.354 visitors.","Rotterdam\n\nTour de France 2010","Rotterdam\n\nIn November 2008 Rotterdam was chosen as the host of the Grand Départ of the 2010 Tour de France.\nRotterdam won the selection over the Dutch city of Utrecht. Germany's Düsseldorf had previously also expressed interest in hosting. The Amaury Sport Organization (ASO), organizer of the Tour de France, said in a statement on its web site that it chose Rotterdam because, in addition to it being another big city, like London, to showcase the use of bikes for urban transportation, it provided a location well positioned considering the rest of the route envisioned for the 2010 event.","Rotterdam\n\nThe start in Rotterdam was the fifth in the Netherlands. The prologue was a 7 km individual time trial crossing the centre of the city. The first regular stage left the Erasmusbrug and went south, towards Brussels.","Rotterdam\n\nRowing","Rotterdam\n\nMembers of the student rowing club Skadi were part of the 'Holland Acht', winning a gold medal at the Olympics in 1996. . Since the opening in April 2013, Rotterdam hosts the rowing venue 'Willem-Alexanderbaan' that will host the 2016 World Rowing Championships for Seniors, U23 and Juniors.","Rotterdam\n\nField hockey","Rotterdam\n\nIn field hockey, Rotterdam has the largest hockey club in the Netherlands, HC Rotterdam, with its own stadium in the north of the city and nearly 2,400 members. The first men's and women's teams both play on the highest level in the Dutch Hoofdklasse.","Rotterdam\n\nBaseball","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is home to the most successful European baseball team, Neptunus Rotterdam, winning the most European Cups.","Rotterdam\n\nBoxing","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has a long boxing tradition starting with Bep van Klaveren (1907–1992), aka 'The Dutch Windmill', Gold medal winner of the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics, followed by professional boxers like Regilio Tuur and Don Diego Poeder.","Rotterdam\n\nSwimming","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam's swimming tradition started with Marie Braun aka Zus (sister) Braun, who was coached to a Gold medal at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics by her mother Ma Braun, and 3 European titles 3 years later in Paris. In her career as 14 time national champ, she broke 6 world records. Ma Braun later also coached the Rotterdam born, three-times Olympic champion Rie Mastenbroek during the Berlin Olympics in 1936. In later years Inge de Bruijn became a Rotterdam sport icon as triple Olympic Gold medal winner in 2000 and triple European Gold medal winner in 2001.","Rotterdam\n\nMotor cycle racing","Rotterdam\n\nMotor cycle speedway was staged in the Feyenoord Stadium after the second world war. The team which raced in a Dutch league was known as the Feyenoord Tigers. The team included Dutch riders and some English and Australian riders.","Rotterdam\n\nSportsmen of the year election","Rotterdam\n\nSince 1986, the city has selected its best sportsman, woman and team at the Rotterdam Sports Awards Election, held in December.","Rotterdam\n\nOther famous Rotterdam athletes","Rotterdam\n\n*Mia Audina, a retired Indonesia born badminton player, living in Rotterdam. *Nelli Cooman, a Surinamese born retired athlete who held the 3 m world record, and was the world and European champion in that event. *Robert Doornbos, a Rotterdam born race car driver, who competed in the Formula One. *Robert Eenhoorn, a Rotterdam born retired MLB short stop, who competed for the New York Yankees, the Anaheim Angels and the New York Mets. *Dex Elmont, a Rotterdam born judoka, who finished second in the European championships in 2009 in the 65 to division. *Guillaume Elmont, a Rotterdam born judoka, who became world champion in 2005 in the 73 to division. *Francisco Elson, a Rotterdam born basketball player who played in the NBA, won the NBA finals in 2007 with the San Antonio Spurs. *Ignisious Gaisah, a Ghanaian born long jumper with a personal best of , residing in Rotterdam since 2001. Gaisah is a multiple medal winner in several international events, both as a citizen of Ghana and the Netherlands. *Francis Hoenselaar, a Rotterdam born female darts player, generally recognised as the best Dutch female darts player ever.","Rotterdam\n\n*Robert Lathouwers, an athlete born in a Rotterdam suburb, specialised in the 800 m. Lathouwers gained international notoriety when he got disqualified after shoving Irish athlete David McCarthy in the 2010 European Championships. *Fatima Moreira de Melo, a Rotterdam born, three-times olympic champion in field hockey. Moreira de Melo currently is a professional poker player. *Piet Roozenburg, a Rotterdam born draughts player, who was the world champion from 1948 to 1956 and the 8-time Dutch champion. *Betty Stöve, a Rotterdam born retired female tennis double specialist and 10-time Grand Slam winner. *Ingmar Vos, a Rotterdam born decathlete, with a personal best of 8224 points.","Rotterdam\n\nYearly events","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam hosts several annual events unique to the city. It hosts the Zomercarnaval (Summercarnaval), the second largest Caribbean carnival in Europe, originally called the Antillean carnival. Other events include: North Sea Jazz Festival, the largest Jazz festival in Europe, Bavaria City Race, a Formula 1 race inside the city center and a 3 day long maritime extravaganza called the World Port Days celebrating the Port of Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\n* January: \"Zesdaagse van Rotterdam\" \"(six-day track-cycling race) – Ahoy Rotterdam\n* January: International Film Festival Rotterdam \n* February: Rotterdam Open ABM AMRO ATP 500 Tennis Tournament – Ahoy Rotterdam\n* April–June\n**Rotterdam Marathon \n**KoninginnedagFestival \n* July\n**North Sea Jazz Festival (second weekend of July)\n**Summer Carnival \n* August:\n**Bavaria City Race\n**Pleinbioscoop \n**Dag van de Romantische Muziek (Romantic music festival)\n* September:\n** The World Port Days","Rotterdam\n\nTransport","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is well connected by international, national, regional and local public transport systems, as well as by the Dutch motorway network.","Rotterdam\n\nMotorways\nThere are several motorways to/from Rotterdam. The following four are part of its 'Ring' (ring road):\n*A20 (Ring North): Hoek van Holland – Rotterdam – Gouda\n*A16 (Ring East): Rotterdam – Breda (- Antwerp – Paris)\n*A15 (Ring South): Europoort – Rotterdam – Nijmegen\n*A4 (Ring West).\nThe following two other motorways also serve Rotterdam:\n*A13, (Amsterdam -) The Hague – Rotterdam\n*A29, Bergen op Zoom – Rotterdam","Rotterdam\n\nAirport\nMuch smaller than the international hub Schiphol Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport (formerly known as Zestienhoven) is the third largest airport in the country, behind Schiphol Airport and Eindhoven Airport. Located north of the city, it has shown a very strong growth over the past five years, mostly caused by the growth of the low-cost carrier market. For business travelers, Rotterdam The Hague Airport offers advantages in terms of rapid handling of passengers and baggage. Environmental regulations make further growth uncertain.","Rotterdam\n\nTrain","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is well connected to the Dutch railway network, and has several international connections:","Rotterdam\n\n* Southern direction Dordrecht, Breda, Eindhoven, Flushing (Vlissingen) (also international trains to Belgium/France)\n* Western direction Hoek van Holland\n* North-Western direction The Hague, Leiden, Amsterdam\n* Northern direction (high-speed rail) Schiphol, Amsterdam\n* North-Eastern direction Utrecht and further\n* A fifth alternative train system to the Hague, the Hofplein Line was converted to the light rail system Randstadrail in 2006.\n* The city is often mentioned as the terminus of the Eurasian Land Bridge.","Rotterdam\n\nRailway stations\n*Rotterdam Centraal – Rotterdam's main station\n*Rotterdam Alexander – Eastern part of Rotterdam\n*Rotterdam Blaak – Close to the centre of Rotterdam\n*Rotterdam Lombardijen – Most Southern part of Rotterdam\n*Rotterdam Noord – Northern part of Rotterdam\n*Rotterdam Zuid – Northern part of the Southern part of Rotterdam\n*Rotterdam Stadion – A station near the De Kuip stadium, open in connection with football matches and music concerts","Rotterdam\n\nThe main connections:\n* Direct international services to Belgium and France via high speed train system: Thalys\n* Frequent international trains to Antwerp and Brussels, Belgium\n* Frequent services within the Netherlands:\n** Intercity line to The Hague, Leiden, Schiphol airport and Amsterdam (north)\n** Intercity line to Utrecht and on to Deventer or Enschede (the east), Leeuwarden (north-west) or Groningen (north-east)\n** Intercity line to Dordrecht, Roosendaal and on to Vlissingen (south west)\n** Intercity line to Dordrecht, Breda, Tilburg, Eindhoven and Venlo (south east)\n** Night services every hour connecting every day of the week to Delft, The Hague, Leiden, Schiphol airport, Amsterdam, and, with a detour, Utrecht. On Thursday, Friday and Saturday night services (either direct or via a detour) to Den Bosch, Eindhoven, Tilburg, Roosendaal.\n** Several semi-fast services and local trains originate or call at Rotterdam Centraal; semi-fast services Amsterdam-Breda.\n* Detailed information available from the site of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways)","Rotterdam\n\nIn Rotterdam, public transport services are provided by these companies:\n* NS (Dutch Railways) ; national train services\n* RET (Rotterdam Elektrische Tram); Tram, city-bus, metro, randstadrail and ferry-services in Rotterdam and surrounding cities.\n* Arriva Netherlands ; regional bus services.\n* Connexxion ; regional bus services.\n* Veolia ; regional bus services.","Rotterdam\n\nMetro","Rotterdam\n\nIn 1968, Rotterdam was the first Dutch city to open a metro system. Currently the metro system consists of three main lines, each of which has its own variants. The metro network has of railtracks and there are 62 stations, which makes it the biggest of the Benelux. The system is operated by 5 lines; 3 lines (A, B and C) on the east-west line, and two (D and E) on the north-south line. Metrostation E (Randstadrail) connects Rotterdam with Den Haag as of December 2011.","Rotterdam\n\nTram","Rotterdam\n\nThe Rotterdam tramway network offers 9 regular tram lines and 4 \"special\" tram lines with a total length of . Service\nTramlines in Rotterdam :\n* 2: (Rotterdam) Charlois – Rotterdam Lombardijen NS – (Rotterdam) Groene Tuin (runs only to the southern part of the city)\n* 4: (Rotterdam) Molenlaan – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Spangen\n* 7: (Rotterdam) Woudestein – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Willemsplein\n* 8: (Rotterdam) Spangen – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Kleiweg\n* 20: Rotterdam CS – Rotterdam Lombardijen NS – (Rotterdam) Thialf\n* 21: (Schiedam) Woudhoek – Station Schiedam Centrum – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) De Esch\n* 23: (Rotterdam) Marconiplein – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Beverwaard\n* 24: (Vlaardingen) Holy – Station Schiedam Centrum – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) De Esch\n* 25: (Rotterdam) Schiebroek – Rotterdam CS – (Barendrecht) Carnisselande","Rotterdam\n\nSpecial tram lines:\n* 10: Historical tram line, only runs in summer and throughout the whole city for tourist information. Using historical Rotterdam Trams from the year 1931.\n* 18: Tramline from Rotterdam Central Station towards Park, runs only at the Dunya Festival and during the Rotterdam World Port Days.\n* 12: CS – De Kuip (English: The Tub, Feyenoord stadium) or CS – Het Kasteel ('The Castle', Sparta Stadium). Football- tramline, only for big fixtures at De Kuip or Het Kasteel.\n* Snert-tram: Historical tram, only in winter as a tourist tram through Rotterdam. Passengers are provided with a cup of \"snert\"; Rotterdam dialect for erwtensoep (pea soup). Rolling stock is a historical Rotterdam tram from 1968.\n* IJsjes-tram: Summer version of the snert tram, providing tourists with ijsjes (ice cream) rather than snert.","Rotterdam\n\nBus\nRotterdam offers 33 city bus lines with a total length of .","Rotterdam\n\nRET runs buses in the city of Rotterdam and surrounding places like Spijkenisse, Barendrecht, Ridderkerk, Rhoon, Poortugaal, Schiedam, Vlaardingen, Delft and Capelle aan den IJssel.\n.","Rotterdam\n\nArriva Netherlands, Connexxion and Veolia run buses from other cities to Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nWater bus\nEvery half hour, a water bus (Waterbus route 1) goes from Rotterdam to Dordrecht and vice versa. The trip takes an hour with various stops along the way. The ferry carries about 130 passengers and there is space for 60 bicycles. The stops are:\n* Rotterdam Willemskade – Krimpen aan den IJssel Stormpolder – Ridderkerk De Schans – Alblasserdam Kade – Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht Veerweg – Papendrecht Westeind – Dordrecht Merwekade.","Rotterdam\n\nInternational relations","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam has city and port connections throughout the world. In 2008, the city had 13 sister cities, 12 partner cities, and 4 sister ports.","Rotterdam\n\nTwin towns – Sister cities","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam is twinned with:","Rotterdam\n\n* Baltimore (since 1985)\n* Burgas (since 1976)\n* Cologne (since 1958)\n* Constanța (since 1976)\n* Dresden (since 1988)\n* Esch-sur-Alzette (since 1958)\n* Gdańsk (since 1977)\n* Havana (since 1983)\n* Lille (since 1958)\n* Liège (since 1958)\n* Shanghai (since 1979)\n* Saint Petersburg (since 1984)\n* Turin (since 1958)","Rotterdam\n\nPartner cities","Rotterdam\n\n* Antwerp (since 1940)\n* Basel (since 1945)\n* Bratislava (since 1991)\n* Budapest (since 1991)\n* Duisburg (since 1950)\n* Durban (since 1991)\n* Hull (since 1936)\n* Jakarta (since 1983)\n* Nuremberg (since 1961)\n* Osaka Prefecture (since 1984)\n* Oslo (since 1945)\n* Prague (since 1991)","Rotterdam\n\nSister ports","Rotterdam\n\n* Kobe (since 1967)\n* Busan (since 1987)\n* Seattle (since 1969)\n* Tokyo (since 1989)","Rotterdam\n\nPlaces named after Rotterdam","Rotterdam\n\n* Rotterdam, New York, United States\n* Rotterdam, Limpopo, South Africa","Rotterdam\n\nNotable residents","Rotterdam\n\n*Pierre Bayle, enlightenment philosopher.\n*Leo Beenhakker, football coach.\n*Giovanni van Bronckhorst, former football player and current manager of Feyenoord.\n*Desiderius Erasmus, philosopher and humanist.\n*Pim Fortuyn, politician, assassinated in 2002.\n*Leo Fuld, singer.\n*Piet Heyn, naval fleet officer.\n*Willem de Kooning, painter.\n*Rem Koolhaas, internationally renowned architect.\n*Coen Moulijn, football player of Feyenoord.\n*Johan van Oldebarnevelt, statesman of the Dutch Revolt.\n*Robin van Persie, Fenerbahçe S.K. forward and Dutch international footballer.\n*Bernard Mandeville, philosopher, political economist and satirist.\n*Marten Toonder, comic writer.\n*Jules Deelder, poet, writer, dj, night mayor.","Rotterdam\n\nIn popular culture","Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam features in Edgar Allan Poe's short story ‘The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall’ (1835), as well as J.T. Sheridan Le Fanu's 'Strange Event in the Life of Schalken the Painter' (1839).","Rotterdam\n\nPart of Jackie Chan's 1998 film 'Who am I?' is set in Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nEnder's Shadow, part of the series Ender's Game is partially set in Rotterdam.","Rotterdam\n\nIn season 1, episode 2 of The Golden Girls (\"Guess Who's Coming to the Wedding?\"), Dorothy reminisces how her ex-husband, Stan, would buy her tulips after they had a fight. \"Towards the end, our house looked like Easter in Rotterdam.\"","Rotterdam\n\nIn 1996 The British band The Beautiful South recorded a song named after this region titled Rotterdam (or Anywhere).,","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam (; ) is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 840,486 within the city proper, 1,337,743 in the urban area, and 2,431,000 in the Amsterdam metropolitan area. The city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the northern part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe, with a population of approximately 7 million.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam's name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the city's origin as a dam of the river Amstel. Originating as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age (17th century), a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighbourhoods and suburbs were planned and built. The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List.","Amsterdam\n\nAs the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered an alpha world city by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) study group. The city is also the cultural capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the world's 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city in which to live by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and 12th globally on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by Mercer. The city was previously ranked 3rd in innovation by 2thinknow in the Innovation Cities Index 2009.","Amsterdam\n\nFamous Amsterdam residents included Anne Frank the diarist, the artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and the philosopher Baruch Spinoza.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city centre. Amsterdam's main attractions, including its historic canals, the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, Hermitage Amsterdam, Anne Frank House, Amsterdam Museum, its red-light district, and its many cannabis coffee shops draw more than 5 million international visitors annually.[http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/4/AMSTERDAM/article/detail/3975968/2015/04/23/Amsterdam-verwelkomde-in-2014-ruim-5-miljoen-buitenlandse-toeristen.dhtml Amsterdam verwelkomde in 2014 ruim 5 miljoen buitenlandse toeristen – Amsterdam – PAROOL]","Amsterdam\n\nHistory","Amsterdam\n\nEtymology","Amsterdam\n\nAfter the floods of 1170 and 1173 locals of the river Amstel vicinity built a bridge over- and a dam across the river, hence giving its name to the village: \"Aemstelredamme\". The earliest recorded use of the name \"Aemstelredamme\" (Amsterdam) comes from a document dated 27 October 1275. Inhabitants of the village, by this document, were exempted from paying a bridge toll in the County of Holland by Count Floris V. This meant it had been allowed for the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland without having to pay toll at bridges, locks and dams all throughout the county. The certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme (people living near Amestelledamme). By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nFounding and Middle Ages","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam's founding is relatively recent compared with much older Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean that there was already a settlement then since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat, used as fuel.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306. From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely because of trade with the Hanseatic League. In 1345, an alleged Eucharistic miracle in the Kalverstraat rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage until the adoption of the Protestant faith. The Stille Omgang—a silent procession in civil attire—is today a remnant of the rich pilgrimage history.","Amsterdam\n\nConflict with Spain","Amsterdam\n\nIn the 16th century, the Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain and his successors. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the religious persecution of Protestants by the newly introduced Inquisition. The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence. Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent, the Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance. Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, Huguenots from France, prosperous merchants and printers from Flanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European free press.","Amsterdam\n\nCentre of the Dutch Golden Age","Amsterdam\n\nThe 17th century is considered Amsterdam's Golden Age, during which it became the wealthiest city in the world. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was Europe's most important point for the shipment of goods and was the leading Financial centre of the world. In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's first stock exchange by trading in its own shares.","Amsterdam\n\nDecline and modernisation","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wars of the Dutch Republic with England and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the French Empire. However, the later establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point.","Amsterdam\n\nThe end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a railway station, and the Concertgebouw were built; in this same time, the Industrial Revolution reached the city. The Amsterdam–Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine, and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in The Mirror of the Sea.","Amsterdam\n\nTwentieth century","Amsterdam\n\nShortly before the First World War, the city began expanding, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the Aardappeloproer (Potato rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses in order to get supplies, mainly food.","Amsterdam\n\nAfter landflood in 1916 the depleted municipalities, Durgerdam, Holysloot, Zunderdorp and Schellingwoude, all lying north of Amsterdam, were, on their own request, annexed to the city on 1 January 1921.","Amsterdam\n\nGermany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to the high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps of which some 60,000 lived in Amsterdam. Perhaps the most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank, who died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. At the end of the Second World War, communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens travelled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw sugar beets, and Tulip bulbs—cooked to a pulp—were consumed to stay alive. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and all the wood was taken from the apartments of deported Jews.","Amsterdam\n\nMany new suburbs, such as Osdorp, Slotervaart, Slotermeer, and Geuzenveld, were built in the years after the Second World War. \nThese suburbs contained many public parks and wide, open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other incidents of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing, politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings and new roads as the automobile became available to most common people. A metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of Bijlmer and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect the Central Station and city centre with other parts of the city.","Amsterdam\n\nThe incorporated large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's formerly Jewish neighbourhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat, were widened and saw almost all of their houses demolished. During the destruction's peak, the Nieuwmarktrellen (Nieuwmarkt Riots) broke out, where people expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city.","Amsterdam\n\nAs a result, the demolition was stopped, and the highway was never built, with only the metro being finished. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organisations, such as Stadsherstel Amsterdam, were founded with the aim of restoring the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing. The entire city centre has reattained its former splendor and, as a whole, is now a protected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 the Grachtengordel (Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.","Amsterdam\n\nTwenty-first century","Amsterdam\n\nIn the early years of the twenty-first century, the Amsterdam city centre successfully attracted large numbers of tourists: between 2012 and 2015, the annual number of visitors rose from 10 million to 17 million. Real estate prices have surged and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones, making the center inaffordable for the city's inhabitants. These developments have evoked comparisons with Venice, a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx.","Amsterdam\n\nConstruction of a metro line connecting the part of the city north of the IJ to the centre was started in 2003. The project is controversial because its cost exceeded its budget by a factor three by 2008, because of fears for damage to buildings in the centre, and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times.","Amsterdam\n\nGeography","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is located in the western Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. The river Amstel terminates in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the IJ. Amsterdam is situated 2 m below sea level. The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders. A man made forest, Amsterdamse Bos, is situated southwest. Amsterdam is connected to the North Sea through the long North Sea Canal.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is intensely urbanised, as is the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area surrounding the city. Comprising of land, the city proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km2 and 2,275 houses per km2. Parks and nature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area.","Amsterdam\n\nCanals","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is home to more than 100 km of canals, most of which are navigable by boat. The three main canals are Prinsengracht, Herengracht and Keizersgracht. In the Middle Ages, Amsterdam was surrounded by a moat, called the Singel, which now forms the innermost ring in the city, and makes the city centre a horseshoe shape. The city is also served by a seaport. It has been compared with Venice, due to its division into approximately 90 islands, which are linked by more than 1,200 bridges.","Amsterdam\n\nClimate","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) strongly influenced by its proximity to the North Sea to the west, with prevailing westerly winds. Both winters and summers are considered mild, although occasionally quite cool. Amsterdam, as well as most of the North Holland province, lies in USDA Hardiness zone 8b. Frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner European continent. Even then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water, as well as having a significant heat-island effect, nights rarely fall below , while it could easily be in Hilversum, 25 km southeast. Summers are moderately warm but rarely hot. The average daily high in August is , and 30 °C or higher is only measured on average on 2.5 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat Zone 2. The record extremes range from to . Days with more than 1 mm of precipitation are common, on average 133 days per year. Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is 838 mm, more than what is measured at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. A large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers.","Amsterdam\n\nCloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of October through March.","Amsterdam\n\nThere are no spiders","Amsterdam\n\nDemographics","Amsterdam\n\nHistorical population","Amsterdam\n\nCompared to other important towns in the County of Holland, such as Dordrecht, Leiden, Haarlem, Delft and Alkmaar, Amsterdam is a relatively young city. In stark contrast to the relative decline of those other Hollandic towns, Amsterdam's population grew in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which was mainly due to rise of the profitable Baltic maritime trade after the Burgundian victory in the Dutch–Hanseatic War. Still, the population of Amsterdam and other towns in Holland was only modest compared to the towns and cities of Flanders and Brabant, which comprised the most urbanized area of the Low Countries.","Amsterdam\n\nThis changed when, during the Dutch Revolt, many people from the Southern Netherlands fled to the North, especially after Antwerp fell to Spanish forces in 1585. In thirty years, Amsterdam's population more than doubled from a mere 41,362 inhabitants in 1590 to 106,500 inhabitants in 1620. During the 1660s, Amsterdam's populations reached 200,000. The city's growth levelled off and the population stabilized around 240,000 for most of the 18th century.","Amsterdam\n\nAt the turn of the 18th century, Amsterdam was the fourth largest city in Europe, behind Constantinople (about 700,000), London (550,000) and Paris (530,000). This was all the more remarkable as Amsterdam was neither the capital city nor the seat of government of the Dutch Republic, which itself was a much smaller state than England, France or the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to these other metropolises, Amsterdam was also surrounded by large towns such as Leiden (about 67,000), Rotterdam (45,000), Haarlem (38,000), and Utrecht (30,000).","Amsterdam\n\nThe city's population declined in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, dipping under 200,000 in 1820. By the second half of the 19th century, industrialization spurred renewed growth. Amsterdam's population hit an all-time high of 872,000 in 1959, before declining in the following decades due to government-sponsored suburbanization to so-called groeikernen such as Purmerend and Almere. Between 1970 and 1980, Amsterdam experienced its sharpest population decline ever, and by 1985 the city had only 675,570 residents. This was soon followed by reurbanization and gentrification, however, leading to renewed population growth in the 2010s. The municipal department for Research, Information and Statistics expects a new record population to be set in 2020.","Amsterdam\n\nImmigration","Amsterdam\n\nIn the 16th and 17th century non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly Huguenots, Flemings, Sephardi Jews and Westphalians. Huguenots came after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, while the Flemish Protestants came during the Eighty Years' War. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons – their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. Before the Second World War, 10% of the city population was Jewish. Just twenty percent of them survived the Shoah.","Amsterdam\n\nThe first mass immigration in the 20th century were by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy and Spain emigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in the Bijlmer area. Other immigrants, including refugees asylum seekers and illegal immigrants, came from Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. In the 1970s and 1980s, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like Almere and Purmerend, prompted by the third planological bill of the Dutch government. This bill promoted suburbanisation and arranged for new developments in so-called \"groeikernen\", literally cores of growth. Young professionals and artists moved into neighbourhoods de Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer. Today, people of non-Western origin make up approximately one-third of the population of Amsterdam, and more than 50% of the city'\ns children.","Amsterdam\n\nSegregation along ethnic lines is clearly visible, with people of non-Western origin, considered a separate group by Statistics Netherlands, concentrating in specific neighbourhoods especially in Nieuw-West, Zeeburg, Bijlmer and in certain areas of Amsterdam-Noord.","Amsterdam\n\nIn 2000, Christians formed the largest religious group in the city (27% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (14%), most of whose followers were Sunni.","Amsterdam\n\nReligious history","Amsterdam\n\nIn 1578 the previously Roman Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule, late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities. In line with Protestant procedure of that time, all churches were converted to Protestant worship. Calvinism became the dominant religion, and although Catholicism was not forbidden and priests allowed to serve, the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited. This led to the establishment of schuilkerken, covert churches, behind seemingly ordinary canal side house fronts. One example is the current debate centre de Rode Hoed.\nA large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, Huguenots from France, and Protestants from the Southern Netherlands. This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking religious churches. In 1603, the first notification was made of Jewish religious service. In 1639, the first synagogue was consecrated. The Jews came to call the town Jerusalem of the West, a reference to their sense of belonging there.","Amsterdam\n\nAs they became established in the city, other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof. Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of the Church of Scotland. The Huguenots accounted for nearly 20% of Amsterdam's inhabitants in 1700. Being Calvinists, they soon integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognisable today as they offer occasional services in French.","Amsterdam\n\nIn the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx of Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, which continued into the 19th century. Jews often fled the pogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazi who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years' War. They not only founded their own synagogues, but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary.","Amsterdam\n\nDespite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part of the old medieval heart of the city. The main street of this Jewish neighbourhood was the Jodenbreestraat. The neighbourhood comprised the Waterlooplein and the Nieuwmarkt. Buildings in this neighbourhood fell into disrepair after the Second World War, and a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the subway. This led to riots, and as a result the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned and the neighbourhood was rebuilt with smaller-scale residence buildings on the basis of its original layout.","Amsterdam\n\nCatholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853. One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches, Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which led to a refusal of Protestant King William III to open 'that monastery'.\nIn 1924, the Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, and numerous Catholic prelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums. Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time. Only in the 20th century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalised, but despite its far larger population size, the Catholic clergy chose to place its episcopal see of the city in the nearby provincial town of Haarlem.","Amsterdam\n\nIn recent times, religious demographics in Amsterdam have been changed by large-scale immigration from former colonies. Immigrants from Suriname have introduced Evangelical Protestantism and Lutheranism, from the Hernhutter variety; Hinduism has been introduced mainly from Suriname; and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought from various parts of the world. Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam. The large community of Ghanaian and Nigerian immigrants have established African churches, often in parking garages in the Bijlmer area, where many have settled. In addition, a broad array of other religious movements have established congregations, including Buddhism, Confucianism and Hinduism. Jews make up about 2% of the city's total population.","Amsterdam\n\nTolerance and ethnic tension","Amsterdam\n\nAlthough the saying \"Leef en laat leven\" or \"Live and let live\" summarises the Dutch and especially the Amsterdam open and tolerant society, the increased influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War, has on a number of occasions strained social relations. With 180 different nationalities, Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world. The proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50% and 88% of the population are Dutch citizens.","Amsterdam\n\nThe city has been at times marked by ethnic tension. In 2004 film director Theo van Gogh was murdered in Amsterdam. Among others, in line with attitude changes in Dutch politics towards certain minorities Turkish-language and Arabic-language TV channels have been dropped from the basic cable TV package. In recent years, politicians are actively discouraged against campaigning in minority languages. In the previous local elections politicians were criticised by current Amsterdam mayor Mr van der Laan (then minister of Integration) for distributing election leaflets in minority languages and in some cases leaflets were collected. Due to this alleged anti-Multicultural stand, van der Laan has been accused of hypocrisy by his own party's PvdA main candidate. Also during the same period, possibly due to his belief in integration via (possibly not always voluntary) assimilation, Amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the Netherlands which provided immigrants with extensive and free Dutch-language courses, which have benefited many immigrants.[http://intt.uva.nl/dutch-for-foreigners/dutch-for-foreigners.html Dutch for foreigners – INTT – University of Amsterdam]","Amsterdam\n\nCityscape and architecture","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam fans out south from the Amsterdam Centraal railway station. The oldest area of the town is known as de Wallen (the quays). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red light district. To the south of de Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein. The medieval and colonial age canals of Amsterdam, known as Grachten, embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working class areas of Jordaan and de Pijp. The Museumplein with the city's major museums, the Vondelpark, a 19th-century park named after the Dutch writer Joost van den Vondel, and the Plantage neighbourhood, with the zoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel.","Amsterdam\n\nSeveral parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders. This can be recognised by the suffix -meer which means lake, as in Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer, and Watergraafsmeer.","Amsterdam\n\nCanals","Amsterdam\n\nThe Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning. In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at the IJ bay. Known as the Grachtengordel, three of the canals were mostly for residential development: the Herengracht (where \"Heren\" refers to Heren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam (ruling lords of Amsterdam), and gracht means canal, so the name can be roughly translated as \"Canal of the lords\"), Keizersgracht (Emperor's Canal), and Prinsengracht (Prince's Canal). The fourth and outermost canal is the Singelgracht, which is often not mentioned on maps, because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring. The Singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and most inner canal Singel. The canals served for defence, water management and transport. The defences took the form of a moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonry superstructures.","Amsterdam\n\nThe original plans have been lost, so historians, such as Ed Taverne, need to speculate on the original intentions: it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental.","Amsterdam\n\nConstruction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the layout, like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it – and not from the centre outwards, as a popular myth has it. The canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel river and the IJ bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theatres, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning.","Amsterdam\n\nOver the years, several canals have been filled in, becoming streets or squares, such as the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal and the Spui.","Amsterdam\n\nExpansion","Amsterdam\n\nAfter the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century, Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time. The plan envisaged the construction of new houses, public buildings and streets just outside the grachtengordel. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like the Paleis voor Volksvlijt.","Amsterdam\n\nFollowing Sarphati, Van Niftrik and Kalff designed an entire ring of 19th-century neighbourhoods surrounding the city's centre, with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17th-century limit, thus firmly controlling development. Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class.","Amsterdam\n\nIn response to overcrowding, two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before: Plan Zuid, designed by the architect Berlage, and West. These plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes.","Amsterdam\n\nAfter the Second World War, large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city's shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks situated among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the Bijlmer.","Amsterdam\n\nArchitecture","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has a rich architectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk (Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306. The oldest wooden building is het Houten Huys at the Begijnhof.\nIt was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in Amsterdam.\nIn the 16th century, wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the Renaissance. Buildings of this period are very recognisable with their stepped gable façades, which is the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser. One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyer is the Westerkerk. In the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular, as it was elsewhere in Europe. This roughly coincided with Amsterdam's Golden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam were Jacob van Campen, Philips Vingboons and Daniel Stalpaert.","Amsterdam\n\nPhilip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam is the Royal Palace on Dam Square. Throughout the 18th century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced by French culture. This is reflected in the architecture of that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles. Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neo-gothic style. At the end of the 19th century, the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called the Amsterdamse School. Whole districts were built this style, such as the Rivierenbuurt.","Amsterdam\n\nA notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors.","Amsterdam\n\nThe old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century.\nJugendstil and Georgian are mostly found outside the city's centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early\n20th century, although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre.\nMost historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchants' houses lining the canals.","Amsterdam\n\nParks and recreational areas","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has many parks, open spaces, and squares throughout the city. Vondelpark, the largest park in the city, is located in the Oud-Zuid borough and is named after the 17th century Amsterdam author, Joost van den Vondel. Yearly, the park has around 10 million visitors. In the park is an open-air theatre, a playground and several horeca facilities. In the Zuid borough, is Beatrixpark, named after Queen Beatrix. Between Amsterdam and Amstelveen is the Amsterdamse Bos (Amsterdam Forest), the largest recreational area in Amsterdam. Annually, almost 4.5 million people visit the park, which has a size of 1.000 hectares and is approximately three times the size of Central Park. Amstelpark in the Zuid borough houses the Rieker windmill, which dates to 1636. Other parks include Sarphatipark in the De Pijp neighbourhood, Oosterpark in the Oost borough, and Westerpark in the Westerpark neighbourhood. The city has four beaches, the Nemo Beach, Citybeach \"Het stenen hoofd\" (Silodam), Blijburg, and one in Amsterdam-Noord.","Amsterdam\n\nThe city has many open squares (plein in Dutch). The namesake of the city as the site of the original dam, Dam Square, is the main town square and has the Royal Palace and National Monument. Museumplein hosts various museums, including the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh Museum, and Stedelijk Museum. Other squares include Rembrandtplein, Muntplein, Nieuwmarkt, Leidseplein, Spui, and Waterlooplein.","Amsterdam\n\nEconomy","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. \nAmsterdam is currently one of the best European cities in which to locate an international business. It is ranked fifth in this category and is only surpassed by London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona. Many large corporations and banks have their headquarters in Amsterdam, including Akzo Nobel, Heineken International, ING Group, ABN AMRO, TomTom, Delta Lloyd Group and Philips. KPMG International's global headquarters is located in nearby Amstelveen, where many non-Dutch companies have settled as well, because surrounding communities allow full land ownership, contrary to Amsterdam's land-lease system.","Amsterdam\n\nThough many small offices are still located on the old canals, companies are increasingly relocating outside the city centre. The Zuidas (English: South Axis) has become the new financial and legal hub. The five largest law firms of the Netherlands, a number of Dutch subsidiaries of large consulting firms like Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, and the World Trade Center Amsterdam are also located in Zuidas.","Amsterdam\n\nThere are three other smaller financial districts in Amsterdam. The first is the area surrounding Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, where several newspapers like De Telegraaf have their offices. Also, Deloitte, the Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (municipal public transport company) and the Dutch tax offices (Belastingdienst) are located there. The second Financial District is the area surrounding Amsterdam Arena. The third is the area surrounding Amsterdam Amstel railway station. The tallest building in Amsterdam, the Rembrandt Tower, is situated there, as is the headquarters of Philips.","Amsterdam\n\nPort of Amsterdam","Amsterdam\n\nThe Port of Amsterdam is the fourth-largest port in Europe, the 38th-largest port in the world and the second-largest port in the Netherlands by metric tons of cargo. In 2014, the Port of Amsterdam had a cargo throughput of 97,4 million tons of cargo, which most was bulk cargo.\nAmsterdam has the biggest cruiseport in the Netherlands with more than 150 cruiseships every year.\nIn 2019 the new sealock near ijmuiden will open that Amsterdam can grow to 125 milion tonnes.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), now part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is near Dam Square in the city's centre.","Amsterdam\n\nTogether with Eindhoven (Brainport) and Rotterdam (Seaport), Amsterdam (Airport) forms the foundation of the Dutch economy.","Amsterdam\n\nTourism","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, receiving more than 4.63 million international visitors annually, this is excluding the 16 million day trippers visiting the city every year. The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. Two-thirds of the hotels are located in the city's centre. Hotels with 4 or 5 stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 78% in 2006, up from 70% in 2005. The majority of tourists (74%) originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total. Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated \"Rembrandt 400\", to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city range from 12,000 to 65,000.","Amsterdam\n\nRed light district","Amsterdam\n\nDe Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area for legalised prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and most well known red-light district. This neighborhood has become a famous attraction for tourists. It consists of a network of roads and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights.","Amsterdam\n\nRetail","Amsterdam\n\nShops in Amsterdam range from large high end department stores such as De Bijenkorf founded in 1870 and Maison de Bonneterie a Parisian style store founded in 1889, to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets P.C. Hooftstraat and Cornelis Schuytstraat, which are located in the vicinity of the Vondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval Kalverstraat in the heart of the city. Other shopping areas include the Negen Straatjes and Haarlemmerdijk and Haarlemmerstraat. Negen Straatjes are nine narrow streets within the Grachtengordel, the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops. The Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk were voted best shopping street in the Netherlands in 2011. These streets have as the Negen Straatjes a large diversity of privately owned shops. But as the Negen Straatjes are dominated by fashion stores the Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk offer a very wide variety of all kinds of stores, just to name some specialties: candy and other food related stores, lingerie, sneakers, wedding clothing, interior shops, books, Italian deli's, racing and mountain bikes, skatewear, etc.","Amsterdam\n\nThe city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the Albert Cuyp Market, Westerstraat-markt, Ten Katemarkt, and Dappermarkt. Some of these markets are held on a daily basis, like the Albert Cuypmarkt and the Dappermarkt. Others, like the Westerstraatmarkt, are held on a weekly basis.","Amsterdam\n\nFashion","Amsterdam\n\nFashion brands like G-star, Gsus, BlueBlood, PICHICHI, Iris van Herpen, 10 feet and Warmenhoven & Venderbos, and fashion designers like Mart Visser, Viktor & Rolf, Sheila de Vries, Marlies Dekkers and Frans Molenaar are based in Amsterdam. Modelling agencies Elite Models, Touche models and Tony Jones have opened branches in Amsterdam. Fashion models like Yfke Sturm, Doutzen Kroes and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has its garment centre in the World Fashion Center. Buildings which formerly housed brothels in the red light district have been converted to ateliers for young fashion designers, AKA eagle fuel. Fashion photographers Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin were born in Amsterdam(Netherland).","Amsterdam\n\nCulture","Amsterdam\n\nDuring the later part of the 16th-century Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of rhetoric) organised contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama. In 1638, Amsterdam opened its first theatre. Ballet performances were given in this theatre as early as 1642. In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. While Amsterdam was under the influence of German music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera. In the 19th century, popular culture was centred on the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainly vaudeville and music-hall). The metronome, one of the most important advances in European classical music, was invented here in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. At the end of this century, the Rijksmuseum and Stedelijk Museum were built. In 1888, the Concertgebouworkest was established. With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television. Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of the Dutch SBS Broadcasting Group is located in Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nMuseums","Amsterdam\n\nThe most important museums of Amsterdam are located on the Museumplein (Museum Square), located at the southwestern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former World's fair. The northeastern part of the square is bordered by the very large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular pond. This is transformed into an ice rink in winter. The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is situated across this street from the square. To the southeast of the square are situated a number of large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. A parking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. The Museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel.","Amsterdam\n\nThe current appearance of the square was realised in 1999, when the square was remodeled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again, because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Rijksmuseum possesses the largest and most important collection of classical Dutch art. \nIt opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects. The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpiece The Night Watch is one of top pieces of art of the museum. It also houses paintings from artists like Van der Helst, Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuyp, Jacob van Ruisdael and Paulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art. This ranges from Delftware to giant doll-houses from the 17th century. The architect of the gothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. The museum underwent a 10-year, 375 million euro renovation starting in 2003. The full collection was reopened to the public on 13 April 2013 and the Rijksmuseum has established itself as the most visited museum in Amsterdam with 2.2 million visitors in 2013.","Amsterdam\n\nVan Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while and there is a museum dedicated to his work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum. Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, like the The Potato Eaters and Sunflowers, are in the collection. The Van Gogh museum is the second most visited museum in Amsterdam, with 1.4 million annual visitors.","Amsterdam\n\nNext to the Van Gogh museum stands the Stedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's most important museum of modern art. The museum is as old as the square it borders and was opened in 1895. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like Piet Mondriaan, Karel Appel, and Kazimir Malevich. After renovations lasting several years the museum opened in September 2012 with a new composite extension that has been called 'The Bathtub' due to its resemblance to one.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city. They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum (Resistance Museum), the Anne Frank House, and the Rembrandt House Museum, to the very large, like the Tropenmuseum (Museum of the Tropics), Amsterdam Museum (formerly known as Amsterdam Historical Museum), Hermitage Amsterdam (a dependency of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg) and the Joods Historisch Museum (Jewish Historical Museum). The modern-styled Nemo is dedicated to child-friendly science exhibitions.","Amsterdam\n\nMusic","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam's musical culture includes a large collection of songs which treat the city nostalgically and lovingly. The 1949 song \"Aan de Amsterdamse grachten\" (\"On the canals of Amsterdam\") was performed and recorded by many artists, including John Kraaijkamp sr.; the best-known version is probably that by Wim Sonneveld (1962). In the 1950s Johnny Jordaan rose to fame with \"Geef mij maar Amsterdam\" (\"I prefer Amsterdam\"), which praises the city above all others (explicitly Paris); Jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood, the Jordaan (\"Bij ons in de Jordaan\"). Colleagues and contemporaries of Johnny include Tante Leen, Zwarte Riek, and Manke Nelis. Other notable Amsterdam songs are \"Amsterdam\" by Jacques Brel (1964) and \"Deze Stad\" by De Dijk (1989). A 2011 poll by Amsterdam paper Het Parool found, somewhat surprisingly, that Trio Bier's \"Oude Wolf\" was voted \"Amsterdams lijflied\". Notable Amsterdam bands from the modern era include the Osdorp Posse and The Ex.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Heineken Music Hall is a concert hall located near the Amsterdam Arena. Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues, Paradiso and the Melkweg are located near the Leidseplein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging from indie rock to hip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Other more subcultural music venues are OCCII, OT301, De Nieuwe Anita, Winston Kingdom and Zaal 100. Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam, with the Bimhuis being the premier venue. In 2012, Ziggo Dome was opened, also near Amsterdam ArenA, a state of the art indoor music arena.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Heineken Music Hall is also host to many electronic dance music festivals, alongside many other venues. Armin van Buuren and Tiesto, some of the world's leading Trance DJ's hail from the Netherlands and perform frequently in Amsterdam. Each year in October, the city hosts the Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world. Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff, which takes place in the venues Paradiso and Melkweg. In summer time there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby Amsterdam, such as Awakenings, Dance Valley, Mystery Land, Loveland, A Day at the Park, Welcome to the Future, and Valtifest.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is the Concertgebouw, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. Some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the Concertgebouw, for a public of over 700,000, making it one of the most-visited concert halls in the world. The opera house of Amsterdam is situated adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera, (a word originally coined by protesters against it very construction: Stop the Opera[-house]). This huge modern complex, opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood at Waterlooplein next to the river Amstel. The Stopera is the homebase of Dutch National Opera, Dutch National Ballet and the Holland Symfonia. Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall, which is situated in the IJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostly modern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is the Bimhuis, a concert hall for improvised and Jazz music.","Amsterdam\n\nPerforming arts","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has three main theatre buildings.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam at the Leidseplein is the home base of Toneelgroep Amsterdam. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal program of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. The Stadsschouwburg is currently being renovated and expanded. The third theater space, to be operated jointly with next door Melkweg, will open in late 2009 or early 2010.","Amsterdam\n\nDutch National Opera and Ballet (formerly known as Het Muziektheater), dating from 1986, is the principal opera house and home to Dutch National Opera and Dutch National Ballet.","Amsterdam\n\nRoyal Theatre Carré was built as a permanent circus theatre in 1887 and is currently mainly used for musicals, cabaret performances and pop concerts.","Amsterdam\n\nThe recently re-opened DeLaMar Theater houses the more commercial plays and musicals.","Amsterdam\n\nAlso a new theater has moved into Amsterdam scene in 2014, joining other established venues. Theater Amsterdam, situated in the west part of Amsterdam, Danzigerkade 5 / Westpoortnummer 2036 1013 AP Amsterdam. \nIt's a modern building with a panoramic view over the harbour. The theater is the first ever purpose-built venue to showcase a single play entitled ANNE, the play based on Anne Frank's life.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Netherlands has a tradition of cabaret or kleinkunst, which combines music, storytelling, commentary, theatre and comedy. Cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like Wim Kan, Wim Sonneveld and Toon Hermans were pioneers of this form of art in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam is the Kleinkunstacademie (English: Cabaret Academy). Contemporary popular artists are Youp van 't Hek, Freek de Jonge, Herman Finkers, Hans Teeuwen, Theo Maassen, Herman van Veen, Najib Amhali, Raoul Heertje, Jörgen Raymann, Brigitte Kaandorp and Comedytrain. The English spoken comedy scene was established with the founding of Boom Chicago in 1993. They have their own theatre at Leidseplein.","Amsterdam\n\nNightlife","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. Amsterdam has many cafés (bars). They range from large and modern to small and cozy. The typical Bruine Kroeg (brown café) breathe a more old fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientele. Most cafés have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine. Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable. Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques. The two main nightlife areas for tourists are the Leidseplein and the Rembrandtplein. The Paradiso, Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centres, which turn into discothèques on some nights. Examples of discothèques near the Rembrandtplein are the Escape, Air, John Doe and Club Abe. Also noteworthy are Panama, Hotel Arena (East), TrouwAmsterdam and Studio 80. Bimhuis located near the Central Station, with its rich programming hosting the best in the field is considered one of the best jazz clubs in the world.","Amsterdam\n\nThe Reguliersdwarsstraat is the main street for the LGBT community and nightlife.","Amsterdam\n\nFestivals","Amsterdam\n\nIn 2008, there were 140 festivals and events in Amsterdam. \nFamous festivals and events in Amsterdam include: Koningsdag (which was named Koninginnedag until the crowning of king Willem-Alexander in 2013) (King's Day – Queen's Day); the Holland Festival for the performing arts; the yearly Prinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on the Prinsen canal) in August; the 'Stille Omgang' (a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March); Amsterdam Gay Pride; The Cannabis Cup; and the Uitmarkt. On Koninginnedag—that was held each year on 30 April—hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents and Koningsdag is held on 27 April. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the freemarket, or visiting one of the many music concerts.","Amsterdam\n\nThe yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over Europe. Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats in Amsterdam's canals, held on the first Saturday in August. The annual Uitmarkt is a three-day cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late August. It offers previews of many different artists, such as musicians and poets, who perform on podia.","Amsterdam\n\nSports","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is home of the Eredivisie football club Ajax Amsterdam. The stadium Amsterdam Arena is the home of Ajax. It is located in the south-east of the city next to the new Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA railway station. Before moving to their current location in 1996, Ajax played their regular matches in De Meer Stadion. \nIn 1928, Amsterdam hosted the Summer Olympics. The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events, such as the Amsterdam Marathon. In 1920, Amsterdam assisted in hosting some of the sailing events for the Summer Olympics held in neighbouring Antwerp, Belgium by hosting events at Buiten Y.","Amsterdam\n\nThe city holds the Dam to Dam Run, a 10-mile race from Amsterdam to Zaandam, as well as the Amsterdam Marathon.","Amsterdam\n\nThe ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers play in the Jaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch ice hockey premier league. Speed skating championships have been held on the 400-metre lane of this ice rink.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam holds two American football franchises: the Amsterdam Crusaders and the Amsterdam Panthers.\nThe Amsterdam Pirates baseball team competes in the Dutch Major League. There are three field hockey teams: Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen. The basketball team MyGuide Amsterdam competes in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid.","Amsterdam\n\nThere is one rugbyclub in Amsterdam, which also hosts sports training classes such as RTC(Rugby Talenten Centrum or Rugby Talent Centre) and the National Rugby stadium.","Amsterdam\n\nSince 1999 the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at the Amsterdam Sports Awards. Boxer Raymond Joval and field hockey midfielder Carole Thate were the first to receive the awards, in 1999.","Amsterdam\n\nGovernment","Amsterdam\n\nThe city of Amsterdam is a municipality under the Dutch Municipalities Act. It is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive board and a mayor. Since 1981, the municipality of Amsterdam has gradually been divided into semi-autonomous boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts'. Over time, a total of 15 boroughs were created. In May 2010, under a major reform, the number of Amsterdam boroughs was reduced to eight: Amsterdam-Centrum covering the city centre including the canal belt, Amsterdam-Noord consisting of the neighbourhoods north of the IJ lake, Amsterdam-Oost in the east, Amsterdam-Zuid in the south, Amsterdam-West in the west, Amsterdam Nieuw-West in the far west, Amsterdam Zuidoost in the southeast, and Westpoort covering the Port of Amsterdam area.","Amsterdam\n\nCity government","Amsterdam\n\nAs with all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive board and a mayor (burgemeester). The mayor is a member of the municipal executive board, but also has individual responsibilies in maintaining public order. In July 2010, Eberhard van der Laan (Labour Party) was appointed mayor of Amsterdam by the national government for a six-year term after being nominated by the Amsterdam municipal council. After the 2014 municipal council elections, a governing majority of D66, VVD and SP was formed – the first coalition without the Labour Party since World War II. Next to the mayor, the municipal executive board consists of eight wethouders ('alderpersons') appointed by the municipal council: four D66 alderpersons, two VVD alderpersons and two SP alderpersons.","Amsterdam\n\nUnlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into eight boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts', a system that was implemented gradually in the 1980s to improve local governance. The boroughs are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. In 2010, the number of Amsterdam boroughs reached fifteen. Fourteen of those had their own district council (deelraad), elected by a popular vote. The fifteenth, Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam and had very few residents. Therefore, it was governed by the central municipal council. Under the borough system, municipal decisions are made at borough level, except for those affairs pertaining to the whole city such as major infrastructure projects, which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities. In 2010, the borough system was restructured, in which many smaller boroughs merged into larger boroughs. In 2014, under a reform of the Dutch Municipalities Act, the Amsterdam boroughs lost much of their autonomous status, as their district councils were abolished. The municipal council of Amsterdam voted to maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils with smaller, but still directly elected district committees (bestuurscommissies).","Amsterdam\n\nUnder a municipal ordinance, the new district committees were granted responsibilities through delegation of regulatory and executive powers by the central municipal council.","Amsterdam\n\nMetropolitan area","Amsterdam\n\n\"Amsterdam\" is usually understood to refer to the municipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the town of Durgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nStatistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam, not to be confused with Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam, a synonym of Groot Amsterdam), Greater Amsterdam (Groot Amsterdam, a COROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (Stadsgewest Amsterdam). The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely the Stadsregio Amsterdam ('City Region of Amsterdam'). The city region is similar to Greater Amsterdam but includes the municipalities of Zaanstad and Wormerland. It excludes Graft-De Rijp.","Amsterdam\n\nThe smallest of these areas is the municipality of Amsterdam with a population of 802,938 in 2013. The conurbation had a population of 1,096,042 in 2013. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities, and had a population of 1,293,208 in 2013. Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of Zaanstad. The largest area by population, the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam), has a population of 2,33 million. It includes for instance Zaanstad, Wormerveer, Muiden, Abcoude, Haarlem, Almere and Lelystad but excludes Graft-De Rijp. Amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan area Randstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants.","Amsterdam\n\nOf these various metropolitan area configurations, only the Stadsregio Amsterdam (City Region of Amsterdam) has a formal governmental status. Its responsibities include regional spatial planning and the metropolitan public transport concessions.","Amsterdam\n\nNational capital","Amsterdam\n\nUnder the Dutch Constitution, Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands. Since the 1983 constitutional revision, the constitution mentions \"Amsterdam\" and \"capital\" in chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in \"the capital Amsterdam\" (\"de hoofdstad Amsterdam\"). Previous versions of the constitution only mentioned \"the city of Amsterdam\" (\"de stad Amsterdam\"). For a royal investiture, therefore, the States General of the Netherlands (the Dutch Parliament) meets for a ceremonial joint session in Amsterdam. The ceremony traditionally takes place at the Nieuwe Kerk on Dam Square, immediately after the former monarch has signed the act of abdication at the nearby Royal Palace of Amsterdam. Normally, however, the Parliament sits in The Hague, the city which has historically been the seat of the Dutch government, the Dutch monarchy, and the Dutch supreme court. Foreign embassies are also located in The Hague.","Amsterdam\n\nSymbols","Amsterdam\n\nThe coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam's patron saint was Saint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the cityshields of neighbours Amstelveen and Ouder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also as civil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is the Imperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans, Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the king's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian's imperial crown when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown of Emperor Rudolph II, a crown that became the Imperial Crown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when city and province became part of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.","Amsterdam\n\nLast came the city's official motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (\"Heroic, Determined, Merciful\"), bestowed on the city in 1947 by Queen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during the Second World War.","Amsterdam\n\nTransport","Amsterdam\n\nMetro, tram, bus","Amsterdam\n\nCurrently, there are sixteen tram routes and four metro routes, with a fifth route to be added when the North/South metro line is completed (due in 2017). All are operated by municipal public transport operator GVB, which also runs the city bus network.","Amsterdam\n\nFour fare-free GVB ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the IJ lake to the borough of Amsterdam-Noord, and two fare-charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also privately operated water taxis, a water bus, a boat sharing operation, electric rental boats (Boaty) and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways.","Amsterdam\n\nRegional buses, and some suburban buses, are operated by Connexxion and EBS. International coach services are provided by Eurolines from Amsterdam Amstel railway station, IDBUS from Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, and Megabus from Zuiderzeeweg in the east of the city.","Amsterdam\n\nCar","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind of Kilometre Zero, of the highway system of the Netherlands, with freeways numbered One to Eight planned to originate from the city. The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roads A1, A2, and A4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. The A3 road to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to conserve the Groene Hart. Road A8, leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974. Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as the A7 and A6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nThe A10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutch national network of freeways. Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18 city roads, numbered S101 through to S118. These city roads are regional roads without grade separation, and sometimes without a central reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100 Centrumring is a smaller ringroad circumnavigating the city's centre.","Amsterdam\n\nIn the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or are one-way. The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as Autodelen and Meerijden.nu.","Amsterdam\n\nNational rail","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is served by ten stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways). Six are intercity stops: Sloterdijk, Zuid, Amstel, Bijlmer ArenA, Lelylaan and Amsterdam Centraal. The stations for local services are: RAI, Holendrecht, Muiderpoort and Science Park. Amsterdam Centraal is also an international railway station. From the station there are regular services to destinations such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Switzerland. Among these trains are international trains of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Amsterdam-Berlin) and the Thalys (Amsterdam-Brussels-Paris/Lille), CityNightLine, and InterCityExpress (Amsterdam–Cologne–Frankfurt). \nFuture line: Highspeed train Amsterdam/London opening end of 2016.","Amsterdam\n\nAirport","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Centraal railway station and is served by domestic and international intercity trains, such as Thalys and Intercity Brussel. Schiphol is the largest airport in the Netherlands, the fourth largest in Europe, and the 14th-largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles about 50 million passengers per year and is the home base of five airlines, KLM, transavia.com, Martinair, Arkefly and easyJet. , Schiphol was the fifth busiest airport in the world measured by international passenger numbers.","Amsterdam\n\nCycling","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is one of the most bicycle-friendly large cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks, and several guarded bike storage garages (fietsenstalling) which can be used for a nominal fee. In 2013, there were about 1,200,000 bicycles in Amsterdam outnumbering the amount of citizens in the city. Theft is widespread – in 2011, about 83,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam. Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups because of their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the 400 km of bike paths, the flat terrain, and the arguable inconvenience of driving an automobile.","Amsterdam\n\nEducation","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam has two universities: the University of Amsterdam (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit or \"VU\"). Other institutions for higher education include an art school – Gerrit Rietveld Academie, a university of applied sciences – the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten. Amsterdam's International Institute of Social History is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's Hortus Botanicus, founded in the early 17th century, is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world, with many old and rare specimens, among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.","Amsterdam\n\nThere are over 200 primary schools in Amsterdam. Some of these primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various Montessori schools. The biggest Montessori high school in Amsterdam is the Montessori Lyceum Amsterdam. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), the Vossius Gymnasium, Barlaeus Gymnasium, St. Ignatius Gymnasium, Het 4e Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. The city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries.","Amsterdam\n\nNotable people","Amsterdam\n\n* Frits Bolkestein (born 1933), politician\n* Charlene de Carvalho-Heineken (born 1954), businesswoman\n* Paul J. Crutzen (born 1933), atmospheric chemist\n* Willem Drees Sr. (1886–1988), politician\n* Floris Adriaan van Hall (1791–1866), Minister of Justice, Prime Minister of the Netherlands\n* Freddy Heineken (1923–2002), businessman\n* Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (born 1948), politician\n* André Kuipers (born 1958), astronaut\n* Baruch Spinoza (born 1632–1677), philosopher\n* Hans Wiegel (born 1941), politician","Amsterdam\n\nEntertainment","Amsterdam\n\n* Karel Appel (1921–2006), painter\n* Jan Akkerman (born 1946), musician\n* Willeke van Ammelrooy (born 1944), actress\n* Willem Breuker (1944–2010), musician\n* Frans Brüggen (1934–2014), musician\n* Rudi van Dantzig (1933–2012), ballet\n* Joop van den Ende (born 1942), film, television and theatric producer\n* Martin Garrix (born Martijn Gerard Garritsen 1996), DJ, producer\n* Bernard Haitink (born 1929), orchestra conductor\n* John Kraaijkamp, Sr. (1925–2011), actor, comedian, singer","Amsterdam\n\nSport","Amsterdam\n\n* Co Adriaanse (born 1947), football trainer\n* Dennis Bergkamp (born 1969), football player\n* Jan van Beveren (1948–2011) football goalkeeper and coach\n* Michael Bleekemolen (born 1949) racing driver\n* Daley Blind (born 1990), football player\n* Geraldo Boldewijn (born 1991), American football player\n* Cor Brom (1932–2008), football player and football trainer\n* Ellie van den Brom (born 1949) long-track speed skater\n* Johan Cruyff (1947–2016), football player and football trainer\n* Ellen van Dijk (born 1987), cyclist\n* Max Euwe (1901–1981) Chess Grandmaster, mathematician, author\n* Louis van Gaal (born 1951), football trainer\n* Ruud Gullit (born 1962), football player\n* Bobby Haarms (1934–2009), football player and football trainer\n* Cor van der Hart (1928–2006), football player and football trainer\n* Rinus Israël (born 1942), football player and football trainer\n* Nigel de Jong (born 1984), football player\n* Jan Jongbloed (born 1940), football player (goalkeeper)\n* Piet Keizer (born 1943), football player\n* Patrick Kluivert (born 1976), football player\n* Gerrie Knetemann (1951–2004), cyclist\n* Ada Kok (born 1947), swimmer\n* Ruud Krol (born 1949), football player and football coach\n* Edward Metgod (born 1959), football player (goalkeeper) and football trainer\n* John Metgod (born 1958), football player and football trainer\n* Rinus Michels (1928–2005), football player and football trainer\n* Bennie Muller (born 1938), football player (47 caps)\n* Eddy Pieters Graafland (born 1934), football player (goalkeeper)\n* Peter Post (1933–2011), cyclist\n* Anton Pronk (born 1941), football player (19 caps)\n* Rob Rensenbrink (born 1947), football player\n* Frank Rijkaard (born 1962), football player and football coach\n* Wim Ruska (born 1940) Judoka\n* Ton Sijbrands (born 1949) international draughts player\n* Sjaak Swart (born 1938), football player\n* Marko Vejinovic (born 1990), football player","Amsterdam\n\nOriginating from elsewhere","Amsterdam\n\n* Fanny Blankers-Koen (1918–2004), athlete\n* Inge de Bruijn (born 1973), swimmer\n* Ryan ten Doeschate (born 1980), cricketer\n* Jan Hein Donner (1927–1988), chess grandmaster\n* Anne Frank (1929–1945), diarist and Holocaust victim\n* Theo van Gogh (1957–2004), film director\n* Carice van Houten (born 1976), actress\n* Søren Lerby (born 1958), football player\n* Satyendra Pakhale (born 1967), designer\n* Rembrandt van Rijn (1606/7–1669), painter\n* Jan van Speyk (1802–1831), lieutenant-commander Dutch Royal Navy\n* Joop den Uyl (1919–1987), politics\n* Joost van den Vondel (1597–1679), poet, playwright\n* Gerardus Vossius (1577–1649), theologist, historian","Amsterdam\n\nMedia","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media. Some locally based newspapers include Het Parool, a national daily paper; De Telegraaf, the largest Dutch daily newspaper; the daily newspapers Trouw, De Volkskrant and NRC Handelsblad; De Groene Amsterdammer, a weekly newspaper; the free newspapers Sp!ts, Metro, and The Holland Times (printed in English).","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is home to the Dutch second-largest commercial TV group SBS Broadcasting Group, consisting of TV-stations SBS 6, Net 5 and Veronica. However, Amsterdam is not considered 'the media city of the Netherlands'. The town of Hilversum, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Amsterdam, has been crowned with this unofficial title. Hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands. Radio Netherlands, heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, is also based there. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company NOS, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organisations and many commercial TV production companies.","Amsterdam\n\nIn 2012, the music video of Far East Movement, 'Live My Life', was filmed in various parts of Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nAmsterdam is also featured in John Green's book 'The Fault in Our Stars,' which has also been made into a film, and part of the film takes place in Amsterdam.","Amsterdam\n\nHousing","Amsterdam\n\nThe housing market is heavily regulated. In Amsterdam, 55% of existing housing and 30% of new housing is owned by Housing Associations, which are Government sponsored entities.","Amsterdam\n\nSquat properties are common throughout Amsterdam, due to property law strongly favouring tenants. A number of these squats have become well known, such as OT301, Paradiso, Vrankrijk (closed down by city government), and the Binnenpret, and several are now businesses, such as health clubs and licensed restaurants.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands (; ) is the main constituent country () of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a small, densely populated country located in Western Europe with three island territories in the Caribbean.designated Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba within ISO [http://www.iso.org/iso/newsletter_vi-9_fiji-myanmar_and_other_minor_corrections-incl_bulgaria.pdf ISO 3166-1]. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom and Germany. The largest and most important cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam. Amsterdam is the country's capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of government and parliament. The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe – as large as the next three largest combined – and was the world's largest port between 1962 and 2004. The name Holland is also frequently used to refer informally to the whole of the country of the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\n\"Netherlands\" literally means \"lower countries\", influenced by its low land and flat geography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made. Since the late 16th century, large areas (polders) have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, amounting to nearly 17% of the country's current land mass. With a population density of 408 people per km2 – 505 (July 2016) if water is excluded – the Netherlands is a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a larger population and a higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products, after the United States. This is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. The Netherlands was the third country in the world to have an elected parliament, and since 1848 it has been governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, organised as a unitary state. The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and is generally regarded as a liberal country, having legalised abortion, prostitution and euthanasia, while maintaining a progressive drugs policy.","Netherlands\n\nIn 2001, it became the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union. The country is host to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and five international courts: the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Court and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency Europol and judicial co-operation agency Eurojust. This has led to the city being dubbed \"the world's legal capital\". The Netherlands is also a part of the Schengen Area. The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life.","Netherlands\n\nEtymology","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to by the much older designation \"Holland\" (meaning holt land, or wood land), though this refers only to North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces, formerly a single province and earlier the County of Holland. This originally Frankish county emerged from the dissolved Frisian Kingdom and was, after the decline of Brabant, economically and politically the most important county in the region. Because of this importance and the emphasis on Holland during the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 17th and 18th century, Holland served as a pars pro toto for the entire country in English, and is considered either incorrect, informal, or on occasion opprobrious, depending on the context, but is more acceptable when referring to the national football team.","Netherlands\n\nPlace names with Neder (or lage), Nieder, Nether (or low) and Nedre are in use in various places in countries where a Germanic language is spoken, and has in French and Latin its respective counterparts in Bas or Inferior. They are sometimes used in relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben, Superior or Haut. In the case of the Low Countries the geographical location of the lower region has been more or less downstream and near the sea, the geographical location of the upper region changed over time tremendously. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding Upper region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.","Netherlands\n\nThe Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term les pays de par deçà (~ the lands over here) for the Low Countries as opposed to les pays de par delà (~ the lands over there) for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France.","Netherlands\n\nUnder Habsburg rule, Les pays de par deçà developed in pays d'embas (lands down-here), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions in Europe. This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents. However, Niderlant was also the region between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as Oberland (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.","Netherlands\n\nFrom the mid-sixteenth century on, the Low Countries or the \"Netherlands\" was – besides Flanders – probably the most commonly used name. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces (Belgica Foederata in Latin, the \"Federated Netherlands\") and the Southern Netherlands (Belgica Regia, \"Royal Netherlands\"). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. It is used synonymous with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.","Netherlands\n\nHistory","Netherlands\n\nPrehistory (before 500 BC)","Netherlands\n\nThe prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces in the Netherlands were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from 250,000 years ago. After the end of the Ice Age, various Paleolithic groups inhabited the area, and around 8000 BC Mesolithic tribes resided in Friesland and Drenthe, where the oldest canoe in the world was recovered. Autochthonous hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., \"[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence\n1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]\", 1998, Spiegel Historiael 33, pp. 423–428 They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game. People made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Agricultural transformation took place very gradually, between 4300 BC and 4000 BC.","Netherlands\n\nThe farming Funnelbeaker culture extended from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands, and erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe (built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC). To the southwest, the Vlaardingen culture (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the Neolithic period. Around 2950 BC there was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture., , in J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (Eds), Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. ISBN 90-269-4448-9, NUGI 644 The Bell Beaker culture, also present in the Netherlands, apparently rose out of the Corded Ware culture.Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), \"Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin\", , in Lanting et al. (Eds) Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.","Netherlands\n\nCopper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil. The Bronze Age probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects, suggest that it was a trading centre in the Bronze Age. The Bell Beaker cultures (2700–2100 BC) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the Atlantic and Nordic horizons, roughly divided by the course of the Rhine. In the north, the Elp culture (c. 1800 BC to 800 BC) was a Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield (cremation) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.","Netherlands\n\nThe Iron Age brought a measure of prosperity. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including bog iron extracted from the ore in peat bogs in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the Veluwe and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. Smiths travelled from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. Some evidence even suggests the making of Damascus steel swords using an advanced method of forging that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel. The King's grave of Oss dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.","Netherlands\n\nGermanic groups and Romans (500 BC – 410 AD)","Netherlands\n\nThe deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC, that further deteriorated around 650 BC, might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingvaeones (or Istvaeones) inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic , extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was being absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.","Netherlands\n\nDuring the Gallic Wars, the area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. At first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the border tribes Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69AD, but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies.","Netherlands\n\nThe Salian Franks were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358), when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Toxandria. After deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared from the northern Netherlands, probably forced to resettle within Roman territory as laeti in c. 296. Coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries.","Netherlands\n\nEarly Middle Ages (411–1000)","Netherlands\n\nAfter Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence.","Netherlands\n\nTo the north of the Franks, climatic conditions on the coast improved, and during the Migration Period the abandoned land was resettled again, mostly by Saxons, but also by the closely related Angles, Jutes and ancient Frisii. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the closest to English related living language on continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Utrecht as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians.","Netherlands\n\nHowever, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.","Netherlands\n\nThe Frankish Carolingian empire modeled itself after the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, as of 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprises territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. When the middle kingdom was partitioned, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and consecutively were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 850, Lothair I acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. Around 879, another Viking raided the Frisian lands, Godfrid, Duke of Frisia. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak.","Netherlands\n\nResistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that lay the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.","Netherlands\n\nHigh Middle Ages (1000–1384)","Netherlands\n\nThe Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century, but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms, that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and the Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the \"Frisian freedom\") and resented the imposition of the feudal system.","Netherlands\n\nAround 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Brugge and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.","Netherlands\n\nAround 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, and made the emergence of the County of Holland as center of power possible. The title of Count of Holland were fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy – who was also Count of Flanders – to conquer Holland.","Netherlands\n\nBurgundian and Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581)","Netherlands\n\nMost of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.","Netherlands\n\nUnder Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II of Spain as reigning monarch in the northern provinces.","Netherlands\n\nThe Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish, and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. The English army under command of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester was of no real benefit to the Dutch rebellion. Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go easily, and war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.","Netherlands\n\nDutch Republic (1581–1795)","Netherlands\n\nAfter declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nIn the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.","Netherlands\n\nMany economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. The republic went into a state of general decline in the later 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden, as main political factions.","Netherlands\n\nBatavian Republic and kingdom (1795–1890)","Netherlands\n\nWith the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813, when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig. William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I.","Netherlands\n\nIn addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.","Netherlands\n\nThe Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. On the other hand, the colonies in the West Indies (Dutch Guiana and Curaçao and Dependencies), relied heavily on African slaves in which the Dutch part is estimated at 5–7 percent, or more than half a million Africans. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863. Furthermore, slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition. The Dutch were also one of the last European countries to industrialise, in the second half of the 19th century.","Netherlands\n\nWorld wars and beyond (1890–present)","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands were able to remain neutral during World War I. In part, because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival, until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps of whom only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).","Netherlands\n\nIn 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. But soon after VE day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new republic of Indonesia.","Netherlands\n\nIn 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war the Netherlands left behind also an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighboring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.","Netherlands\n\nGovernment-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid ontzuiling (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as special municipalities upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nGeography","Netherlands\n\nThe European area of the Netherlands lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is geographically a very low and flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.","Netherlands\n\nMuch of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine (Rijn), the Meuse (Maas) and the Scheldt (Schelde), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their \"Great Rivers\" (de Grote Rivieren). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).","Netherlands\n\nFloods","Netherlands\n\nOver the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention. Most notable in terms of land loss was the storm of 1134, which created the archipelago of Zeeland in the south-west.","Netherlands\n\nOn 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 km2 Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the \"Delta Works\", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.","Netherlands\n\nThe impact of disasters was to an extent increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.","Netherlands\n\nBecause of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.","Netherlands\n\nTo guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called \"waterschappen\" (\"water boards\") or \"hoogheemraadschappen\" (\"high home councils\") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.","Netherlands\n\nIn 1932 the Afsluitdijk (\"Closure Dike\") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2500 km2 were reclaimed from the sea.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.","Netherlands\n\nDelta works","Netherlands\n\nAfter the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works were constructed, a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. New projects have been periodically started since to renovate and renew the Delta Works. A main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to 1 per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising 3000 km of outer sea-dykes and 10000 km of inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dyke reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.","Netherlands\n\nIt is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level which, despite popular belief, will possibly not overwhelm the measures the Netherlands has taken to control floods. Even more specifically, the Netherlands is the only country in the world actively preparing for a sea level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of 10 cm. The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defenses like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the sea side, but could also alter rain fall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another program is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called \"overflow areas\" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.","Netherlands\n\nProtecting the country against floods is one element of climate change. The other is that the pressure of the sea water on ground water will increase. As a result, the fresh water table will be pushed more inland, resulting in more brackish or saline groundwater in the coastal provinces. Due to this change, some drinking water areas will be forced to apply desalination despite the apparent abundance of water. It will also affect agriculture. The greenhouses can continue their production by becoming more water efficient (they are already disconnected from the groundwater, thereby not becoming more saline), though they will need to become more energy and water efficient. The push of more brackish water into the mainland will also cause changes in flora and fauna.","Netherlands\n\nClimate","Netherlands\n\nThe predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is southwest, which causes a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.","Netherlands\n\nThe following tables are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1981 and 2010:","Netherlands\n\nIce days (maximum temperature below 0 C) usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days (minimum temperature below 0 C) occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be 10 cm above ground instead of 150 cm, one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April, but sometimes occurs in May or October too.","Netherlands\n\nWarm days (maximum temperature above 20 C) in De Bilt are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in De Bilt, however). Summer days (maximum temperature above 25 C) are usually measured in De Bilt from May until September, tropical days (maximum temperature above 30 C) are rare and usually occur only in June to August.","Netherlands\n\nPrecipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer, when lightning is also much more frequent).","Netherlands\n\nThe number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.","Netherlands\n\nNature","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.","Netherlands\n\nThe Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of 370 km2. It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde, but also includes mud flats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.","Netherlands\n\nPhytogeographically, the Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe).","Netherlands\n\nCaribbean islands","Netherlands\n\nThe Caribbean Netherlands are designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands form a part of the Lesser Antilles. Within this island group,","Netherlands\n\n* Bonaire is part of the ABC islands within the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.\n* Saba and Sint Eustatius are part of the SSS islands. They are located east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Although in the English language they are considered part of the Leeward Islands, French, Spanish, Dutch and the English spoken locally consider them part of the Windward Islands. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The highest point is Mount Scenery, 887 m, on Saba. This is the highest point in the country, and is also the highest point of the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nThe islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.","Netherlands\n\nPolitics","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2010, The Economist ranked the Netherlands as the 10th most democratic country in the world.\nThe monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the king (the title queen has no constitutional significance) has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the king and the ministers, the king might have influence beyond the power granted by the constitution.","Netherlands\n\nThe executive power is formed by the council of Ministers, the deliberative council of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a primus inter pares, with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party continuously since 1973.","Netherlands\n\nThe cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the Lower House, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them.","Netherlands\n\nPolitical culture","Netherlands\n\nBoth trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, and Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.","Netherlands\n\nIn the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.","Netherlands\n\nPolitical parties","Netherlands\n\nBecause of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1919, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the social democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the liberals, of which the right wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.","Netherlands\n\nThese parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal D66.","Netherlands\n\nIn the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A \"purple\" cabinet was formed by VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.","Netherlands\n\nIn June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and ChristianUnion.","Netherlands\n\nOn 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.","Netherlands\n\nVVD and PvdA were the big winners of the elections. Since 5 November 2012 they have formed the second Rutte cabinet.","Netherlands\n\nAdministrative divisions","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a Commissioner of the King (Commissaris van de Koning), except for Limburg province where the position is named Governor (Gouverneur). All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), of which there are 390 (2016).","Netherlands\n\nThe country is also subdivided into 24 water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every 4 years.","Netherlands\n\nThe administrative structure on the 3 BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is different. These islands have the status of openbare lichamen (public bodies) rather than municipalities and as administrative units are generally referred to as special municipalities. They are not part of a province.","Netherlands\n\nForeign relations","Netherlands\n\nThe history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.","Netherlands\n\nThe foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.","Netherlands\n\nDuring and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several UN Security Council Resolutions. Surinam became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nMilitary","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and quickly defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.","Netherlands\n\nThe military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal):","Netherlands\n\n* Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army\n* Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps\n* Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force\n* Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Marechaussee (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control","Netherlands\n\nGeneral Tom Middendorp is the current Commander of the Netherlands armed forces.\nAll military specialities except the submarine service and the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps (Korps Mariniers) are open to women. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for women to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.","Netherlands\n\nEconomy","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (3rd in 2014).","Netherlands\n\n, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, UK, United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, and tourism (in 2012 the Netherlands welcomed 11.7 million international tourists). Examples of international companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and car navigation (TomTom).","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 10th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force.In April 2016 this was reduced to 6.3%","Netherlands\n\nIn Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 7th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 13th most free market capitalist economy out of 157 surveyed countries.","Netherlands\n\nAmsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the \"gulden\" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the VOC), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from central and eastern Europe.","Netherlands\n\nOf economic importance is BrabantStad, a partnership between the municipalities of Breda, Eindhoven, Helmond, 's-Hertogenbosch and Tilburg and the province of North Brabant. BrabantStad is the fastest growing economic region in the Netherlands, with Brainport as one of the three national top regions and as a top region in the world. The region lies within the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle (ELAT). The partnership aims to form an urban network and to make North Brabant explicitly known as a leading knowledge region within Europe. With a total of 1.5 million people and 20% of the industrial production in the Netherlands is BrabantStad one of the major economical important, metropolitan regions of the Netherlands. Of all the money that goes to research and development in the Netherlands, one third is spent in Eindhoven. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in technology and ICT.","Netherlands\n\nOf all European patent applications in the field of physics and electronics about eight per cent is from North Brabant. In the extended region, BrabantStad is part of the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle (ELAT). This economic cooperation agreement between three cities in three countries has created one of the most innovative regions in the European Union (measured in terms of money invested in technology and knowledge economy). The economic success of this region is important for the international competitiveness of the Netherlands; Together Amsterdam (airport), Rotterdam (seaport), and Eindhoven (Brainport) form the foundation of the Dutch economy.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fifth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.","Netherlands\n\nApart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. Exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). \"Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at 6.5 billion euros. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected.\"","Netherlands\n\nAgriculture","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses for the food-processing industry and accounts for 21 percent of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has, at some time in recent history, supplied one quarter of all of the world's exported tomatoes, and trade of one-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.","Netherlands\n\nAside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.","Netherlands\n\nTransport","Netherlands\n\nMobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport. With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.","Netherlands\n\nAbout 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 route km is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects virtually all major towns and cities. Trains are frequent, with one or two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines.","Netherlands\n\nCycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles,[http://www.hollandtrade.com/media/features/feature-stories/?bstnum\n4960 Holland Publications | Newsroom | Holland Trade and Invest] which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the c. 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (31%) than of the Danes (19%) list the bike as their main mode of transport for daily activities. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.","Netherlands\n\nRotterdam has the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed.","Netherlands\n\nSchiphol airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the fifth busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers.","Netherlands\n\nAs part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nDemographics","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands had an estimated population of 16,785,403 on 30 April 2013. It is the 10th most populous country in Europe and the 63rd most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.","Netherlands\n\nThe fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2013 est), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 83.21 years for newborn girls and 78.93 for boys (2013 est). The country has a migration rate of 1.99 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.","Netherlands\n\nThe majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch are the tallest people in the world, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about 2 cm shorter than those in the north.","Netherlands\n\nDutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the 2006 US Census, more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country. According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.428 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is the 24th most densely populated country in the world, with or – if only the land area is counted (33883 km2) – . When the land area of the provinces only is counted (33718 km2), a number of 500 PD/sqkm was reached in the first half of 2014. The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of 7 million inhabitants and is the 6th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 percent of Dutch population had a spendable income above 40 thousand EUR.","Netherlands\n\nLanguage","Netherlands\n\nThe official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the Netherlands two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.","Netherlands\n\nThe first of these regional languages is Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch) is recognised. Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Twents in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.","Netherlands\n\nRipuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect is not recognised as a regional language of the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nEnglish has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations (vmbo), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.","Netherlands\n\nIn higher level secondary schools (havo and vwo), two additional modern foreign languages are mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in vwo one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Spanish, Turkish, Arabic, or Russian. Additionally, schools in the Frisia region teach and have exams in Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in classical Greek and Latin for secondary school (called gymnasium or vwo+).","Netherlands\n\nReligion","Netherlands\n\nHistorically, the Netherlands was a predominantly Christian society. From the onset of the Protestant Reformation, the Dutch population became divided into about two-thirds Protestant (mostly Reformed) and one-third Roman Catholic believers.For detailed statistics, see Statistics by the Dutch Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek. This began to change gradually in the 20th centuryThe religious development of the Netherlands in the 20th century, and its three defining censuses: The census of 31 December 1930 recorded various Protestants at 46.3%, Roman Catholics at 36.5% and the remainder at 17.2%. The census of 31 May 1947 recorded various Protestants at 42.3%, Roman Catholics at 38.6% and the remainder at 19.1%. The census of 31 May 1960 recorded various Protestants at 40.7%, Roman Catholics at 40.5% and the remainder at 18.8%. as there has been a steep decline in religious adherence, which continues. There was a strong religious difference between the Roman Catholic south and the Reformed north, remains of which are still in evidence. The Netherlands is currently one of the most secular countries in the world. About 39% of the population is religiously affiliated and in 2010 fewer than 5.6% visited religious services regularly (once or more per month).","Netherlands\n\nIn spite of an overall decline in religiosity, a countervailing trend is the religious revival in the Protestant Bible Belt, and the growth of Muslim and Hindu communities.","Netherlands\n\nReligion in the Netherlands is generally considered a personal matter and is not supposed to be propagated in public. \nThe Dutch constitution guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament (CDA, ChristianUnion, and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).","Netherlands\n\nChristianity is currently the largest religion in the Netherlands, accounting for about one-third of the population. Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian religious grouping with around four million registered adherents (23.7% of the population). The provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and their people still largely consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN) (10.2% of the population), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils. The Dutch Royal Family has historically been Reformed.","Netherlands\n\nIslam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). Muslim numbers increased from the 1960 as a consequence of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia, but mainly migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.","Netherlands\n\nOther religions account for some 6% of the Dutch people. Hinduism is a minority religion in the Netherlands, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. There are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nEducation","Netherlands\n\nEducation in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 when HAVO, VWO or MBO level 2 or higher completed or 18.","Netherlands\n\nAll children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the 8th grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education (after completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream):\n* The vmbo has 4 grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the vmbo results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the mbo. ** MBO (\"middle-level applied education\"). This form of education primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade, or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. * The havo has 5 grades and allows for admission to the hbo. ** HBO (\"higher professional education\"), are universities of professional education (or applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. A HBO degrees gives access to the university system. * The vwo (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a (research) university.","Netherlands\n\n** Universities offer of a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one-, or two year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four-year doctoral degree program. Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university.","Netherlands\n\nHealthcare","Netherlands\n\nIn 2015 the Netherlands has maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been in the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for the sixth year in a row.[http://www.healthpowerhouse.com Health Consumer Powerhouse]\nThe Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.","Netherlands\n\nEver since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. But the difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.","Netherlands\n\nHealth insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:\n*Zorgverzekeringswet (Zvw), often called \"basic insurance\", covers common medical care. \n*Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care. While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If you don't take out insurance, you risk a fine. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.","Netherlands\n\nHealthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (huisartsen, comparable to General Practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Boston Consulting Group, 'Zorg voor Waarde', 2011","Netherlands\n\nHealthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalization, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (\"General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs\") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.","Netherlands\n\nFor all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.","Netherlands\n\nOther sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.","Netherlands\n\nA key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalization and a common risk pool. Funding for all short-term health care is 50% from employers, 45% from the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about 100 € per month (about US$127 in Aug. 2010 and in 2012 €150 or US$196,) with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and deductible a year €220 US$288.","Netherlands\n\nCulture","Netherlands\n\nArt, philosophy and literature","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, in which the Dutch Republic was prosperous, was the age of the \"Dutch Masters\", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondriaan. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphics artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza. All of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.","Netherlands\n\nIn the Dutch Golden Age, literature flourished as well, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard (van het) Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she died in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.","Netherlands\n\nThe traditional Dutch architecture is especially valuated in Amsterdam, Delft and Leiden, with 17 and 18th century buildings along the canals. Smaller village architecture with wooden houses is found in Zaandam and Marken. Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.","Netherlands\n\nDutch value system and etiquette","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch have a code of etiquette which governs social behaviour and is considered important. Because of the international position of the Netherlands, many books have been written on the subject. Some customs may not be true in all regions and they are never absolute. In addition to those specific to the Dutch, many general points of European etiquette apply to the Dutch as well.","Netherlands\n\nDutch society is egalitarian, individualistic and modern. The people tend to view themselves as modest, independent and self-reliant. They value ability over dependency. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential.","Netherlands\n\nOstentatious behaviour is to be avoided. Accumulating money is fine, but public spending of large amounts of money is considered something of a vice and associated with being a show-off. A high lifestyle is considered wasteful and suspect with most people. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.","Netherlands\n\nDutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude; informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call 'openness.","Netherlands\n\nA well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is \"Dealing with the Dutch\" from Jacob Vossestein: Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status. As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather.","Netherlands\n\nThe majority of the Dutch are irreligious and religion is in the Netherlands generally considered as a very personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public.","Netherlands\n\nDutch people and ecology","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam where designed respectively at the 4th and the 5th on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.","Netherlands\n\nSustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which CO2 emissions have been halved and 40 percent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.","Netherlands\n\nThe government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and CO2 reduction. The Kingdom also encourage Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.","Netherlands\n\nMusic","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as \"Levenslied\", meaning Song of life, to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of couplets and refrains. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesizers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.","Netherlands\n\nContemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in either.","Netherlands\n\nCurrent symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz / pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also metalbands like Legion of The Damned,Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, The Charm the Fury, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are populair guests at the biggest metalfestivals in Europe. \nContemporary local heroes include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, in South Guelderish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and Dutch language duo Nick & Simon.","Netherlands\n\nEarly 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like \"Get Ready for This\" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop (Nederhop) also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.","Netherlands\n\nSince the 1990s Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) conquered the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Oliver Heldens, Nicky Romero, Martin Garrix, Sander van Doorn and Afrojack; the first three of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam dance event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high profile international artists.","Netherlands\n\nIn classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.","Netherlands\n\nFilm and television","Netherlands\n\nSome Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as Turkish Delight (\"Turks Fruit\") (1973), Soldier of Orange (\"Soldaat van Oranje\") (1975), Spetters (1980) and The Fourth Man (\"De Vierde Man\") (1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like RoboCop and Basic Instinct, and returned with Dutch film Black Book in 2006.","Netherlands\n\nOther well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont (Speed), Anton Corbijn (A Most wanted Man), Dick Maas (De Lift), Fons Rademakers (The Assault), documentary maker Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film Submission.","Netherlands\n\nInternationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen (X-Men films), Carice van Houten (Game of Thrones), Michiel Huisman (Game of Thrones), Rutger Hauer (Blade Runner), Jeroen Krabbé (The Living Daylights) and Derek de Lint.","Netherlands\n\nThe Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and non-commercial broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound, and subtitled. The only exception are shows for children.","Netherlands\n\nTV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including Big Brother and Deal or No Deal. John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like The Voice and Utopia.","Netherlands\n\nSports","Netherlands\n\nApproximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.","Netherlands\n\nOrganisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games.","Netherlands\n\nIn international competition Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments.","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history.","Netherlands\n\nMotorcycle racing at the TT Assen Circuit has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.","Netherlands\n\nLimburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985.","Netherlands\n\nCuisine","Netherlands\n\nOriginally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables.","Netherlands\n\nThe Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.","Netherlands\n\nThe Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine.","Netherlands\n\nIn early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.","Netherlands\n\nColonial heritage","Netherlands\n\nFrom the exploitations of the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.","Netherlands\n\nIn the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.","Netherlands\n\nUniversities such as the Royal Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.","Netherlands\n\nThe traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated Bronbeek Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.","Netherlands\n\nA specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of \"The Hidden Force\", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book \"Max Havelaar\", written by Multatuli in 1860.","Netherlands\n\nThe majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as Indische Nederlanders or as Indo (short for Indo-European).","Netherlands\n\nIncluding their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.","Netherlands\n\nPractically every town in the Netherlands has a \"Toko\" (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or an Indonesian restaurant and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the Netherlands."],"string":"[\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam ( or; ) is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety. In 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the Count of Holland and slowly grew into a major logistic and economic centre. Nowadays it is home to Europe's largest port and has a population of 630,383 (, city proper), ranking second in the Netherlands. The Greater Rijnmond area is home to approximately 1.4 million people[http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?VWT&DM\\nSLNL&PA37230ned&D1\\n17&D245,70,92,483&D3\\n169&HD150505-0308&LA\\nEN&HDRG2&STB\\nG1,T Population growth; regions per month], CBS StatLine, 20151,404,963 Greater Rijnmond ()1,173,272 Rotterdam Metro ()1,033,629 Rotterdam Urban () 630,383 Rotterdam Municipality () and the Rotterdam The Hague urban area makes for the 168th most populous urban area in the world. Rotterdam is part of the yet larger Randstad conurbation with a total population of 7,100,000.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe city of Rotterdam is known for the Erasmus University, riverside setting, lively cultural life and its maritime heritage. The near-complete destruction of Rotterdam's city centre during World War II (known as the Rotterdam Blitz) has resulted in a varied architectural landscape including sky-scrapers, which are an uncommon sight in other Dutch cities. Rotterdam is home to some world-famous architecture from renowned architects like Rem Koolhaas, Piet Blom, Ben van Berkel and others. Recently Rotterdam was listed 8th in The Rough Guide Top 10 Cities to Visit and was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe port of Rotterdam is the largest cargo port in Europe and the 10th largest in the world. Rotterdam's logistic success is based on its strategic location on the North Sea, directly at the mouth of the Nieuwe Maas (New Meuse) channel leading into the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. The rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt give waterway access into the heart of Western Europe, including the highly industrialized Ruhr region. The extensive distribution system including rail, roads and waterways have earned Rotterdam the nickname \\\"Gateway to Europe\\\", and, conversely; \\\"Gateway to the World\\\" in Europe.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe settlement at the lower end of the fen stream Rotte (or Rotta, as it was then known, from rot, 'muddy' and a, 'water', thus 'muddy water') dates from at least 900 CE. Around 1150, large floods in the area ended development, leading to the construction of protective dikes and dams, including Schielands Hoge Zeedijk ('Schieland’s High Sea Dike') along the northern banks of the present-day Nieuwe Maas. A dam on the Rotte or 'Rotterdam' was built in the 1260s and was located at the present-day Hoogstraat ('High Street').\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOn 7 July 1340, Count Willem IV of Holland granted city rights to Rotterdam, which then had approximately 2,000 inhabitants. Around the year 1350 , a shipping canal, the Rotterdamse Schie was completed, which provided Rotterdam access to the larger towns in the north, allowing it to become a local trans-shipment centre between the Netherlands, England and Germany, and to urbanize.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe port of Rotterdam grew slowly but steadily into a port of importance, becoming the seat of one of the six 'chambers' of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC), the Dutch East India Company.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe greatest spurt of growth, both in port activity and population, followed the completion of the Nieuwe Waterweg in 1872. The city and harbor started to expand on the south bank of the river. The Witte Huis or White House skyscraper, inspired by American office buildings and built in 1898 in the French Château-style, is evidence of Rotterdam's rapid growth and success. When completed, it was the tallest office building in Europe, with a height of 45 m.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nDuring World War I the city was the world's largest spy centre because of Dutch neutrality and its strategic location in between Great-Britain, Germany and German-occupied Belgium. Many spies who were arrested and executed in Britain were led by German secret agents operating from Rotterdam. MI6 had its main European office on de Boompjes. From there the British coordinated espionage in Germany and occupied Belgium. In WWI an average of 25,000 Belgian refugees lived in the city, as well as hundreds of German deserters and escaped Allied POW's.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nDuring World War II, the German army invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. Adolf Hitler had hoped to conquer the country in just one day, but his forces met unexpectedly fierce resistance. The Dutch army was finally forced to capitulate on 15 May 1940, following Hitler's bombing Rotterdam on 14 May and threatening to bomb other Dutch cities. The heart of Rotterdam was almost completely destroyed by the Luftwaffe. Some 80,000 civilians were made homeless and 900 were killed; a relatively low number given that many had fled the city because of the warfare and bombing going on in Rotterdam since the start of the invasion three days earlier. The City Hall survived the bombing. Ossip Zadkine later attempted to capture the event with his statue De Verwoeste Stad ('The Destroyed City'). The statue stands near the Leuvehaven, not far from the Erasmusbrug in the centre of the city, on the north shore of the river Nieuwe Maas.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam was gradually rebuilt from the 1950s through to the 1970s. It remained quite windy and open until the city councils from the 1980s on began developing an active architectural policy. Daring and new styles of apartments, office buildings and recreation facilities resulted in a more 'livable' city centre with a new skyline. In the 1990s, the Kop van Zuid was built on the south bank of the river as a new business centre.\\nRotterdam was voted 2015 European City of the Year by the Academy of Urbanism.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n'Rotterdam' is divided into a northern and a southern part by the river Nieuwe Maas, connected by (from west to east): the Beneluxtunnel; the Maastunnel; the Erasmusbrug ('Erasmus Bridge'); a subway tunnel; the Willemsspoortunnel ('Willems railway tunnel'); the Willemsbrug ('Willems Bridge'); the Koninginnebrug ('Queen's Bridge'); and the Van Brienenoordbrug ('Van Brienenoord Bridge'). The former railway lift bridge De Hef ('the Lift') is preserved as a monument in lifted position between the Noordereiland ('North Island') and the south of Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe city centre is located on the northern bank of the Nieuwe Maas, although recent urban development has extended the centre to parts of southern Rotterdam known as De Kop van Zuid ('the Head of South', i.e. the northern part of southern Rotterdam). From its inland core, Rotterdam reaches the North Sea by a swathe of predominantly harbour area.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBuilt mostly behind dikes, large parts of the Rotterdam are below sea level. For instance, the Prins Alexander Polder in the northeast of Rotterdam extends 6 m below sea level, or rather below Normaal Amsterdams Peil (NAP) or 'Amsterdam Ordnance Datum'. The lowest point in the Netherlands ( below NAP) is situated just to the east of Rotterdam, in the municipality of Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe Rotte river no longer joins the Nieuwe Maas directly. Since the early 1980s, when the construction of Rotterdam’s second subway line interfered with the Rotte’s course, its waters have been pumped through a pipe into the Nieuwe Maas via the Boerengat.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBetween the summers of 2003 and 2008, an artificial beach was created at the Boompjeskade along the Nieuwe Maas, between the Erasmus Bridge and the Willems Bridge. Swimming was not possible, digging pits was limited to the height of the layer of sand, about 50 cm. Alternatively people go the beach of Hoek van Holland (which is a Rotterdam district) or one of the beaches in Zeeland: Renesse or the Zuid Hollandse Eilanden: Ouddorp, Oostvoorne.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam forms the centre of the Rijnmond conurbation, bordering the conurbation surrounding The Hague to the north-west. The two conurbations are close enough to be a single conurbation. They share the Rotterdam The Hague Airport and a light rail system called RandstadRail. Consideration is being given to creating an official Metropolitan region Rotterdam The Hague (Metropoolregio Rotterdam Den Haag), which would have a combined population approaching 2.5 million.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOn its turn, the Rijnmond conurbation is part of the southern wing (the Zuidvleugel) of the Randstad, which is one of the most important economic and densely populated areas in the north-west of Europe. Having a population of 7.1 million, the Randstad is the sixth-largest urban area in Europe (after Moscow, London, Paris, Istanbul, and the Rhein-Ruhr Area). The Zuidvleugel, situated in the province of South Holland, has a population of around 3 million.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) similar to all of the Netherlands. Located near to the coast, its climate is slightly milder than locations further inland.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOverall the demographics differ per city area. According to a recent area analysis, the city centre has a singles population of 70%, between the ages of 20 and 40, considerably more than other city areas. Also the city centre has a much larger population of people with higher education and higher income. Nonetheless, 80% of the homes are rented, not owned. The city centre also has a higher percentage (51% vs 45%) of foreign-born citizens (Dutch: allochtonen). The majority (70%) of shops are also run by foreign-born citizens.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nComposition\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOn 1 January 2007 (source: Statistics Netherlands), the municipality covered an area of 319 km2 (206.44 km2 of which is land) with a population of 603,425. It is part of a larger metropolitan area with a total population (including Dordrecht and surrounding cities) of approximately 1.6 million. In 1965, the municipal population of Rotterdam reached its peak of 731,000, but by 1984 it had decreased to 555,000 as a result of suburbanization.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam consists of 14 submunicipalities: Centrum ('Center'), Charlois (including Heijplaat), Delfshaven, Feijenoord, Hillegersberg-Schiebroek, Hoek van Holland, Hoogvliet, IJsselmonde, Kralingen-Crooswijk, Noord, Overschie, Prins Alexander (the most populous submunicipality with around 85,000 inhabitants), and Rozenburg. One other area, Pernis, does have an official submunicipality status since 3 March 2010.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe current size of the municipality of Rotterdam is the result of the amalgamation of the following former municipalities, some of which now are a submunicipality:\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n*Delfshaven (added on 30 January 1886)\\n*Charlois (added on 28 February 1895)\\n*Kralingen (added on 28 February 1895)\\n*Hoogvliet (added on 1 May 1934)\\n*Pernis (added on 1 May 1934)\\n*Hillegersberg (added on 1 August 1941)\\n*IJsselmonde (added on 1 August 1941)\\n*Overschie (added on 1 August 1941)\\n*Schiebroek (added on 1 August 1941)\\n*Rozenburg (added on 18 March 2010)\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nEthnic make-up\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn the Netherlands, Rotterdam has the highest percentage of foreigners from non-industrialised nations. They form a large part of Rotterdam's multi ethnic and multicultural diversity. 47.7% of the population are of non Dutch origins or have at least one parent born outside the country. There are 80,000 Muslims, constituting 13% of the population. The mayor of Rotterdam, Ahmed Aboutaleb, is of Moroccan descent and is a practicing Muslim. The city is home to the largest Dutch Antillean community. The city also has its own China Town at the (West-) Kruiskade, close to the central railway station.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has always been one of the main centres of the shipping industry in the Netherlands. From the Rotterdam Chamber of the VOC, the world's first multinational, established in 1602, to the merchant shipping leader Royal Nedlloyd established in 1970, with its corporate headquarters located in the landmark building the 'Willemswerf' in 1988. In 1997, Nedlloyd merged with the British shipping industry leader P&O forming the third largest merchant shipping company in the world. The Anglo-Dutch P&O Nedlloyd was bought by the Danish giant corporation 'AP Moller Maersk' in 2005 and its Dutch operations are still headquartered in the 'Willemswerf'.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nNowadays, well-known companies with headquarters in Rotterdam are consumers goods company Unilever, asset management firm Robeco, energy company Eneco, dredging company Van Oord, oil company Shell Downstream, terminal operator Vopak,commodity trading company Vitol and architecture firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture.\\nIt is also home to the regional headquarters of chemical company LyondellBasell, commodities trading company Glencore, pharmaceutical company Pfizer, logistics companies Stolt-Nielsen, electrical equipment company ABB Group and consumer goods company Procter & Gamble. Furthermore, Rotterdam has the Dutch headquarters of Allianz, Maersk, Petrobras, Samskip, Louis Dreyfus Group and Aon.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe City of Rotterdam makes use of the services of semi-government companies Roteb (to take care of sanitation, waste management and assorted services) and the Port of Rotterdam Authority (to maintain the Port of Rotterdam). Both these companies were once municipal bodies, now they are autonomous entities, owned by the City.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBeing the largest port and one of the largest cities of the country, Rotterdam attracts many people seeking jobs, especially in the cheap labour segment. The city's unemployment rate is 8.5%, twice the national average.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTogether with Eindhoven (Brainport) and Amsterdam (Airport), Rotterdam (Seaport) forms the foundation of the Dutch economy.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nPorts\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland and into France. In 2004 Shanghai took over as the world's busiest port. In 2006, Rotterdam was the world's seventh largest container port in terms of twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) handled.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nShopping\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nWell-known streets in Rotterdam are the shopping center the Lijnbaan (the first set of pedestrian streets of the country, opened in 1953), the Hoogstraat, the Coolsingel with the city hall, and the Weena, which runs from the Central Station to the Hofplein (square). A modern shopping venue is the Beurstraverse (\\\"Stock Exchange Traverse\\\"), better known by its informal name 'Koopgoot' ('Buying/Shopping Gutter', after its subterranean position), which crosses the Coolsingel below street level). The Kruiskade is a more upscale shopping street, with retailers like Michael Kors, 7 For All Mankind, Calvin Klein, Hugo Boss, Tommy Hilfiger and the Dutch well known men's clothier Oger. Another upscale shopping venue is a flagship store of De Bijenkorf. Located a little more to the east is the Market Hall, with lots of small retailers inside. This hall is also one of Rotterdam's famous architectural landmarks.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe main shopping venue in the south of Rotterdam is Zuidplein, which lies close to Ahoy' Rotterdam, an accommodation center for shows, exhibitions, sporting events, concerts and congresses. Another prominent shopping center, called Alexandrium (sometimes still called by its former name Oosterhof), lies in the east of Rotterdam. It includes a large kitchen and furniture center.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has one major university, the Erasmus University Rotterdam (EUR), named after one of the city's famous former inhabitants, Desiderius Erasmus. The Woudestein campus houses (among others) Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University. In Financial Times' 2005 rankings it placed 29th globally and 7th in Europe. In the 2009 rankings of Masters of Management, the school reached first place with the CEMS Master in Management and a tenth place with its RSM Master in Management. The university is also home to Europe's largest student association, STAR Study Association Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University and the world's largest student association, AIESEC, has its international office in the city.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe Willem de Kooning Academy Rotterdam's main art school, which is part of the Hogeschool Rotterdam. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious art schools in the Netherlands and the number 1 in Advertising and Copywriting. Part of the Willem de Kooning Academy is the Piet Zwart Institute for postgraduate studies and research in Fine Art, Media Design and Retail Design. The Piet Zwart Institute boasts a selective roster of emerging international artists.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe Hoboken campus of EUR houses the Dijkzigt (general) hospital, the Sophia Hospital (for children) and the Medical Department of the University. These are known collectively as the Erasmus Medical Center, which is ranked third worldwide for medical research, behind the Harvard University and Johns Hopkins University. The Erasmus Medical Center ranks as the top European institution in clinical medicine according to the Times Higher Education rankings.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThere are also three Hogescholen (Universities of applied sciences) in Rotterdam. These schools award their students a professional Bachelor's degree and postgraduate or Master's degree. The three Hogescholen are Hogeschool Rotterdam, Hogeschool INHOLLAND and Hogeschool voor Muziek en Dans (uni for music and dance) which is also known as CodArts.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nAs there are many international and American schools scattered across Europe such as ASH (American International School of the Hague) Rotterdam also has its own international/American school by the name AISR (American International School of Rotterdam). At AISR children receive a multicultural education in a culturally diverse community and it offers the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma Program.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nUnique to the city is the Shipping & Transport College which offers masters, bachelors and vocational diplomas on all levels.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nAlongside Porto, Rotterdam was European Capital of Culture in 2001. The city has its own orchestra, the Rotterdam Philharmonic, with its well-regarded young music director Yannick Nézet-Séguin; a large congress and concert building called De Doelen; several theaters (including the new Luxor) and movie theatres; and the Ahoy Rotterdam complex in the south of the city, which is used for pop concerts, exhibitions, tennis tournaments, and other activities. A major zoo called Diergaarde Blijdorp is situated at the northwest side of Rotterdam, complete with a walkthrough sea aquarium called the Oceanium. The city is home to the Willem de Kooning Academy and Piet Zwart Institute.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam features some urban architecture projects, nightlife, and many summer festivals celebrating the city's multicultural population and identity, such as the Caribbean-inspired \\\"Summer Carnival\\\", the Dance Parade, Rotterdam 666, the Metropolis pop festival and the World Port days. In the years 2005–2011 the city struggled with venues for popmusic. Many of the venues suffered severe financial problems. This resulted in the disappearance of the major music venues Nighttown and WATT and smaller stages such as Waterfront, Exit, and Heidegger. Currently the city has a few venues for pop music like Rotown, Poortgebouw. The venue WORM focuses on experimental music and related cutting edge subcultural music.\\nThere are also the International Film Festival in January, the Poetry International Festival in June, the North Sea Jazz Festival in July, the Valery Gergiev Festival in September, September in Rotterdam and the World of the Witte de With. In June 1970, The Holland Pop Festival (which featured Jefferson Airplane, The Byrds, Canned Heat, It's a Beautiful Day, and Santana) was held and filmed at the Stamping Grounds in Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThere is a healthy competition with Amsterdam, which is often viewed as the cultural capital of the Netherlands. There is a saying: \\\"Amsterdam to party, Den Haag (The Hague) to live, Rotterdam to work\\\". Another one, more popular by Rotterdammers, is \\\"Money is earned in Rotterdam, distributed in The Hague and spent in Amsterdam\\\". Another saying that reflects both the rivalry between Rotterdam and Amsterdam is \\\"Amsterdam has it, Rotterdam doesn't need it\\\".\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIt is also the home of Gabber, a type of hardcore electronic music popular in the mid-1990s, with hard beats and samples. Groups like Neophyte and Rotterdam Terror Corps (RTC) started in Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe main cultural organisations in Amsterdam, such as the Concertgebouw and Holland Festival, have joint forces with similar organisations in Rotterdam, via A'R'dam. In 2007 these organisations published with plans for co-operation. One of the goals is to strengthen the international position of culture and art in the Netherlands in the international context.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMuseums\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has many museums.\\nWell known museums are the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, the Netherlands Architecture Institute, the Wereldmuseum, the Kunsthal, Witte de With Center for Contemporary Art and the Maritime Museum Rotterdam. The Historical Museum Rotterdam has changed into Museum Rotterdam which aims to exhibit Rotterdam as a contemporary transnational city, and not a past city.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOther museums include the tax museum and the nature historical museum. At the historical shipyard and museum Scheepswerf 'De Delft' the reconstruction of ship of the line Delft can be visited.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn 1898, the 45 m high-rise office building the White House (in Dutch Witte Huis) was completed, at that time the tallest office building in Europe.\\nIn the first decades of the 20th century, some influential architecture in the modern style was built in Rotterdam. Notable are the Van Nelle fabriek (1929) a monument of modern factory design by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt, the Jugendstil clubhouse of the Royal Maas Yacht Club designed by Hooijkaas jr. en Brinkman (1909), and Feyenoord's football stadium De Kuip (1936) also by Brinkman en Van der Vlugt. The architect J. J. P. Oud was a famous Rotterdammer in those days. The Van Nelle Factory has since 2014 the status of UNESCO World Heritage Site.\\nDuring the early stages of World War II the center of Rotterdam was bombed by the Germans, destroying many of the older buildings in the center of the city. After initial crisis re-construction the center of Rotterdam has become the site of ambitious new architecture.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is also famous for its Lijnbaan 1952 by architects Broek en Bakema, Peperklip by architect Carel Weeber, Kubuswoningen or cube houses designed by architect Piet Blom 1984.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe newest landmark in Rotterdam is the Market Hall, designed by architect firm MVRDV. In addition to that there are many international well known architects based in Rotterdam like O.M.A (Rem Koolhaas), Neutelings & Riedijk and Erick van Egeraat to name a few. Two architectural landmarks are located in the Lloydkwartier: the STC college building and the Schiecentrale 4b.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam also houses several of the tallest structures in the Netherlands.\\n* The Erasmusbrug (1996) is a 790-meter (2,600 ft) cable stayed bridge linking the north and south of Rotterdam. It is held up by a 138 m tall pylon with a characteristic bend, earning the bridge its nickname 'De Zwaan' ('the Swan').\\n* Rotterdam has the tallest residential building in the Netherlands: the New Orleans Tower ().\\n* Rotterdam is also home to the tallest office building 'Maastoren' () which houses Deloitte. This office tower surpassed the 'Delftse Poort' (160 m) which houses Nationale-Nederlanden insurance company, part of ING Group as tallest office tower in 2009. \\n* The city also houses the 186 m tall Euromast, which has long been a major tourist attraction. It was built in 1960, initially reaching a height of 101 m; in 1970, the Euromast was extended by 85 m to its current height.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has a reputation in being a platform for architectural development and education through the Berlage Institute, a postgraduate laboratory of architecture, and the NAi (Netherlands Architecture Institute), which is open to the public and has a variety of good exhibitions on architecture and urban planning issues.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is standing in the best European SkylineTop together with Frankfurt, London, Madrid, Paris, Warsaw and Moscow.\\nOver 30 new highrise projects are being developed at the moment.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nHighrise buildings that are currently being built:\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* First Rotterdam, a large building with a height of 130 m at Weena. It is expected to be completed in 2015.\\n* Boston & Seattle, two buildings with a height of 70 m each are being built at Kop van Zuid. They are expected to be completed in 2017.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam calls itself Sportstad (City of Sports). The city annually organises several world-renowned sporting events. Some examples are the Rotterdam Marathon, the World Port Tournament, and the Rotterdam World Tennis Tournament. Rotterdam also organises one race of the Red Bull Air Race World Championship and the car racing event Monaco aan de Maas (Monaco at the Meuse).\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe city is also the home of many sports clubs and some historic and iconic athletes.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nFootball\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is the home of three professional football clubs, being first tier clubs Feyenoord, Excelsior and Sparta.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nFeyenoord, founded in 1908 and the dominant of the three professional clubs, has won fourteen national titles since the introduction of professional football in the Netherlands. It won the European Cup (current Champions league) as the first Dutch club in 1970, and won the World Cup for club teams in the same year. In 1974, they were the first Dutch club to win the UEFA Cup and in 2002, Feyenoord won the UEFA Cup again. In 2008, the year of their 100-year-anniversary, Feyenoord won the KNVB-cup.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSeating 51,480, its 1931 stadium, called Stadion Feijenoord but popularly known as De Kuip ('the Tub'), is the second largest in the country, after the Amsterdam Arena. De Kuip, located in the southeast of the city, has hosted many international football games, including the final of Euro 2000 and has been awarded a FIFA 5 star ranking. There are concrete plans to build a new stadium with a capacity of at least 80,000 seats.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSparta, founded in 1888 and situated in the northwest of Rotterdam, won the national title six times; Excelsior (founded 1902), in the northeast, has never won any.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam also has three fourth tier clubs, SC Feijenoord (Feyenoord Amateurs), PVV DOTO and TOGR.\\nRotterdam is and has been the home to many great football players and coaches, among whom:\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMarathon\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has its own annual international marathon, which offers one of the fastest courses in the world. From 1985 until 1998, the world record was set in Rotterdam, first by Carlos Lopes and later in 1988 by Belayneh Densamo.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn 1998, the world record for women was set by Tegla Loroupe, in a time of 2:20.47. Loroupe won the Rotterdam Marathon three consecutive times, from 1997 to 1999.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe current track record for men is held by Duncan Kibet, who ran a time of 2:04.27 in 2009. The female record was set in 2012, when Tiki Gelana finished the race in 2:18.58. Gelana went on to become the 2012 Olympic champion in London, a few months later.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe marathon starts and ends on the Coolsingel in the heart of Rotterdam. It attracts a total of 900.000 visitors.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTennis\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSince 1972, Rotterdam hosts the indoor hard court ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, part of the ATP Tour. The event was first organised in 1972, when it was won by Arthur Ashe. Ashe went on to win the tournament two more times, making him the singles title record holder.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nFormer Wimbledon winner Richard Krajicek became the tournament director after his retirement in 2000. The latest edition of the tournament attracted a total of 116.354 visitors.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTour de France 2010\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn November 2008 Rotterdam was chosen as the host of the Grand Départ of the 2010 Tour de France.\\nRotterdam won the selection over the Dutch city of Utrecht. Germany's Düsseldorf had previously also expressed interest in hosting. The Amaury Sport Organization (ASO), organizer of the Tour de France, said in a statement on its web site that it chose Rotterdam because, in addition to it being another big city, like London, to showcase the use of bikes for urban transportation, it provided a location well positioned considering the rest of the route envisioned for the 2010 event.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe start in Rotterdam was the fifth in the Netherlands. The prologue was a 7 km individual time trial crossing the centre of the city. The first regular stage left the Erasmusbrug and went south, towards Brussels.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRowing\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMembers of the student rowing club Skadi were part of the 'Holland Acht', winning a gold medal at the Olympics in 1996. . Since the opening in April 2013, Rotterdam hosts the rowing venue 'Willem-Alexanderbaan' that will host the 2016 World Rowing Championships for Seniors, U23 and Juniors.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nField hockey\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn field hockey, Rotterdam has the largest hockey club in the Netherlands, HC Rotterdam, with its own stadium in the north of the city and nearly 2,400 members. The first men's and women's teams both play on the highest level in the Dutch Hoofdklasse.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBaseball\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is home to the most successful European baseball team, Neptunus Rotterdam, winning the most European Cups.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBoxing\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has a long boxing tradition starting with Bep van Klaveren (1907–1992), aka 'The Dutch Windmill', Gold medal winner of the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics, followed by professional boxers like Regilio Tuur and Don Diego Poeder.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSwimming\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam's swimming tradition started with Marie Braun aka Zus (sister) Braun, who was coached to a Gold medal at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics by her mother Ma Braun, and 3 European titles 3 years later in Paris. In her career as 14 time national champ, she broke 6 world records. Ma Braun later also coached the Rotterdam born, three-times Olympic champion Rie Mastenbroek during the Berlin Olympics in 1936. In later years Inge de Bruijn became a Rotterdam sport icon as triple Olympic Gold medal winner in 2000 and triple European Gold medal winner in 2001.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMotor cycle racing\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMotor cycle speedway was staged in the Feyenoord Stadium after the second world war. The team which raced in a Dutch league was known as the Feyenoord Tigers. The team included Dutch riders and some English and Australian riders.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSportsmen of the year election\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSince 1986, the city has selected its best sportsman, woman and team at the Rotterdam Sports Awards Election, held in December.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nOther famous Rotterdam athletes\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n*Mia Audina, a retired Indonesia born badminton player, living in Rotterdam. *Nelli Cooman, a Surinamese born retired athlete who held the 3 m world record, and was the world and European champion in that event. *Robert Doornbos, a Rotterdam born race car driver, who competed in the Formula One. *Robert Eenhoorn, a Rotterdam born retired MLB short stop, who competed for the New York Yankees, the Anaheim Angels and the New York Mets. *Dex Elmont, a Rotterdam born judoka, who finished second in the European championships in 2009 in the 65 to division. *Guillaume Elmont, a Rotterdam born judoka, who became world champion in 2005 in the 73 to division. *Francisco Elson, a Rotterdam born basketball player who played in the NBA, won the NBA finals in 2007 with the San Antonio Spurs. *Ignisious Gaisah, a Ghanaian born long jumper with a personal best of , residing in Rotterdam since 2001. Gaisah is a multiple medal winner in several international events, both as a citizen of Ghana and the Netherlands. *Francis Hoenselaar, a Rotterdam born female darts player, generally recognised as the best Dutch female darts player ever.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n*Robert Lathouwers, an athlete born in a Rotterdam suburb, specialised in the 800 m. Lathouwers gained international notoriety when he got disqualified after shoving Irish athlete David McCarthy in the 2010 European Championships. *Fatima Moreira de Melo, a Rotterdam born, three-times olympic champion in field hockey. Moreira de Melo currently is a professional poker player. *Piet Roozenburg, a Rotterdam born draughts player, who was the world champion from 1948 to 1956 and the 8-time Dutch champion. *Betty Stöve, a Rotterdam born retired female tennis double specialist and 10-time Grand Slam winner. *Ingmar Vos, a Rotterdam born decathlete, with a personal best of 8224 points.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nYearly events\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam hosts several annual events unique to the city. It hosts the Zomercarnaval (Summercarnaval), the second largest Caribbean carnival in Europe, originally called the Antillean carnival. Other events include: North Sea Jazz Festival, the largest Jazz festival in Europe, Bavaria City Race, a Formula 1 race inside the city center and a 3 day long maritime extravaganza called the World Port Days celebrating the Port of Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* January: \\\"Zesdaagse van Rotterdam\\\" \\\"(six-day track-cycling race) – Ahoy Rotterdam\\n* January: International Film Festival Rotterdam \\n* February: Rotterdam Open ABM AMRO ATP 500 Tennis Tournament – Ahoy Rotterdam\\n* April–June\\n**Rotterdam Marathon \\n**KoninginnedagFestival \\n* July\\n**North Sea Jazz Festival (second weekend of July)\\n**Summer Carnival \\n* August:\\n**Bavaria City Race\\n**Pleinbioscoop \\n**Dag van de Romantische Muziek (Romantic music festival)\\n* September:\\n** The World Port Days\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is well connected by international, national, regional and local public transport systems, as well as by the Dutch motorway network.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMotorways\\nThere are several motorways to/from Rotterdam. The following four are part of its 'Ring' (ring road):\\n*A20 (Ring North): Hoek van Holland – Rotterdam – Gouda\\n*A16 (Ring East): Rotterdam – Breda (- Antwerp – Paris)\\n*A15 (Ring South): Europoort – Rotterdam – Nijmegen\\n*A4 (Ring West).\\nThe following two other motorways also serve Rotterdam:\\n*A13, (Amsterdam -) The Hague – Rotterdam\\n*A29, Bergen op Zoom – Rotterdam\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nAirport\\nMuch smaller than the international hub Schiphol Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport (formerly known as Zestienhoven) is the third largest airport in the country, behind Schiphol Airport and Eindhoven Airport. Located north of the city, it has shown a very strong growth over the past five years, mostly caused by the growth of the low-cost carrier market. For business travelers, Rotterdam The Hague Airport offers advantages in terms of rapid handling of passengers and baggage. Environmental regulations make further growth uncertain.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTrain\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is well connected to the Dutch railway network, and has several international connections:\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* Southern direction Dordrecht, Breda, Eindhoven, Flushing (Vlissingen) (also international trains to Belgium/France)\\n* Western direction Hoek van Holland\\n* North-Western direction The Hague, Leiden, Amsterdam\\n* Northern direction (high-speed rail) Schiphol, Amsterdam\\n* North-Eastern direction Utrecht and further\\n* A fifth alternative train system to the Hague, the Hofplein Line was converted to the light rail system Randstadrail in 2006.\\n* The city is often mentioned as the terminus of the Eurasian Land Bridge.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRailway stations\\n*Rotterdam Centraal – Rotterdam's main station\\n*Rotterdam Alexander – Eastern part of Rotterdam\\n*Rotterdam Blaak – Close to the centre of Rotterdam\\n*Rotterdam Lombardijen – Most Southern part of Rotterdam\\n*Rotterdam Noord – Northern part of Rotterdam\\n*Rotterdam Zuid – Northern part of the Southern part of Rotterdam\\n*Rotterdam Stadion – A station near the De Kuip stadium, open in connection with football matches and music concerts\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe main connections:\\n* Direct international services to Belgium and France via high speed train system: Thalys\\n* Frequent international trains to Antwerp and Brussels, Belgium\\n* Frequent services within the Netherlands:\\n** Intercity line to The Hague, Leiden, Schiphol airport and Amsterdam (north)\\n** Intercity line to Utrecht and on to Deventer or Enschede (the east), Leeuwarden (north-west) or Groningen (north-east)\\n** Intercity line to Dordrecht, Roosendaal and on to Vlissingen (south west)\\n** Intercity line to Dordrecht, Breda, Tilburg, Eindhoven and Venlo (south east)\\n** Night services every hour connecting every day of the week to Delft, The Hague, Leiden, Schiphol airport, Amsterdam, and, with a detour, Utrecht. On Thursday, Friday and Saturday night services (either direct or via a detour) to Den Bosch, Eindhoven, Tilburg, Roosendaal.\\n** Several semi-fast services and local trains originate or call at Rotterdam Centraal; semi-fast services Amsterdam-Breda.\\n* Detailed information available from the site of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways)\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn Rotterdam, public transport services are provided by these companies:\\n* NS (Dutch Railways) ; national train services\\n* RET (Rotterdam Elektrische Tram); Tram, city-bus, metro, randstadrail and ferry-services in Rotterdam and surrounding cities.\\n* Arriva Netherlands ; regional bus services.\\n* Connexxion ; regional bus services.\\n* Veolia ; regional bus services.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nMetro\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn 1968, Rotterdam was the first Dutch city to open a metro system. Currently the metro system consists of three main lines, each of which has its own variants. The metro network has of railtracks and there are 62 stations, which makes it the biggest of the Benelux. The system is operated by 5 lines; 3 lines (A, B and C) on the east-west line, and two (D and E) on the north-south line. Metrostation E (Randstadrail) connects Rotterdam with Den Haag as of December 2011.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTram\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nThe Rotterdam tramway network offers 9 regular tram lines and 4 \\\"special\\\" tram lines with a total length of . Service\\nTramlines in Rotterdam :\\n* 2: (Rotterdam) Charlois – Rotterdam Lombardijen NS – (Rotterdam) Groene Tuin (runs only to the southern part of the city)\\n* 4: (Rotterdam) Molenlaan – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Spangen\\n* 7: (Rotterdam) Woudestein – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Willemsplein\\n* 8: (Rotterdam) Spangen – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Kleiweg\\n* 20: Rotterdam CS – Rotterdam Lombardijen NS – (Rotterdam) Thialf\\n* 21: (Schiedam) Woudhoek – Station Schiedam Centrum – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) De Esch\\n* 23: (Rotterdam) Marconiplein – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) Beverwaard\\n* 24: (Vlaardingen) Holy – Station Schiedam Centrum – Rotterdam CS – (Rotterdam) De Esch\\n* 25: (Rotterdam) Schiebroek – Rotterdam CS – (Barendrecht) Carnisselande\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSpecial tram lines:\\n* 10: Historical tram line, only runs in summer and throughout the whole city for tourist information. Using historical Rotterdam Trams from the year 1931.\\n* 18: Tramline from Rotterdam Central Station towards Park, runs only at the Dunya Festival and during the Rotterdam World Port Days.\\n* 12: CS – De Kuip (English: The Tub, Feyenoord stadium) or CS – Het Kasteel ('The Castle', Sparta Stadium). Football- tramline, only for big fixtures at De Kuip or Het Kasteel.\\n* Snert-tram: Historical tram, only in winter as a tourist tram through Rotterdam. Passengers are provided with a cup of \\\"snert\\\"; Rotterdam dialect for erwtensoep (pea soup). Rolling stock is a historical Rotterdam tram from 1968.\\n* IJsjes-tram: Summer version of the snert tram, providing tourists with ijsjes (ice cream) rather than snert.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nBus\\nRotterdam offers 33 city bus lines with a total length of .\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRET runs buses in the city of Rotterdam and surrounding places like Spijkenisse, Barendrecht, Ridderkerk, Rhoon, Poortugaal, Schiedam, Vlaardingen, Delft and Capelle aan den IJssel.\\n.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nArriva Netherlands, Connexxion and Veolia run buses from other cities to Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nWater bus\\nEvery half hour, a water bus (Waterbus route 1) goes from Rotterdam to Dordrecht and vice versa. The trip takes an hour with various stops along the way. The ferry carries about 130 passengers and there is space for 60 bicycles. The stops are:\\n* Rotterdam Willemskade – Krimpen aan den IJssel Stormpolder – Ridderkerk De Schans – Alblasserdam Kade – Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht Veerweg – Papendrecht Westeind – Dordrecht Merwekade.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nInternational relations\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam has city and port connections throughout the world. In 2008, the city had 13 sister cities, 12 partner cities, and 4 sister ports.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nTwin towns – Sister cities\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam is twinned with:\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* Baltimore (since 1985)\\n* Burgas (since 1976)\\n* Cologne (since 1958)\\n* Constanța (since 1976)\\n* Dresden (since 1988)\\n* Esch-sur-Alzette (since 1958)\\n* Gdańsk (since 1977)\\n* Havana (since 1983)\\n* Lille (since 1958)\\n* Liège (since 1958)\\n* Shanghai (since 1979)\\n* Saint Petersburg (since 1984)\\n* Turin (since 1958)\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nPartner cities\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* Antwerp (since 1940)\\n* Basel (since 1945)\\n* Bratislava (since 1991)\\n* Budapest (since 1991)\\n* Duisburg (since 1950)\\n* Durban (since 1991)\\n* Hull (since 1936)\\n* Jakarta (since 1983)\\n* Nuremberg (since 1961)\\n* Osaka Prefecture (since 1984)\\n* Oslo (since 1945)\\n* Prague (since 1991)\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nSister ports\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* Kobe (since 1967)\\n* Busan (since 1987)\\n* Seattle (since 1969)\\n* Tokyo (since 1989)\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nPlaces named after Rotterdam\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n* Rotterdam, New York, United States\\n* Rotterdam, Limpopo, South Africa\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nNotable residents\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\n*Pierre Bayle, enlightenment philosopher.\\n*Leo Beenhakker, football coach.\\n*Giovanni van Bronckhorst, former football player and current manager of Feyenoord.\\n*Desiderius Erasmus, philosopher and humanist.\\n*Pim Fortuyn, politician, assassinated in 2002.\\n*Leo Fuld, singer.\\n*Piet Heyn, naval fleet officer.\\n*Willem de Kooning, painter.\\n*Rem Koolhaas, internationally renowned architect.\\n*Coen Moulijn, football player of Feyenoord.\\n*Johan van Oldebarnevelt, statesman of the Dutch Revolt.\\n*Robin van Persie, Fenerbahçe S.K. forward and Dutch international footballer.\\n*Bernard Mandeville, philosopher, political economist and satirist.\\n*Marten Toonder, comic writer.\\n*Jules Deelder, poet, writer, dj, night mayor.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn popular culture\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nRotterdam features in Edgar Allan Poe's short story ‘The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall’ (1835), as well as J.T. Sheridan Le Fanu's 'Strange Event in the Life of Schalken the Painter' (1839).\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nPart of Jackie Chan's 1998 film 'Who am I?' is set in Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nEnder's Shadow, part of the series Ender's Game is partially set in Rotterdam.\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn season 1, episode 2 of The Golden Girls (\\\"Guess Who's Coming to the Wedding?\\\"), Dorothy reminisces how her ex-husband, Stan, would buy her tulips after they had a fight. \\\"Towards the end, our house looked like Easter in Rotterdam.\\\"\",\n \"Rotterdam\\n\\nIn 1996 The British band The Beautiful South recorded a song named after this region titled Rotterdam (or Anywhere).,\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam (; ) is the capital and most populous municipality of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its status as the capital is mandated by the Constitution of the Netherlands, although it is not the seat of the government, which is The Hague. Amsterdam has a population of 840,486 within the city proper, 1,337,743 in the urban area, and 2,431,000 in the Amsterdam metropolitan area. The city is located in the province of North Holland in the west of the country. The metropolitan area comprises much of the northern part of the Randstad, one of the larger conurbations in Europe, with a population of approximately 7 million.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam's name derives from Amstelredamme, indicative of the city's origin as a dam of the river Amstel. Originating as a small fishing village in the late 12th century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age (17th century), a result of its innovative developments in trade. During that time, the city was the leading centre for finance and diamonds. In the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded, and many new neighbourhoods and suburbs were planned and built. The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAs the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe, Amsterdam is considered an alpha world city by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) study group. The city is also the cultural capital of the Netherlands. Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters there, and seven of the world's 500 largest companies, including Philips and ING, are based in the city. In 2012, Amsterdam was ranked the second best city in which to live by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and 12th globally on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by Mercer. The city was previously ranked 3rd in innovation by 2thinknow in the Innovation Cities Index 2009.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFamous Amsterdam residents included Anne Frank the diarist, the artists Rembrandt van Rijn and Vincent van Gogh, and the philosopher Baruch Spinoza.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world, is located in the city centre. Amsterdam's main attractions, including its historic canals, the Rijksmuseum, the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, Hermitage Amsterdam, Anne Frank House, Amsterdam Museum, its red-light district, and its many cannabis coffee shops draw more than 5 million international visitors annually.[http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/4/AMSTERDAM/article/detail/3975968/2015/04/23/Amsterdam-verwelkomde-in-2014-ruim-5-miljoen-buitenlandse-toeristen.dhtml Amsterdam verwelkomde in 2014 ruim 5 miljoen buitenlandse toeristen – Amsterdam – PAROOL]\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAfter the floods of 1170 and 1173 locals of the river Amstel vicinity built a bridge over- and a dam across the river, hence giving its name to the village: \\\"Aemstelredamme\\\". The earliest recorded use of the name \\\"Aemstelredamme\\\" (Amsterdam) comes from a document dated 27 October 1275. Inhabitants of the village, by this document, were exempted from paying a bridge toll in the County of Holland by Count Floris V. This meant it had been allowed for the inhabitants of the village of Aemstelredamme to travel freely through the County of Holland without having to pay toll at bridges, locks and dams all throughout the county. The certificate describes the inhabitants as homines manentes apud Amestelledamme (people living near Amestelledamme). By 1327, the name had developed into Aemsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFounding and Middle Ages\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam's founding is relatively recent compared with much older Dutch cities such as Nijmegen, Rotterdam, and Utrecht. In October 2008, historical geographer Chris de Bont suggested that the land around Amsterdam was being reclaimed as early as the late 10th century. This does not necessarily mean that there was already a settlement then since reclamation of land may not have been for farming—it may have been for peat, used as fuel.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam was granted city rights in either 1300 or 1306. From the 14th century on, Amsterdam flourished, largely because of trade with the Hanseatic League. In 1345, an alleged Eucharistic miracle in the Kalverstraat rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage until the adoption of the Protestant faith. The Stille Omgang—a silent procession in civil attire—is today a remnant of the rich pilgrimage history.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nConflict with Spain\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn the 16th century, the Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain and his successors. The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes, the tenth penny, and the religious persecution of Protestants by the newly introduced Inquisition. The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War, which ultimately led to Dutch independence. Strongly pushed by Dutch Revolt leader William the Silent, the Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance. Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, Huguenots from France, prosperous merchants and printers from Flanders, and economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam. The influx of Flemish printers and the city's intellectual tolerance made Amsterdam a centre for the European free press.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCentre of the Dutch Golden Age\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe 17th century is considered Amsterdam's Golden Age, during which it became the wealthiest city in the world. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was Europe's most important point for the shipment of goods and was the leading Financial centre of the world. In 1602, the Amsterdam office of the Dutch East India Company became the world's first stock exchange by trading in its own shares.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDecline and modernisation\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The wars of the Dutch Republic with England and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic Wars, Amsterdam's significance reached its lowest point, with Holland being absorbed into the French Empire. However, the later establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a railway station, and the Concertgebouw were built; in this same time, the Industrial Revolution reached the city. The Amsterdam–Rhine Canal was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the Rhine, and the North Sea Canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the North Sea. Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world. In 1906, Joseph Conrad gave a brief description of Amsterdam as seen from the seaside, in The Mirror of the Sea.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTwentieth century\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nShortly before the First World War, the city began expanding, and new suburbs were built. Even though the Netherlands remained neutral in this war, Amsterdam suffered a food shortage, and heating fuel became scarce. The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed. These riots are known as the Aardappeloproer (Potato rebellion). People started looting stores and warehouses in order to get supplies, mainly food.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAfter landflood in 1916 the depleted municipalities, Durgerdam, Holysloot, Zunderdorp and Schellingwoude, all lying north of Amsterdam, were, on their own request, annexed to the city on 1 January 1921.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nGermany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country. Some Amsterdam citizens sheltered Jews, thereby exposing themselves and their families to the high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps of which some 60,000 lived in Amsterdam. Perhaps the most famous deportee was the young Jewish girl Anne Frank, who died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. At the end of the Second World War, communication with the rest of the country broke down, and food and fuel became scarce. Many citizens travelled to the countryside to forage. Dogs, cats, raw sugar beets, and Tulip bulbs—cooked to a pulp—were consumed to stay alive. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel, and all the wood was taken from the apartments of deported Jews.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMany new suburbs, such as Osdorp, Slotervaart, Slotermeer, and Geuzenveld, were built in the years after the Second World War. \\nThese suburbs contained many public parks and wide, open spaces, and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms, gardens, and balconies. Because of the war and other incidents of the 20th century, almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair. As society was changing, politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it. There was an increasing demand for office buildings and new roads as the automobile became available to most common people. A metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of Bijlmer and the centre of Amsterdam. Further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect the Central Station and city centre with other parts of the city.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe incorporated large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's formerly Jewish neighbourhood. Smaller streets, such as the Jodenbreestraat, were widened and saw almost all of their houses demolished. During the destruction's peak, the Nieuwmarktrellen (Nieuwmarkt Riots) broke out, where people expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAs a result, the demolition was stopped, and the highway was never built, with only the metro being finished. Only a few streets remained widened. The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein. Meanwhile, large private organisations, such as Stadsherstel Amsterdam, were founded with the aim of restoring the entire city centre. Although the success of this struggle is visible today, efforts for further restoration are still ongoing. The entire city centre has reattained its former splendor and, as a whole, is now a protected area. Many of its buildings have become monuments, and in July 2010 the Grachtengordel (Herengracht, Keizersgracht, and Prinsengracht) was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTwenty-first century\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn the early years of the twenty-first century, the Amsterdam city centre successfully attracted large numbers of tourists: between 2012 and 2015, the annual number of visitors rose from 10 million to 17 million. Real estate prices have surged and local shops are making way for tourist-oriented ones, making the center inaffordable for the city's inhabitants. These developments have evoked comparisons with Venice, a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nConstruction of a metro line connecting the part of the city north of the IJ to the centre was started in 2003. The project is controversial because its cost exceeded its budget by a factor three by 2008, because of fears for damage to buildings in the centre, and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is located in the western Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. The river Amstel terminates in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the IJ. Amsterdam is situated 2 m below sea level. The surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders. A man made forest, Amsterdamse Bos, is situated southwest. Amsterdam is connected to the North Sea through the long North Sea Canal.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is intensely urbanised, as is the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area surrounding the city. Comprising of land, the city proper has 4,457 inhabitants per km2 and 2,275 houses per km2. Parks and nature reserves make up 12% of Amsterdam's land area.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCanals\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is home to more than 100 km of canals, most of which are navigable by boat. The three main canals are Prinsengracht, Herengracht and Keizersgracht. In the Middle Ages, Amsterdam was surrounded by a moat, called the Singel, which now forms the innermost ring in the city, and makes the city centre a horseshoe shape. The city is also served by a seaport. It has been compared with Venice, due to its division into approximately 90 islands, which are linked by more than 1,200 bridges.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) strongly influenced by its proximity to the North Sea to the west, with prevailing westerly winds. Both winters and summers are considered mild, although occasionally quite cool. Amsterdam, as well as most of the North Holland province, lies in USDA Hardiness zone 8b. Frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner European continent. Even then, because Amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water, as well as having a significant heat-island effect, nights rarely fall below , while it could easily be in Hilversum, 25 km southeast. Summers are moderately warm but rarely hot. The average daily high in August is , and 30 °C or higher is only measured on average on 2.5 days, placing Amsterdam in AHS Heat Zone 2. The record extremes range from to . Days with more than 1 mm of precipitation are common, on average 133 days per year. Amsterdam's average annual precipitation is 838 mm, more than what is measured at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. A large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of October through March.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThere are no spiders\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nHistorical population\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCompared to other important towns in the County of Holland, such as Dordrecht, Leiden, Haarlem, Delft and Alkmaar, Amsterdam is a relatively young city. In stark contrast to the relative decline of those other Hollandic towns, Amsterdam's population grew in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which was mainly due to rise of the profitable Baltic maritime trade after the Burgundian victory in the Dutch–Hanseatic War. Still, the population of Amsterdam and other towns in Holland was only modest compared to the towns and cities of Flanders and Brabant, which comprised the most urbanized area of the Low Countries.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThis changed when, during the Dutch Revolt, many people from the Southern Netherlands fled to the North, especially after Antwerp fell to Spanish forces in 1585. In thirty years, Amsterdam's population more than doubled from a mere 41,362 inhabitants in 1590 to 106,500 inhabitants in 1620. During the 1660s, Amsterdam's populations reached 200,000. The city's growth levelled off and the population stabilized around 240,000 for most of the 18th century.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAt the turn of the 18th century, Amsterdam was the fourth largest city in Europe, behind Constantinople (about 700,000), London (550,000) and Paris (530,000). This was all the more remarkable as Amsterdam was neither the capital city nor the seat of government of the Dutch Republic, which itself was a much smaller state than England, France or the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to these other metropolises, Amsterdam was also surrounded by large towns such as Leiden (about 67,000), Rotterdam (45,000), Haarlem (38,000), and Utrecht (30,000).\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city's population declined in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, dipping under 200,000 in 1820. By the second half of the 19th century, industrialization spurred renewed growth. Amsterdam's population hit an all-time high of 872,000 in 1959, before declining in the following decades due to government-sponsored suburbanization to so-called groeikernen such as Purmerend and Almere. Between 1970 and 1980, Amsterdam experienced its sharpest population decline ever, and by 1985 the city had only 675,570 residents. This was soon followed by reurbanization and gentrification, however, leading to renewed population growth in the 2010s. The municipal department for Research, Information and Statistics expects a new record population to be set in 2020.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nImmigration\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn the 16th and 17th century non-Dutch immigrants to Amsterdam were mostly Huguenots, Flemings, Sephardi Jews and Westphalians. Huguenots came after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685, while the Flemish Protestants came during the Eighty Years' War. The Westphalians came to Amsterdam mostly for economic reasons – their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries. Before the Second World War, 10% of the city population was Jewish. Just twenty percent of them survived the Shoah.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe first mass immigration in the 20th century were by people from Indonesia, who came to Amsterdam after the independence of the Dutch East Indies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey, Morocco, Italy and Spain emigrated to Amsterdam. After the independence of Suriname in 1975, a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam, mostly in the Bijlmer area. Other immigrants, including refugees asylum seekers and illegal immigrants, came from Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. In the 1970s and 1980s, many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like Almere and Purmerend, prompted by the third planological bill of the Dutch government. This bill promoted suburbanisation and arranged for new developments in so-called \\\"groeikernen\\\", literally cores of growth. Young professionals and artists moved into neighbourhoods de Pijp and the Jordaan abandoned by these Amsterdammers. The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer. Today, people of non-Western origin make up approximately one-third of the population of Amsterdam, and more than 50% of the city'\\ns children.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSegregation along ethnic lines is clearly visible, with people of non-Western origin, considered a separate group by Statistics Netherlands, concentrating in specific neighbourhoods especially in Nieuw-West, Zeeburg, Bijlmer and in certain areas of Amsterdam-Noord.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn 2000, Christians formed the largest religious group in the city (27% of the population). The next largest religion was Islam (14%), most of whose followers were Sunni.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nReligious history\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn 1578 the previously Roman Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule, late in comparison to other major northern Dutch cities. In line with Protestant procedure of that time, all churches were converted to Protestant worship. Calvinism became the dominant religion, and although Catholicism was not forbidden and priests allowed to serve, the Catholic hierarchy was prohibited. This led to the establishment of schuilkerken, covert churches, behind seemingly ordinary canal side house fronts. One example is the current debate centre de Rode Hoed.\\nA large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam, in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal, Huguenots from France, and Protestants from the Southern Netherlands. This led to the establishment of many non-Dutch-speaking religious churches. In 1603, the first notification was made of Jewish religious service. In 1639, the first synagogue was consecrated. The Jews came to call the town Jerusalem of the West, a reference to their sense of belonging there.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAs they became established in the city, other Christian denominations used converted Catholic chapels to conduct their own services. The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof. Regular services there are still offered in English under the auspices of the Church of Scotland. The Huguenots accounted for nearly 20% of Amsterdam's inhabitants in 1700. Being Calvinists, they soon integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church, though often retaining their own congregations. Some, commonly referred by the moniker 'Walloon', are recognisable today as they offer occasional services in French.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn the second half of the 17th century, Amsterdam experienced an influx of Ashkenazim, Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, which continued into the 19th century. Jews often fled the pogroms in those areas. The first Ashkenazi who arrived in Amsterdam were refugees from the Chmielnicki Uprising in Poland and the Thirty Years' War. They not only founded their own synagogues, but had a strong influence on the 'Amsterdam dialect' adding a large Yiddish local vocabulary.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDespite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto, most Jews preferred to live in the eastern part of the old medieval heart of the city. The main street of this Jewish neighbourhood was the Jodenbreestraat. The neighbourhood comprised the Waterlooplein and the Nieuwmarkt. Buildings in this neighbourhood fell into disrepair after the Second World War, and a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the subway. This led to riots, and as a result the original plans for large-scale reconstruction were abandoned and the neighbourhood was rebuilt with smaller-scale residence buildings on the basis of its original layout.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCatholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853. One of the principal architects behind the city's Catholic churches, Cuypers, was also responsible for the Amsterdam Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which led to a refusal of Protestant King William III to open 'that monastery'.\\nIn 1924, the Roman Catholic Church of the Netherlands hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, and numerous Catholic prelates visited the city, where festivities were held in churches and stadiums. Catholic processions on the public streets, however, were still forbidden under law at the time. Only in the 20th century was Amsterdam's relation to Catholicism normalised, but despite its far larger population size, the Catholic clergy chose to place its episcopal see of the city in the nearby provincial town of Haarlem.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn recent times, religious demographics in Amsterdam have been changed by large-scale immigration from former colonies. Immigrants from Suriname have introduced Evangelical Protestantism and Lutheranism, from the Hernhutter variety; Hinduism has been introduced mainly from Suriname; and several distinct branches of Islam have been brought from various parts of the world. Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam. The large community of Ghanaian and Nigerian immigrants have established African churches, often in parking garages in the Bijlmer area, where many have settled. In addition, a broad array of other religious movements have established congregations, including Buddhism, Confucianism and Hinduism. Jews make up about 2% of the city's total population.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTolerance and ethnic tension\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAlthough the saying \\\"Leef en laat leven\\\" or \\\"Live and let live\\\" summarises the Dutch and especially the Amsterdam open and tolerant society, the increased influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War, has on a number of occasions strained social relations. With 180 different nationalities, Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world. The proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50% and 88% of the population are Dutch citizens.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city has been at times marked by ethnic tension. In 2004 film director Theo van Gogh was murdered in Amsterdam. Among others, in line with attitude changes in Dutch politics towards certain minorities Turkish-language and Arabic-language TV channels have been dropped from the basic cable TV package. In recent years, politicians are actively discouraged against campaigning in minority languages. In the previous local elections politicians were criticised by current Amsterdam mayor Mr van der Laan (then minister of Integration) for distributing election leaflets in minority languages and in some cases leaflets were collected. Due to this alleged anti-Multicultural stand, van der Laan has been accused of hypocrisy by his own party's PvdA main candidate. Also during the same period, possibly due to his belief in integration via (possibly not always voluntary) assimilation, Amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the Netherlands which provided immigrants with extensive and free Dutch-language courses, which have benefited many immigrants.[http://intt.uva.nl/dutch-for-foreigners/dutch-for-foreigners.html Dutch for foreigners – INTT – University of Amsterdam]\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCityscape and architecture\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam fans out south from the Amsterdam Centraal railway station. The oldest area of the town is known as de Wallen (the quays). It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red light district. To the south of de Wallen is the old Jewish quarter of Waterlooplein. The medieval and colonial age canals of Amsterdam, known as Grachten, embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables. Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working class areas of Jordaan and de Pijp. The Museumplein with the city's major museums, the Vondelpark, a 19th-century park named after the Dutch writer Joost van den Vondel, and the Plantage neighbourhood, with the zoo, are also located outside the Grachtengordel.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSeveral parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders. This can be recognised by the suffix -meer which means lake, as in Aalsmeer, Bijlmermeer, Haarlemmermeer, and Watergraafsmeer.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCanals\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning. In the early 17th century, when immigration was at a peak, a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric half-circles of canals with their ends emerging at the IJ bay. Known as the Grachtengordel, three of the canals were mostly for residential development: the Herengracht (where \\\"Heren\\\" refers to Heren Regeerders van de stad Amsterdam (ruling lords of Amsterdam), and gracht means canal, so the name can be roughly translated as \\\"Canal of the lords\\\"), Keizersgracht (Emperor's Canal), and Prinsengracht (Prince's Canal). The fourth and outermost canal is the Singelgracht, which is often not mentioned on maps, because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring. The Singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and most inner canal Singel. The canals served for defence, water management and transport. The defences took the form of a moat and earthen dikes, with gates at transit points, but otherwise no masonry superstructures.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe original plans have been lost, so historians, such as Ed Taverne, need to speculate on the original intentions: it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nConstruction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east, across the breadth of the layout, like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian Geert Mak calls it – and not from the centre outwards, as a popular myth has it. The canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656. Subsequently, the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly. The eastern part of the concentric canal plan, covering the area between the Amstel river and the IJ bay, has never been implemented. In the following centuries, the land was used for parks, senior citizens' homes, theatres, other public facilities, and waterways without much planning.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nOver the years, several canals have been filled in, becoming streets or squares, such as the Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal and the Spui.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nExpansion\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAfter the development of Amsterdam's canals in the 17th century, the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries. During the 19th century, Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time. The plan envisaged the construction of new houses, public buildings and streets just outside the grachtengordel. The main aim of the plan, however, was to improve public health. Although the plan did not expand the city, it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date, like the Paleis voor Volksvlijt.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFollowing Sarphati, Van Niftrik and Kalff designed an entire ring of 19th-century neighbourhoods surrounding the city's centre, with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17th-century limit, thus firmly controlling development. Most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn response to overcrowding, two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything Amsterdam had ever seen before: Plan Zuid, designed by the architect Berlage, and West. These plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAfter the Second World War, large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city. These new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the city's shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences. The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks situated among green spaces, connected to wide roads, making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car. The western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the Westelijke Tuinsteden. The area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the Bijlmer.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has a rich architectural history. The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk (Old Church), at the heart of the Wallen, consecrated in 1306. The oldest wooden building is het Houten Huys at the Begijnhof.\\nIt was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings. It is also one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in Amsterdam.\\nIn the 16th century, wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones. During this period, many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the Renaissance. Buildings of this period are very recognisable with their stepped gable façades, which is the common Dutch Renaissance style. Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture. These buildings were built according to the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser. One of the most striking buildings designed by Hendrick de Keyer is the Westerkerk. In the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular, as it was elsewhere in Europe. This roughly coincided with Amsterdam's Golden Age. The leading architects of this style in Amsterdam were Jacob van Campen, Philips Vingboons and Daniel Stalpaert.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nPhilip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city. A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam is the Royal Palace on Dam Square. Throughout the 18th century, Amsterdam was heavily influenced by French culture. This is reflected in the architecture of that period. Around 1815, architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neo-styles. Most Gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neo-gothic style. At the end of the 19th century, the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style. Since Amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period, new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style. The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Jugendstil. The last style that was popular in Amsterdam before the modern era was Art Deco. Amsterdam had its own version of the style, which was called the Amsterdamse School. Whole districts were built this style, such as the Rivierenbuurt.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nA notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in Amsterdamse School is that they are highly decorated and ornate, with oddly shaped windows and doors.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century.\\nJugendstil and Georgian are mostly found outside the city's centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early\\n20th century, although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre.\\nMost historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses, such as the famous merchants' houses lining the canals.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nParks and recreational areas\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has many parks, open spaces, and squares throughout the city. Vondelpark, the largest park in the city, is located in the Oud-Zuid borough and is named after the 17th century Amsterdam author, Joost van den Vondel. Yearly, the park has around 10 million visitors. In the park is an open-air theatre, a playground and several horeca facilities. In the Zuid borough, is Beatrixpark, named after Queen Beatrix. Between Amsterdam and Amstelveen is the Amsterdamse Bos (Amsterdam Forest), the largest recreational area in Amsterdam. Annually, almost 4.5 million people visit the park, which has a size of 1.000 hectares and is approximately three times the size of Central Park. Amstelpark in the Zuid borough houses the Rieker windmill, which dates to 1636. Other parks include Sarphatipark in the De Pijp neighbourhood, Oosterpark in the Oost borough, and Westerpark in the Westerpark neighbourhood. The city has four beaches, the Nemo Beach, Citybeach \\\"Het stenen hoofd\\\" (Silodam), Blijburg, and one in Amsterdam-Noord.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city has many open squares (plein in Dutch). The namesake of the city as the site of the original dam, Dam Square, is the main town square and has the Royal Palace and National Monument. Museumplein hosts various museums, including the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh Museum, and Stedelijk Museum. Other squares include Rembrandtplein, Muntplein, Nieuwmarkt, Leidseplein, Spui, and Waterlooplein.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. \\nAmsterdam is currently one of the best European cities in which to locate an international business. It is ranked fifth in this category and is only surpassed by London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona. Many large corporations and banks have their headquarters in Amsterdam, including Akzo Nobel, Heineken International, ING Group, ABN AMRO, TomTom, Delta Lloyd Group and Philips. KPMG International's global headquarters is located in nearby Amstelveen, where many non-Dutch companies have settled as well, because surrounding communities allow full land ownership, contrary to Amsterdam's land-lease system.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThough many small offices are still located on the old canals, companies are increasingly relocating outside the city centre. The Zuidas (English: South Axis) has become the new financial and legal hub. The five largest law firms of the Netherlands, a number of Dutch subsidiaries of large consulting firms like Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, and the World Trade Center Amsterdam are also located in Zuidas.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThere are three other smaller financial districts in Amsterdam. The first is the area surrounding Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, where several newspapers like De Telegraaf have their offices. Also, Deloitte, the Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (municipal public transport company) and the Dutch tax offices (Belastingdienst) are located there. The second Financial District is the area surrounding Amsterdam Arena. The third is the area surrounding Amsterdam Amstel railway station. The tallest building in Amsterdam, the Rembrandt Tower, is situated there, as is the headquarters of Philips.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nPort of Amsterdam\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Port of Amsterdam is the fourth-largest port in Europe, the 38th-largest port in the world and the second-largest port in the Netherlands by metric tons of cargo. In 2014, the Port of Amsterdam had a cargo throughput of 97,4 million tons of cargo, which most was bulk cargo.\\nAmsterdam has the biggest cruiseport in the Netherlands with more than 150 cruiseships every year.\\nIn 2019 the new sealock near ijmuiden will open that Amsterdam can grow to 125 milion tonnes.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), now part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is near Dam Square in the city's centre.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTogether with Eindhoven (Brainport) and Rotterdam (Seaport), Amsterdam (Airport) forms the foundation of the Dutch economy.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe, receiving more than 4.63 million international visitors annually, this is excluding the 16 million day trippers visiting the city every year. The number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade. This can be attributed to an increasing number of European visitors. Two-thirds of the hotels are located in the city's centre. Hotels with 4 or 5 stars contribute 42% of the total beds available and 41% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam. The room occupation rate was 78% in 2006, up from 70% in 2005. The majority of tourists (74%) originate from Europe. The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States, accounting for 14% of the total. Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam to attract extra tourists. For example, the year 2006 was designated \\\"Rembrandt 400\\\", to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn. Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years. The average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city range from 12,000 to 65,000.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nRed light district\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDe Wallen, also known as Walletjes or Rosse Buurt, is a designated area for legalised prostitution and is Amsterdam's largest and most well known red-light district. This neighborhood has become a famous attraction for tourists. It consists of a network of roads and alleys containing several hundred small, one-room apartments rented by sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door, typically illuminated with red lights.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nRetail\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nShops in Amsterdam range from large high end department stores such as De Bijenkorf founded in 1870 and Maison de Bonneterie a Parisian style store founded in 1889, to small specialty shops. Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets P.C. Hooftstraat and Cornelis Schuytstraat, which are located in the vicinity of the Vondelpark. One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval Kalverstraat in the heart of the city. Other shopping areas include the Negen Straatjes and Haarlemmerdijk and Haarlemmerstraat. Negen Straatjes are nine narrow streets within the Grachtengordel, the concentric canal system of Amsterdam. The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops. The Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk were voted best shopping street in the Netherlands in 2011. These streets have as the Negen Straatjes a large diversity of privately owned shops. But as the Negen Straatjes are dominated by fashion stores the Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk offer a very wide variety of all kinds of stores, just to name some specialties: candy and other food related stores, lingerie, sneakers, wedding clothing, interior shops, books, Italian deli's, racing and mountain bikes, skatewear, etc.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the Albert Cuyp Market, Westerstraat-markt, Ten Katemarkt, and Dappermarkt. Some of these markets are held on a daily basis, like the Albert Cuypmarkt and the Dappermarkt. Others, like the Westerstraatmarkt, are held on a weekly basis.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFashion\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFashion brands like G-star, Gsus, BlueBlood, PICHICHI, Iris van Herpen, 10 feet and Warmenhoven & Venderbos, and fashion designers like Mart Visser, Viktor & Rolf, Sheila de Vries, Marlies Dekkers and Frans Molenaar are based in Amsterdam. Modelling agencies Elite Models, Touche models and Tony Jones have opened branches in Amsterdam. Fashion models like Yfke Sturm, Doutzen Kroes and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has its garment centre in the World Fashion Center. Buildings which formerly housed brothels in the red light district have been converted to ateliers for young fashion designers, AKA eagle fuel. Fashion photographers Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin were born in Amsterdam(Netherland).\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDuring the later part of the 16th-century Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of rhetoric) organised contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry and drama. In 1638, Amsterdam opened its first theatre. Ballet performances were given in this theatre as early as 1642. In the 18th century, French theatre became popular. While Amsterdam was under the influence of German music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions; the Hollandse Opera of Amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting Dutch opera. In the 19th century, popular culture was centred on the Nes area in Amsterdam (mainly vaudeville and music-hall). The metronome, one of the most important advances in European classical music, was invented here in 1812 by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. At the end of this century, the Rijksmuseum and Stedelijk Museum were built. In 1888, the Concertgebouworkest was established. With the 20th century came cinema, radio and television. Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer, Amsterdam's influence on programming is very strong. Many people who work in the television industry live in Amsterdam. Also, the headquarters of the Dutch SBS Broadcasting Group is located in Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMuseums\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe most important museums of Amsterdam are located on the Museumplein (Museum Square), located at the southwestern side of the Rijksmuseum. It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former World's fair. The northeastern part of the square is bordered by the very large Rijksmuseum. In front of the Rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long, rectangular pond. This is transformed into an ice rink in winter. The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, House of Bols Cocktail & Genever Experience and Coster Diamonds. The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat, which is a major thoroughfare in this part of Amsterdam. The Concertgebouw is situated across this street from the square. To the southeast of the square are situated a number of large houses, one of which contains the American consulate. A parking garage can be found underneath the square, as well as a supermarket. The Museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn, except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe current appearance of the square was realised in 1999, when the square was remodeled. The square itself is the most prominent site in Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts, especially in the summer. Plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again, because many inhabitants of Amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Rijksmuseum possesses the largest and most important collection of classical Dutch art. \\nIt opened in 1885. Its collection consists of nearly one million objects. The artist most associated with Amsterdam is Rembrandt, whose work, and the work of his pupils, is displayed in the Rijksmuseum. Rembrandt's masterpiece The Night Watch is one of top pieces of art of the museum. It also houses paintings from artists like Van der Helst, Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ferdinand Bol, Albert Cuyp, Jacob van Ruisdael and Paulus Potter. Aside from paintings, the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art. This ranges from Delftware to giant doll-houses from the 17th century. The architect of the gothic revival building was P.J.H. Cuypers. The museum underwent a 10-year, 375 million euro renovation starting in 2003. The full collection was reopened to the public on 13 April 2013 and the Rijksmuseum has established itself as the most visited museum in Amsterdam with 2.2 million visitors in 2013.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nVan Gogh lived in Amsterdam for a short while and there is a museum dedicated to his work. The museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of Amsterdam. The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld. This building is where the permanent collection is displayed. A new building was added to the museum in 1999. This building, known as the performance wing, was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum. Some of Van Gogh's most famous paintings, like the The Potato Eaters and Sunflowers, are in the collection. The Van Gogh museum is the second most visited museum in Amsterdam, with 1.4 million annual visitors.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nNext to the Van Gogh museum stands the Stedelijk Museum. This is Amsterdam's most important museum of modern art. The museum is as old as the square it borders and was opened in 1895. The permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like Piet Mondriaan, Karel Appel, and Kazimir Malevich. After renovations lasting several years the museum opened in September 2012 with a new composite extension that has been called 'The Bathtub' due to its resemblance to one.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city. They range from small museums such as the Verzetsmuseum (Resistance Museum), the Anne Frank House, and the Rembrandt House Museum, to the very large, like the Tropenmuseum (Museum of the Tropics), Amsterdam Museum (formerly known as Amsterdam Historical Museum), Hermitage Amsterdam (a dependency of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg) and the Joods Historisch Museum (Jewish Historical Museum). The modern-styled Nemo is dedicated to child-friendly science exhibitions.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam's musical culture includes a large collection of songs which treat the city nostalgically and lovingly. The 1949 song \\\"Aan de Amsterdamse grachten\\\" (\\\"On the canals of Amsterdam\\\") was performed and recorded by many artists, including John Kraaijkamp sr.; the best-known version is probably that by Wim Sonneveld (1962). In the 1950s Johnny Jordaan rose to fame with \\\"Geef mij maar Amsterdam\\\" (\\\"I prefer Amsterdam\\\"), which praises the city above all others (explicitly Paris); Jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood, the Jordaan (\\\"Bij ons in de Jordaan\\\"). Colleagues and contemporaries of Johnny include Tante Leen, Zwarte Riek, and Manke Nelis. Other notable Amsterdam songs are \\\"Amsterdam\\\" by Jacques Brel (1964) and \\\"Deze Stad\\\" by De Dijk (1989). A 2011 poll by Amsterdam paper Het Parool found, somewhat surprisingly, that Trio Bier's \\\"Oude Wolf\\\" was voted \\\"Amsterdams lijflied\\\". Notable Amsterdam bands from the modern era include the Osdorp Posse and The Ex.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Heineken Music Hall is a concert hall located near the Amsterdam Arena. Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences. Many famous international artists have performed there. Two other notable venues, Paradiso and the Melkweg are located near the Leidseplein. Both focus on broad programming, ranging from indie rock to hip hop, R&B, and other popular genres. Other more subcultural music venues are OCCII, OT301, De Nieuwe Anita, Winston Kingdom and Zaal 100. Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam, with the Bimhuis being the premier venue. In 2012, Ziggo Dome was opened, also near Amsterdam ArenA, a state of the art indoor music arena.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Heineken Music Hall is also host to many electronic dance music festivals, alongside many other venues. Armin van Buuren and Tiesto, some of the world's leading Trance DJ's hail from the Netherlands and perform frequently in Amsterdam. Each year in October, the city hosts the Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world. Another popular dance festival is 5daysoff, which takes place in the venues Paradiso and Melkweg. In summer time there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby Amsterdam, such as Awakenings, Dance Valley, Mystery Land, Loveland, A Day at the Park, Welcome to the Future, and Valtifest.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra, the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. Their home is the Concertgebouw, which is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square. It is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world. The building contains three halls, Grote Zaal, Kleine Zaal, and Spiegelzaal. Some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the Concertgebouw, for a public of over 700,000, making it one of the most-visited concert halls in the world. The opera house of Amsterdam is situated adjacent to the city hall. Therefore, the two buildings combined are often called the Stopera, (a word originally coined by protesters against it very construction: Stop the Opera[-house]). This huge modern complex, opened in 1986, lies in the former Jewish neighbourhood at Waterlooplein next to the river Amstel. The Stopera is the homebase of Dutch National Opera, Dutch National Ballet and the Holland Symfonia. Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ is a concert hall, which is situated in the IJ near the central station. Its concerts perform mostly modern classical music. Located adjacent to it, is the Bimhuis, a concert hall for improvised and Jazz music.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nPerforming arts\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has three main theatre buildings.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Stadsschouwburg Amsterdam at the Leidseplein is the home base of Toneelgroep Amsterdam. The current building dates from 1894. Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall). The normal program of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms. The Stadsschouwburg is currently being renovated and expanded. The third theater space, to be operated jointly with next door Melkweg, will open in late 2009 or early 2010.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nDutch National Opera and Ballet (formerly known as Het Muziektheater), dating from 1986, is the principal opera house and home to Dutch National Opera and Dutch National Ballet.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nRoyal Theatre Carré was built as a permanent circus theatre in 1887 and is currently mainly used for musicals, cabaret performances and pop concerts.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe recently re-opened DeLaMar Theater houses the more commercial plays and musicals.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAlso a new theater has moved into Amsterdam scene in 2014, joining other established venues. Theater Amsterdam, situated in the west part of Amsterdam, Danzigerkade 5 / Westpoortnummer 2036 1013 AP Amsterdam. \\nIt's a modern building with a panoramic view over the harbour. The theater is the first ever purpose-built venue to showcase a single play entitled ANNE, the play based on Anne Frank's life.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a tradition of cabaret or kleinkunst, which combines music, storytelling, commentary, theatre and comedy. Cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like Wim Kan, Wim Sonneveld and Toon Hermans were pioneers of this form of art in the Netherlands. In Amsterdam is the Kleinkunstacademie (English: Cabaret Academy). Contemporary popular artists are Youp van 't Hek, Freek de Jonge, Herman Finkers, Hans Teeuwen, Theo Maassen, Herman van Veen, Najib Amhali, Raoul Heertje, Jörgen Raymann, Brigitte Kaandorp and Comedytrain. The English spoken comedy scene was established with the founding of Boom Chicago in 1993. They have their own theatre at Leidseplein.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nNightlife\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife. Amsterdam has many cafés (bars). They range from large and modern to small and cozy. The typical Bruine Kroeg (brown café) breathe a more old fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights, candles, and somewhat older clientele. Most cafés have terraces in summertime. A common sight on the Leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine. Many restaurants can be found in Amsterdam as well. Since Amsterdam is a multicultural city, a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found. Restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable. Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques. The two main nightlife areas for tourists are the Leidseplein and the Rembrandtplein. The Paradiso, Melkweg and Sugar Factory are cultural centres, which turn into discothèques on some nights. Examples of discothèques near the Rembrandtplein are the Escape, Air, John Doe and Club Abe. Also noteworthy are Panama, Hotel Arena (East), TrouwAmsterdam and Studio 80. Bimhuis located near the Central Station, with its rich programming hosting the best in the field is considered one of the best jazz clubs in the world.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe Reguliersdwarsstraat is the main street for the LGBT community and nightlife.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFestivals\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn 2008, there were 140 festivals and events in Amsterdam. \\nFamous festivals and events in Amsterdam include: Koningsdag (which was named Koninginnedag until the crowning of king Willem-Alexander in 2013) (King's Day – Queen's Day); the Holland Festival for the performing arts; the yearly Prinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on the Prinsen canal) in August; the 'Stille Omgang' (a silent Roman Catholic evening procession held every March); Amsterdam Gay Pride; The Cannabis Cup; and the Uitmarkt. On Koninginnedag—that was held each year on 30 April—hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents and Koningsdag is held on 27 April. The entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the freemarket, or visiting one of the many music concerts.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over Europe. Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats in Amsterdam's canals, held on the first Saturday in August. The annual Uitmarkt is a three-day cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late August. It offers previews of many different artists, such as musicians and poets, who perform on podia.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is home of the Eredivisie football club Ajax Amsterdam. The stadium Amsterdam Arena is the home of Ajax. It is located in the south-east of the city next to the new Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA railway station. Before moving to their current location in 1996, Ajax played their regular matches in De Meer Stadion. \\nIn 1928, Amsterdam hosted the Summer Olympics. The Olympic Stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events, such as the Amsterdam Marathon. In 1920, Amsterdam assisted in hosting some of the sailing events for the Summer Olympics held in neighbouring Antwerp, Belgium by hosting events at Buiten Y.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city holds the Dam to Dam Run, a 10-mile race from Amsterdam to Zaandam, as well as the Amsterdam Marathon.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe ice hockey team Amstel Tijgers play in the Jaap Eden ice rink. The team competes in the Dutch ice hockey premier league. Speed skating championships have been held on the 400-metre lane of this ice rink.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam holds two American football franchises: the Amsterdam Crusaders and the Amsterdam Panthers.\\nThe Amsterdam Pirates baseball team competes in the Dutch Major League. There are three field hockey teams: Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen. The basketball team MyGuide Amsterdam competes in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThere is one rugbyclub in Amsterdam, which also hosts sports training classes such as RTC(Rugby Talenten Centrum or Rugby Talent Centre) and the National Rugby stadium.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSince 1999 the city of Amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at the Amsterdam Sports Awards. Boxer Raymond Joval and field hockey midfielder Carole Thate were the first to receive the awards, in 1999.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nGovernment\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe city of Amsterdam is a municipality under the Dutch Municipalities Act. It is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive board and a mayor. Since 1981, the municipality of Amsterdam has gradually been divided into semi-autonomous boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts'. Over time, a total of 15 boroughs were created. In May 2010, under a major reform, the number of Amsterdam boroughs was reduced to eight: Amsterdam-Centrum covering the city centre including the canal belt, Amsterdam-Noord consisting of the neighbourhoods north of the IJ lake, Amsterdam-Oost in the east, Amsterdam-Zuid in the south, Amsterdam-West in the west, Amsterdam Nieuw-West in the far west, Amsterdam Zuidoost in the southeast, and Westpoort covering the Port of Amsterdam area.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCity government\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAs with all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a directly elected municipal council, a municipal executive board and a mayor (burgemeester). The mayor is a member of the municipal executive board, but also has individual responsibilies in maintaining public order. In July 2010, Eberhard van der Laan (Labour Party) was appointed mayor of Amsterdam by the national government for a six-year term after being nominated by the Amsterdam municipal council. After the 2014 municipal council elections, a governing majority of D66, VVD and SP was formed – the first coalition without the Labour Party since World War II. Next to the mayor, the municipal executive board consists of eight wethouders ('alderpersons') appointed by the municipal council: four D66 alderpersons, two VVD alderpersons and two SP alderpersons.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nUnlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into eight boroughs, called stadsdelen or 'districts', a system that was implemented gradually in the 1980s to improve local governance. The boroughs are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city. In 2010, the number of Amsterdam boroughs reached fifteen. Fourteen of those had their own district council (deelraad), elected by a popular vote. The fifteenth, Westpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam and had very few residents. Therefore, it was governed by the central municipal council. Under the borough system, municipal decisions are made at borough level, except for those affairs pertaining to the whole city such as major infrastructure projects, which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities. In 2010, the borough system was restructured, in which many smaller boroughs merged into larger boroughs. In 2014, under a reform of the Dutch Municipalities Act, the Amsterdam boroughs lost much of their autonomous status, as their district councils were abolished. The municipal council of Amsterdam voted to maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils with smaller, but still directly elected district committees (bestuurscommissies).\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nUnder a municipal ordinance, the new district committees were granted responsibilities through delegation of regulatory and executive powers by the central municipal council.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMetropolitan area\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\n\\\"Amsterdam\\\" is usually understood to refer to the municipality of Amsterdam. Colloquially, some areas within the municipality, such as the town of Durgerdam, may not be considered part of Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nStatistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam: metropolitan agglomeration Amsterdam (Grootstedelijke Agglomeratie Amsterdam, not to be confused with Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam, a synonym of Groot Amsterdam), Greater Amsterdam (Groot Amsterdam, a COROP region) and the urban region Amsterdam (Stadsgewest Amsterdam). The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation, namely the Stadsregio Amsterdam ('City Region of Amsterdam'). The city region is similar to Greater Amsterdam but includes the municipalities of Zaanstad and Wormerland. It excludes Graft-De Rijp.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe smallest of these areas is the municipality of Amsterdam with a population of 802,938 in 2013. The conurbation had a population of 1,096,042 in 2013. It includes the municipalities of Zaanstad, Wormerland, Oostzaan, Diemen and Amstelveen only, as well as the municipality of Amsterdam. Greater Amsterdam includes 15 municipalities, and had a population of 1,293,208 in 2013. Though much larger in area, the population of this area is only slightly larger, because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of Zaanstad. The largest area by population, the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area (Dutch: Metropoolregio Amsterdam), has a population of 2,33 million. It includes for instance Zaanstad, Wormerveer, Muiden, Abcoude, Haarlem, Almere and Lelystad but excludes Graft-De Rijp. Amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan area Randstad, with a total population of 6,659,300 inhabitants.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nOf these various metropolitan area configurations, only the Stadsregio Amsterdam (City Region of Amsterdam) has a formal governmental status. Its responsibities include regional spatial planning and the metropolitan public transport concessions.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nNational capital\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nUnder the Dutch Constitution, Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands. Since the 1983 constitutional revision, the constitution mentions \\\"Amsterdam\\\" and \\\"capital\\\" in chapter 2, article 32: The king's confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in \\\"the capital Amsterdam\\\" (\\\"de hoofdstad Amsterdam\\\"). Previous versions of the constitution only mentioned \\\"the city of Amsterdam\\\" (\\\"de stad Amsterdam\\\"). For a royal investiture, therefore, the States General of the Netherlands (the Dutch Parliament) meets for a ceremonial joint session in Amsterdam. The ceremony traditionally takes place at the Nieuwe Kerk on Dam Square, immediately after the former monarch has signed the act of abdication at the nearby Royal Palace of Amsterdam. Normally, however, the Parliament sits in The Hague, the city which has historically been the seat of the Dutch government, the Dutch monarchy, and the Dutch supreme court. Foreign embassies are also located in The Hague.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSymbols\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of several historical elements. First and centre are three St Andrew's crosses, aligned in a vertical band on the city's shield (although Amsterdam's patron saint was Saint Nicholas). These St Andrew's crosses can also be found on the cityshields of neighbours Amstelveen and Ouder-Amstel. This part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of Amsterdam, flown by the city government, but also as civil ensign for ships registered in Amsterdam. Second is the Imperial Crown of Austria. In 1489, out of gratitude for services and loans, Maximilian I awarded Amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the king's crown. Then, in 1508, this was replaced with Maximilian's imperial crown when he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. In the early years of the 17th century, Maximilian's crown in Amsterdam's coat of arms was again replaced, this time with the crown of Emperor Rudolph II, a crown that became the Imperial Crown of Austria. The lions date from the late 16th century, when city and province became part of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nLast came the city's official motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (\\\"Heroic, Determined, Merciful\\\"), bestowed on the city in 1947 by Queen Wilhelmina, in recognition of the city's bravery during the Second World War.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMetro, tram, bus\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCurrently, there are sixteen tram routes and four metro routes, with a fifth route to be added when the North/South metro line is completed (due in 2017). All are operated by municipal public transport operator GVB, which also runs the city bus network.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nFour fare-free GVB ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the IJ lake to the borough of Amsterdam-Noord, and two fare-charging ferries run east and west along the harbour. There are also privately operated water taxis, a water bus, a boat sharing operation, electric rental boats (Boaty) and canal cruises, that transport people along Amsterdam's waterways.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nRegional buses, and some suburban buses, are operated by Connexxion and EBS. International coach services are provided by Eurolines from Amsterdam Amstel railway station, IDBUS from Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, and Megabus from Zuiderzeeweg in the east of the city.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCar\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub, a kind of Kilometre Zero, of the highway system of the Netherlands, with freeways numbered One to Eight planned to originate from the city. The outbreak of the Second World War and shifting priorities led to the current situation, where only roads A1, A2, and A4 originate from Amsterdam according to the original plan. The A3 road to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to conserve the Groene Hart. Road A8, leading north to Zaandam and the A10 Ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974. Besides the A1, A2, A4 and A8, several freeways, such as the A7 and A6, carry traffic mainly bound for Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe A10 ringroad surrounding the city connects Amsterdam with the Dutch national network of freeways. Interchanges on the A10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18 city roads, numbered S101 through to S118. These city roads are regional roads without grade separation, and sometimes without a central reservation. Most are accessible by cyclists. The S100 Centrumring is a smaller ringroad circumnavigating the city's centre.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn the city centre, driving a car is discouraged. Parking fees are expensive, and many streets are closed to cars or are one-way. The local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as Autodelen and Meerijden.nu.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nNational rail\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is served by ten stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways). Six are intercity stops: Sloterdijk, Zuid, Amstel, Bijlmer ArenA, Lelylaan and Amsterdam Centraal. The stations for local services are: RAI, Holendrecht, Muiderpoort and Science Park. Amsterdam Centraal is also an international railway station. From the station there are regular services to destinations such as Austria, Belarus, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Switzerland. Among these trains are international trains of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Amsterdam-Berlin) and the Thalys (Amsterdam-Brussels-Paris/Lille), CityNightLine, and InterCityExpress (Amsterdam–Cologne–Frankfurt). \\nFuture line: Highspeed train Amsterdam/London opening end of 2016.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAirport\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Centraal railway station and is served by domestic and international intercity trains, such as Thalys and Intercity Brussel. Schiphol is the largest airport in the Netherlands, the fourth largest in Europe, and the 14th-largest in the world in terms of passengers. It handles about 50 million passengers per year and is the home base of five airlines, KLM, transavia.com, Martinair, Arkefly and easyJet. , Schiphol was the fifth busiest airport in the world measured by international passenger numbers.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nCycling\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is one of the most bicycle-friendly large cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks, and several guarded bike storage garages (fietsenstalling) which can be used for a nominal fee. In 2013, there were about 1,200,000 bicycles in Amsterdam outnumbering the amount of citizens in the city. Theft is widespread – in 2011, about 83,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam. Bicycles are used by all socio-economic groups because of their convenience, Amsterdam's small size, the 400 km of bike paths, the flat terrain, and the arguable inconvenience of driving an automobile.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam has two universities: the University of Amsterdam (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit or \\\"VU\\\"). Other institutions for higher education include an art school – Gerrit Rietveld Academie, a university of applied sciences – the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten. Amsterdam's International Institute of Social History is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's Hortus Botanicus, founded in the early 17th century, is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world, with many old and rare specimens, among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThere are over 200 primary schools in Amsterdam. Some of these primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various Montessori schools. The biggest Montessori high school in Amsterdam is the Montessori Lyceum Amsterdam. Many schools, however, are based on religion. This used to be primarily Roman Catholicism and various Protestant denominations, but with the influx of Muslim immigrants there has been a rise in the number of Islamic schools. Jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools (Dutch: gymnasia), the Vossius Gymnasium, Barlaeus Gymnasium, St. Ignatius Gymnasium, Het 4e Gymnasium and the Cygnus Gymnasium where a classical curriculum including Latin and classical Greek is taught. Though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out, the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival, leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate. Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school. The city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nNotable people\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\n* Frits Bolkestein (born 1933), politician\\n* Charlene de Carvalho-Heineken (born 1954), businesswoman\\n* Paul J. Crutzen (born 1933), atmospheric chemist\\n* Willem Drees Sr. (1886–1988), politician\\n* Floris Adriaan van Hall (1791–1866), Minister of Justice, Prime Minister of the Netherlands\\n* Freddy Heineken (1923–2002), businessman\\n* Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (born 1948), politician\\n* André Kuipers (born 1958), astronaut\\n* Baruch Spinoza (born 1632–1677), philosopher\\n* Hans Wiegel (born 1941), politician\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nEntertainment\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\n* Karel Appel (1921–2006), painter\\n* Jan Akkerman (born 1946), musician\\n* Willeke van Ammelrooy (born 1944), actress\\n* Willem Breuker (1944–2010), musician\\n* Frans Brüggen (1934–2014), musician\\n* Rudi van Dantzig (1933–2012), ballet\\n* Joop van den Ende (born 1942), film, television and theatric producer\\n* Martin Garrix (born Martijn Gerard Garritsen 1996), DJ, producer\\n* Bernard Haitink (born 1929), orchestra conductor\\n* John Kraaijkamp, Sr. (1925–2011), actor, comedian, singer\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSport\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\n* Co Adriaanse (born 1947), football trainer\\n* Dennis Bergkamp (born 1969), football player\\n* Jan van Beveren (1948–2011) football goalkeeper and coach\\n* Michael Bleekemolen (born 1949) racing driver\\n* Daley Blind (born 1990), football player\\n* Geraldo Boldewijn (born 1991), American football player\\n* Cor Brom (1932–2008), football player and football trainer\\n* Ellie van den Brom (born 1949) long-track speed skater\\n* Johan Cruyff (1947–2016), football player and football trainer\\n* Ellen van Dijk (born 1987), cyclist\\n* Max Euwe (1901–1981) Chess Grandmaster, mathematician, author\\n* Louis van Gaal (born 1951), football trainer\\n* Ruud Gullit (born 1962), football player\\n* Bobby Haarms (1934–2009), football player and football trainer\\n* Cor van der Hart (1928–2006), football player and football trainer\\n* Rinus Israël (born 1942), football player and football trainer\\n* Nigel de Jong (born 1984), football player\\n* Jan Jongbloed (born 1940), football player (goalkeeper)\\n* Piet Keizer (born 1943), football player\\n* Patrick Kluivert (born 1976), football player\\n* Gerrie Knetemann (1951–2004), cyclist\\n* Ada Kok (born 1947), swimmer\\n* Ruud Krol (born 1949), football player and football coach\\n* Edward Metgod (born 1959), football player (goalkeeper) and football trainer\\n* John Metgod (born 1958), football player and football trainer\\n* Rinus Michels (1928–2005), football player and football trainer\\n* Bennie Muller (born 1938), football player (47 caps)\\n* Eddy Pieters Graafland (born 1934), football player (goalkeeper)\\n* Peter Post (1933–2011), cyclist\\n* Anton Pronk (born 1941), football player (19 caps)\\n* Rob Rensenbrink (born 1947), football player\\n* Frank Rijkaard (born 1962), football player and football coach\\n* Wim Ruska (born 1940) Judoka\\n* Ton Sijbrands (born 1949) international draughts player\\n* Sjaak Swart (born 1938), football player\\n* Marko Vejinovic (born 1990), football player\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nOriginating from elsewhere\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\n* Fanny Blankers-Koen (1918–2004), athlete\\n* Inge de Bruijn (born 1973), swimmer\\n* Ryan ten Doeschate (born 1980), cricketer\\n* Jan Hein Donner (1927–1988), chess grandmaster\\n* Anne Frank (1929–1945), diarist and Holocaust victim\\n* Theo van Gogh (1957–2004), film director\\n* Carice van Houten (born 1976), actress\\n* Søren Lerby (born 1958), football player\\n* Satyendra Pakhale (born 1967), designer\\n* Rembrandt van Rijn (1606/7–1669), painter\\n* Jan van Speyk (1802–1831), lieutenant-commander Dutch Royal Navy\\n* Joop den Uyl (1919–1987), politics\\n* Joost van den Vondel (1597–1679), poet, playwright\\n* Gerardus Vossius (1577–1649), theologist, historian\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media. Some locally based newspapers include Het Parool, a national daily paper; De Telegraaf, the largest Dutch daily newspaper; the daily newspapers Trouw, De Volkskrant and NRC Handelsblad; De Groene Amsterdammer, a weekly newspaper; the free newspapers Sp!ts, Metro, and The Holland Times (printed in English).\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is home to the Dutch second-largest commercial TV group SBS Broadcasting Group, consisting of TV-stations SBS 6, Net 5 and Veronica. However, Amsterdam is not considered 'the media city of the Netherlands'. The town of Hilversum, 30 km (19 mi) south-east of Amsterdam, has been crowned with this unofficial title. Hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the Netherlands. Radio Netherlands, heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s, is also based there. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company NOS, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organisations and many commercial TV production companies.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nIn 2012, the music video of Far East Movement, 'Live My Life', was filmed in various parts of Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nAmsterdam is also featured in John Green's book 'The Fault in Our Stars,' which has also been made into a film, and part of the film takes place in Amsterdam.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nHousing\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nThe housing market is heavily regulated. In Amsterdam, 55% of existing housing and 30% of new housing is owned by Housing Associations, which are Government sponsored entities.\",\n \"Amsterdam\\n\\nSquat properties are common throughout Amsterdam, due to property law strongly favouring tenants. A number of these squats have become well known, such as OT301, Paradiso, Vrankrijk (closed down by city government), and the Binnenpret, and several are now businesses, such as health clubs and licensed restaurants.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands (; ) is the main constituent country () of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a small, densely populated country located in Western Europe with three island territories in the Caribbean.designated Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba within ISO [http://www.iso.org/iso/newsletter_vi-9_fiji-myanmar_and_other_minor_corrections-incl_bulgaria.pdf ISO 3166-1]. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom and Germany. The largest and most important cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam. Amsterdam is the country's capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of government and parliament. The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe – as large as the next three largest combined – and was the world's largest port between 1962 and 2004. The name Holland is also frequently used to refer informally to the whole of the country of the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\n\\\"Netherlands\\\" literally means \\\"lower countries\\\", influenced by its low land and flat geography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made. Since the late 16th century, large areas (polders) have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, amounting to nearly 17% of the country's current land mass. With a population density of 408 people per km2 – 505 (July 2016) if water is excluded – the Netherlands is a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a larger population and a higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products, after the United States. This is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. The Netherlands was the third country in the world to have an elected parliament, and since 1848 it has been governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, organised as a unitary state. The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and is generally regarded as a liberal country, having legalised abortion, prostitution and euthanasia, while maintaining a progressive drugs policy.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn 2001, it became the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union. The country is host to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and five international courts: the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Court and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency Europol and judicial co-operation agency Eurojust. This has led to the city being dubbed \\\"the world's legal capital\\\". The Netherlands is also a part of the Schengen Area. The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to by the much older designation \\\"Holland\\\" (meaning holt land, or wood land), though this refers only to North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces, formerly a single province and earlier the County of Holland. This originally Frankish county emerged from the dissolved Frisian Kingdom and was, after the decline of Brabant, economically and politically the most important county in the region. Because of this importance and the emphasis on Holland during the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 17th and 18th century, Holland served as a pars pro toto for the entire country in English, and is considered either incorrect, informal, or on occasion opprobrious, depending on the context, but is more acceptable when referring to the national football team.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPlace names with Neder (or lage), Nieder, Nether (or low) and Nedre are in use in various places in countries where a Germanic language is spoken, and has in French and Latin its respective counterparts in Bas or Inferior. They are sometimes used in relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben, Superior or Haut. In the case of the Low Countries the geographical location of the lower region has been more or less downstream and near the sea, the geographical location of the upper region changed over time tremendously. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding Upper region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term les pays de par deçà (~ the lands over here) for the Low Countries as opposed to les pays de par delà (~ the lands over there) for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nUnder Habsburg rule, Les pays de par deçà developed in pays d'embas (lands down-here), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions in Europe. This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents. However, Niderlant was also the region between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as Oberland (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nFrom the mid-sixteenth century on, the Low Countries or the \\\"Netherlands\\\" was – besides Flanders – probably the most commonly used name. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces (Belgica Foederata in Latin, the \\\"Federated Netherlands\\\") and the Southern Netherlands (Belgica Regia, \\\"Royal Netherlands\\\"). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. It is used synonymous with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPrehistory (before 500 BC)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces in the Netherlands were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from 250,000 years ago. After the end of the Ice Age, various Paleolithic groups inhabited the area, and around 8000 BC Mesolithic tribes resided in Friesland and Drenthe, where the oldest canoe in the world was recovered. Autochthonous hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., \\\"[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence\\n1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]\\\", 1998, Spiegel Historiael 33, pp. 423–428 They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game. People made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Agricultural transformation took place very gradually, between 4300 BC and 4000 BC.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe farming Funnelbeaker culture extended from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands, and erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe (built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC). To the southwest, the Vlaardingen culture (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the Neolithic period. Around 2950 BC there was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture., , in J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (Eds), Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. ISBN 90-269-4448-9, NUGI 644 The Bell Beaker culture, also present in the Netherlands, apparently rose out of the Corded Ware culture.Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), \\\"Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin\\\", , in Lanting et al. (Eds) Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCopper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil. The Bronze Age probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects, suggest that it was a trading centre in the Bronze Age. The Bell Beaker cultures (2700–2100 BC) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the Atlantic and Nordic horizons, roughly divided by the course of the Rhine. In the north, the Elp culture (c. 1800 BC to 800 BC) was a Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield (cremation) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Iron Age brought a measure of prosperity. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including bog iron extracted from the ore in peat bogs in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the Veluwe and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. Smiths travelled from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. Some evidence even suggests the making of Damascus steel swords using an advanced method of forging that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel. The King's grave of Oss dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nGermanic groups and Romans (500 BC – 410 AD)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC, that further deteriorated around 650 BC, might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingvaeones (or Istvaeones) inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic , extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was being absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDuring the Gallic Wars, the area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. At first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the border tribes Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69AD, but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Salian Franks were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358), when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Toxandria. After deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared from the northern Netherlands, probably forced to resettle within Roman territory as laeti in c. 296. Coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEarly Middle Ages (411–1000)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAfter Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nTo the north of the Franks, climatic conditions on the coast improved, and during the Migration Period the abandoned land was resettled again, mostly by Saxons, but also by the closely related Angles, Jutes and ancient Frisii. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the closest to English related living language on continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Utrecht as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHowever, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Frankish Carolingian empire modeled itself after the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, as of 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprises territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. When the middle kingdom was partitioned, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and consecutively were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 850, Lothair I acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. Around 879, another Viking raided the Frisian lands, Godfrid, Duke of Frisia. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nResistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that lay the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHigh Middle Ages (1000–1384)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century, but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms, that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and the Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the \\\"Frisian freedom\\\") and resented the imposition of the feudal system.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAround 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Brugge and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAround 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, and made the emergence of the County of Holland as center of power possible. The title of Count of Holland were fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy – who was also Count of Flanders – to conquer Holland.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nBurgundian and Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMost of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nUnder Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. In 1579, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II of Spain as reigning monarch in the northern provinces.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish, and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. The English army under command of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester was of no real benefit to the Dutch rebellion. Philip II, the son of Charles V, was not prepared to let them go easily, and war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch Republic (1581–1795)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAfter declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMany economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. The republic went into a state of general decline in the later 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden, as main political factions.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nBatavian Republic and kingdom (1795–1890)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nWith the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813, when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig. William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium, while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. On the other hand, the colonies in the West Indies (Dutch Guiana and Curaçao and Dependencies), relied heavily on African slaves in which the Dutch part is estimated at 5–7 percent, or more than half a million Africans. The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863. Furthermore, slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition. The Dutch were also one of the last European countries to industrialise, in the second half of the 19th century.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nWorld wars and beyond (1890–present)\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands were able to remain neutral during World War I. In part, because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival, until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps of whom only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. But soon after VE day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new republic of Indonesia.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war the Netherlands left behind also an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighboring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nGovernment-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid ontzuiling (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. On 10 October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as special municipalities upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe European area of the Netherlands lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is geographically a very low and flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMuch of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine (Rijn), the Meuse (Maas) and the Scheldt (Schelde), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their \\\"Great Rivers\\\" (de Grote Rivieren). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nFloods\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOver the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention. Most notable in terms of land loss was the storm of 1134, which created the archipelago of Zeeland in the south-west.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOn 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 km2 Biesbosch tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the \\\"Delta Works\\\", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe impact of disasters was to an extent increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nBecause of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nTo guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called \\\"waterschappen\\\" (\\\"water boards\\\") or \\\"hoogheemraadschappen\\\" (\\\"high home councils\\\") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn 1932 the Afsluitdijk (\\\"Closure Dike\\\") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2500 km2 were reclaimed from the sea.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDelta works\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAfter the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works were constructed, a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. New projects have been periodically started since to renovate and renew the Delta Works. A main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to 1 per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising 3000 km of outer sea-dykes and 10000 km of inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dyke reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIt is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level which, despite popular belief, will possibly not overwhelm the measures the Netherlands has taken to control floods. Even more specifically, the Netherlands is the only country in the world actively preparing for a sea level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of 10 cm. The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defenses like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the sea side, but could also alter rain fall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another program is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called \\\"overflow areas\\\" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nProtecting the country against floods is one element of climate change. The other is that the pressure of the sea water on ground water will increase. As a result, the fresh water table will be pushed more inland, resulting in more brackish or saline groundwater in the coastal provinces. Due to this change, some drinking water areas will be forced to apply desalination despite the apparent abundance of water. It will also affect agriculture. The greenhouses can continue their production by becoming more water efficient (they are already disconnected from the groundwater, thereby not becoming more saline), though they will need to become more energy and water efficient. The push of more brackish water into the mainland will also cause changes in flora and fauna.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe predominant wind direction in the Netherlands is southwest, which causes a moderate maritime climate, with cool summers and mild winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe following tables are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1981 and 2010:\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIce days (maximum temperature below 0 C) usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days (minimum temperature below 0 C) occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be 10 cm above ground instead of 150 cm, one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April, but sometimes occurs in May or October too.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nWarm days (maximum temperature above 20 C) in De Bilt are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in De Bilt, however). Summer days (maximum temperature above 25 C) are usually measured in De Bilt from May until September, tropical days (maximum temperature above 30 C) are rare and usually occur only in June to August.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPrecipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer, when lightning is also much more frequent).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nNature\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of 370 km2. It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde, but also includes mud flats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPhytogeographically, the Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCaribbean islands\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Caribbean Netherlands are designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands form a part of the Lesser Antilles. Within this island group,\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\n* Bonaire is part of the ABC islands within the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.\\n* Saba and Sint Eustatius are part of the SSS islands. They are located east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Although in the English language they are considered part of the Leeward Islands, French, Spanish, Dutch and the English spoken locally consider them part of the Windward Islands. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The highest point is Mount Scenery, 887 m, on Saba. This is the highest point in the country, and is also the highest point of the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2010, The Economist ranked the Netherlands as the 10th most democratic country in the world.\\nThe monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the king (the title queen has no constitutional significance) has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the king and the ministers, the king might have influence beyond the power granted by the constitution.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe executive power is formed by the council of Ministers, the deliberative council of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a primus inter pares, with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party continuously since 1973.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the Lower House, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPolitical culture\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nBoth trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, and Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPolitical parties\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nBecause of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1919, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the social democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the liberals, of which the right wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThese parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian democrats and social democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian democrats and liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal D66.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A \\\"purple\\\" cabinet was formed by VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and ChristianUnion.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOn 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nVVD and PvdA were the big winners of the elections. Since 5 November 2012 they have formed the second Rutte cabinet.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAdministrative divisions\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a Commissioner of the King (Commissaris van de Koning), except for Limburg province where the position is named Governor (Gouverneur). All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), of which there are 390 (2016).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe country is also subdivided into 24 water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every 4 years.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe administrative structure on the 3 BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is different. These islands have the status of openbare lichamen (public bodies) rather than municipalities and as administrative units are generally referred to as special municipalities. They are not part of a province.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDuring and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several UN Security Council Resolutions. Surinam became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and quickly defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal):\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\n* Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army\\n* Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps\\n* Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force\\n* Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Marechaussee (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nGeneral Tom Middendorp is the current Commander of the Netherlands armed forces.\\nAll military specialities except the submarine service and the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps (Korps Mariniers) are open to women. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for women to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (3rd in 2014).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\n, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, UK, United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, and tourism (in 2012 the Netherlands welcomed 11.7 million international tourists). Examples of international companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and car navigation (TomTom).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 10th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force.In April 2016 this was reduced to 6.3%\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 7th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 13th most free market capitalist economy out of 157 surveyed countries.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAmsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the \\\"gulden\\\" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the VOC), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from central and eastern Europe.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOf economic importance is BrabantStad, a partnership between the municipalities of Breda, Eindhoven, Helmond, 's-Hertogenbosch and Tilburg and the province of North Brabant. BrabantStad is the fastest growing economic region in the Netherlands, with Brainport as one of the three national top regions and as a top region in the world. The region lies within the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle (ELAT). The partnership aims to form an urban network and to make North Brabant explicitly known as a leading knowledge region within Europe. With a total of 1.5 million people and 20% of the industrial production in the Netherlands is BrabantStad one of the major economical important, metropolitan regions of the Netherlands. Of all the money that goes to research and development in the Netherlands, one third is spent in Eindhoven. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in technology and ICT.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOf all European patent applications in the field of physics and electronics about eight per cent is from North Brabant. In the extended region, BrabantStad is part of the Eindhoven-Leuven-Aachen Triangle (ELAT). This economic cooperation agreement between three cities in three countries has created one of the most innovative regions in the European Union (measured in terms of money invested in technology and knowledge economy). The economic success of this region is important for the international competitiveness of the Netherlands; Together Amsterdam (airport), Rotterdam (seaport), and Eindhoven (Brainport) form the foundation of the Dutch economy.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fifth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nApart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. Exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). \\\"Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at 6.5 billion euros. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected.\\\"\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAgriculture\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses for the food-processing industry and accounts for 21 percent of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has, at some time in recent history, supplied one quarter of all of the world's exported tomatoes, and trade of one-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport. With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAbout 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 route km is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects virtually all major towns and cities. Trains are frequent, with one or two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles,[http://www.hollandtrade.com/media/features/feature-stories/?bstnum\\n4960 Holland Publications | Newsroom | Holland Trade and Invest] which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the c. 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (31%) than of the Danes (19%) list the bike as their main mode of transport for daily activities. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nRotterdam has the largest port in Europe, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nSchiphol airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the fifth busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAs part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands had an estimated population of 16,785,403 on 30 April 2013. It is the 10th most populous country in Europe and the 63rd most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2013 est), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 83.21 years for newborn girls and 78.93 for boys (2013 est). The country has a migration rate of 1.99 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch are the tallest people in the world, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about 2 cm shorter than those in the north.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the 2006 US Census, more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country. According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.428 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is the 24th most densely populated country in the world, with or – if only the land area is counted (33883 km2) – . When the land area of the provinces only is counted (33718 km2), a number of 500 PD/sqkm was reached in the first half of 2014. The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of 7 million inhabitants and is the 6th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 percent of Dutch population had a spendable income above 40 thousand EUR.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nLanguage\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the Netherlands two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe first of these regional languages is Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch) is recognised. Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Twents in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nRipuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect is not recognised as a regional language of the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEnglish has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations (vmbo), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn higher level secondary schools (havo and vwo), two additional modern foreign languages are mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in vwo one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Spanish, Turkish, Arabic, or Russian. Additionally, schools in the Frisia region teach and have exams in Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in classical Greek and Latin for secondary school (called gymnasium or vwo+).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHistorically, the Netherlands was a predominantly Christian society. From the onset of the Protestant Reformation, the Dutch population became divided into about two-thirds Protestant (mostly Reformed) and one-third Roman Catholic believers.For detailed statistics, see Statistics by the Dutch Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek. This began to change gradually in the 20th centuryThe religious development of the Netherlands in the 20th century, and its three defining censuses: The census of 31 December 1930 recorded various Protestants at 46.3%, Roman Catholics at 36.5% and the remainder at 17.2%. The census of 31 May 1947 recorded various Protestants at 42.3%, Roman Catholics at 38.6% and the remainder at 19.1%. The census of 31 May 1960 recorded various Protestants at 40.7%, Roman Catholics at 40.5% and the remainder at 18.8%. as there has been a steep decline in religious adherence, which continues. There was a strong religious difference between the Roman Catholic south and the Reformed north, remains of which are still in evidence. The Netherlands is currently one of the most secular countries in the world. About 39% of the population is religiously affiliated and in 2010 fewer than 5.6% visited religious services regularly (once or more per month).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn spite of an overall decline in religiosity, a countervailing trend is the religious revival in the Protestant Bible Belt, and the growth of Muslim and Hindu communities.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nReligion in the Netherlands is generally considered a personal matter and is not supposed to be propagated in public. \\nThe Dutch constitution guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament (CDA, ChristianUnion, and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nChristianity is currently the largest religion in the Netherlands, accounting for about one-third of the population. Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian religious grouping with around four million registered adherents (23.7% of the population). The provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and their people still largely consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN) (10.2% of the population), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils. The Dutch Royal Family has historically been Reformed.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIslam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). Muslim numbers increased from the 1960 as a consequence of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia, but mainly migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOther religions account for some 6% of the Dutch people. Hinduism is a minority religion in the Netherlands, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. There are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEducation in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16 when HAVO, VWO or MBO level 2 or higher completed or 18.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nAll children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the 8th grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education (after completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream):\\n* The vmbo has 4 grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the vmbo results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the mbo. ** MBO (\\\"middle-level applied education\\\"). This form of education primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade, or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. * The havo has 5 grades and allows for admission to the hbo. ** HBO (\\\"higher professional education\\\"), are universities of professional education (or applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. A HBO degrees gives access to the university system. * The vwo (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a (research) university.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\n** Universities offer of a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one-, or two year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four-year doctoral degree program. Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHealthcare\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn 2015 the Netherlands has maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been in the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for the sixth year in a row.[http://www.healthpowerhouse.com Health Consumer Powerhouse]\\nThe Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEver since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. But the difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHealth insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:\\n*Zorgverzekeringswet (Zvw), often called \\\"basic insurance\\\", covers common medical care. \\n*Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care. While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If you don't take out insurance, you risk a fine. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHealthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (huisartsen, comparable to General Practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Boston Consulting Group, 'Zorg voor Waarde', 2011\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nHealthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalization, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (\\\"General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs\\\") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nFor all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOther sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nA key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalization and a common risk pool. Funding for all short-term health care is 50% from employers, 45% from the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about 100 € per month (about US$127 in Aug. 2010 and in 2012 €150 or US$196,) with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and deductible a year €220 US$288.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nArt, philosophy and literature\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has had many well-known painters. The 17th century, in which the Dutch Republic was prosperous, was the age of the \\\"Dutch Masters\\\", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondriaan. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphics artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza. All of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn the Dutch Golden Age, literature flourished as well, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard (van het) Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's Diary of a Young Girl was published after she died in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe traditional Dutch architecture is especially valuated in Amsterdam, Delft and Leiden, with 17 and 18th century buildings along the canals. Smaller village architecture with wooden houses is found in Zaandam and Marken. Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch value system and etiquette\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch have a code of etiquette which governs social behaviour and is considered important. Because of the international position of the Netherlands, many books have been written on the subject. Some customs may not be true in all regions and they are never absolute. In addition to those specific to the Dutch, many general points of European etiquette apply to the Dutch as well.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch society is egalitarian, individualistic and modern. The people tend to view themselves as modest, independent and self-reliant. They value ability over dependency. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOstentatious behaviour is to be avoided. Accumulating money is fine, but public spending of large amounts of money is considered something of a vice and associated with being a show-off. A high lifestyle is considered wasteful and suspect with most people. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude; informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call 'openness.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nA well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is \\\"Dealing with the Dutch\\\" from Jacob Vossestein: Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status. As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe majority of the Dutch are irreligious and religion is in the Netherlands generally considered as a very personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nDutch people and ecology\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam where designed respectively at the 4th and the 5th on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nSustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which CO2 emissions have been halved and 40 percent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and CO2 reduction. The Kingdom also encourage Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as \\\"Levenslied\\\", meaning Song of life, to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of couplets and refrains. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesizers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nContemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in either.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCurrent symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz / pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also metalbands like Legion of The Damned,Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, The Charm the Fury, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are populair guests at the biggest metalfestivals in Europe. \\nContemporary local heroes include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, in South Guelderish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and Dutch language duo Nick & Simon.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nEarly 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like \\\"Get Ready for This\\\" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop (Nederhop) also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nSince the 1990s Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) conquered the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Oliver Heldens, Nicky Romero, Martin Garrix, Sander van Doorn and Afrojack; the first three of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam dance event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high profile international artists.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nFilm and television\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nSome Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as Turkish Delight (\\\"Turks Fruit\\\") (1973), Soldier of Orange (\\\"Soldaat van Oranje\\\") (1975), Spetters (1980) and The Fourth Man (\\\"De Vierde Man\\\") (1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like RoboCop and Basic Instinct, and returned with Dutch film Black Book in 2006.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOther well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont (Speed), Anton Corbijn (A Most wanted Man), Dick Maas (De Lift), Fons Rademakers (The Assault), documentary maker Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film Submission.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nInternationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen (X-Men films), Carice van Houten (Game of Thrones), Michiel Huisman (Game of Thrones), Rutger Hauer (Blade Runner), Jeroen Krabbé (The Living Daylights) and Derek de Lint.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and non-commercial broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound, and subtitled. The only exception are shows for children.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nTV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including Big Brother and Deal or No Deal. John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like The Voice and Utopia.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nApproximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOrganisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn international competition Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nMotorcycle racing at the TT Assen Circuit has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nLimburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nOriginally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nColonial heritage\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nFrom the exploitations of the Dutch East India Company in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIn the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch Royal Family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nUniversities such as the Royal Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated Bronbeek Museum, a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nA specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of \\\"The Hidden Force\\\", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book \\\"Max Havelaar\\\", written by Multatuli in 1860.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nThe majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as Indische Nederlanders or as Indo (short for Indo-European).\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nIncluding their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Census Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.\",\n \"Netherlands\\n\\nPractically every town in the Netherlands has a \\\"Toko\\\" (Dutch Indonesian Shop) or an Indonesian restaurant and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the Netherlands.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1592,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2513"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Sicily"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["sicily","sicilia","sicilly","island of sicily","trinacrian","sicily italy","jewel of mediterranean"],"string":"[\n \"sicily\",\n \"sicilia\",\n \"sicilly\",\n \"island of sicily\",\n \"trinacrian\",\n \"sicily italy\",\n \"jewel of mediterranean\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea (pronounced) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning \"inland\" or \"in the middle of land\" (from medius, \"middle\" and terra, \"land\"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, and in the south by Africa. It is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The sea's average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km (500 miles). The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara (connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea), has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 square miles).","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. In addition, Palestine's Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nName","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning \"amid the earth (note: earth in the sense \"soil\", not Planet Earth)\" or \"between land\" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a \"middle, between\" + terra f., \"land, earth\"): as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, \"between\" + γη, \"land, earth\"). It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia (Μεσοποταμία), meaning \"between rivers\".","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example, the Carthaginians called it the \"Syrian Sea\" and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, \"Our Sea\"), and occasionally Mare Internum (Sallust, Jug. 17).","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the \"Great Sea\" (הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל, HaYam HaGadol, Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or simply \"The Sea\" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however, it has also been called the \"Hinder Sea\" (הַיָּם הָאַחֲרוֹן), due to its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as \"Western Sea\", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the \"Sea of the Philistines\" (יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Exod. 23:31), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. The sea is also called the \"Great Sea\" (Middle English: Grete See) in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, meaning the \"Pure White Sea\".","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon (), \"the Middle Sea\", reflecting the Sea's name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin (Mare internum), and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSimilarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as ' (), \"the [White] Middle Sea\", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as ' (), or \"the Romaic/Byzantine Sea.\"","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, \"the White Sea\" since among Turks the white colour (ak) represents the west.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nHistory","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAncient civilisations","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSeveral ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nDue to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTwo of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum (\"Our Sea\").","Mediterranean Sea\n\nDarius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nMiddle Ages and empires","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nEurope was reviving, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nOttoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza. The Battle of Djerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the east had passed through the region, but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed spices and other goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.","Mediterranean Sea\n\n21st century and migrations","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean sea as a \"cemetery\" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there after their boats capsize. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said that Europe's migration policy has \"turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard\", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as \"a burial ground ... where people die\".","Mediterranean Sea\n\nFollowing the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising \"Mare Nostrum\", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nGeography","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the \"Pillars of Hercules\") in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nLarge islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean; Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nExtent","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:","Mediterranean Sea\n\nStretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins:\n*Western Basin:\n**On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).\n**On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily.\n** On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).\n*Eastern Basin:\n**On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin.\n**On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles.\n**On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.\n**On the east: The coasts of Syria and Palestine.","Mediterranean Sea\n\n(It should be noted that the coast referred to as belonging to Palestine in this document dating to 1953 has been within the internationally recognised borders of the country known as Israel since 1948. Of the territories administered by the Palestinian National Authority, only the Gaza Strip has a sea coast.)","Mediterranean Sea\n\nOceanography","Mediterranean Sea\n\nBeing nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nEvaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8%.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nCoastal countries","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:\n*Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.\n*Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.\n*Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.\n*Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSeveral other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus, and the State of Palestine's Gaza Strip.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nMajor cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSubdivisions","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAccording to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):","Mediterranean Sea\n\n*the Strait of Gibraltar;\n*the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;\n*the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands;\n*the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);\n*the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily;\n*the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;\n*the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;\n*the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nOther seas","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAlthough not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:\n*the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea\n*the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,\n*the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,\n*In the Aegean Sea,\n**the Thracian Sea in its north,\n**the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese,\n**the Sea of Crete north of Crete,\n**the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios\n*the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus\n*the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean","Mediterranean Sea\n\nOther features","Mediterranean Sea\n\nMany of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:","Mediterranean Sea\n\n*the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon\n*the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria\n*the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.","Mediterranean Sea\n\n*the Minet el-Beida (\"White Harbour\") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria\n*the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco\n*the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula\n*the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal\n*the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula\n*the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea\n*the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia\n*the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia\n*the Gulf of Lion, south of France\n*the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain\n*the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy\n*the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy\n*the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy\n*the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy\n*the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy\n*the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy\n*the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy\n*the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy\n*the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania\n*the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel\n*the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)\n*the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia\n*the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy\n*the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica\n*the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)\n*the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)\n*the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia\n*the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta\n*the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo","Mediterranean Sea\n\n10 largest islands by area","Mediterranean Sea\n\nClimate","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSea temperature","Mediterranean Sea\n\nGeology","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nScientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46000 km. A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850 thousand km2 (330 thousand mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640 thousand mi2). A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or s, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Central Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of ancient, modern, present and foreseeable history, the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nMessinian salinity crisis","Mediterranean Sea\n\nDuring Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times. During late Miocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called \"Messinian salinity crisis\" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAfter the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view. \n Garcia-Castellanos, D., A. Villaseñor, 2011. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc. Nature, 2011-12-15 [https://docs.google.com/uc?id\n0B_xuyENh5ksFN2MwYWE5YjUtNzNkOS00OGZlLWFkMDYtOWMxYTViYjRiZjc0&exportdownload&hl\nen pdf here] [https://sites.google.com/site/daniggcc/publications Link]","Mediterranean Sea\n\nDesiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The former gateway closed about six (6) mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a \"Tortonian salinity crisis\" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), which occurred well before the MSC and lasted much longer. Both \"crises\" resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which thereby normalised migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their geneses.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nToday, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).","Mediterranean Sea\n\nShift to a \"Mediterranean climate\"","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a \"Mediterranean climate\" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nPaleoclimate","Mediterranean Sea\n\nBecause of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nEcology and biota","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAs a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nEnvironmental history","Mediterranean Sea\n\nFor 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the \"humanisation of the landscape\" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham's work on \"The Nature of Mediterranean Europe\" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a \"Lost Eden\", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the Latifundiums took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times — the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and showing various ancient and modern \"Little Ice Ages\", and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nHumanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it. The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns. The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome' as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents for the then much more important (tourism) travelers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations. Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History, by Alfred Thomas Grove, Oliver Rackham, Yale University Press, 2003, [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn9780300100556 review at Yale university press] [https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth\n0&typesummary&url\n/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_history/v032/32.3fagan.pdfThe Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (review) Brian M.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nFagan, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454-455 |]","Mediterranean Sea\n\nNatural hazards","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others as Mount Etna and Stromboli are to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occur within decades.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nVesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.\nIt is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[http://www.infopuntveiligheid.nl/Infopuntdocumenten/7._Eric_van_der_Horst.pdf Eric van der Horst presentation from 2011 about various EU EUROPEAN CIVIL PROTECTION efforts 2011] The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe. The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to forest fires, followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nBiodiversity","Mediterranean Sea\n\nUnlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nInvasive species","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nInvasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin, introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of \"alien\" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a \"familiar sight\".","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAccording to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are \"Alien Invasive Species\", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, \"introduction\" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore \"introduced\" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nArrival of new tropical Atlantic species","Mediterranean Sea\n\nIn recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the \"lessepsian\" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSea-level rise","Mediterranean Sea\n\nBy 2100, the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to as a result of the effects of climate change. This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:\n*Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water. \n*A 30 cm rise in sea level would flood 200 km2 of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nCoastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm and 100 cm and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05-0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nPollution","Mediterranean Sea\n\nPollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650000000 t of sewage, 129000 t of mineral oil, 60000 t of mercury, 3800 t of lead and 36000 t of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' \nMany marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nShipping","Mediterranean Sea\n\nSome of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100000 t and 150000 t of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nApproximately 370000000 t of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTourism on the Azure","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the safest and most culturally diverse block basin sea regions in the world, renowned formostly for the Majestic Azure colour. With a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures the Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries regardless of the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbour coastal nations. In that regard, authorities around the Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick intercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or natural disaster.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nTourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nOverfishing","Mediterranean Sea\n\nFish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that over 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nThere are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nLarge open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAquaculture","Mediterranean Sea\n\nAquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nMediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning.","Mediterranean Sea\n\nGallery","Mediterranean Sea\n\nFile:Hammametgolf.jpg|Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia\nFile:Plage-de-la-courtade.jpg|The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, France\nFile:Tuaredda beach, Sardinia, Italy.jpg|Sardinia's south coast, Italy\nFile:Malta - Birzebbuga - Triq il-Bajja s-Sabiha + Pretty Bay + Gnien Mons. Guzeppi Minuti 03 ies.jpg|Pretty Bay, Malta\nFile:Piran Stadtpanorama.jpg|Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia\nFile:Cavtat Croatia 2008-10-07.JPG|Panoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia\nFile:Neum02451.JPG|View of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina\nFile:svetistefan1756.JPG|A view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro\nFile:Ksamil Beach.jpg|Ksamil beaches, Albania\nFile:Panagiotis wreck.jpg|Navagio, Greece\nFile:Marmaris TURKEY.JPG|Marmaris, Turquoise Coast, Turkey\nFile:Petra tou romiou beach.jpg|Paphos, Cyprus\nFile:Burjeslam.jpg|Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria\nFile:BeirutRaouche1.jpg|A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon\nFile:P1090840 (5149227688).jpg|View from the city of Haifa, Israel\nFile:Gaza Beach.jpg|Beach on the Gaza Strip, State of Palestine\nFile:Coast of Alexandria, A view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.jpg|Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt\n|A beach in Benghazi, Libya\nFile:ForbysIbizaTown 02.jpg|Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain\nFile:Les Aiguades.jpg|Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria\nFile:EL Jebha1.jpg|El Jebha, a port town in Morocco\nFile:Gibraltar-Europa-Point-LH-from-the-sea.jpg|Europa Point, Gibraltar\nFile:Monaco City 001.jpg|Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nThis is a list of islands in the Mediterranean Sea.","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nBy area","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nBy country","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nAlbania","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Sazan \n* Kunë\n* Ksamil Islands\n* Franz Joseph Island\n* Zvërnec Islands\n* Tongo Island\n* Stil Island","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nCroatia","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Čiovo\n* Brijuni\n** 14 islands\n* Brusnik\n* Cres\n* Drvenik Mali\n* Drvenik Veliki\n* Dugi otok\n* Elaphiti islands\n* Goli otok\n* Hvar\n* Iž\n* Ilovik\n* Ist\n* Kaprije\n* Koločep\n* Korčula\n* Kornati","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n** 152 islands in Kornati archipelago\n* Krapanj\n* Krk\n* Lastovo\n* Lošinj\n* Lokrum\n* Lopud\n* Male Srakane\n* Mljet\n* Molat\n* Murter\n* Olib\n* Pašman\n* Pag\n* Palagruža\n* Plavnik\n* Premuda\n* Prvić\n* Rab\n* Rava\n* Rivanj\n* Sestrunj\n* Silba\n* Skarda\n* Susak\n* Svetac\n* Sveti Andrija\n* Šipan\n* Šolta\n* Ugljan\n* Unije\n* Vele Srakane\n* Vir\n* Vis\n* Vrgada\n* Zlarin\n* Zverinac\n* Žirje\n* Žut","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nFrance","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n*Corsica\n** Lavezzi Island\n*Frioul archipelago\n*Lérins Islands","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nGreece","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Crete\n* Euboea\n* Gavdos\n* Cyclades Islands\n** Amorgos\n** Anafi\n** Andros\n** Antimilos\n** Antiparos\n** Delos\n** Despotiko\n** Donousa\n** Folegandros\n** Gyaros\n** Ios\n** Iraklia\n** Kea (commonly known as Tzia)\n** Keros\n** Kimolos\n** Koufonisi\n** Kythnos\n** Makronisos\n** Milos\n** Mykonos\n** Naxos\n** Paros\n** Polyaigos\n** Rineia\n** Santorini\n** Schinousa\n** Serifos\n** Sifnos\n** Sikinos\n** Syros\n** Thirasia\n** Tinos\n* North Aegean islands\n** Chios\n** Fournoi\n** Ikaria\n** Limnos\n** Lesvos\n** Oinousses\n** Psara\n** Saint Eustratius (Island)\n** Samos\n** Samothraki\n** Thassos\n** Thymaina\n* Saronic Islands\n** Aegina\n** Agistri\n** Dokos\n** Hydra\n** Poros\n** Salamina\n** Spetses\n* Dodecanese Islands\n** Agathonissi\n** Arkoi\n** Armathia\n** Astypalia\n** Farmakonisi\n** Gyali\n** Halki\n** Kalolimnos\n** Kalymnos\n** Karpathos\n** Kassos\n** Kastellorizo\n** Kos\n** Leipsoi\n** Leros\n** Nisyros\n** Patmos\n** Pserimos\n** Rhodes\n** Saria\n** Symi\n** Tilos\n* Sporades Islands\n** Alonissos\n** Gioura\n** Kyra Panagia\n** Peristera\n** Piperi\n** Skantzoura\n** Skiathos\n** Skopelos\n** Skyros\n* Ionian Islands\n** Antikythera\n** Antipaxos\n** Corfu (Kerkyra)\n** Ereikoussa\n** Ithaki\n** Kalamos Island\n** Kastos\n** Kefalonia\n** Kythera\n** Lefkada\n** Meganisi\n** Othonoi\n** Paxoi\n** Petalas\n** Zakynthos","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nItaly","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Campanian Archipelago\n** Capri\n** Ischia\n** Nisida\n** Procida\n** Vivara\n* Pontine Islands\n** Ponza\n** Palmarola\n** Zannone\n** Santo Stefano\n** Gavi\n** Ventotene\n* Sardinia\n** Asinara\n** Sant'Antioco\n** San Pietro\n** La Maddalena\n*** Caprera\n*** Spargi\n*** Budelli\n*** Razzoli\n*** Santa Maria\n*** Santo Stefano\n** Molara\n** Tavolara\n* Sicily\n** Aegadian Islands\n*** Marettimo\n*** Favignana\n*** Levanzo\n** Aeolian Islands\n*** Lipari\n*** Vulcano\n*** Filicudi\n*** Alicudi\n*** Panarea\n*** Salina\n*** Stromboli\n** Pantelleria\n** Pelagie Islands\n*** Lampedusa\n*** Lampione\n*** Linosa\n** Ustica\n* Tremiti Islands\n** Caprara\n** Cretaccio\n** Pianosa (di Tremiti)\n** San Domino\n** San Nicola\n* Tuscan Archipelago\n** Capraia\n** Elba\n** Giannutri\n** Giglio\n** Gorgona\n** Montecristo\n** Pianosa\n* Venetian Lagoon Islands\n** Burano\n** Lido\n** Murano\n** Pellestrina\n** San Lazzaro degli Armeni\n** Sant'Andrea\n** Torcello Lebanon\n*Palm Islands","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nMalta","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Maltese Islands\n** Malta Island\n** Gozo\n** Comino\n** Cominotto\n** Filfla\n** St Paul's Island\n** Manoel Island\n** Fungus Rock","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nMontenegro","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Sveti Nikola Island\n* Sveta Neđelja\n* Katič\n* Sveti Stefan\n* Ada Bojana\n* Stari Ulcinj\nIn Bay of Kotor:\n** Mamula\n** Prevlaka\n** Sveti Marko\n** Island of Our Lady of Mercy\n** Gospa od Škrpjela\n** Sveti Đorđe","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nSpain","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Alboran\n* Balearic Islands\n** Gymnesian Islands\n*** Cabrera\n*** Dragonera\n*** Majorca\n*** Menorca\n** Pine Islands\n*** El Vedrà\n*** Formentera\n*** Ibiza\n*** S'Espalmador\n* Columbretes Islands\n* Islas Chafarinas\n** Isla del Congreso\n** Isla del Rey\n** Isla Isabel II\n* Peñón de Alhucemas\n* Tabarca\n* Medes\n* Formigues","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nSyria","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Arwad","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nTunisia","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Djerba\n* Kerkennah Islands\n** Chergui\n** Gharbi\n* Galite Islands\n* Zembra","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nTurkey","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Turkish islands\n** Turkish Aegean islands (incomplete)\n*** Baba Ada\n*** Bozcaada\n*** Burgazada\n*** Büyükada\n*** Çatalada\n*** Dana Adası\n*** Fener Ada\n*** Gemiler Adası\n*** Gökçeada\n*** Hayırsız Ada\n*** Heybeli Ada\n*** İnce Ada\n*** İncir Ada\n*** Kara Ada\n*** Kargı Adası\n*** Kınalıada\n*** Köçek Adası\n*** Metalik Ada\n*** Orak Ada\n*** Salih Ada\n*** Yalıkavak\n*** Yassı Ada\n*** Yılancık Ada\n*** İkiz Adalar\n*** Pırasa adası\n*** Iç Ada\n** Kiremit islands group\n*** Küçük Tavşan Adası\n*** Çavuş adası\n*** Kucukbu\n** Turkish Mediterranean islands group\n*** Kekova\n*** Sıçan Adası","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nDisputed","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Imia/Kardak (Greece/Turkey)\n* Perejil (Morocco/Spain)","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\nPolitically divided","List of islands in the Mediterranean\n\n* Cyprus\n** Republic of Cyprus\n** Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Sovereign Base Areas of the United Kingdom)\n** Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (A de facto state only recognized by Turkey, separated from the Republic of Cyprus by a UN buffer zone)"],"string":"[\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea (pronounced) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning \\\"inland\\\" or \\\"in the middle of land\\\" (from medius, \\\"middle\\\" and terra, \\\"land\\\"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia, and in the south by Africa. It is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately 4,000 km (2,500 miles). The sea's average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km (500 miles). The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara (connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea), has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km (970,000 square miles).\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Monaco, Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. In addition, Palestine's Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nName\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning \\\"amid the earth (note: earth in the sense \\\"soil\\\", not Planet Earth)\\\" or \\\"between land\\\" (medi-; adj. medius, -um -a \\\"middle, between\\\" + terra f., \\\"land, earth\\\"): as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios (Μεσόγειος), is similarly from μέσο, \\\"between\\\" + γη, \\\"land, earth\\\"). It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia (Μεσοποταμία), meaning \\\"between rivers\\\".\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names. For example, the Carthaginians called it the \\\"Syrian Sea\\\" and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum (Latin, \\\"Our Sea\\\"), and occasionally Mare Internum (Sallust, Jug. 17).\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible, it was primarily known as the \\\"Great Sea\\\" (הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל, HaYam HaGadol, Numbers 34:6,7; Joshua 1:4, 9:1, 15:47; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20), or simply \\\"The Sea\\\" (1 Kings 5:9; comp. 1 Macc. 14:34, 15:11); however, it has also been called the \\\"Hinder Sea\\\" (הַיָּם הָאַחֲרוֹן), due to its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land, and therefore behind a person facing the east, sometimes translated as \\\"Western Sea\\\", (Deut. 11:24; Joel 2:20). Another name was the \\\"Sea of the Philistines\\\" (יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Exod. 23:31), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. The sea is also called the \\\"Great Sea\\\" (Middle English: Grete See) in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, meaning the \\\"Pure White Sea\\\".\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon (), \\\"the Middle Sea\\\", reflecting the Sea's name in ancient Greek (Mesogeios), Latin (Mare internum), and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East (Mediterranean, etc.).\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSimilarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as ' (), \\\"the [White] Middle Sea\\\", while in Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was referenced as ' (), or \\\"the Romaic/Byzantine Sea.\\\"\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, \\\"the White Sea\\\" since among Turks the white colour (ak) represents the west.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAncient civilisations\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSeveral ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of other seafood) for numerous communities throughout the ages.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nDue to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTwo of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians, both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum (\\\"Our Sea\\\").\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nDarius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt, built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nMiddle Ages and empires\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from the eastern half of the Roman empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nEurope was reviving, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nOttoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France, Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza. The Battle of Djerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, all trade from the east had passed through the region, but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed spices and other goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n21st century and migrations\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn 2013, the Maltese president described the Mediterranean sea as a \\\"cemetery\\\" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there after their boats capsize. European Parliament president Martin Schulz said that Europe's migration policy has \\\"turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard\\\", referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies. An Azerbaijani official described the sea as \\\"a burial ground ... where people die\\\".\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nFollowing the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising \\\"Mare Nostrum\\\", a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the \\\"Pillars of Hercules\\\") in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively, in the east. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nLarge islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu, Limnos, Samos, Naxos and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean; Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag, Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean; and Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca (the Balearic Islands) in the Western Mediterranean.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe typical Mediterranean climate has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges, tangerines, and cork.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nExtent\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nStretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa and Asia, and is divided into two deep basins:\\n*Western Basin:\\n**On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel (Africa).\\n**On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci (15°42'E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of Sicily. The north coast of Sicily.\\n** On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (), through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia).\\n*Eastern Basin:\\n**On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin.\\n**On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and Cape Helles, the western entrance to the Dardanelles.\\n**On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal.\\n**On the east: The coasts of Syria and Palestine.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n(It should be noted that the coast referred to as belonging to Palestine in this document dating to 1953 has been within the internationally recognised borders of the country known as Israel since 1948. Of the territories administered by the Palestinian National Authority, only the Gaza Strip has a sea coast.)\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nOceanography\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nBeing nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nEvaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8%.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nCoastal countries\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea:\\n*Northern shore (from west to east): Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Turkey.\\n*Eastern shore (from north to south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel.\\n*Southern shore (from west to east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt.\\n*Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSeveral other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east): The British overseas territory of Gibraltar, the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands, the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus, and the State of Palestine's Gaza Strip.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nMajor cities (municipalities) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are:\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSubdivisions\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAccording to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with their own designation (from west to east):\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n*the Strait of Gibraltar;\\n*the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;\\n*the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands;\\n*the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);\\n*the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily;\\n*the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;\\n*the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;\\n*the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nOther seas\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAlthough not recognised by the IHO treaties, there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:\\n*the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea\\n*the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia,\\n*the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete,\\n*In the Aegean Sea,\\n**the Thracian Sea in its north,\\n**the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese,\\n**the Sea of Crete north of Crete,\\n**the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios\\n*the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus\\n*the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nOther features\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nMany of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations. In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised:\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n*the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon\\n*the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria\\n*the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n*the Minet el-Beida (\\\"White Harbour\\\") bay near ancient Ugarit, Syria\\n*the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco\\n*the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula\\n*the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal\\n*the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula\\n*the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea\\n*the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia\\n*the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia\\n*the Gulf of Lion, south of France\\n*the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain\\n*the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and the toe of Italy\\n*the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy\\n*the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy\\n*the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania\\n*the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel\\n*the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya) and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)\\n*the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia\\n*the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy\\n*the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica\\n*the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana (Turkey)\\n*the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of Antalya (Turkey)\\n*the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia\\n*the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta\\n*the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\n10 largest islands by area\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSea temperature\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nGeology\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nScientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46000 km. A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850 thousand km2 (330 thousand mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640 thousand mi2). A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or s, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Central Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean. Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of ancient, modern, present and foreseeable history, the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nMessinian salinity crisis\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nDuring Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times. During late Miocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called \\\"Messinian salinity crisis\\\" (MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis, at right.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAfter the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view. \\n Garcia-Castellanos, D., A. Villaseñor, 2011. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc. Nature, 2011-12-15 [https://docs.google.com/uc?id\\n0B_xuyENh5ksFN2MwYWE5YjUtNzNkOS00OGZlLWFkMDYtOWMxYTViYjRiZjc0&exportdownload&hl\\nen pdf here] [https://sites.google.com/site/daniggcc/publications Link]\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nDesiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe present-day Atlantic gateway, i.e. the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The former gateway closed about six (6) mya, causing the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times, causing a \\\"Tortonian salinity crisis\\\" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), which occurred well before the MSC and lasted much longer. Both \\\"crises\\\" resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which thereby normalised migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin (during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian age). Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between their geneses.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nToday, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nShift to a \\\"Mediterranean climate\\\"\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests. The shift to a \\\"Mediterranean climate\\\" occurred largely within the last three million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nPaleoclimate\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nBecause of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past geomagnetic reversals. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nEcology and biota\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAs a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis, the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nEnvironmental history\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nFor 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the \\\"humanisation of the landscape\\\" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove and Oliver Rackham's work on \\\"The Nature of Mediterranean Europe\\\" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean Europe as a \\\"Lost Eden\\\", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the Latifundiums took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times — the later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has usually been unstable and showing various ancient and modern \\\"Little Ice Ages\\\", and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nHumanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it. The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns. The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War II, respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome' as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents for the then much more important (tourism) travelers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations. Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History, by Alfred Thomas Grove, Oliver Rackham, Yale University Press, 2003, [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn9780300100556 review at Yale university press] [https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth\\n0&typesummary&url\\n/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_history/v032/32.3fagan.pdfThe Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (review) Brian M.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nFagan, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454-455 |]\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nNatural hazards\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the Atlantis legend. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the European mainland, while others as Mount Etna and Stromboli are to be found on neighbouring islands. The region around Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occur within decades.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nVesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian) eruptions.\\nIt is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[http://www.infopuntveiligheid.nl/Infopuntdocumenten/7._Eric_van_der_Horst.pdf Eric van der Horst presentation from 2011 about various EU EUROPEAN CIVIL PROTECTION efforts 2011] The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe. The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to forest fires, followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nBiodiversity\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nUnlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nInvasive species\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The Red Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal serves as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean invasion.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nInvasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin, introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal as the first pathway of arrival of \\\"alien\\\" species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some lessepsian species have proven to be considerable mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native species and becoming a \\\"familiar sight\\\".\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAccording to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in the Mediterranean sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are \\\"Alien Invasive Species\\\", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD, \\\"introduction\\\" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore \\\"introduced\\\" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nArrival of new tropical Atlantic species\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nIn recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. While not as intense as the \\\"lessepsian\\\" movement, the process may be scientific interest and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSea-level rise\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nBy 2100, the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to as a result of the effects of climate change. This could have adverse effects on populations across the Mediterranean:\\n*Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water. \\n*A 30 cm rise in sea level would flood 200 km2 of the Nile Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nCoastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm and 100 cm and temperature shifts of a mere 0.05-0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species richness and functional diversity.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nPollution\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nPollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment Programme has estimated that 650000000 t of sewage, 129000 t of mineral oil, 60000 t of mercury, 3800 t of lead and 36000 t of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year. The Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.' \\nMany marine species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nShipping\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nSome of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100000 t and 150000 t of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nApproximately 370000000 t of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTourism on the Azure\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThe Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the safest and most culturally diverse block basin sea regions in the world, renowned formostly for the Majestic Azure colour. With a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures the Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTourism is one of the most important sources of income for many Mediterranean countries regardless of the man-made geopolitical conflicts that harbour coastal nations. In that regard, authorities around the Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick intercooperation of various Naval Fleets within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open Oceans, the closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or natural disaster.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nTourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nOverfishing\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nFish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that over 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nThere are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nLarge open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAquaculture\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nAquaculture is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nMediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning.\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nGallery\",\n \"Mediterranean Sea\\n\\nFile:Hammametgolf.jpg|Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia\\nFile:Plage-de-la-courtade.jpg|The beach of la Courtade in the Îles d'Hyères, France\\nFile:Tuaredda beach, Sardinia, Italy.jpg|Sardinia's south coast, Italy\\nFile:Malta - Birzebbuga - Triq il-Bajja s-Sabiha + Pretty Bay + Gnien Mons. Guzeppi Minuti 03 ies.jpg|Pretty Bay, Malta\\nFile:Piran Stadtpanorama.jpg|Panoramic view of Piran, Slovenia\\nFile:Cavtat Croatia 2008-10-07.JPG|Panoramic view of Cavtat, Croatia\\nFile:Neum02451.JPG|View of Neum, Bosnia and Herzegovina\\nFile:svetistefan1756.JPG|A view of Sveti Stefan, Montenegro\\nFile:Ksamil Beach.jpg|Ksamil beaches, Albania\\nFile:Panagiotis wreck.jpg|Navagio, Greece\\nFile:Marmaris TURKEY.JPG|Marmaris, Turquoise Coast, Turkey\\nFile:Petra tou romiou beach.jpg|Paphos, Cyprus\\nFile:Burjeslam.jpg|Burj Islam Beach, Latakia, Syria\\nFile:BeirutRaouche1.jpg|A view of Raouché off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon\\nFile:P1090840 (5149227688).jpg|View from the city of Haifa, Israel\\nFile:Gaza Beach.jpg|Beach on the Gaza Strip, State of Palestine\\nFile:Coast of Alexandria, A view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt.jpg|Coast of Alexandria, view From Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Egypt\\n|A beach in Benghazi, Libya\\nFile:ForbysIbizaTown 02.jpg|Old city of Ibiza Town, Spain\\nFile:Les Aiguades.jpg|Les Aiguades near Béjaïa, Algeria\\nFile:EL Jebha1.jpg|El Jebha, a port town in Morocco\\nFile:Gibraltar-Europa-Point-LH-from-the-sea.jpg|Europa Point, Gibraltar\\nFile:Monaco City 001.jpg|Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nThis is a list of islands in the Mediterranean Sea.\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nBy area\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nBy country\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nAlbania\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Sazan \\n* Kunë\\n* Ksamil Islands\\n* Franz Joseph Island\\n* Zvërnec Islands\\n* Tongo Island\\n* Stil Island\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nCroatia\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Čiovo\\n* Brijuni\\n** 14 islands\\n* Brusnik\\n* Cres\\n* Drvenik Mali\\n* Drvenik Veliki\\n* Dugi otok\\n* Elaphiti islands\\n* Goli otok\\n* Hvar\\n* Iž\\n* Ilovik\\n* Ist\\n* Kaprije\\n* Koločep\\n* Korčula\\n* Kornati\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n** 152 islands in Kornati archipelago\\n* Krapanj\\n* Krk\\n* Lastovo\\n* Lošinj\\n* Lokrum\\n* Lopud\\n* Male Srakane\\n* Mljet\\n* Molat\\n* Murter\\n* Olib\\n* Pašman\\n* Pag\\n* Palagruža\\n* Plavnik\\n* Premuda\\n* Prvić\\n* Rab\\n* Rava\\n* Rivanj\\n* Sestrunj\\n* Silba\\n* Skarda\\n* Susak\\n* Svetac\\n* Sveti Andrija\\n* Šipan\\n* Šolta\\n* Ugljan\\n* Unije\\n* Vele Srakane\\n* Vir\\n* Vis\\n* Vrgada\\n* Zlarin\\n* Zverinac\\n* Žirje\\n* Žut\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nFrance\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n*Corsica\\n** Lavezzi Island\\n*Frioul archipelago\\n*Lérins Islands\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nGreece\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Crete\\n* Euboea\\n* Gavdos\\n* Cyclades Islands\\n** Amorgos\\n** Anafi\\n** Andros\\n** Antimilos\\n** Antiparos\\n** Delos\\n** Despotiko\\n** Donousa\\n** Folegandros\\n** Gyaros\\n** Ios\\n** Iraklia\\n** Kea (commonly known as Tzia)\\n** Keros\\n** Kimolos\\n** Koufonisi\\n** Kythnos\\n** Makronisos\\n** Milos\\n** Mykonos\\n** Naxos\\n** Paros\\n** Polyaigos\\n** Rineia\\n** Santorini\\n** Schinousa\\n** Serifos\\n** Sifnos\\n** Sikinos\\n** Syros\\n** Thirasia\\n** Tinos\\n* North Aegean islands\\n** Chios\\n** Fournoi\\n** Ikaria\\n** Limnos\\n** Lesvos\\n** Oinousses\\n** Psara\\n** Saint Eustratius (Island)\\n** Samos\\n** Samothraki\\n** Thassos\\n** Thymaina\\n* Saronic Islands\\n** Aegina\\n** Agistri\\n** Dokos\\n** Hydra\\n** Poros\\n** Salamina\\n** Spetses\\n* Dodecanese Islands\\n** Agathonissi\\n** Arkoi\\n** Armathia\\n** Astypalia\\n** Farmakonisi\\n** Gyali\\n** Halki\\n** Kalolimnos\\n** Kalymnos\\n** Karpathos\\n** Kassos\\n** Kastellorizo\\n** Kos\\n** Leipsoi\\n** Leros\\n** Nisyros\\n** Patmos\\n** Pserimos\\n** Rhodes\\n** Saria\\n** Symi\\n** Tilos\\n* Sporades Islands\\n** Alonissos\\n** Gioura\\n** Kyra Panagia\\n** Peristera\\n** Piperi\\n** Skantzoura\\n** Skiathos\\n** Skopelos\\n** Skyros\\n* Ionian Islands\\n** Antikythera\\n** Antipaxos\\n** Corfu (Kerkyra)\\n** Ereikoussa\\n** Ithaki\\n** Kalamos Island\\n** Kastos\\n** Kefalonia\\n** Kythera\\n** Lefkada\\n** Meganisi\\n** Othonoi\\n** Paxoi\\n** Petalas\\n** Zakynthos\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nItaly\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Campanian Archipelago\\n** Capri\\n** Ischia\\n** Nisida\\n** Procida\\n** Vivara\\n* Pontine Islands\\n** Ponza\\n** Palmarola\\n** Zannone\\n** Santo Stefano\\n** Gavi\\n** Ventotene\\n* Sardinia\\n** Asinara\\n** Sant'Antioco\\n** San Pietro\\n** La Maddalena\\n*** Caprera\\n*** Spargi\\n*** Budelli\\n*** Razzoli\\n*** Santa Maria\\n*** Santo Stefano\\n** Molara\\n** Tavolara\\n* Sicily\\n** Aegadian Islands\\n*** Marettimo\\n*** Favignana\\n*** Levanzo\\n** Aeolian Islands\\n*** Lipari\\n*** Vulcano\\n*** Filicudi\\n*** Alicudi\\n*** Panarea\\n*** Salina\\n*** Stromboli\\n** Pantelleria\\n** Pelagie Islands\\n*** Lampedusa\\n*** Lampione\\n*** Linosa\\n** Ustica\\n* Tremiti Islands\\n** Caprara\\n** Cretaccio\\n** Pianosa (di Tremiti)\\n** San Domino\\n** San Nicola\\n* Tuscan Archipelago\\n** Capraia\\n** Elba\\n** Giannutri\\n** Giglio\\n** Gorgona\\n** Montecristo\\n** Pianosa\\n* Venetian Lagoon Islands\\n** Burano\\n** Lido\\n** Murano\\n** Pellestrina\\n** San Lazzaro degli Armeni\\n** Sant'Andrea\\n** Torcello Lebanon\\n*Palm Islands\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nMalta\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Maltese Islands\\n** Malta Island\\n** Gozo\\n** Comino\\n** Cominotto\\n** Filfla\\n** St Paul's Island\\n** Manoel Island\\n** Fungus Rock\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nMontenegro\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Sveti Nikola Island\\n* Sveta Neđelja\\n* Katič\\n* Sveti Stefan\\n* Ada Bojana\\n* Stari Ulcinj\\nIn Bay of Kotor:\\n** Mamula\\n** Prevlaka\\n** Sveti Marko\\n** Island of Our Lady of Mercy\\n** Gospa od Škrpjela\\n** Sveti Đorđe\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nSpain\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Alboran\\n* Balearic Islands\\n** Gymnesian Islands\\n*** Cabrera\\n*** Dragonera\\n*** Majorca\\n*** Menorca\\n** Pine Islands\\n*** El Vedrà\\n*** Formentera\\n*** Ibiza\\n*** S'Espalmador\\n* Columbretes Islands\\n* Islas Chafarinas\\n** Isla del Congreso\\n** Isla del Rey\\n** Isla Isabel II\\n* Peñón de Alhucemas\\n* Tabarca\\n* Medes\\n* Formigues\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nSyria\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Arwad\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nTunisia\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Djerba\\n* Kerkennah Islands\\n** Chergui\\n** Gharbi\\n* Galite Islands\\n* Zembra\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nTurkey\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Turkish islands\\n** Turkish Aegean islands (incomplete)\\n*** Baba Ada\\n*** Bozcaada\\n*** Burgazada\\n*** Büyükada\\n*** Çatalada\\n*** Dana Adası\\n*** Fener Ada\\n*** Gemiler Adası\\n*** Gökçeada\\n*** Hayırsız Ada\\n*** Heybeli Ada\\n*** İnce Ada\\n*** İncir Ada\\n*** Kara Ada\\n*** Kargı Adası\\n*** Kınalıada\\n*** Köçek Adası\\n*** Metalik Ada\\n*** Orak Ada\\n*** Salih Ada\\n*** Yalıkavak\\n*** Yassı Ada\\n*** Yılancık Ada\\n*** İkiz Adalar\\n*** Pırasa adası\\n*** Iç Ada\\n** Kiremit islands group\\n*** Küçük Tavşan Adası\\n*** Çavuş adası\\n*** Kucukbu\\n** Turkish Mediterranean islands group\\n*** Kekova\\n*** Sıçan Adası\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nDisputed\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Imia/Kardak (Greece/Turkey)\\n* Perejil (Morocco/Spain)\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\nPolitically divided\",\n \"List of islands in the Mediterranean\\n\\n* Cyprus\\n** Republic of Cyprus\\n** Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Sovereign Base Areas of the United Kingdom)\\n** Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (A de facto state only recognized by Turkey, separated from the Republic of Cyprus by a UN buffer zone)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1593,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2514"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which city was the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Bonn"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["bönnsch beer","bonn district","bundesdorf","bonn","bonn am rhein","schwarzrheindorf vilich rheindorf","bonnsch beer","schwarzrheindorf","bonna","castra bonnensis","bonn germany","un locode debon","boennsch beer","capital of west germany"],"string":"[\n \"bönnsch beer\",\n \"bonn district\",\n \"bundesdorf\",\n \"bonn\",\n \"bonn am rhein\",\n \"schwarzrheindorf vilich rheindorf\",\n \"bonnsch beer\",\n \"schwarzrheindorf\",\n \"bonna\",\n \"castra bonnensis\",\n \"bonn germany\",\n \"un locode debon\",\n \"boennsch beer\",\n \"capital of west germany\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Germany\n\nGermany (; ,), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a sovereign state and federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. Its capital and largest city is Berlin. With about 81.8 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular human migration destination.","Germany\n\nVarious Germanic tribes have occupied the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.The Latin name Sacrum Imperium (Holy Empire) is documented as far back as 1157. The Latin name Sacrum Romanum Imperium (Holy Roman Empire) was first documented in 1254. The full name \"Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation\" (Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation) dates back to the 15th century. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation.","Germany\n\nIn 1871 most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic. The establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and systematic genocide. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded: the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. In 1990, the country was reunified.","Germany\n\nIn the 21st century, Germany is a great power and has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society. It upholds a social security and universal health care system, environmental protection and a tuition-free university education.","Germany\n\nGermany was a founding member of the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. Known for its rich cultural history, Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists, philosophers, musicians, sportspeople, entrepreneurs, scientists and inventors.","Germany\n\nEtymology","Germany\n\nThe English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. The German term Deutschland, originally diutisciu land (\"the German lands\") is derived from deutsch (cf. dutch), descended from Old High German diutisc \"popular\" (i.e. belonging to the diot or diota \"people\"), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz \"popular\" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- \"people\".","Germany\n\nHistory","Germany\n\nThe discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen where three 380,000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed. The Neander Valley was the location where the first ever non-modern human fossil was discovered; the new species of human was called the Neanderthal. The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40,000 years old. Evidence of modern humans, similarly dated, has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm. The finds include 42,000-year-old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found, the 40,000-year-old Ice Age Lion Man which is the oldest uncontested figurative art ever discovered, and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels which is the oldest uncontested human figurative art ever discovered. The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artifact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt. It is part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.","Germany\n\nGermanic tribes and Frankish Empire","Germany\n\nThe Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe. Under Augustus, Rome began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In 9 AD, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, Baden Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hessen and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.","Germany\n\nIn the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands. After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced or absorbed smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia, Neustria, and Aquitaine were conquered by the Franks who established the Frankish Kingdom, and pushed further east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria. Areas of what is today the eastern part of Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes of Sorbs, Veleti and the Obotritic confederation.","Germany\n\nEast Francia and Holy Roman Empire","Germany\n\nIn 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor and founded the Carolingian Empire, which was later divided in 843 among his heirs. Following the break up of the Frankish Realm, for 900 years, the history of Germany was intertwined with the history of the Holy Roman Empire, which subsequently emerged from the eastern portion of Charlemagne's original empire. The territory initially known as East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe River in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.","Germany\n\nThe Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies and the German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. In 996 Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.","Germany\n\nIn the 12th century, under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs; they encouraged German settlement in these areas, called the eastern settlement movement (Ostsiedlung). Members of the Hanseatic League, which included mostly north German cities and towns, prospered in the expansion of trade. In the south, the Greater Ravensburg Trade Corporation (Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft) served a similar function. The edict of the Golden Bull issued in 1356 by Emperor Charles IV provided the basic constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.","Germany\n\nPopulation declined in the first half of the 14th century, starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–50. Despite the decline, however, German artists, engineers, and scientists developed a wide array of techniques similar to those used by the Italian artists and designers of the time who flourished in such merchant city-states as Venice, Florence and Genoa. Artistic and cultural centers throughout the German states produced such artists as the Augsburg painters Hans Holbein and his son, and Albrecht Dürer. Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, a development that laid the basis for the spread of learning to the masses.","Germany\n\nIn 1517, the Wittenberg monk Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as an acceptable alternative to Catholicism, but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects, a principle called Cuius regio, eius religio. The agreement at Augsburg failed to address other religious creed: for example, the Reformed faith was still considered a heresy and the principle did not address the possible conversion of an ecclesiastic ruler, such as happened in Electorate of Cologne in 1583. From the Cologne War until the end of the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands. The latter reduced the overall population of the German states by about 30 percent, and in some places, up to 80 percent. The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the German states. German rulers were able to choose either Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism or the Reformed faith as their official religion after 1648.","Germany\n\nIn the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 territories. The elaborate legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1450–1555) created the Imperial Estates and provided for considerable local autonomy among ecclesiastical, secular, and hereditary states, reflected in Imperial Diet. The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740. Having no male heirs, he had convinced the Electors to retain Habsburg hegemony in the office of the emperor by agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction. This was finally settled through the War of Austrian Succession; in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Maria Theresa's husband became Holy Roman Emperor, and she ruled the Empire as Empress Consort. From 1740, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated the German states in the 18th century. As a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars, and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the secular Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularized and annexed. In 1806 the Imperium was dissolved; German states, particularly the Rhineland states, fell under the influence of France.","Germany\n\nUntil 1815, France, Russia, Prussia and the Habsburgs competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.","Germany\n\nGerman Confederation and Empire","Germany\n\nFollowing the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (convened in 1814) founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president of the Confederation reflected the Congress's failure to accept Prussia's influence among the German states, and acerbated the long-standing competition between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg interests. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states. National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. The Hambach Festival in May 1832 was a main event in support of German unity, freedom and democracy. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.","Germany\n\nKing William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded war on Denmark in 1864, which promoted German over Danish interests in the Jutland peninsula. The subsequent (and decisive) Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) which excluded Austria from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria. Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.","Germany\n\nIn the period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed. This resulted in creation of a dual alliance with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary, promoting at least benevolent neutrality if not outright military support. Subsequently, the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy, completing a Central European geographic alliance that illustrated German, Austrian and Italian fears of incursions against them by France and/or Russia. Similarly, Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances that would protect them against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France.","Germany\n\nAt the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon. Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include German New Guinea, German Micronesia and German Samoa in the Pacific. In what became known as the \"First Genocide of the Twentieth-Century\", between 1904 and 1907, the German colonial government in South-West Africa (present-day Namibia) ordered the annihilation of the local Heroro and Namaqua peoples, as a punitive measure for an uprising against German colonial rule. In total, around 100,000 people—80% of the Herero and 50% of the Namaqua—perished form imprisonment in concentration camps, where the majority died of disease, abuse, and exhaustion, or from dehydration and starvation in the countryside after being deprived of food and water.","Germany\n\nThe assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for the Austrian Empire to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed, a general armistice ended the fighting on 11 November, and German troops returned home. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated their positions and responsibilities. Germany's new political leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. In this treaty, Germany, as part of the Central Powers, accepted defeat by the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating and unjust and it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler. After the defeat in the First World War, Germany lost around thirteen percent of its European territory (areas predominantly inhabited by ethnic Polish, French and Danish populations, which were lost following the Greater Poland Uprising, the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and the Schleswig plebiscites), and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea.","Germany\n\nWeimar Republic and Nazi Germany","Germany\n\nGermany was declared a republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918. On 11 August 1919 President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution. In the subsequent struggle for power, the radical-left Communists seized power in Bavaria, but conservative elements in other parts of Germany attempted to overthrow the Republic in the Kapp Putsch. It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr (military) and other conservative, nationalistic and monarchist factions. After a tumultuous period of bloody street fighting in the major industrial centers, the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and the rise of inflation culminating in the hyperinflation of 1922–23, a debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of increasing artistic innovation and liberal cultural life. Underneath it all, though, lay a current of animosity and frustration over the Treaty of Versailles, widely perceived as a stab in the back, which provided the basis of much of the anti-Semetism rife in the next two decades. The economic situation remained volatile. Historians describe the period between 1924 and 1929 as one of \"partial stabilization.\" The world-wide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929.","Germany\n\nAfter the federal election of 1930, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's government was enabled by President Paul von Hindenburg to act without parliamentary approval. Brüning's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused high unemployment of nearly 30% by 1932.","Germany\n\nThe Nazi Party won the special federal election of 1932. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights and within weeks the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau opened. The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power; subsequently, his government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations following a national referendum, and began military rearmament.","Germany\n\nUsing deficit spending, a government-sponsored program for economic renewal focused on public works projects. In public work projects of 1934, 1.7 million Germans immediately were put to work, which gave them an income and social benefits. The most famous of the projects was the high speed roadway, the Reichsautobahn, known as the German autobahns. Other capital construction projects included such hydroelectric facilities as the Rur Dam, such water supplies as Zillierbach Dam, and such transportation hubs as Zwickau Hauptbahnhof. Over the next five years, unemployment plummeted and average wages both per hour and per week rose.","Germany\n\nIn 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saar in 1935, annexed Austria in 1938, and occupied Czechoslovakia in early 1939.","Germany\n\nIn August 1939, Hitler's government signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact with Stalin that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Following the agreement, on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. In response to Hitler's actions, Britain and France declared war on Germany. In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France forcing the French government to sign an armistice after German troops occupied most of the country. The British repelled German air attacks in the same year. In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. By 1942, Germany and other Axis powers controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet Union's victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the allies' reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats. In June 1944, the Western allies landed in France and the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe. By late 1944, the Western allies had entered Germany despite one final German counter offensive in the Ardennes Forest.","Germany\n\nFollowing Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, German armed forces surrendered on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe.","Germany\n\nIn what later became known as The Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities and used a network of concentration and death camps across Europe to conduct a genocide of what they considered to be inferior races. In total, over 10 million civilians were systematically murdered, including 6 million Jews, between 220,000 and 1,500,000 Romani, 275,000 persons with disabilities, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of members of the political and religious opposition. Nazi policies in the German occupied countries resulted in the deaths of 2.7 million Poles, 1.3 million Ukrainians, and an estimated 2.8 million Soviet war prisoners. German military war casualties were estimated at between 3.2 million and 5.3 million soldiers, and up to 2 million German civilians. German territorial losses resulted in the expulsion of circa 12 million of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Germany ceded roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory. Strategic bombing and land warfare destroyed many cities and cultural heritage sites. After World War II, former members of the Nazi regime were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.","Germany\n\nEast and West Germany","Germany\n\nAfter Germany surrendered, the Allies partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik). They were informally known as \"West Germany\" and \"East Germany\". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.","Germany\n\nWest Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a \"social market economy\". Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the Marshall Plan and used this to rebuild its industry. Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) of Germany in 1949 and remained in office until 1963. Under his and Ludwig Erhard's leadership, the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s, that became known as an \"economic miracle\" (Wirtschaftswunder). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957.","Germany\n\nEast Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service controlling many aspects of the society. A Soviet-style command economy was set up and the GDR later became a Comecon state.\"Germany (East)\", Library of Congress Country Study, [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/germany_east/gx_appnb.html Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War. It was the site of Ronald Reagan's \"Mr. Gorbachov, Tear down this wall!\" speech of 12 June 1987, which echoed John F. Kennedy's famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech of 26 June 1963.","Germany\n\nThe fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, German Reunification and Die Wende.","Germany\n\nTensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's . In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.","Germany\n\nReunified Germany and EU","Germany\n\nThe united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in international organizations. Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted in 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries. The relocation of the government was completed in 1999. Following the 1998 elections, SPD politician Gerhard Schröder became the first Chancellor of a red–green coalition with the Alliance '90/The Greens party.","Germany\n\nThe modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.","Germany\n\nSince reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union. Together with its European partners Germany signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, established the Eurozone in 1999, and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban. These deployments were controversial since Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.","Germany\n\nIn the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition. In 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn.","Germany\n\nIn 2009, a liberal-conservative coalition under Merkel assumed leadership of the country. In 2013, a grand coalition was established in a Third Merkel cabinet. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition (Energiewende) for a sustainable energy supply, the \"Debt Brake\" for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate significantly (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the future transition of the German economy, summarized as Industry 4.0.","Germany\n\nGermany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for most migrants entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density.","Germany\n\nGeography","Germany\n\nGermany is in Western and Central Europe, with Denmark bordering to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, Switzerland to the south-southwest, France, Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west, and the Netherlands to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N and longitudes 5° and 16° E. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. With Switzerland and Austria, Germany also shares a border on the fresh-water Lake Constance, the third largest lake in Central Europe. German territory covers 357021 km2, consisting of 349223 km2 of land and 7798 km2 of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.","Germany\n\nElevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2962 m) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany's alpine glaciers are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.","Germany\n\nClimate","Germany\n\nMost of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of 789 mm of precipitation per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are mild and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed 30 °C.","Germany\n\nThe east has a more continental climate: winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and longer dry periods can occur. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, with lower temperatures and more precipitation.","Germany\n\nBiodiversity","Germany\n\nThe territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine. the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.","Germany\n\nPlants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one-third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver. The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.","Germany\n\nThe 14 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. In addition, there are 14 Biosphere Reserves, as well as 98 nature parks. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country. The Berlin Zoo, opened in 1844, is the oldest zoo in Germany, and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.","Germany\n\nUrbanization","Germany\n\nGermany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions in Germany. 34 cities have been identified as regiopolis. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million ), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Bonn, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.","Germany\n\nPolitics","Germany\n\nGermany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.","Germany\n\nThe president, Joachim Gauck (18 March 2012–present), is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.","Germany\n\nThe chancellor, Angela Merkel (22 November 2005–present), is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member). The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.","Germany\n\nSince 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (in parliament from 1949 to 2013) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.","Germany\n\nThe debt-to-GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80.3% and decreased since then. According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Germany amounts to €2,152.0 billion or 71.9% of its GDP in 2015. The federal government achieved a budget surplus of €12.1 billion ($13.1 billion) in 2015. Germany's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating AAA with a stable outlook in 2016.","Germany\n\nLaw","Germany\n\nGermany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court.","Germany\n\nCriminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public. Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (') sit side by side with professional judges. Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states.","Germany\n\nConstituent states","Germany\n\nGermany comprises sixteen federal states which are collectively referred to as Bundesländer. Each state has its own state constitution and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Because of differences in size and population the subdivisions of these states vary, especially as between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). Germany is divided into 402 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts.","Germany\n\nForeign relations","Germany\n\nGermany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries. it is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%) and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%). Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighboring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.","Germany\n\nThe development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. It is the world's third biggest aid donor in 2009 after the United States and France.","Germany\n\nIn 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since 1945. The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies. Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.","Germany\n\nMilitary","Germany\n\nGermany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organised into Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. In 2015, military spending was at €32.9 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.","Germany\n\nthe Bundeswehr employed roughly 178,000 service members, including 9,500 volunteers. Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad. Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction. About 19,000 female soldiers are on active duty. According to SIPRI, Germany was the fourth largest exporter of major arms in the world in 2014.","Germany\n\nIn peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.","Germany\n\nThe role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term \"defense\" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. , the German military has about 2,370 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 850 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 670 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 120 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.","Germany\n\nUntil 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. In 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.","Germany\n\nEconomy","Germany\n\nGermany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It is the world's third largest exporter of goods, and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world's fourth largest by nominal GDP[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2195.html Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate)] and the fifth one by PPP.[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html Field listing – GDP (PPP exchange rate)]","Germany\n\nThe service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP (including information technology), industry 28%, and agriculture 1%. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 4.7% in January 2015, which is the lowest rate of all 28 EU member states. With 7.1% Germany also has the lowest youth unemployment rate of all EU member states. According to the OECD Germany has one of the highest labour productivity levels in the world.","Germany\n\nGermany is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002. It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 338 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt, the financial centre of continental Europe.","Germany\n\nBeing home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world, and is the fourth largest by production. The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.","Germany\n\nCompanies","Germany\n\nOf the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2014, the Fortune Global 500, 28 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, and DHL.","Germany\n\nGermany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions. Berlin developed a thriving, cosmopolitan hub for startup companies and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.","Germany\n\nThe list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2014:","Germany\n\nTransport","Germany\n\nWith its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent. Like its neighbours in Western Europe, Germany's road network is among the densest in the world. The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third-largest worldwide in length and is known for its lack of a general speed limit.","Germany\n\nGermany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km/h (186 mph). The German railways are subsidised by the government, receiving €17.0 billion in 2014.","Germany\n\nThe largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle. The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world.","Germany\n\nEnergy and infrastructure","Germany\n\n, Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation. The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU . The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.","Germany\n\nScience and technology","Germany\n\nGermany's achievements in the sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 104 German laureates. In the beginning of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).","Germany\n\nNotable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Albert Einstein introduced the relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays. Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein.","Germany\n\nGermany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, including Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer. Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. German institutions like the German Aerospace Center (DLR) are the largest contributor to ESA. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.","Germany\n\nResearch institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Wendelstein 7-X in Greifswald hosts a facility in the research of fusion power for instance. The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.","Germany\n\nTourism","Germany\n\nGermany is the seventh most visited country in the world, with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012. This number includes 68.83 million nights by foreign visitors. In 2012, over 30.4 million international tourists arrived in Germany. Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe. Additionally, more than 30% of Germans spend their holiday in their own country, with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry contributes 4.5% of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs (4.8% of total employment).","Germany\n\nGermany is well known for its diverse tourist routes, such as the Romantic Road, the Wine Route, the Castle Road, and the Avenue Road. The German Timber-Frame Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) connects towns with examples of these structures. There are 40 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Germany, including the old town cores of Regensburg, Bamberg, Lübeck, Quedlinburg, Weimar, Stralsund and Wismar. Germany's most-visited landmarks include i. e. Neuschwanstein Castle, Cologne Cathedral, Berlin Bundestag, Hofbräuhaus Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Dresden Zwinger, Fernsehturm Berlin and Aachen Cathedral. The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second most popular theme park resort.","Germany\n\nDemographics","Germany\n\nWith a population of 80.2 million according to the 2011 census, rising to 81.5 million as at 30 June 2015 and to at least 81.9 million as at 31 December 2015, Germany is the most populous country in the European Union, the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and ranks as the 16th most populous country in the world. Its population density stands at 227 inhabitants per square kilometre (588 per square mile). The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 80.19 years (77.93 years for males and 82.58 years for females). The fertility rate of 1.41 children born per woman (2011 estimates), or 8.33 births per 1000 inhabitants, is one of the lowest in the world. Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has exceeded its birth rate. However, Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s, particularly a rise in the number of well-educated migrants.","Germany\n\nFour sizable groups of people are referred to as \"national minorities\" because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries. There is a Danish minority (about 50,000) in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein. The Sorbs, a Slavic population of about 60,000, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg. The Roma and Sinti live throughout the whole federal territory and the Frisians live on Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.","Germany\n\nApproximately 5 million Germans live abroad.","Germany\n\nImmigrant population","Germany\n\nIn 2014, about seven million of Germany's 81 million residents did not have German citizenship. Ninety-six percent of these people lived in western Germany and mostly in urban areas.","Germany\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s, the German governments invited \"guest workers\" (Gastarbeiter) to migrate to Germany for work in the German industries. Many companies preferred to keep these workers employed in Germany after they had trained them and Germany's immigrant population has steadily increased. , about six million foreign citizens (7.7% of the population) were registered in Germany.","Germany\n\nThe Federal Statistical Office classifies the citizens by immigrant background. Regarding immigrant background, 20% of the country's residents, or more than 16 million people, were of immigrant or partially immigrant descent in 2009 (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates). In 2010, 29% of families with children under 18 had at least one parent with immigrant roots.","Germany\n\nIn 2015, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants. Germany ranks 7th amongst EU countries and 37th globally in terms of the percentage of migrants who made up part of the country's population. , the largest national group was from Turkey (2,859,000), followed by Poland (1,617,000), Russia (1,188,000), and Italy (764,000). Since 1987, around 3 million ethnic Germans, mostly from the former Eastern Bloc countries, have exercised their right of return and emigrated to Germany.","Germany\n\nReligion","Germany\n\nSince its foundation in 1871, Germany has been about two-thirds Protestant and one-third Roman Catholic, with a notable Jewish minority. Other faiths were also present, but to a much lesser degree. The religious makeup changed gradually in the decades following 1945, with West Germany becoming more religiously diversified through immigration and East Germany becoming overwhelmingly irreligious through state policies. It continues to diversify after the German reunification in 1990.","Germany\n\nAccording to the 2011 German Census, Christianity is the largest religion in Germany, claiming 66.8% of the total population. Relative to the whole population, 31.7% declared themselves as Protestants, including members of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) (30.8%) and the free churches () (0.9%), and 31.2% declared themselves as Roman Catholics. Orthodox believers constituted 1.3%, while Jews–0.1%. Other religions accounted for 2.7%. In 2014, the Catholic Church accounted for 23.9 million members (29.5% of the population)[http://www.dbk.de/fileadmin/redaktion/Zahlen%20und%20Fakten/Kirchliche%20Statistik/Bevoelkerung%20und%20Katholiken%20BL/2014-Tabelle-Bevoelkerung-Katholiken-Laender.pdf Official membership statistics of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany 2014/15], retrieved 20. June 2016 and the Evangelical Church for 22.6 million (27.9% of the population).[http://www.ekd.de/download/kirchenmitglieder_2014.pdf Official membership statistics of the Evangelical Church in Germany 2014], retrieved 05. June 2016 Both large churches have lost significant number of adherents in recent years.","Germany\n\nGeographically, Protestantism is concentrated in the northern, central and eastern parts of the country. These are mostly members of the EKD, which encompasses Lutheran, Reformed and unions of both traditions dating back to the Prussian Union of 1817. Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west.","Germany\n\nIn 2011, 33% of Germans were not members of officially recognised religious associations with special status. Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas.","Germany\n\nIslam is the second largest religion in the country. In the 2011 census, 1.9% of Germans declared themselves to be Muslims. More recent estimation suppose, there are between 2.1 and 4 million Muslims living in Germany. Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations.","Germany\n\nOther religions comprising less than one percent of Germany's population are Buddhism with 250,000 adherents (roughly 0.3%) and Hinduism with some 100,000 adherents (0.1%). All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 adherents each.","Germany\n\nLanguages","Germany\n\nGerman is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany. It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission. German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.","Germany\n\nRecognized native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Kurdish, Polish, the Balkan languages, and Russian. Germans are typically multilingual: 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two.","Germany\n\nStandard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside Low German, Dutch, Frisian and English languages. To a lesser extent, it is also related to the East Germanic (extinct) and North Germanic languages. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek, with a smaller amount from French and most recently English (known as Denglisch). German is written using the Latin alphabet. German dialects, traditional local varieties traced back to the Germanic tribes, are distinguished from varieties of standard German by their lexicon, phonology, and syntax.","Germany\n\nEducation","Germany\n\nResponsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual federal states. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four to six years. Secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the Realschule for intermediate students lasts six years and the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education. The Gesamtschule unifies all secondary education.","Germany\n\nA system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree. It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school. This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.","Germany\n\nMost of the German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment. The general requirement for university is the Abitur. However, there are a number of exceptions, depending on the state, the college and the subject. Tuition free academic education is open to international students and is increasingly common. \nAccording to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study.","Germany\n\nGermany has a long tradition of higher education reflecting the global status as a modern economy. The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386) being the oldest. It is followed by the Leipzig University (1409), the Rostock University (1419) and the Greifswald University (1456). The University of Berlin, founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, became the academic model for many European and Western universities. In the contemporary era Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence: Humboldt University Berlin, the University of Bremen, the University of Cologne, TU Dresden, the University of Tübingen, RWTH Aachen, FU Berlin, Heidelberg University, the University of Konstanz, LMU Munich, and the Technical University of Munich.","Germany\n\nHealth","Germany\n\nGermany's system of hospices, called spitals, dates from medieval times, and today, Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s, Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system. Currently the population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract. According to the World Health Organization, Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded . In 2005, Germany spent 11% of its GDP on health care. Germany ranked 20th in the world in life expectancy with 77 years for men and 82 years for women, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).","Germany\n\n, the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 41%, followed by malignant tumours, at 26%. \n, about 82,000 Germans had been infected with HIV/AIDS and 26,000 had died from the disease (cumulatively, since 1982).This article may incorporate text from this source, which is in the public domain.\nAccording to a 2005 survey, 27% of German adults are smokers. Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue. A 2007 study shows Germany has the highest number of overweight people in Europe.","Germany\n\nCulture","Germany\n\nCulture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular. Historically Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und Denker (\"the land of poets and thinkers\"), because of the major role its writers and philosophers have played in the development of Western thought.","Germany\n\nGermany is well known for such folk festival traditions as Oktoberfest and Christmas customs, which include Advent wreaths, Christmas pageants, Christmas trees, Stollen cakes, and other practices. UNESCO inscribed 40 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List. There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the Tag der Deutschen Einheit (German Unity Day).","Germany\n\nIn the 21st century Berlin has emerged as a major international creative center. According to the Anholt–GfK Nation Brands Index, in 2014 Germany was the world's most respected nation among 50 countries (ahead of US, UK, and France). A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.","Germany\n\nMusic","Germany\n\nGerman classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers. Dieterich Buxtehude composed oratorios for organ, which influenced the later work of Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel; these men were influential composers of the Baroque period. During his tenure as violinist and teacher at the Salzburg cathedral, Augsburg-born composer Leopold Mozart mentored one of the most noted musicians of all time: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn were important in the early Romantic period. Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms composed in the Romantic idiom. Richard Wagner was known for his operas. Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Zimmer are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries.","Germany\n\nGermany is the second largest music market in Europe, and fourth largest in the world. German popular music of the 20th and 21st century includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle, pop, Ostrock, heavy metal/rock, punk, pop rock, indie and schlager pop. German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre. DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known (e.g. Robin Schulz, Paul van Dyk, Paul Kalkbrenner, and Scooter).","Germany\n\nArt","Germany\n\nGerman painters have influenced western art. Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance, Peter Paul Rubens and Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque, Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism, Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism.Marzona, Daniel. (2005) Conceptual Art. Cologne: Taschen. Various pages Such German sculptors as Otto Schmidt-Hofer, Franz Iffland, and Julius Schmidt-Felling made important contributions to German art history in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.","Germany\n\nSeveral German art groups formed in the 20th century, such as the November Group or Die Brücke (The Bridge) and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), by the Russian-born Wassily Kandinsky, influenced the development of Expressionism in Munich and Berlin. The New Objectivity arose as a counter-style to it during the Weimar Republic. Post-World War II art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Neo-expressionism, performance art and Conceptualism. Especially notable neo-expressionists include Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg Immendorff, A. R. Penck, Markus Lüpertz, Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting. Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger, Gerhard Richter, Sigmar Polke, and Neo Rauch. Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hanne Darboven, Hans-Peter Feldmann, Hans Haacke, Joseph Beuys, HA Schult, Aris Kalaizis, Neo Rauch (New Leipzig School) and Andreas Gursky (photography). Major art exhibitions and festivals in Germany are the documenta, the Berlin Biennale, transmediale and Art Cologne.","Germany\n\nArchitecture","Germany\n\nArchitectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque. Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany. Also in Renaissance and Baroque art, regional and typically German elements evolved (e.g. Weser Renaissance and Dresden Baroque). Among many renowned Baroque masters were Pöppelmann, Balthasar Neumann, Knobelsdorff and the Asam brothers. The Wessobrunner School exerted a decisive influence on, and at times even dominated, the art of stucco in southern Germany in the 18th century. The Upper Swabian Baroque Route offers a baroque-themed tourist route that highlights the contributions of such artists and craftsmen as the sculptor and plasterer Johann Michael Feuchtmayer, one of the foremost members of the Feuchtmayer family and the brothers Johann Baptist Zimmermann and Dominikus Zimmermann. Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing (Fachwerk) traditions and varies across regions, and among carpentry styles.Wilhelm Süvern: 1971. Torbögen und Inschriften lippischer Fachwerkhäuser in Volume 7 of Heimatland Lippe. Lippe Heimatbund: 1971. 48 pagesHeinrich Stiewe: 2007. Fachwerkhäuser in Deutschland: Konstruktion, Gestalt und Nutzung vom Mittelalter bis heute. Primus Verlag: 2007. ISBN 978-3-89678-589-3. 160 pages","Germany\n\nWhen industrialisation spread across Europe, Classicism and a distinctive style of historism developed in Germany, sometimes referred to as Gründerzeit style, due to the economical boom years at the end of the 19th century. Regional historicist styles include the Hanover School, Nuremberg Style and Dresden's Semper-Nicolai School. Among the most famous of German buildings, the Schloss Neuschwanstein represents Romanesque Revival. Notable sub-styles that evolved since the 18th century are the German spa and seaside resort architecture. German artists, writers and gallerists like Siegfried Bing, Georg Hirth and Bruno Möhring also contributed to the development of Art Nouveau at the turn of the 20th century, known as Jugendstil in German.","Germany\n\nExpressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles, with e.g. Fritz Höger, Erich Mendelsohn, Dominikus Böhm and Fritz Schumacher being influential architects. Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement: it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius (New Objectivity), and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius. Consequently, Germany is often considered the cradle of modern architecture and design. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived of the glass façade skyscraper. Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Hans Kollhoff, Sergei Tchoban, KK Architekten, Helmut Jahn, Behnisch, GMP, Ole Scheeren, J. Mayer H., OM Ungers, Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto (the last two being Pritzker Prize winners).","Germany\n\nLiterature and philosophy","Germany\n\nGerman literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level. The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language, grounding their work in historical principles; their Deutsches Wörterbuch, or German Dictionary, sometimes called the Grimm dictionary, was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854.History of the Deutsches Wörterbuch from the [http://150-grimm.bbaw.de/start.htm DWB 150th Anniversary Exhibition and Symposium], Berlin: Humboldt-Universität, 2004. , retrieved 27 June 2012.","Germany\n\nInfluential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass. The German book market is the third largest in the world, after the United States and China. The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years, also the Leipzig Book Fair retains a major position in Europe.","Germany\n\nGerman philosophy is historically significant: Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; the development of the Frankfurt school by Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas have been particularly influential; and Oswald Spengler's historical philosophy, including his book The Decline of the West, in which he predicts the fall of the western European civilization and describes the Germanic culture as Faustian.","Germany\n\nMedia","Germany\n\nThe largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are the Bertelsmann enterprise, Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media. The German Press Agency DPA is also significant. Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 38 million TV households. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels. There are more than 500 public and private radio stations in Germany, with the public Deutsche Welle being the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages. Germany's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio while ARD stations are covering local services.","Germany\n\nMany of Europe's best-selling newspapers and magazines are produced in Germany. The papers (and internet portals) with the highest circulation are Bild (a tabloid), Die Zeit, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt, the largest magazines include Der Spiegel, Stern and Focus.","Germany\n\nThe German video gaming market is one of the largest in the world. The Gamescom in Cologne is the world's leading gaming convention. Popular game series from Germany include Turrican, the Anno series, The Settlers series, the Gothic series, SpellForce, the FIFA Manager series, Far Cry and Crysis. Relevant game developers and publishers are Blue Byte, Crytek, Deep Silver, Kalypso Media, Piranha Bytes, Yager Development, and some of the largest social network game companies like Bigpoint, Gameforge, Goodgame and Wooga.","Germany\n\nCinema","Germany\n\nGerman cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895. The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Berlin's suburb Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world. Today it is Europe's largest studio. Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film. In 1930 Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, the first major German sound film, with Marlene Dietrich. Films of Leni Riefenstahl set new artistic standards, in particular Triumph of the Will.","Germany\n\nAfter 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as Trümmerfilm. Such films included Wolfgang Staudte's Die Mörder sind unter uns (The Murderers are among us) (1946). Notable East German films included Der Untertan (1951); Konrad Wolf's Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) (1964) and Frank Beyer's Jacob the Liar (1975). The defining film genre in West Germany of the 1950s was arguably the Heimatfilm (\"homeland film\"); these films depicted the beauty of the land and the moral integrity of the people living in it.","Germany\n\nDuring the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim. German movies such as Das Boot (1981), The Never Ending Story (1984), Good Bye, Lenin! (2003), Head On (2004), The White Ribbon (2009), Animals United (2010), and Cloud Atlas (2012) also had international success. The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (\"Oscar\") went to the German production Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nirgendwo in Afrika (Nowhere in Africa) in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others) in 2007.","Germany\n\nThe annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy. The Berlin International Film Festival, known as \"Berlinale\", awarding the \"Golden Bear\" and held annually since 1951, is one of the world's leading film festivals. The \"Lolas\" are annually awarded in Berlin, at the German Film Awards, that have been presented since 1951.","Germany\n\nCuisine","Germany\n\nGerman cuisine varies from region to region and often neighboring regions share some culinary similarities (e.g. the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia share some traditions with Switzerland and Austria). International varieties such as pizza, sushi, Chinese food, Greek food, Indian cuisine and doner kebab are also popular and available, thanks to diverse ethnic communities.","Germany\n\nBread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 different types of pastries and rolls (Brötchen). German cheeses account for about a third of all cheese produced in Europe.[https://books.google.com/books?id\nsjW9adVFS2kC&pg=PA113 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Cheeses of the World - Steve Ehlers, Jeanette Hurt]. pp. 113-115. In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef. Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts, Weisswursts, and Currywursts. In 2012, organic foods accounted for 3.9% of total food sales.","Germany\n\nAlthough wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, especially in German wine regions, the national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per person stands at 110 litres in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world. German beer purity regulations date back to the 15th century.","Germany\n\nThe 2015 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars, the highest designation, while 38 more received two stars and 233 one star. German restaurants have become the world's second-most decorated after France.","Germany\n\nSports","Germany\n\nTwenty-seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue sports individually. Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6.3 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide, and the German top league, the Bundesliga, attracts the second highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world. The German men's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990, and 2014, and the UEFA European Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996. Germany hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Championship in 1988.","Germany\n\nOther popular spectator sports include winter sports, boxing, basketball, handball, volleyball, ice hockey, tennis, horse riding and golf. Water sports like sailing, rowing, and swimming are popular in Germany as well.","Germany\n\nGermany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 17 times, and Audi 13 times (). The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won more Formula One World Drivers' Championships with seven titles, than any other. He is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history. Sebastian Vettel is also among the top three most successful Formula One drivers of all time.","Germany\n\nHistorically, German athletes have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count (when combining East and West German medals). Germany was the last country to host both the summer and winter games in the same year, in 1936 the Berlin Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and in Munich it hosted the Summer Games of 1972.","Germany\n\nFashion and design","Germany\n\nGerman designers were leaders of modern product design, with the Bauhaus designers like Mies van der Rohe, and Dieter Rams of Braun being essential.","Germany\n\nGermany is a leading country in the fashion industry. The German textile industry consisted of about 1,300 companies with more than 130,000 employees in 2010, which generated a revenue of 28 billion Euro. Almost 44 percent of the products are exported. The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year.","Germany\n\nMunich, Hamburg and Düsseldorf are also important design, production and trade hubs of the domestic fashion industry, among smaller towns. Renowned fashion designers from Germany include Karl Lagerfeld, Jil Sander, Wolfgang Joop, Philipp Plein and Michael Michalsky. Important brands include Hugo Boss, Escada, Adidas, Puma and Triumph. The German supermodels Claudia Schiffer, Heidi Klum, Tatjana Patitz and Nadja Auermann have come to international fame.","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin was a city that existed between 1949 and 1990 as a political enclave surrounded by East Berlin and East Germany. It was 100 mi east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by a narrow rail and highway corridor. It consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and shared economic, political, legal, and sporting systems with West Germany, but was not de jure part of it. It had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies. East Berlin, occupied and administered by the Soviet Union, was the capital of East Germany. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, physically divided East and West Berlin until it fell in 1989.","West Berlin\n\nWith about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany.","West Berlin\n\nOrigins","West Berlin\n\nThe Potsdam Agreement established the legal framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. According to the agreement, Germany would be formally under the administration of the four major wartime Allies—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union—until a German government acceptable to all parties could be established. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former eastern territories of Germany. The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the allied countries. Berlin, which was surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation—newly established in most of Middle Germany—would be similarly divided, with the Western Allies occupying an enclave consisting of the western parts of the city. According to the agreement, the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road and rail access between West Berlin and the western parts of Germany (see section on traffic).","West Berlin\n\nAt first, this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the western allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany and Berlin broke down. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food and other goods in the Berlin Airlift. In May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained.","West Berlin\n\nLegal status","West Berlin\n\nAccording to the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany (23 May 1949) and the German Democratic Republic (7 October 1949). Under Article 127 of the Basic Law (or constitution) of the Federal Republic, provision was made for federal laws to be extended to Greater Berlin (as West Berlin was officially known) as well Baden, Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg-Hohenzollern within one year of its promulgation. \nHowever, because the occupation of Berlin could only be ended by a quadripartite agreement, Berlin remained an occupied territory under the formal sovereignty of the allies. Hence, the Basic Law was not fully applicable to West Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nOn 4 August 1950 the House of Representatives (the city's legislature) passed a new constitution, declaring Berlin a state of the Federal Republic and the provisions of the Basic Law as binding law superior to Berlin state law (Article 1, clauses 2 and 3). However, this became statutory law only on 1 September and only with the inclusion of the western Allied provision that Art. 1, clauses 2 and 3, were not valid, or rather, deferred for the time being; the clauses became valid law on 3 October 1990 (the day of Germany's unification). It stated that:","West Berlin\n\nArticle 87 is interpreted as meaning that during the transitional period Berlin shall possess none of the attributes of a twelfth Land. The provision of this Article concerning the Basic Law will only apply to the extent necessary to prevent a conflict between this Law and the Berlin Constitution...","West Berlin\n\nThus civic liberties and personal rights (save the secrecy of telecommunications) guaranteed by the Basic Law were also valid in West Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nIn addition, West German federal statutes could only take effect in West Berlin with the approval of the city's legislature.\nThe ambiguous legal status of the city, then still legally styled as Greater Berlin, although technically only comprising the western sectors, meant that West Berliners were not eligible to vote in federal elections. In their notification of permission of 12 May 1949 the three western military governors for Germany explained their proviso in No. 4, as follows:","West Berlin\n\nA third reservation concerns the participation of Greater Berlin in the Federation. We interpret the effect of Articles 23 and 144 (2) of the Basic Law as constituting acceptance of our previous request that while Berlin may not be accorded voting membership in the Bundestag or Bundesrat nor be governed by the Federation she may, nevertheless, designate a small number of representatives to the meetings of those legislative bodies\".","West Berlin\n\nConsequently, West Berliners were indirectly represented in the Bundestag in Bonn by 22 non-voting delegates chosen by the House of Representatives. Similarly, the Senate (the city's executive) sent four non-voting delegates to the Bundesrat.","West Berlin\n\nHowever, as West German citizens, West Berliners were able to stand for election, such as Social Democrat Chancellor Willy Brandt, who was elected via his party's list of candidates. Also, male residents of West Berlin were exempt from the Federal Republic's compulsory military service; this exemption made the city a popular destination for West German youths, which resulted in a flourishing counterculture, which in turn became one of the defining features of the city.","West Berlin\n\nThe Western Allies remained the ultimate political authorities in West Berlin. All legislation of the House of Representatives, the domestic state and the adopted federal law, only applied under the proviso of the confirmation by the three Western Allied commanders-in-chief. If they approved a bill, it was enacted as part of West Berlin's statutory law. If the commanders-in-chief rejected a bill, it did not become law in West Berlin; this, for example, was the case with West German laws on military duty. West Berlin was run by the elected Governing Mayor and Senate seated at Rathaus Schöneberg. The Governing Mayor and Senators (ministers) had to be approved by the Western Allies and thus derived their authority from the occupying forces, not from their electoral mandate.","West Berlin\n\nThe Soviets unilaterally declared the occupation of East Berlin at an end along with the rest of East Germany. This move was, however, not recognised by the Western Allies, who continued to view all of Berlin as a jointly occupied territory belonging to neither of the two states. This view was supported by the continued practice of patrols of Allied soldiers of all four Allies in all four sectors. Thus, occasionally Western Allied soldiers were on patrol in East Berlin and Soviet soldiers were patrolling in West Berlin. After the Wall was built, East Germany wanted to control Western Allied patrols upon entering or leaving East Berlin, a practice that the Western Allies regarded as unacceptable. So, after protests to the Soviets, the patrols continued uncontrolled on both sides, with the tacit agreement that the western Allies would not use their patrolling privileges for helping Easterners to flee to the West.","West Berlin\n\nIn many ways, West Berlin functioned as the de facto 11th state of West Germany, and was depicted on maps published in the West as being a part of West Germany. There was freedom of movement (to the extent allowed by geography) between West Berlin and West Germany. There were no separate immigration regulations for West Berlin, all immigration rules for West Germany were followed in West Berlin. West German entry visas issued to visitors were originally stamped with \"valid for entry into the Federal Republic of Germany including the state of Berlin\", prompting complaints from the Soviet Union.","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin remained a military occupation zone until 3 October 1990, the day of unification of East Germany, East and West Berlin with the West German Federal Republic of Germany. The West German Federal Government, as well as the governments of most western nations, considered East Berlin to be a \"separate entity\" from East Germany, and while the Western Allies later opened embassies in East Berlin, they recognised the city only as the seat of government of the GDR, not as its capital.","West Berlin\n\nCommunist countries, however, did not recognise West Berlin as part of West Germany and usually described it as a \"third\" German jurisdiction, called selbständige politische Einheit (\"independent political unit\"). On maps of East Berlin, West Berlin often did not appear as an adjacent urban area but as a monochrome terra incognita, sometimes showing the letters WB, meaning West Berlin, or overlaid with a legend or pictures. It was often labelled \"Besonderes politisches Gebiet Westberlin\" (West Berlin special political area).","West Berlin\n\nCitizenship","West Berlin\n\nWhile East Germany established an East German citizenship as part of its second constitution in 1967, a distinct West German citizenship did not exist. Instead, West Germany continued the definition of pre-World War II German citizenship for all ethnic or naturalised Germans in West Germany, East Germany or any part of Berlin. So while West Berlin was not unanimously regarded as part of the Federal Republic, its citizens were treated like West German citizens by West German authorities, save for the limitations imposed by West Berlin's legal status.","West Berlin\n\nImmigration","West Berlin\n\nThe Federal Republic of Germany issued West German passports to West Berliners on request that showed West Berlin as their place of residence. However, West Berliners could not use their passports for crossing East German borders and were denied entrance by any country of the Eastern Bloc, since governments of these countries held the view that West Germany was not authorized to issue legal papers for West Berliners.","West Berlin\n\nSince West Berlin was not a sovereign state, it did not issue passports, so West Berliners were issued with \"auxiliary identity cards\" by the West Berlin authorities. These differed visually from the regular West German identity cards, with green bindings instead of the grey standard, did not show the \"Federal Eagle\" or coat of arms, and did not contain any indications as to the issuing State. However, they did a statement that the holder of the document was a German citizen. From 11 June 1968, East Germany made it mandatory that West Berlin and West German \"transit passengers\" obtain a transit visa, issued upon entering East Germany, because under its second constitution East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners as foreigners. Since identity cards had no pages to stamp visas, the Eastern visa departments stamped their visas onto separate leaflets which were loosely stuck into the identity cards, which until the mid-1980s, were little booklets. Although the West German government subsidized visa fees, these were still payable by individual travelers.","West Berlin\n\nFor entering visa-requiring western countries, such as the US, West Berliners commonly used West German passports. However, for countries which did not require stamped visas for entry, including Switzerland, Austria, and many members of the then European Economic Community, including the United Kingdom, West Berlin identity cards were also acceptable for entry.","West Berlin\n\nNaming conventions","West Berlin\n\nMost Westerners called the Western sectors \"Berlin\", unless further distinction was necessary. The West German Federal government officially called West Berlin \"Berlin (West)\", although it also used the hyphenated \"West-Berlin\", whereas the East German government commonly referred to it as \"Westberlin\". Starting from 31 May 1961, East Berlin was officially called Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (Berlin, Capital of the GDR), replacing the formerly used term Democratic Berlin, or simply \"Berlin,\" by East Germany, and \"Berlin (Ost)\" by the West German Federal government. Other names used by West German media included \"Ost-Berlin\", \"Ostberlin\", or \"Ostsektor\". These different naming conventions for the divided parts of Berlin, when followed by individuals, governments, or media, commonly indicated their political leanings, with the centre-right Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung using \"Ost-Berlin\" and the centre-left Süddeutsche Zeitung using \"Ostberlin\".","West Berlin\n\nPeriod following the building of the Wall","West Berlin\n\nAfter the Wall was constructed, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggested to U.S. President John F. Kennedy that the United States propose a swap of West Berlin with Thuringia and parts of Saxony and Mecklenburg; the city's population would have been relocated to West Germany. While the Kennedy administration seriously considered the idea, it did not make the proposal to the Soviet Union.","West Berlin\n\nOn 26 June 1963, President Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech known for its famous phrase \"Ich bin ein Berliner\".","West Berlin\n\nThe Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971) and the Transit Agreement (May 1972) helped to significantly ease tensions over the status of West Berlin. While many restrictions remained in place, it also made it easier for West Berliners to travel to East Germany and it simplified the regulations for Germans travelling along the autobahn transit routes.","West Berlin\n\nAt the Brandenburg Gate in 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan provided a challenge to the then Soviet leader:","West Berlin\n\n\"General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\"","West Berlin\n\nOn 9 November 1989, the Wall was opened, and the two parts of the city were once again physically — though at this point not legally — united. The Two Plus Four Treaty, signed by the two German states and the four wartime allies, paved the way for German reunification and an end to the Western Allies' occupation of West Berlin. On 3 October 1990 — the day Germany was officially reunified — East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin, which then joined the enlarged Federal Republic as a city-state along the lines of the existing West German city-states of Bremen and Hamburg. Walter Momper, the mayor of West Berlin, became the first mayor of the reunified city.","West Berlin\n\nBoroughs of West Berlin","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin comprised the following boroughs:","West Berlin\n\nIn the American Sector:\n* Neukölln\n* Kreuzberg\n* Schöneberg\n* Steglitz\n* Tempelhof\n* Zehlendorf","West Berlin\n\nIn the British Sector:\n* Charlottenburg\n* Tiergarten\n* Wilmersdorf\n* Spandau","West Berlin\n\nIn the French Sector:\n* Reinickendorf\n* Wedding","West Berlin\n\nExclaves","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin's border was identical to the municipal boundary of Berlin as defined in the Greater Berlin Act of 1920 and amended in 1938, and the border between the Soviet sector and the French, British, and American sectors respectively, which followed the boundaries of Berlin administrative boroughs as defined in the same years. Another amendment was added in 1945 at the border between the British sector of Berlin and the Soviet zone such that the Wehrmacht airfield at Berlin-Gatow became British and the airfield at Berlin-Staaken became Soviet. The resulting borderline of all these changes was complicated with a lot of geographical oddities, including a number of exclaves and enclaves that Greater Berlin had inside some neighbouring municipalities since 1920, all of which happened to become part of the British or American sectors after 1945, thus parts of West Berlin surrounded by East Germany.","West Berlin\n\nFurthermore, the Gatow/Staaken exchange in August 1945 resulted in the geographically western half of Berlin-Staaken, which was located at the western outskirts of the city, becoming de jure Soviet occupied. However, the de facto administration remained with the Borough of Spandau in the British sector. So all inhabitants of Staaken could vote for West Berlin's city state elections in 1948 and 1950. On 1 February 1951 East German Volkspolizei surprised the people of western Staaken by occupying the area and ended the administration by the Spandau Borough; instead, western Staaken became an exclave of the Soviet occupied borough Berlin-Mitte in the city centre. However, on 1 June 1952, western Staaken's de facto administration was conveyed to neighbouring East German Falkensee in the East German district Nauen. This situation was undone on 3 October 1990, the day of German unification, when western Staaken was reincorporated into united Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nPost and telecommunications","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin had its own postal administration first called Deutsche Post Berlin (1947–1955) and then Deutsche Bundespost Berlin, separate from West Germany's Deutsche Bundespost, and issuing its own postage stamps until 1990. However, the separation was merely symbolic; in reality West Berlin's postal service was completely integrated with West Germany's, using the same postal code system.","West Berlin\n\nWest Berlin was also integrated into the West German telephone network, using the same international dialling code as West Germany, +49, with the area code 030. As in West Germany, calls to East Berlin from West Berlin were made using the prefix 00372 (international access code 00, East German country code 37, area code 2).","West Berlin\n\nIn order to reduce Eastern tapping of telecommunications between West Berlin and West Germany microwave radio relay connections were built, which wirelessly transmitted telephone calls between antenna towers in West Germany and West Berlin, where two of which were built, one antenna in Berlin-Wannsee and later a second in Berlin-Frohnau, finished on 16 May 1980 with a height of 358 m (this tower was demolished on 8 February 2009).","West Berlin\n\nTransport and transit travel","West Berlin\n\nWest Berliners could travel to West Germany and all Western and non-aligned states at all times, except during the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union (24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949), due to restrictions on passenger flight capacity imposed by the airlift. \nTravelling to and from West Berlin by road or train always required passing through East German border checks, since West Berlin was an enclave surrounded by East Germany and East Berlin. On October 2, 1967, six years after the Wall was erected, tram tracks in West Berlin were uprooted because the authorities wanted to promote car usage, meaning that the tram system remaining today runs almost entirely within the former East Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nRoad traffic","West Berlin\n\nFor travel from West Berlin through East Germany by car or rail a valid passport was required for citizens of West Germany and other western nationals to be produced at East German border checks; West Berliners could only get admission through their identity cards (see above). For travel from West Berlin to Denmark, West Germany, or Sweden, via dedicated East German transit routes (), East German border guards issued a transit visa for a fee of 5 Western Deutsche Mark. For journeys between West Berlin and Poland or Czechoslovakia through East Germany, each traveller was also required to present a valid visa for the destination country.","West Berlin\n\nThe transit routes for road travel connecting West Berlin to other destinations usually consisted of autobahns and other highways, marked by Transit signs. Transit travellers () were prohibited to leave the transit routes, and occasional traffic checkpoints would check for violators. There were four transit routes between West Berlin and West Germany:\n* One between West Berlin's Heerstraße with the East German checkpoint in Dallgow until 1951, then replaced by Staaken for destinations in Northern Germany (originally via highway F 5) at the Eastern checkpoint in Horst (a part of today's Nostorf) and the Western Lauenburg upon Elbe. These were replaced on 20 November 1982 by a new autobahn crossing at Zarrentin (E)/Gudow (W). On 1 January 1988, the new Stolpe checkpoint opened on this route to West Berlin. This is part of today's Hohen Neuendorf (E)/Berlin-Heiligensee (W). * A second transit route led to Northwestern and Western Germany – following today's A 2 – crossing the inner German border at Marienborn (E)/Helmstedt (W), also called Checkpoint Alpha. * A third route to Southwestern Germany consisted of today's A 9 and A 4 with border crossing at Wartha (E)/Herleshausen (W).","West Berlin\n\n* A fourth (via today's A 9) to Southern Germany had border crossings originally at Mount Juchhöh (E)/Töpen (W) and later at Hirschberg upon Saale (E)/ Rudolphstein (a part of today's Berg in Upper Franconia) (W).","West Berlin\n\nThe latter three routes used autobahns built during the Nazi era. They left West Berlin at Checkpoint Dreilinden, also called Checkpoint Bravo (W)/Potsdam-Drewitz (E). Transit routes to Poland were via today's A 11 to Nadrensee-Pomellen (East Germany, GDR)/Kołbaskowo (Kolbitzow) (PL), eastwards via today's A 12 to Frankfurt upon Oder (GDR)/Słubice (PL), or southeastwards via today's A 13 and A 15 to Forst in Lusatia/Baršć (GDR)/Zasieki (Berge) (PL). Additional routes led to Denmark and Sweden by ferry between Warnemünde (GDR) and Gedser (DK) and by ferry between Sassnitz (GDR) and Rønne (DK) or Trelleborg (S). Routes to Czechoslovakia were via Schmilka (GDR)/Hřensko (Herrnskretschen) (ČSSR) and via Fürstenau (a part of today's Geising) (GDR)/Cínovec (Cinvald/Böhmisch Zinnwald) (ČSSR).","West Berlin\n\nThe transit routes were also used for East German domestic traffic. This meant that transit passengers could potentially meet with East Germans and East Berliners at restaurants at motorway rest stops. Since such meetings were deemed illegal by the East German government, border guards would calculate the travel duration from the time of entry and exit of the transit route. Excessive time spent for transit travel could arouse their suspicion and prompt questioning or additional checking by the border guards. Western coaches could stop only at dedicated service areas, since the East German government was concerned that East Germans might potentially use coaches to escape into the West.","West Berlin\n\nOn 1 September 1951 East Germany, because of shortages in foreign currencies, started to levy road tolls from cars using the transit routes. At first the toll amounted to Eastern Deutsche Mark 10 per passenger car and 10 to 50 for trucks, depending on size. Eastern Deutsche Marks had to be exchanged for Western Deutsche Mark a rate of 1:1. On 30 March 1955, East Germany raised the toll for passenger cars to 30 Deutsche Marks, but after West German protests, in June of the same year it changed it back to the previous rate. Following a new agreement between East and West Germany, starting from 1 January 1980 the Western Federal Government paid an annual lump sum () of 50 million Western Deutsche Marks to the Eastern government, so that transit passengers no longer had to pay tolls individually.","West Berlin\n\nRailway","West Berlin\n\nFour transit train connections—earlier also called interzonal train ()—connected West Berlin with Hamburg via Schwanheide (E)/Büchen (W) in the North, with Hanover via Marienborn (E)/Helmstedt (W) in the West, with Frankfurt upon Main via Gerstungen (E)/Hönebach (W) in the Southwest, and with Nuremberg via Probstzella (E)/Ludwigsstadt (W) in the South of West Germany. These transit trains did not service domestic passengers of East Germany and made stops in East Germany almost only for East German border guards upon entering and leaving of the country. Until the construction of the Berlin Wall, interzonal trains would also stop once on their way within East Germany for travellers having a visa for entering or leaving East Germany. Train travel from West Berlin to Czechoslovakia, Denmark (by ferry), Poland, or Sweden (by ferry) required a visa to enter East Berlin or East Germany to allow transfer to an international train—which also carried domestic passengers—bound for an international destination. One railway connection between West Berlin and Oebisfelde (E)/Wolfsburg (W) was reserved for freight trains only.","West Berlin\n\nIn July and August 1945, the three Western Allies and the Soviet Union decided that the railways, previously serviced by the Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Reich Railways), should continue to be operated by one railway administration to service all four sectors. So West Berlin had – with the exception of a few small private railway lines – no separate railway administration. Furthermore, the operation of the Reichsbahn's Berlin S-Bahn electric metropolitan transport network, consisting of commuter trains, was also maintained. After the founding of East Germany on 7 October 1949 it gained responsibility for the Reichsbahn in its territory. East Germany continued to run its railways under the official name Deutsche Reichsbahn, which thus maintained responsibility for almost all railway transport in all four sectors of Berlin. The GDR-controlled 'Bahnpolizei', the Reichsbahn's railway police, were authorised to patrol station premises and other railway property in the whole city including West Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nAfter the Berlin Blockade transit trains () would leave and enter West Berlin only via one line through Berlin-Wannsee railway station (W) and Potsdam Griebnitzsee railway station (E). All transit trains would start or end in East Berlin, passing through West Berlin with only one stop in the Western Berlin Zoologischer Garten railway station, which became West Berlin's main railway station. Until 1952, the Reichsbahn also permitted stops at other stations on the way through the Western sectors. After easing of tensions between East and West Germany, starting on 30 May 1976 transit trains going westwards, southwestwards, or southwards stopped once again at station of Wannsee. For transit trains going northwestwards, a shorter line was reopened on 26 September 1976 with an additional stop at the then Berlin-Spandau railway station, entering East Germany at Staaken.","West Berlin\n\nMany Reichsbahn employees working in West Berlin were West Berliners. Their East German employer, whose proceeds from ticket sales for Western Deutsche Marks contributed to East Germany's foreign revenues, tried to hold down wage social security contributions in Western Deutsche Mark. Therefore, West Berlin employees of the Reichsbahn were paid partly in Eastern German currency. They could spend this money in East Germany and take their purchases to West Berlin, which other Westerners could not do to the same extent. West Berlin employees were trained in East Germany and employed under East German labour laws. West Berliners employed by the Reichsbahn were not included in the Western health insurance system. The Reichsbahn ran its own hospital for them in West Berlin, the building of which is now used as the headquarters of Bombardier Transportation. For certain patients, the Reichsbahn would facilitate treatment in a hospital in East Berlin. In medical emergencies, the employees could use West Berlin doctors and hospitals, which would then be paid for by the Reichsbahn.","West Berlin\n\nThe GDR used the western stations to distribute propaganda and display posters with slogans like \"Americans Go Home.\" On 1 May, May Day, a state holiday in East and West, S-Bahn trains were sometimes decorated with the East German banner and a red flag.","West Berlin\n\nWaterways","West Berlin\n\nTwo waterways via the rivers and canals Havel and Mittellandkanal were open for inland navigation, but only freight vessels were allowed to cross from West Berlin into East German waters. The Havel crossed at the East German border in Nedlitz (a part of Potsdam-Bornstedt), continuing through the Elbe-Havel Canal and then either taking the Elbe northwestwards crossing the border again at Cumlosen (E)/Schnackenburg (W) or westwards following the Mittellandkanal to Buchhorst (Oebisfelde) (E)/Rühen (W). Western freight vessels could stop only at dedicated service areas, because the East German government wanted to prevent any East Germans from boarding them. Through these waterways, West Berlin was connected with the western European inland navigation network, connecting to seaports like Hamburg and Rotterdam, as well as industrial areas such as the Ruhr Area, Mannheim, Basel, Belgium, and eastern France.","West Berlin\n\nIn July and August 1945, the Western Allies and the Soviet Union decided that the operation and maintenance of the waterways and locks, which were previously run by the national German directorate for inland navigation (), should be continued and reconstructed in all four sectors. So, except of the originally city-owned Neukölln Ship Canal and some later built canals (e.g. Westhafen Canal) and locks, West Berlin had no separate inland navigation authority, but the East Berlin-based authority operated most waterways and locks, their lockmasters were employed by the East. Because of the negligent maintenance the western Allies later conveyanced it to the Senate of Berlin (West).","West Berlin\n\nThe western entrance to the Teltowkanal, connecting several industrial areas of West Berlin for heavy freight transport, was blocked by East Germany in Potsdam-Klein Glienicke. Therefore, vessels going to the Teltowkanal had to take a detour via the river Spree through West and East Berlin's city centre to enter the canal from the East. On 20 November 1981, East Germany reopened the western entrance, which required two more vessel border checkpoints – Dreilinden and Kleinmachnow – because the waterway crossed the border between East Germany and West Berlin four times. Another transit waterway connected West Berlin via the East German vessel checkpoint at Hennigsdorf and the Oder-Havel Canal with the Oder river and Polish Szczecin (Stettin).","West Berlin\n\nAir traffic","West Berlin\n\nAir traffic was the only connection between West Berlin and the Western world that was not directly under East German control. British European Airways opened the first regular service for civilians on 4 July 1948 between West Berlin and Hamburg. Tickets were originally sold for pounds sterling only. West Berliners and West Germans who had earlier fled East Germany or East Berlin, and thus could face imprisonment on entering East Germany or East Berlin, could only take flights for travel to and from West Berlin. To enable individuals threatened by East German imprisonment to fly to and from West Berlin the West German government subsidised the flights.","West Berlin\n\nThe flights between West Germany and West Berlin were under Allied control by the quadripartite Berlin Air Safety Center. According to permanent agreements, three air corridors to West Germany were provided, which were open only for British, French, or U.S. military planes or civilian planes registered with companies in those countries.","West Berlin\n\nThe airspace controlled by the Berlin Air Safety Center comprised a radius of 20 miles (32.12 km) around the seat of the Center in the Kammergericht building in Berlin-Schöneberg – thus covering most of East and West Berlin and the three corridors, of the same width – one northwestwards to Hamburg-Fuhlsbüttel Airport, one westwards to Hanover, and one southwestwards to Frankfurt upon Main (Rhein-Main Air Base). Also the airspace expanding to a width of 20 mi over the German-German border was subject to the control by the Berlin Air Safety Center.","West Berlin\n\nThe West German airline Lufthansa and most other international airlines were not permitted to fly to West Berlin. Flights of Lufthansa or the East German airline Interflug servicing connections between East and West Germany (such as between Düsseldorf and Hamburg in West Germany and the East German city of Leipzig) began in August 1989, but these routes had to go through Czechoslovak or Danish airspace.","West Berlin\n\nTraffic between West Berlin and East Germany","West Berlin\n\nUntil 1953, travelling from West Berlin into East Germany (German Democratic Republic (GDR)), fell under Interzonal traffic regulations overseen by three Allied military governments (the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG), the Control Commission for Germany – British Element, and the Office of Military Government/United States (OMGUS)). On 27 May 1952, East Germany closed its border with West Germany and its 115 km-long border with West Berlin. From then on West Berliners required a permit to enter East Germany. East German border checkpoints were established in East German suburbs of West Berlin, and most streets were gradually closed for interzonal travel into East Germany. The last checkpoint to remain open was located at the Glienicker Brücke towards Potsdam, until it was also closed by East Germany on 3 July 1953. The checkpoint at Staaken's Heerstraße remained open only for transit traffic to West Germany. This caused hardship for many West Berlin residents, especially those who had friends and family in East Germany. However, East Germans could still enter West Berlin. A number of cemeteries located in East Germany were also affected by the closure.","West Berlin\n\nMany church congregations in Berlin owned cemeteries outside the city, so many West Berlin congregations had cemeteries that were located in East Germany. For example, the Friedhof vor Charlottenburg (in Cemetery in front/outside of Charlottenburg) was located in the East German suburb of Dallgow, yet belonged to Catholic congregations in Berlin-Charlottenburg. So many West Berliners wishing to visit the grave of a relative or friend on cemeteries located in East Germany were now unable to do so. Until 1961, East Germany sparsely issued permits to West Berliners to visit the cemeteries on the Catholic feast of All Saints on 1 November and on the Protestant Day of Repentance and Prayer.","West Berlin\n\nIn 1948–1952, the Reichsbahn connected the western suburbs of West Berlin to its S-Bahn network. Train routes servicing these suburbs formerly went through West Berlin stations, but ceased to make stops in the western stations or terminated service before entering West Berlin. Private West Berlin railway lines like the Neukölln–Mittenwalde railway (Neukölln-Mittenwalder Eisenbahn, NME), connecting the East German Mittenwalde with West Berlin-Neukölln and the Bötzowbahn between West Berlin-Spandau and East German Hennigsdorf, were disrupted at the border between West Berlin and East Germany on 26 October 1948 and August 1950, respectively. Tramways and bus routes that connected West Berlin with its East German suburbs and were operated by West Berlin's public transport operator Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe Gesellschaft (BVG West) ceased operation on 14 October 1950, after West Berlin tram and bus drivers had been repeatedly stopped and arrested by East German police for having western currency on them, considered a crime in the East.","West Berlin\n\nThe BVG (West) terminated route sections that extended into East Germany, like the southern end of tram line 47 to Schönefeld, the southwestern end of tram line 96 to Kleinmachnow, as well as two bus lines to Glienicke at the Nordbahn, north, and to Falkensee, northwest of West Berlin. The East German section of tram line 96 continued operating with eastern personnel and cars, obliging the eastern passengers – rarely westerners who needed special permits to enter East Germany - to change from eastern into western trains crossing the border by foot, until it was closed by the Wall.","West Berlin\n\nThe Reichsbahn shut down all of its West Berlin terminal stations and redirected its trains to stations in East Berlin, starting with Berlin Görlitzer Bahnhof – closed on 29 April 1951 – before serving rail traffic with Görlitz and the southeast of East Germany. On 28 August 1951, trains usually serving Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof were redirected to stations in East Berlin, while trains from West Germany were redirected to the Western Berlin Zoologischer Garten. The Reichsbahn also closed down both Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof and Berlin Nordbahnhof, on 18 May 1952.","West Berlin\n\nOn 28 August 1951, the Reichsbahn opened a new connection – from Spandau via Berlin Jungfernheide station – for the S-Bahn lines connecting East German suburbs to the west of West Berlin (namely Falkensee, Staaken) with East Berlin, thus circumventing the centre of West Berlin. In June 1953, the Reichsbahn further cut off West Berlin from its East German suburbs by the introduction of additional express S-Bahn trains (). These routes originated from several East German suburbs bordering West Berlin (such as Falkensee, Potsdam, Oranienburg, Staaken, and Velten), crossing West Berlin non-stop until reaching its destinations in East Berlin. However, also the regular S-Bahn connections with West Berlin's East German suburbs, stopping at every Western station, continued. From 17 June to 9 July 1953, East Germany blocked off any traffic between East and West due to the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany. From 4 October 1953, all S-Bahn trains crossing the border between East Germany and Berlin had to pass a border checkpoint in East Germany. Travellers from East Germany were checked before entering any part of Berlin, to identify individuals intending to escape into West Berlin or smuggling rationed or rare goods into West Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nS-Bahn trains were checked at Hoppegarten, Mahlow, and Zepernick in East Germany bordering East Berlin and in Hohen Neuendorf, Potsdam-Griebnitzsee, and Staaken-Albrechtshof in East Germany bordering West Berlin. On 4 June 1954, the Bahnhof Hennigsdorf Süd station located next to West Berlin was opened solely for border controls, also to monitor West Berliners entering or leaving East Berlin, which they could still do freely, while they were not allowed to cross into East Germany proper without a special permit. In 1951, the Reichsbahn began construction work on the Berlin outer-circle railway line. This circular line connected all train routes heading for West Berlin and accommodated all domestic GDR traffic, thus directing railway traffic into East Berlin while by-passing West Berlin. Commuters in the East German suburbs around West Berlin now boarded Sputnik express trains, which took them into East Berlin without crossing any western sectors. With the completion of the outer-circle railway, there was no further need for express S-Bahn trains crossing the West Berlin border and thus their service ended on 4 May 1958, while stopping S-Bahn trains continued service.","West Berlin\n\nHowever, while East Germans could get off in West Berlin, West Berliners needed the hard-to get permits to enter East Germany by S-Bahn. With the construction of the Berlin Wall on 13 August 1961, any remaining railway traffic between West Berlin and its East German suburbs ended. The rail traffic between East and West Berlin was sharply reduced and restricted to few checkpoints under GDR control. East Berliners and East Germans were then unable to freely enter and leave West Berlin. However, international visitors could obtain visas for East Berlin upon crossing one of the checkpoints at the Wall.","West Berlin\n\nFollowing the policy of détente of the Federal Government under Chancellor Willy Brandt, West Berliners could again apply for visas to visit East Germany, which were granted more freely than in the period until 1961. On 4 June 1972, West Berlin's public transport operator BVG could open its first bus line into the East German suburbs since 1950 (line E to Potsdam via Checkpoint Bravo as it was known to the US military). This route was open only to persons bearing all the necessary East German permits and visas. For visits to East Germany, West Berliners could use four checkpoints along the East German border around West Berlin: The two road transit checkpoints Dreilinden (W)/Drewitz (E) and Berlin-Heiligensee (W)/Stolpe (E) as well as the old transit checkpoint at Heerstraße (W)/Staaken (E) and the checkpoint at Waltersdorfer Chaussee (W)/Schönefeld (E), which was also open for travellers boarding international flights at Schönefeld Airport.","West Berlin\n\nTraffic between East and West Berlin","West Berlin\n\nWhile East and West Berlin became formally separate jurisdictions in September 1948, and while there were travel restrictions in all other directions, for more than a decade, freedom of movement existed between the western sectors and the eastern sector of the city. However, time and again Soviet and later East German authorities imposed temporary restrictions for certain persons, certain routes, and certain means of transport. Gradually the eastern authorities disconnected and separated the two parts of the city.","West Berlin\n\nWhile the Soviets blocked all transport to West Berlin (Berlin Blockade between 24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949) they increased the supplies for food in East Berlin in order to gain the compliance of West Berliners who at that time still had free access to East Berlin. West Berliners buying food in East Berlin were regarded as approving of the Soviet attempt to repress the Western Allies from West Berlin. This was seen as support by the communists and as treason by most Westerners. Until that time all over Germany food and other necessary supplies had been available only with ration stamps issued by one's municipality, this was until the Communist putsch in Berlin's city government in September 1948 – the unitary City Council of Greater Berlin () for East and West.","West Berlin\n\nBy July 1948 a mere 19,000 West Berliners out of a total of almost 2 million covered their food requirements in East Berlin. So 99% of the West Berliners preferred to live with shorter supplies than before the Blockade but support the Western Allies' position. In West Germany rationing of most products had ended with the introduction of the Western Deutsche Mark on 21 June 1948. The new currency was also introduced in West Berlin on 24 June and this, at least officially was the justification for the Soviet Blockade due to which, rationing in West Berlin had to continue. However, in the course of the Berlin Air Lift some supplies were increased beyond the pre-Blockade level and therefore certain rations in West Berlin were raised.","West Berlin\n\nWhile West Berliners were officially welcome to buy food in East Berlin, the Soviets tried to prevent them buying other essential supplies there, particularly coal and fuel. For this reason, on 9 November 1948, they opened checkpoints on 70 streets entering West Berlin and closed the others for horse carriages, lorries and cars, later (16 March 1949) the Soviets erected roadblocks on the closed streets. From 15 November 1948 West Berlin ration stamps were no longer accepted in East Berlin. All the same, the Soviets started a campaign with the slogan The smart West Berliner buys at the HO (), the HO being the Soviet zone chain of shops. They also opened so-called \"Free Shops\" in the Eastern Sector, offering supplies without ration stamps, but at extremely high prices in Eastern Deutsche Marks. Ordinary East and West Berliners could only afford to buy there if they had revenues in Western Deutsche Mark and bartered the needed Eastern Deutsche Mark on the spontaneous currency markets, which developed in the British sector at the Zoo station.","West Berlin\n\nTheir demand and supply determined a barter ratio in favour of the Western Deutsche Mark with more than 2 Eastern Deutsche Marks offered for one Western Deutsche Mark. After the Blockade – when holders of Western Deutsche Marks could buy as much they could afford, up to five and six east marks were offered for one west mark. In the East, however, the Soviets had arbitrarily decreed a rate of 1 for 1 and exchanging at other rates was criminalised. On 12 May 1949 the Blockade ended and all roadblocks and checkpoints between East and West Berlin were removed. The Berlin Airlift, however, continued until 30 September 1949 to amass sufficient supplies in West Berlin, the so-called Senate Reserve, in readiness for another possible blockade, ensuring that an airlift could then be restarted with ease. On 2 May 1949 the power stations in East Berlin again started to supply West Berlin with sufficient electricity, which had to be rationed to some hours a day after the usual supplies had been interrupted at the start of the Blockade.","West Berlin\n\nHowever, the Western Allies and the West Berlin City Council decided to be self-sufficient in terms of electricity generation capacity, to be independent of Eastern supplies and not to be held to ransom by the eastern authorities. On 1 December 1949 the new powerhouse West (, in 1953 renamed after the former Governing Mayor of West Berlin into Kraftwerk Reuter West) went on line and West Berlin's electricity board declared independence from Eastern supplies. However, for a time Eastern electricity continued to be supplied albeit intermittently. Supply was interrupted from 1 July until the end of 1950 and then started again until 4 March 1952, when the East finally switched it off. From then on West Berlin turned into an 'electricity island' within a pan-European electricity grid that had developed from the 1920s, because electricity transfers between East and West Germany never fully ceased. The 'electricity island' situation was noticed most in situations of particularly high demand; in other areas of Europe peaks in demand could be met by tapping into electricity supplies from neighbouring areas, but in West Berlin this was not an option and for certain users the lights would go out.","West Berlin\n\nIn 1952 West Berliners were restricted entry to East Germany proper by means of a hard-to-obtain East German permit. Free entry to East Berlin remained possible until 1961 and the building of the Wall. Berlin's underground (Untergrundbahn, U-Bahn) and Berlin's S-Bahn (a metropolitan public transit network), rebuilt after the war, continued to span all occupation sectors. Many people lived in one half of the city and had family, friends, and jobs in the other. However, the East continuously reduced the means of public transport between East and West, with private cars being a very rare privilege in the East and still a luxury in the West. Starting on 15 January 1953 the tram network was interrupted. East Berlin's public transport operator Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG-East, BVB as of 1 January 1969) staffed all trams, whose lines crossed the sectorial border, with women drivers, which were not permitted as drivers by the BVG (West), West Berlin's public transport operator. Instead of changing the Western rules, so that the Easterly intended interruption of the cross-border tram traffic would not happen, the BVG (West) insisted on male drivers. So cross-border tram traffic ended on 16 January.","West Berlin\n\nIn East German propaganda this was a point for the East, arguing that the West did not allow drivers coming with their trams from the East to continue along their line into the West, but remaining silent on the fact that the end of cross-border tram traffic was most welcome to the East. The underground and the S-Bahn networks, except the above-mentioned traverse S-Bahn trains, continued to provide services between East and West Berlin. However, occasionally the East Berlin police – in the streets and on cross-border trains in East Berlin – identified suspicious behaviour (such as carrying heavy loads westwards) and watched out for unwelcome Westerners. Once in a while West Germans were banned from entering East Berlin. This was the case between 29 August and 1 September 1960, when ex prisoners of war and deportees, homecomers (), from all around West Germany and West Berlin met for a convention in that city. The homecomers released mostly from a long detention in the Soviet Union were unwelcome in East Berlin. Since they could not be recognised by their identification papers all West Germans were banned for these days from East Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nWest Berliners were allowed, since the quadripartite Allied status quo provided for their free movement around all four sectors. From 8 September 1960 on, the East subjected all West Germans to apply for a permit before entering East Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nAs the communist government in the East gained tighter control, and the economic recovery in the West significantly outperformed the Eastern development, more than a hundred thousand East Germans and East Berliners left East Germany and East Berlin for the West every year. East Germany closed the borders between East and West Germany and sealed off the border with West Berlin in 1952; but because of the quadripartite Allied status of the city, the 46 km-long sectorial border between East and West Berlin remained open. As there was freedom of movement between West Berlin and West Germany, Easterners could use the city as a transit point to West Germany, usually travelling there by air.","West Berlin\n\nTo stop this drain of people defecting, the East German government built the Berlin Wall, thus physically closing off West Berlin from East Berlin and East Germany, on 13 August 1961. All Eastern streets, bridges, paths, windows, doors, gates, and sewers opening to West Berlin were systematically sealed off by walls, concrete elements, barbed wire, and/or bars. The Wall was directed against the Easterners, who by its construction were no longer allowed to leave the East, except with an Eastern permit, not usually granted.\nWesterners were still granted visas on entering East Berlin. Initially eight street checkpoints were opened, and one checkpoint in the Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station, which was reached by one line of the Western underground (today's U 6), two Western S-Bahn lines, one under and one above ground (approximate to today's S 2 and S 3, however lines changed a lot from 1990 onwards), and transit trains between West Germany and West Berlin started and ended there.","West Berlin\n\nThe eight street checkpoints were – from North to South along the Wall – on Bornholmer Straße, Chausseestraße, Invalidenstraße, Brandenburg Gate, Friedrichstraße (Checkpoint Charlie in US military denomination, since this crossing was to their sector), Heinrich-Heine-Straße (also Checkpoint Delta), and Sonnenallee.","West Berlin\n\nWhen the construction of the Wall started after midnight early on 13 August, West Berlin's Governing Mayor Willy Brandt was on a West German federal election campaigning tour in West Germany. Arriving by train in Hanover at 4 am he was informed about the Wall and flew back to West Berlin's Tempelhof Central Airport.","West Berlin\n\nIn the course of the day he protested along with many other West Berliners on Potsdamer Platz and at the Brandenburg Gate. On 14 August, under the pretext that Western demonstrations required it, the East closed the checkpoint at the Brandenburg Gate, 'until further notice', a situation that was to last until 22 December 1989, when it was finally reopened.","West Berlin\n\nOn 26 August 1961 East Germany generally banned West Berliners from entering the Eastern sector. West Germans and other nationals, however, could still get visas on entering East Berlin. Since intra-city phone lines had been cut by the East already in May 1952 (see below) the only remaining way of communication with family or friends on the other side was by mail or at meeting in a motorway restaurant on a transit route, because the transit traffic remained unaffected throughout.","West Berlin\n\nOn 18 May 1962 East Germany opened the so-called Tränenpalast checkpoint hall (Palace of Tears) at Berlin Friedrichstraße station, where Easterners had to say a sometimes tearful farewell to returning Westerners as well as the few Easterners who had managed to get a permit to visit the West. Until June 1963 the East deepened its border zone around West Berlin in East Germany and East Berlin by clearing existing buildings and vegetation to create an open field of view, sealed off by the Berlin Wall towards the West and a second wall or fence of similar characteristics to the East, observed by armed men in towers, with orders to shoot at escapees.","West Berlin\n\nFinally in 1963 West Berliners were again allowed to visit East Berlin. On this occasion a further checkpoint for pedestrians only was opened on the Oberbaumbrücke. West Berliners were granted visas for a one-day visit between 17 December 1963 and 5 January the following year. 1.2 million out of a total 1.9 million West Berliners visited East Berlin during this period. In 1964, 1965, and 1966 East Berlin was opened again to West Berliners, but each time only for a limited period.","West Berlin\n\nEast Germany found particular joy in playing with the different legal statuses it assigned to East Germans, East Berliners, West Germans, and West Berliners, as well as citizens from other countries in the world. Until 1990 East Germany designated each Border crossings in East Berlin for certain categories of persons, with only one street checkpoint being open simultaneously for West Berliners and West Germans (Bornholmer Straße) and Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station being open for all travellers.","West Berlin\n\nOn 9 September 1964, the East German Council of Ministers (government) decided to allow Eastern pensioners to visit family in West Germany or West Berlin. According to the specified regulations valid from 2 November on Eastern pensioners could apply, and were usually allowed, to travel into the West to visit relatives once a year for a maximum of four weeks. If pensioners decided not to return, the government did not miss them as manpower, unlike younger Easterners, who were subject to a system of labour and employment, which demanded almost everybody work in the Eastern command production system. On 2 December 1964 East Germany, always short of hard currency, decreed that every Western visitor had to buy a minimum of 5 Eastern Mark der Deutschen Notenbank per day (MDN, 1964–1968 the official name of the East German mark, to distinguish it from the West Deutsche Mark) at the still held arbitrary compulsory rate of 1:1. The five marks had to be spent, as exporting Eastern currency was illegal, which is why importing it after having bargained for it at the currency market at Zoo station was also illegal.","West Berlin\n\nWestern pensioners and children were spared from the compulsory exchange (officially in , i.e. minimum exchange). Not long after East Germany held the first cash harvest from the new compulsory exchange rules by allowing West Berliners to visit East Berlin once more for a day during the Christmas season. The following year, 1965, East Germany opened the travelling season for West Berliners on 18 December. In 1966 it opened for a second harvest of Western money between the Easter (10 April) and Pentecost (29 May) holidays and later again at Christmas.","West Berlin\n\nThe situation only changed fundamentally after 11 December 1971 when, representing the two German states, the Western Egon Bahr and the Eastern Michael Kohl signed the Transit Agreement. This followed by a comparable agreement for West Berliners, once more allowing regular visits to East Germany and East Berlin.","West Berlin\n\nAfter ratification of the Agreement and specifying the pertaining regulations West Berliners could apply for the first time again for visas for any chosen date to East Berlin or East Germany from 3 October 1972 onwards. If granted, a one-day-visa entitled them to leave the East until 2 am the following day. West Berliners were now spared the visa fee of 5 Western Deutsche Marks, not to be confused with the compulsory exchange amounting to the same sum, but yielding in return 5 Eastern marks. This financial relief did not last long, because on 15 November 1973 East Germany doubled the compulsory exchange to 10 Eastern marks, payable in West German Deutsche Marks at par.","West Berlin\n\nOne-day-visas for East Berlin were now issued in a fast procedure on entering East Berlin; visas for longer stays and visas for East Germany proper needed a prior application, which could be a lengthy procedure. To ease the application for West Berliners seeking such Eastern visas, the GDR Foreign Ministry was later allowed to open Offices for the Affairs of Visits and Travelling () in West Berlin, but were not allowed to show any official symbols of East Germany. The Eastern officials working commuted every morning and evening between East and West Berlin. Their uniforms showed no official symbols except the name Büro für Besuchs- und Reiseangelegenheiten. They accepted visa applications and handed out confirmed visas issued in the East, to the West Berlin applicants. A shed formerly housing one such Büro für Besuchs- und Reiseangelegenheiten can be found on Waterlooufer 5–7 in Berlin-Kreuzberg, close to Hallesches Tor underground station.Wissenswertes über Berlin: Nachschlagewerk für zuziehende Arbeitnehmer von A-Z (11968), Senator für Wirtschaft und Arbeit (ed.), Berlin (West): Senator für Wirtschaft und Arbeit, 121986, p. 117. No ISBN. The disagreement about Berlin's status was one of the most important debates of the Cold War.","West Berlin\n\nAnother form of traffic between East and West Berlin was the transfer of West Berlin's sewage into East Berlin and East Germany through the sewer pipes built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The sewage flowed into the East because most of the pre-war premises for sewage treatment, mostly sewage farms, happened to be in the East after the division of the city. Sewer pipes, however, once discovered as a way to flee the East, were blocked by bars. West Berlin paid for the treatment of its sewage in Western Deutsche Marks which were desperately needed by the Eastern government. Since the methods used in the East did not meet Western standards, West Berlin increased the capacity of modern sewage treatment within its own territory, so that the amount of its sewage treated in the East had considerably reduced by the time the Wall came down. Similar was the situation with refuse. The removal, burning or disposal of the ever-growing amount of West Berlin's rubbish became a costly problem, but here too an agreement was found, since West Berlin would pay in Western Deutsche Marks.","West Berlin\n\nOn 11 December 1974 East Germany and West Berlin's garbage utility company BSR signed a contract to dispose of refuse on a dump right beside the Wall in East German Groß-Ziethen (today a part of Schönefeld). An extra checkpoint, solely open for Western bin lorries (garbage trucks) was opened there. Later a second dump, further away, was opened in Vorketzin, a part of Ketzin.","West Berlin\n\nAs for the S-Bahn, operated in all of Berlin by the East German Reichsbahn, the construction of the Wall meant a deep cut into its integrated network of lines, especially for Berlin's circular S-Bahn line around all of the Western and Eastern inner city. The lines were separated and those mostly located in West Berlin were continued, but only accessible from West Berlin with all access in East Berlin closed. However, even before the Wall had been built, West Berliners increasingly refrained from using the S-Bahn, since boycotts against it were issued, the argument being that every S-Bahn ticket bought provided the GDR government with valuable Western Deutsche Marks.","West Berlin\n\nUsage dropped further as the Western public transport operator BVG (West) offered parallel bus lines and expanded its network of underground lines. After the construction of the Wall usage dropped so much that running the S-Bahn lines in West Berlin turned into a loss-making exercise: wages and maintenance costs – however badly it was carried out – outdid the proceeds from ticket sales. So the Reichsbahn finally agreed to surrender operation of the S-Bahn in West Berlin, as had been determined by all Allies in 1945, and on 29 December 1983 the Allies, the Senate of Berlin (West; i.e. the city state government) and the Reichsbahn signed an agreement to change the operator from Reichsbahn to BVG (West) which took effect on 9 January 1984.","West Berlin\n\nOn 9 November 1989 East Germany opened the borders for East Germans and East Berliners, who could then freely enter West Berlin. West Berlin itself had never restricted their entry. For West Berliners and West Germans the opening of the border for free entry lasted longer. The regulation concerning one-day-visas on entering the East and the compulsory minimum exchange of 25 Western Deutsche Marks by 1989, continued. However, more checkpoints were opened. Finally on 22 December 1989 East Germany granted West Berliners and West Germans free entry without charge at the existing checkpoints, demanding only valid papers. Eastern controls were slowly eased into spot checks and finally abolished on 30 June 1990, the day East and West introduced the union concerning currency, economy and social security ().","West Berlin\n\nTraffic between different parts of West Berlin crossing the East","West Berlin\n\nWhen the Wall was built in 1961, three metro lines starting in northern parts of West Berlin passed through tunnels under the Eastern city centre and ended again in southern parts of West Berlin. The lines concerned were today's underground lines U 6 and U 8 and the S-Bahn line S 2 (today partly also used by other lines). On the sealing off of West Berlin from East Berlin by the Berlin Wall the entrances of the stations on these lines located in East Berlin were shut, however, western trains were allowed to continue to pass through without stopping. Passengers in these trains experienced the empty and barely lit ghost stations where time had stood still since 13 August 1961. West Berlin's public transport operator BVG (West) paid the east an annual charge in Western Deutsche Marks for its underground lines to use the tunnels under East Berlin. U 6 and S 2 also had one subterranean stop at the Eastern Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station, the only station beneath East Berlin where western U Bahn trains were still allowed to stop.","West Berlin\n\nPassengers could change there between U 6, S 2 and the elevated S 3 (then starting and ending in Friedrichstraße) or for the transit trains to West Germany, buy duty-free tobacco and liquor for west marks in GDR run Intershop kiosks, or enter East Berlin through an inbuilt checkpoint.","West Germany\n\nWest Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG () in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border. After 1961, West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states, became known simply as \"Germany\". The FRG during the Cold War is sometimes referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians.","West Germany\n\nThe Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France (the \"Western Zones\"). Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990. The city of Bonn was its ' capital city (Berlin was symbolically named the ' capital city in the West German Basic Law). The fourth Allied occupation zone (the East Zone, or ') was held by the Soviet Union. The parts of this zone lying east of the Oder-Neisse were in fact annexed by the Soviet Union and communist Poland; the remaining central part around Berlin became the communist German Democratic Republic (abbreviated GDR; in German ' or ') with its ' capital in East Berlin. As a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic.","West Germany\n\nAt the onset of the Cold War, Germany (and, indeed, Europe) was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs. Germany was ' divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, considering itself to be the democratically reorganised continuation of the 1871–1945 German Reich. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state. Though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state. From the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate.","West Germany\n\nThree southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, and the Saarland joined the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957. In addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial ' 11th state. While legally not part of the Federal Republic of Germany, as Berlin was under the control of the Allied Control Council, West Berlin aligned itself politically with West Germany and was directly or indirectly represented in its federal institutions.","West Germany\n\nRelations with the Soviet bloc improved during the era of \"\" around 1970, and West Germany began taking the line of \"two German states within one German nation\", but formally maintained the exclusive mandate. It recognised the GDR as a ' government within a single German nation that in turn was represented ' by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries ', and the West as both ' and ' foreign country. The Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other.","West Germany\n\nThe foundation for the influential position held by Germany today was laid during the ' (economic miracle) of the 1950s when West Germany rose from the enormous destruction wrought by World War II to become the world's third largest economy. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for a full alignment with the West rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union. When the G6/G8 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well.","West Germany\n\nWith the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, there was a rapid move towards German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states (') were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin, which ended its special status and formed an additional '. They formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany. The expanded Federal Republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances like NATO and the European Union.","West Germany\n\nNaming conventions","West Germany\n\nThe official name of West Germany, adopted in 1949 and unchanged since, is ' (Federal Republic of Germany). Its abbreviation \"\" (German) or \"FRG\" (English) was sometimes also used.","West Germany\n\nIn East Germany usage, the terms ' (West Germany) or ' (West German Federal Republic) were preferred during the 1950s and 1960s. This changed once East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners foreigners under its 1968 constitution, where the idea of a single German nation was abandoned. In the early 1970s, starting in the East German ', the initialism \"\" (FRG) for the \"Federal Republic of Germany\" began to prevail. In 1973, official East German sources adopted it as a standard expression and other Eastern Bloc nations soon followed suit.","West Germany\n\nIn reaction to this move, in 1965 the Federal Minister of All-German Affairs Erich Mende issued the Directives for the appellation of Germany recommending avoiding the initialism. On 31 May 1974 the heads of German federal and state governments recommended to always use the full name in official publications. From then on West German sources avoided the abbreviated form, with the exception of left-leaning organizations which embraced it. In November 1979 the federal government informed the that the West German public broadcasters and had agreed to refuse to use the initialism.","West Germany\n\nThe colloquial term \"West Germany\" or its equivalent was used in many languages. \"\" was also a widespread colloquial form used in German-speaking countries, usually without political overtones.","West Germany\n\nHistory","West Germany\n\nOn 4–11 February 1945, leaders from the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union held the Yalta Conference where future arrangements as regards post-war Europe and strategy against Japan in the Pacific were negotiated. The conference agreed to split Germany into four occupation zones: a French Zone in the far west; a British Zone in the northwest; an American Zone in the south; and a Soviet Zone in the east. At the time, the intention was not to split Germany, only to designate zones of administration.","West Germany\n\nFormer German areas east of the rivers Oder and Neisse were put under Polish administration. Millions of Germans were expelled and replaced by Poles. In similar fashion, the Soviet Union took over areas of eastern Poland and East Prussia. Between 1946 and 1949, three of the occupation zones began to merge. First, the British and American zones were combined into the quasi-state of Bizonia. Soon afterwards, the French zone was included into Trizonia. At the same time, new federal states (') were formed in the Allied zones, replacing the pre-war states.","West Germany\n\nIn 1949, with the continuation and aggravation of the Cold War (witness the Berlin Airlift of 1948–49), the two German states that were originated in the Western Allied and the Soviet Zones became known internationally as West Germany and East Germany. Commonly known in English as East Germany, the former Soviet Occupation Zone, eventually became the German Democratic Republic or GDR. From 3 October 1990, after the reformation of the GDR's ', the East German states joined the Federal Republic.","West Germany\n\nNATO membership","West Germany\n\nWith territories and frontiers that coincided largely with the ones of old Medieval East Francia and the 19th-century Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine, the Federal Republic of Germany, founded on 23 May 1949, under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions it obtained \"the full authority of a sovereign state\" on 5 May 1955 (although \"full sovereignty\" was not obtained until the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990). The former occupying Western troops remained on the ground, now as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which West Germany joined on 9 May 1955, promising to rearm itself soon.","West Germany\n\nWest Germany became a focus of the Cold War with its juxtaposition to East Germany, a member of the subsequently founded Warsaw Pact. The former capital, Berlin, had been divided into four sectors, with the Western Allies joining their sectors to form West Berlin, while the Soviets held East Berlin. West Berlin was completely surrounded by East German territory and had suffered a Soviet blockade in 1948–49, which was overcome by the Berlin airlift.","West Germany\n\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 led to U.S. calls to rearm West Germany to help defend Western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community proposed to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.","West Germany\n\nThough the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Other means then had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, at the London and Paris Conferences, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm (an idea many Germans rejected), and have full sovereign control of its military, called the . The WEU, however, would regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Also, the German constitution prohibited any military action, except in case of an external attack against Germany or its allies ('). Also, Germans could reject military service on grounds of conscience, and serve for civil purposes instead.","West Germany\n\nThe three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 55,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)","West Germany\n\nReforms during the 1960s","West Germany\n\nKonrad Adenauer was 73 years old when he became chancellor, and for this reason he was initially reckoned as a caretaker. However, he stayed in power for 14 years. The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would nominate Erhard, the architect of the economic miracle. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. He apparently believed that this would allow him to dominate the scene for up to ten more years in spite of the growing mood for change. However, when his advisers informed him that the powers of the president were almost entirely ceremonial, he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, Heinrich Lübke took on the task and was duly elected.","West Germany\n\nIn October 1962, the weekly news magazine ' published an analysis of the West German military defence. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of ' in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis. Adenauer was still wounded by his brief run for president, and this episode damaged his reputation even further. He announced that he would step down in the Fall of 1963. His successor was to be Ludwig Erhard.","West Germany\n\nIn the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate slowed again into a recession, with no growth in 1967.","West Germany\n\nIn order to deal with this problem, a new coalition was formed. Erhard stepped down in 1966 and was succeeded by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He led a grand coalition between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts: the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.","West Germany\n\nDuring the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself ' (\"Democracy in Crisis\") and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967, when the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as '), armed with staves and bricks attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the centre was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain clothed policeman. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, as a massive disruption to life in Berlin, in a massive campaign against the protesters.","West Germany\n\nProtests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigour with which demonstrations were repressed led to mounting militance among the students at the universities in Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.","West Germany\n\nIn the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of the parent-generation in the Nazi era. The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but until a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the concentration camp and about twenty were put on trial in Frankfurt in 1963. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term \"Holocaust\" for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when an American mini-series with that name was shown on German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.","West Germany\n\nThe calling in question of the actions and policies of government led to a new climate of debate. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1977, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Further reforms in 1979 to parental rights law gave equal legal rights to the mother and the father, abolishing the legal authority of the father. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic.","West Germany\n\nAnger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims led to growing militance among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt, they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the \"struggle against imperialism\". The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalising the industrial workers and taking an example from activities in Italy of the Red Brigades ('), many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success.","West Germany\n\nThe most notorious of the underground groups was the \"\", later known as the Red Army Faction which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name \"RAF\". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.","West Germany\n\nPolitical developments 1969–90","West Germany\n\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by Willy Brandt—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Willy Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbours, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries. (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972.) These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long-term to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Europe.","West Germany\n\nChancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.","West Germany\n\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\".","West Germany\n\nIn October 1982, the SPD–FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.","West Germany\n\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD Chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen Vogel. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%.","West Germany\n\nReunification","West Germany\n\nThe official German reunification ceremony on 3 October 1990 was held at the building, including Chancellor Helmut Kohl, President Richard von Weizsäcker, former Chancellor Willy Brandt and many others. One day later, the parliament of the united Germany would assemble in an act of symbolism in the Reichstag building. Germany had split into two places in 1945, after the end of World War Two.","West Germany\n\nHowever, at that time, the role of Berlin had not yet been decided upon. Only after a fierce debate, considered by many as one of the most memorable sessions of parliament, the concluded on 20 June 1991, with quite a slim majority, that both government and parliament should move to Berlin from Bonn.","West Germany\n\nWest German \"economic miracle\"","West Germany\n\nThe West German ' (\"economic miracle\", coined by The Times in 1950) was partly due to the economic aid provided by the United States and the Marshall Plan, but mainly due to the currency reform of 1948 which replaced the with the and halted rampant inflation. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industry finally ended in 1950.","West Germany\n\nIn addition to the physical obstacles that had to be overcome for the German economic recovery (see the Plan) there were also intellectual challenges. The Allies confiscated intellectual privileges of huge value, such as all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Meanwhile, some of the best German researchers were being put to work in the Soviet Union and in the USA.","West Germany\n\nContrary to popular belief, the Marshall Plan, which was extended to include the newly formed West Germany in 1949, was not the main force behind the '. Had that been the case, other countries such as the United Kingdom and France (which both received higher economic assistance from the plan than Germany) should have experienced the same phenomenon. In fact, the amount of monetary aid (which was in the form of loans) received by Germany through the Marshall Plan was far overshadowed by the amount the Germans had to pay back as war reparations and by the charges the Allies exacted from the Germans for the ongoing cost of occupation (about $2.4 billion per year). In 1953 it was decided that Germany was to repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received. The last repayment was made in June 1971.","West Germany\n\nAs demand for consumer goods increased after WWII, the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products. At the time Germany had a large pool of skilled and cheap labour, partly as a result of the flight and expulsion of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe, which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped Germany to more than double the value of its exports during the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population and in the late 1950s and 1960s extra labour supplied by thousands of ' (\"guest workers\") provided a vital base for the economic upturn. This would have implications later on for successive German governments as they tried to assimilate this group of workers.","West Germany\n\nFrom the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the strongest economies in the world, almost as strong as before the Second World War. The East German economy showed a certain growth, but not as much as in West Germany, partly because of continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources.","West Germany\n\nIn 1952, West Germany became part of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union. On 5 May 1955 West Germany was declared to have the \"authority of a sovereign state\". The British, French and U.S. militaries remained in the country, just as the Soviet Army remained in East Germany. Four days after obtaining the \"authority of a sovereign state\" in 1955, West Germany joined NATO. The UK and the USA retained an especially strong presence in West Germany, acting as a deterrent in case of a Soviet invasion. In 1976 West Germany became one of the founding nations of the Group of Six (G6). In 1973, West Germany—home to roughly 1.26% of the world's population—featured the world's fourth largest GDP of 944 billion (5.9% of the world total). In 1987 the FRG held a 7.4% share of total world production.","West Germany\n\nDemographics","West Germany\n\nPopulation","West Germany\n\nTotal population of West Germany from 1950 to 1990, as collected by the .","West Germany\n\nReligion","West Germany\n\nReligious affiliation in West Germany as collected by ().","West Germany\n\n* Protestantism in Germany ()\n* Roman Catholicism in Germany\n* Islam in Germany\n* Central Council of Jews in Germany","West Germany\n\nPosition towards East Germany","West Germany\n\nThe official position of West Germany concerning East Germany was that the West German government was the only democratically elected and therefore the only legitimate representative of the German people. According to the Hallstein Doctrine, any country (with the exception of the USSR) that recognised the authorities of the German Democratic Republic would not have diplomatic relations with West Germany.","West Germany\n\nIn the early 1970s, Willy Brandt's policy of \"\" led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. The Hallstein Doctrine was abolished.","West Germany\n\nThe West German Constitution (', \"Basic Law\") provided two articles for the unification with other parts of Germany:","West Germany\n\n* Article 23 provided the possibility for other parts of Germany to join the Federal Republic (under the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany).\n* Article 146 provided the possibility for unification of all parts of Germany under a new constitution.","West Germany\n\nAfter the peaceful revolution of 1989 in East Germany, the first freely elected East German parliament decided in June 1990 that the ' soon to be re-established would join the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the (West) German Basic Law ('). This made a quick unification possible. In July/August 1990 the East German parliament enacted a law for the re-establishment of ' on the territory of the German Democratic Republic.","West Germany\n\nThe two German states entered into a currency and customs union in July 1990, and on 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic dissolved and the re-established five East German ' (as well as a unified Berlin) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, bringing an end to the East-West divide.","West Germany\n\nPolitics","West Germany\n\nPolitical life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by the united caucus of the Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP) or other right-wing parties.","West Germany\n\nKiesinger's 1966–69 \"Grand Coalition\" was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts—the Grand Coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required to see them in. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.","West Germany\n\nLeading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the FDP, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself (\"Democracy in a State of Emergency\") and the labour unions. Demonstrations and protests grew in number, and in 1967 the student Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head by a policeman. The press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, launched a vast campaign against the protesters and in 1968, believed by some as a result, there was an attempted assassination of one of the top members of the German socialist students' union, Rudi Dutschke.","West Germany\n\nBy 1958, a stronger desire to confront the Nazi past had come into being. In the 1960s environmentalism and anti-nationalism became fundamental values among left-wing Germans. As a result, in 1979 the Greens were able to reach the 5% minimum required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen state election, and with the foundation of the national party in 1980 developed into one of the most politically successful green movements in the world.","West Germany\n\nAnother result of the unrest in the 1960s was the founding of the Red Army Faction (RAF). The RAF was active from 1968, carrying out a succession of terrorist attacks in West Germany during the 1970s. Even in the 1990s, attacks were still being committed under the name RAF. The last action took place in 1993, and in 1998 the group announced it was ceasing activities.","West Germany\n\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. SPD leader and Chancellor Willy Brandt remained head of government until May 1974, when he resigned after the Guillaume Affair, in which a senior member of his staff was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . However the affair is widely considered to have been merely a trigger for Brandt's resignation, not a fundamental cause. Instead, Brandt, dogged by scandal relating to alcohol and depression as well as the economic fallout of the 1973 oil crisis, almost seems simply to have had enough. As Brandt himself later said, \"I was exhausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the process going on at the time\".","West Germany\n\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) then formed a government, continuing the SPD–FDP coalition. He served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, was Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the same years. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\".","West Germany\n\nThe goals of SPD and FDP however drifted apart in the late 1970s and early 1980s. On 1 October 1982, the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, because of the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.","West Germany\n\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. The Social Democrats concluded that not only were the Greens unlikely to form a coalition, but also that such a coalition would be far from a majority. Neither condition changed until 1998.","West Germany\n\nCulture","West Germany\n\nIn many aspects, German culture continued in spite of the dictatorship and wartime. Old and new forms coexisted next to each other, and the American influence, already strong in the 1920s, grew.","West Germany\n\nSport","West Germany\n\nIn the 20th century, association football became the largest sport in Germany. The Germany national football team, established in 1900, continued its tradition based in the Federal Republic of Germany, winning the 1954 FIFA World Cup in a stunning upset dubbed the miracle of Bern. Earlier, the German team was not considered part of the international top. The 1974 FIFA World Cup was held in West German cities and West Berlin. After having been beaten by their East German counterparts in the first round, the team of the German Football Association won the cup again, defeating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final. With the process of unification in full swing in the summer of 1990, the Germans won a third World Cup, with players that had been capped for East Germany not yet permitted to contribute. European championships have been won too, in 1972, 1980 and 1996.","West Germany\n\nAfter both Olympic Games of 1936 had been held in Germany, Munich was selected to host the 1972 Summer Olympics. These were also the first summer games in which the East Germans showed up with the separate flag and anthem of the GDR. Since the 1950s, Germany at the Olympics had been represented by a united team led by the pre-war German NOC officials as the IOC had denied East German demands for a separate team.","West Germany\n\nAs in 1957, when the Saarland acceded, East German sport organisations ceased to exist in late 1990 as their subdivisions and their members joined their Western counterparts. Thus, the present German organisations and teams in football, Olympics and elsewhere are identical to those that had been informally called \"West German\" before 1991. The only differences were a larger membership and a different name used by some foreigners. These organisations and teams in turn mostly continued the traditions of those that represented Germany before the Second World War, and even the First World War, thus providing a century-old continuity despite political changes. On the other hand, the separate East German teams and organisations were founded in the 1950s; they were an episode lasting less than four decades, yet quite successful in that time.","West Germany\n\nLiterary scene","West Germany\n\nBesides the interest in the older generation of writers, new authors emerged on the background of the experiences of war and after war period. Wolfgang Borchert, a former soldier who died young in 1947, is one of the best known representatives of the . Heinrich Böll is considered an observer of the young Federal Republic from the 1950s to the 1970s, and caused some political controversies because of his increasingly critical view on society. The Frankfurt Book Fair (and its Peace Prize of the German Book Trade) soon developed into a regarded institution. Exemplary for West Germany's literature are – among others – Siegfried Lenz (with The German Lesson) and Günter Grass (with The Tin Drum and The Flounder).","West Germany\n\nDaily life","West Germany\n\nDuring the 40 years of separation some divergence occurred in the cultural life of the two parts of the severed nation. Both West Germany and East Germany followed along traditional paths of the common German culture, but West Germany, being obviously more affected by influences from western Europe and North America, became more cosmopolitan. Conversely, East Germany, while remaining more conservative than West Germany in its adherence to some aspects of the received tradition, was strongly moulded by the dictates of a state socialist ideology of predominantly Soviet inspiration. On the non-political level, East Germany was also influenced by the Eastern Bloc's Slavic cultures that manifested in art, culinary scene, and sports. Nevertheless, young East Germans were also fascinated by Western and particularly American culture, which they had a degree of access to in a variety of ways, not least through West German television and radio, whose broadcasts reached many parts of the country.","West Germany\n\nFor the majority of Germans in present-day Germany who lived in pre-reunification West Germany, there has been minimal change in daily life stemming from German reunification as the reunified country is essentially West Germany incorporating East Germany on a West German base. In contrast, for East Germans the scale of change has been sweeping in all aspects of life from that before '. Although movements like ' exist attempting to celebrate and preserve parts of the GDR culture, since reunification the former East Germany has been converging towards the western part of the country in most parts of daily life.","West Germany\n\nGeographical distribution of government","West Germany\n\nIn West Germany, most of the political agencies and buildings were located in Bonn, while the German Stock Market was located in Frankfurt am Main, which became the economic center. The judicial branch of both the German Federal Constitutional Court (') and the highest Court of Appeals, were located in Karlsruhe.","West Germany\n\nThe West German government was known to be much more decentralised than its state socialist East German counterpart, the former being a federal state and the latter a unitary one. Whilst East Germany was divided into 15 administrative districts ('), which were merely local branches of the national government, West Germany was divided into states (') with independently elected state parliaments and control of the , the second legislative chamber of the Federal Government.","West Germany\n\nPresent geographical and political terminology","West Germany\n\nToday, North Rhine-Westphalia is often considered to be Western Germany in geographical terms. When distinguishing between former West Germany and former East Germany as parts of present-day unified Germany, it has become most common to refer to the ' (old states) and the ' (new states), although ' and ' are still heard as well."],"string":"[\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany (; ,), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a sovereign state and federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. Its capital and largest city is Berlin. With about 81.8 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular human migration destination.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nVarious Germanic tribes have occupied the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity. A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.The Latin name Sacrum Imperium (Holy Empire) is documented as far back as 1157. The Latin name Sacrum Romanum Imperium (Holy Roman Empire) was first documented in 1254. The full name \\\"Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation\\\" (Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation) dates back to the 15th century. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 1871 most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic. The establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and systematic genocide. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded: the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. In 1990, the country was reunified.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 21st century, Germany is a great power and has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the fifth-largest by PPP. As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the world's third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society. It upholds a social security and universal health care system, environmental protection and a tuition-free university education.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany was a founding member of the European Union in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. Known for its rich cultural history, Germany has been continuously the home of influential artists, philosophers, musicians, sportspeople, entrepreneurs, scientists and inventors.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEtymology\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. The German term Deutschland, originally diutisciu land (\\\"the German lands\\\") is derived from deutsch (cf. dutch), descended from Old High German diutisc \\\"popular\\\" (i.e. belonging to the diot or diota \\\"people\\\"), originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz \\\"popular\\\" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- \\\"people\\\".\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a coal mine in Schöningen where three 380,000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed. The Neander Valley was the location where the first ever non-modern human fossil was discovered; the new species of human was called the Neanderthal. The Neanderthal 1 fossils are known to be 40,000 years old. Evidence of modern humans, similarly dated, has been found in caves in the Swabian Jura near Ulm. The finds include 42,000-year-old bird bone and mammoth ivory flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found, the 40,000-year-old Ice Age Lion Man which is the oldest uncontested figurative art ever discovered, and the 35,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels which is the oldest uncontested human figurative art ever discovered. The Nebra sky disk is a bronze artifact created during the European Bronze Age attributed to a site near Nebra, Saxony-Anhalt. It is part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermanic tribes and Frankish Empire\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Central and Eastern Europe. Under Augustus, Rome began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In 9 AD, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By 100 AD, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, Baden Württemberg, southern Bavaria, southern Hessen and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands. After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced or absorbed smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia, Neustria, and Aquitaine were conquered by the Franks who established the Frankish Kingdom, and pushed further east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria. Areas of what is today the eastern part of Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes of Sorbs, Veleti and the Obotritic confederation.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEast Francia and Holy Roman Empire\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor and founded the Carolingian Empire, which was later divided in 843 among his heirs. Following the break up of the Frankish Realm, for 900 years, the history of Germany was intertwined with the history of the Holy Roman Empire, which subsequently emerged from the eastern portion of Charlemagne's original empire. The territory initially known as East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe River in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies and the German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. In 996 Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 12th century, under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs; they encouraged German settlement in these areas, called the eastern settlement movement (Ostsiedlung). Members of the Hanseatic League, which included mostly north German cities and towns, prospered in the expansion of trade. In the south, the Greater Ravensburg Trade Corporation (Große Ravensburger Handelsgesellschaft) served a similar function. The edict of the Golden Bull issued in 1356 by Emperor Charles IV provided the basic constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nPopulation declined in the first half of the 14th century, starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–50. Despite the decline, however, German artists, engineers, and scientists developed a wide array of techniques similar to those used by the Italian artists and designers of the time who flourished in such merchant city-states as Venice, Florence and Genoa. Artistic and cultural centers throughout the German states produced such artists as the Augsburg painters Hans Holbein and his son, and Albrecht Dürer. Johannes Gutenberg introduced moveable-type printing to Europe, a development that laid the basis for the spread of learning to the masses.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 1517, the Wittenberg monk Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as an acceptable alternative to Catholicism, but also decreed that the faith of the prince was to be the faith of his subjects, a principle called Cuius regio, eius religio. The agreement at Augsburg failed to address other religious creed: for example, the Reformed faith was still considered a heresy and the principle did not address the possible conversion of an ecclesiastic ruler, such as happened in Electorate of Cologne in 1583. From the Cologne War until the end of the Thirty Years' Wars (1618–1648), religious conflict devastated German lands. The latter reduced the overall population of the German states by about 30 percent, and in some places, up to 80 percent. The Peace of Westphalia ended religious warfare among the German states. German rulers were able to choose either Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism or the Reformed faith as their official religion after 1648.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire consisted of approximately 1,800 territories. The elaborate legal system initiated by a series of Imperial Reforms (approximately 1450–1555) created the Imperial Estates and provided for considerable local autonomy among ecclesiastical, secular, and hereditary states, reflected in Imperial Diet. The House of Habsburg held the imperial crown from 1438 until the death of Charles VI in 1740. Having no male heirs, he had convinced the Electors to retain Habsburg hegemony in the office of the emperor by agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction. This was finally settled through the War of Austrian Succession; in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Maria Theresa's husband became Holy Roman Emperor, and she ruled the Empire as Empress Consort. From 1740, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated the German states in the 18th century. As a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars, and the subsequent final meeting of the Imperial Diet, most of the secular Free Imperial Cities were annexed by dynastic territories; the ecclesiastical territories were secularized and annexed. In 1806 the Imperium was dissolved; German states, particularly the Rhineland states, fell under the influence of France.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nUntil 1815, France, Russia, Prussia and the Habsburgs competed for hegemony in the German states during the Napoleonic Wars.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman Confederation and Empire\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nFollowing the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (convened in 1814) founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. The appointment of the Emperor of Austria as the permanent president of the Confederation reflected the Congress's failure to accept Prussia's influence among the German states, and acerbated the long-standing competition between the Hohenzollern and Habsburg interests. Disagreement within restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states. National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. The Hambach Festival in May 1832 was a main event in support of German unity, freedom and democracy. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nKing William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Minister President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck successfully concluded war on Denmark in 1864, which promoted German over Danish interests in the Jutland peninsula. The subsequent (and decisive) Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) which excluded Austria from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the founding of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria. Prussia was the dominant constituent state of the new empire; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course, leading to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed. This resulted in creation of a dual alliance with the multinational realm of Austria-Hungary, promoting at least benevolent neutrality if not outright military support. Subsequently, the Triple Alliance of 1882 included Italy, completing a Central European geographic alliance that illustrated German, Austrian and Italian fears of incursions against them by France and/or Russia. Similarly, Britain, France and Russia also concluded alliances that would protect them against Habsburg interference with Russian interests in the Balkans or German interference against France.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAt the Berlin Conference in 1884, Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon. Later, Germany further expanded its colonial empire to include German New Guinea, German Micronesia and German Samoa in the Pacific. In what became known as the \\\"First Genocide of the Twentieth-Century\\\", between 1904 and 1907, the German colonial government in South-West Africa (present-day Namibia) ordered the annihilation of the local Heroro and Namaqua peoples, as a punitive measure for an uprising against German colonial rule. In total, around 100,000 people—80% of the Herero and 50% of the Namaqua—perished form imprisonment in concentration camps, where the majority died of disease, abuse, and exhaustion, or from dehydration and starvation in the countryside after being deprived of food and water.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for the Austrian Empire to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed, a general armistice ended the fighting on 11 November, and German troops returned home. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated their positions and responsibilities. Germany's new political leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. In this treaty, Germany, as part of the Central Powers, accepted defeat by the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating and unjust and it was later seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler. After the defeat in the First World War, Germany lost around thirteen percent of its European territory (areas predominantly inhabited by ethnic Polish, French and Danish populations, which were lost following the Greater Poland Uprising, the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and the Schleswig plebiscites), and all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the South Sea.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nWeimar Republic and Nazi Germany\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany was declared a republic at the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918. On 11 August 1919 President Friedrich Ebert signed the democratic Weimar Constitution. In the subsequent struggle for power, the radical-left Communists seized power in Bavaria, but conservative elements in other parts of Germany attempted to overthrow the Republic in the Kapp Putsch. It was supported by parts of the Reichswehr (military) and other conservative, nationalistic and monarchist factions. After a tumultuous period of bloody street fighting in the major industrial centers, the occupation of the Ruhr by Belgian and French troops and the rise of inflation culminating in the hyperinflation of 1922–23, a debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of increasing artistic innovation and liberal cultural life. Underneath it all, though, lay a current of animosity and frustration over the Treaty of Versailles, widely perceived as a stab in the back, which provided the basis of much of the anti-Semetism rife in the next two decades. The economic situation remained volatile. Historians describe the period between 1924 and 1929 as one of \\\"partial stabilization.\\\" The world-wide Great Depression hit Germany in 1929.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAfter the federal election of 1930, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning's government was enabled by President Paul von Hindenburg to act without parliamentary approval. Brüning's government pursued a policy of fiscal austerity and deflation which caused high unemployment of nearly 30% by 1932.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe Nazi Party won the special federal election of 1932. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany in 1933. After the Reichstag fire, a decree abrogated basic civil rights and within weeks the first Nazi concentration camp at Dachau opened. The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power; subsequently, his government established a centralised totalitarian state, withdrew from the League of Nations following a national referendum, and began military rearmament.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nUsing deficit spending, a government-sponsored program for economic renewal focused on public works projects. In public work projects of 1934, 1.7 million Germans immediately were put to work, which gave them an income and social benefits. The most famous of the projects was the high speed roadway, the Reichsautobahn, known as the German autobahns. Other capital construction projects included such hydroelectric facilities as the Rur Dam, such water supplies as Zillierbach Dam, and such transportation hubs as Zwickau Hauptbahnhof. Over the next five years, unemployment plummeted and average wages both per hour and per week rose.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities. Germany also reacquired control of the Saar in 1935, annexed Austria in 1938, and occupied Czechoslovakia in early 1939.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn August 1939, Hitler's government signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact with Stalin that divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence. Following the agreement, on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. In response to Hitler's actions, Britain and France declared war on Germany. In the spring of 1940, Germany conquered Denmark and Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France forcing the French government to sign an armistice after German troops occupied most of the country. The British repelled German air attacks in the same year. In 1941, German troops invaded Yugoslavia, Greece and the Soviet Union. By 1942, Germany and other Axis powers controlled most of continental Europe and North Africa, but following the Soviet Union's victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, the allies' reconquest of North Africa and invasion of Italy in 1943, German forces suffered repeated military defeats. In June 1944, the Western allies landed in France and the Soviets pushed into Eastern Europe. By late 1944, the Western allies had entered Germany despite one final German counter offensive in the Ardennes Forest.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nFollowing Hitler's suicide during the Battle of Berlin, German armed forces surrendered on 8 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn what later became known as The Holocaust, the German government persecuted minorities and used a network of concentration and death camps across Europe to conduct a genocide of what they considered to be inferior races. In total, over 10 million civilians were systematically murdered, including 6 million Jews, between 220,000 and 1,500,000 Romani, 275,000 persons with disabilities, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses, thousands of homosexuals, and hundreds of thousands of members of the political and religious opposition. Nazi policies in the German occupied countries resulted in the deaths of 2.7 million Poles, 1.3 million Ukrainians, and an estimated 2.8 million Soviet war prisoners. German military war casualties were estimated at between 3.2 million and 5.3 million soldiers, and up to 2 million German civilians. German territorial losses resulted in the expulsion of circa 12 million of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe. Germany ceded roughly one-quarter of its pre-war territory. Strategic bombing and land warfare destroyed many cities and cultural heritage sites. After World War II, former members of the Nazi regime were tried for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEast and West Germany\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAfter Germany surrendered, the Allies partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik). They were informally known as \\\"West Germany\\\" and \\\"East Germany\\\". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nWest Germany was established as a federal parliamentary republic with a \\\"social market economy\\\". Starting in 1948 West Germany became a major recipient of reconstruction aid under the Marshall Plan and used this to rebuild its industry. Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) of Germany in 1949 and remained in office until 1963. Under his and Ludwig Erhard's leadership, the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s, that became known as an \\\"economic miracle\\\" (Wirtschaftswunder). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEast Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service controlling many aspects of the society. A Soviet-style command economy was set up and the GDR later became a Comecon state.\\\"Germany (East)\\\", Library of Congress Country Study, [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/germany_east/gx_appnb.html Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War. It was the site of Ronald Reagan's \\\"Mr. Gorbachov, Tear down this wall!\\\" speech of 12 June 1987, which echoed John F. Kennedy's famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech of 26 June 1963.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, German Reunification and Die Wende.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nTensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's . In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nReunified Germany and EU\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic of Germany and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in international organizations. Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted in 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries. The relocation of the government was completed in 1999. Following the 1998 elections, SPD politician Gerhard Schröder became the first Chancellor of a red–green coalition with the Alliance '90/The Greens party.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nSince reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union. Together with its European partners Germany signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, established the Eurozone in 1999, and signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban. These deployments were controversial since Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 2005 elections, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition. In 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 2009, a liberal-conservative coalition under Merkel assumed leadership of the country. In 2013, a grand coalition was established in a Third Merkel cabinet. Among the major German political projects of the early 21st century are the advancement of European integration, the energy transition (Energiewende) for a sustainable energy supply, the \\\"Debt Brake\\\" for balanced budgets, measures to increase the fertility rate significantly (pronatalism), and high-tech strategies for the future transition of the German economy, summarized as Industry 4.0.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany was affected by the European migrant crisis in 2015 as it became the final destination of choice for most migrants entering the EU. The country took in over a million refugees and developed a quota system which redistributed migrants around its federal states based on their tax income and existing population density.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGeography\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is in Western and Central Europe, with Denmark bordering to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, Switzerland to the south-southwest, France, Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west, and the Netherlands to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N and longitudes 5° and 16° E. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. With Switzerland and Austria, Germany also shares a border on the fresh-water Lake Constance, the third largest lake in Central Europe. German territory covers 357021 km2, consisting of 349223 km2 of land and 7798 km2 of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nElevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2962 m) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Germany's alpine glaciers are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nClimate\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMost of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of 789 mm of precipitation per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are mild and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed 30 °C.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe east has a more continental climate: winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and longer dry periods can occur. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, with lower temperatures and more precipitation.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nBiodiversity\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine. the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nPlants and animals include those generally common to Central Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one-third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include roe deer, wild boar, mouflon (a subspecies of wild sheep), fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of the Eurasian beaver. The blue cornflower was once a German national symbol.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe 14 national parks in Germany include the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Harz National Park, the Hainich National Park, the Black Forest National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park, the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. In addition, there are 14 Biosphere Reserves, as well as 98 nature parks. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country. The Berlin Zoo, opened in 1844, is the oldest zoo in Germany, and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nUrbanization\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions in Germany. 34 cities have been identified as regiopolis. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million ), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Bonn, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe president, Joachim Gauck (18 March 2012–present), is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe chancellor, Angela Merkel (22 November 2005–present), is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member). The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nSince 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany. So far every chancellor has been a member of one of these parties. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (in parliament from 1949 to 2013) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe debt-to-GDP ratio of Germany had its peak in 2010 when it stood at 80.3% and decreased since then. According to Eurostat, the government gross debt of Germany amounts to €2,152.0 billion or 71.9% of its GDP in 2015. The federal government achieved a budget surplus of €12.1 billion ($13.1 billion) in 2015. Germany's credit rating by credit rating agencies Standard & Poor's, Moody's and Fitch Ratings stands at the highest possible rating AAA with a stable outlook in 2016.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nLaw\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCriminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public. Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (') sit side by side with professional judges. Many of the fundamental matters of administrative law remain in the jurisdiction of the states.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nConstituent states\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany comprises sixteen federal states which are collectively referred to as Bundesländer. Each state has its own state constitution and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Because of differences in size and population the subdivisions of these states vary, especially as between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). Germany is divided into 402 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nForeign relations\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries. it is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%) and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%). Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighboring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. It is the world's third biggest aid donor in 2009 after the United States and France.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since 1945. The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies. Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMilitary\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organised into Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world. In 2015, military spending was at €32.9 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nthe Bundeswehr employed roughly 178,000 service members, including 9,500 volunteers. Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad. Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction. About 19,000 female soldiers are on active duty. According to SIPRI, Germany was the fourth largest exporter of major arms in the world in 2014.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994 the term \\\"defense\\\" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. , the German military has about 2,370 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 850 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 670 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 120 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nUntil 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. In 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEconomy\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation. It is the world's third largest exporter of goods, and has the largest national economy in Europe which is also the world's fourth largest by nominal GDP[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2195.html Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate)] and the fifth one by PPP.[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html Field listing – GDP (PPP exchange rate)]\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP (including information technology), industry 28%, and agriculture 1%. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 4.7% in January 2015, which is the lowest rate of all 28 EU member states. With 7.1% Germany also has the lowest youth unemployment rate of all EU member states. According to the OECD Germany has one of the highest labour productivity levels in the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is part of the European single market which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro in 2002. It is a member of the Eurozone which represents around 338 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt, the financial centre of continental Europe.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nBeing home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world, and is the fourth largest by production. The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCompanies\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nOf the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2014, the Fortune Global 500, 28 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, and DHL.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions. Berlin developed a thriving, cosmopolitan hub for startup companies and became a leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe list includes the largest German companies by revenue in 2014:\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nTransport\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nWith its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent. Like its neighbours in Western Europe, Germany's road network is among the densest in the world. The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third-largest worldwide in length and is known for its lack of a general speed limit.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km/h (186 mph). The German railways are subsidised by the government, receiving €17.0 billion in 2014.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle. The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEnergy and infrastructure\",\n \"Germany\\n\\n, Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation. The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU . The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nScience and technology\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany's achievements in the sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy. The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 104 German laureates. In the beginning of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nNotable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Albert Einstein introduced the relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays. Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, including Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer. Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. German institutions like the German Aerospace Center (DLR) are the largest contributor to ESA. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nResearch institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Wendelstein 7-X in Greifswald hosts a facility in the research of fusion power for instance. The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nTourism\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is the seventh most visited country in the world, with a total of 407 million overnights during 2012. This number includes 68.83 million nights by foreign visitors. In 2012, over 30.4 million international tourists arrived in Germany. Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe. Additionally, more than 30% of Germans spend their holiday in their own country, with the biggest share going to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over EUR43.2 billion to German GDP. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry contributes 4.5% of German GDP and supports 2 million jobs (4.8% of total employment).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is well known for its diverse tourist routes, such as the Romantic Road, the Wine Route, the Castle Road, and the Avenue Road. The German Timber-Frame Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) connects towns with examples of these structures. There are 40 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Germany, including the old town cores of Regensburg, Bamberg, Lübeck, Quedlinburg, Weimar, Stralsund and Wismar. Germany's most-visited landmarks include i. e. Neuschwanstein Castle, Cologne Cathedral, Berlin Bundestag, Hofbräuhaus Munich, Heidelberg Castle, Dresden Zwinger, Fernsehturm Berlin and Aachen Cathedral. The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second most popular theme park resort.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nWith a population of 80.2 million according to the 2011 census, rising to 81.5 million as at 30 June 2015 and to at least 81.9 million as at 31 December 2015, Germany is the most populous country in the European Union, the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and ranks as the 16th most populous country in the world. Its population density stands at 227 inhabitants per square kilometre (588 per square mile). The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 80.19 years (77.93 years for males and 82.58 years for females). The fertility rate of 1.41 children born per woman (2011 estimates), or 8.33 births per 1000 inhabitants, is one of the lowest in the world. Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has exceeded its birth rate. However, Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s, particularly a rise in the number of well-educated migrants.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nFour sizable groups of people are referred to as \\\"national minorities\\\" because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries. There is a Danish minority (about 50,000) in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein. The Sorbs, a Slavic population of about 60,000, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg. The Roma and Sinti live throughout the whole federal territory and the Frisians live on Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nApproximately 5 million Germans live abroad.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nImmigrant population\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 2014, about seven million of Germany's 81 million residents did not have German citizenship. Ninety-six percent of these people lived in western Germany and mostly in urban areas.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 1960s and 1970s, the German governments invited \\\"guest workers\\\" (Gastarbeiter) to migrate to Germany for work in the German industries. Many companies preferred to keep these workers employed in Germany after they had trained them and Germany's immigrant population has steadily increased. , about six million foreign citizens (7.7% of the population) were registered in Germany.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe Federal Statistical Office classifies the citizens by immigrant background. Regarding immigrant background, 20% of the country's residents, or more than 16 million people, were of immigrant or partially immigrant descent in 2009 (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates). In 2010, 29% of families with children under 18 had at least one parent with immigrant roots.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 2015, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants. Germany ranks 7th amongst EU countries and 37th globally in terms of the percentage of migrants who made up part of the country's population. , the largest national group was from Turkey (2,859,000), followed by Poland (1,617,000), Russia (1,188,000), and Italy (764,000). Since 1987, around 3 million ethnic Germans, mostly from the former Eastern Bloc countries, have exercised their right of return and emigrated to Germany.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nSince its foundation in 1871, Germany has been about two-thirds Protestant and one-third Roman Catholic, with a notable Jewish minority. Other faiths were also present, but to a much lesser degree. The religious makeup changed gradually in the decades following 1945, with West Germany becoming more religiously diversified through immigration and East Germany becoming overwhelmingly irreligious through state policies. It continues to diversify after the German reunification in 1990.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAccording to the 2011 German Census, Christianity is the largest religion in Germany, claiming 66.8% of the total population. Relative to the whole population, 31.7% declared themselves as Protestants, including members of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) (30.8%) and the free churches () (0.9%), and 31.2% declared themselves as Roman Catholics. Orthodox believers constituted 1.3%, while Jews–0.1%. Other religions accounted for 2.7%. In 2014, the Catholic Church accounted for 23.9 million members (29.5% of the population)[http://www.dbk.de/fileadmin/redaktion/Zahlen%20und%20Fakten/Kirchliche%20Statistik/Bevoelkerung%20und%20Katholiken%20BL/2014-Tabelle-Bevoelkerung-Katholiken-Laender.pdf Official membership statistics of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany 2014/15], retrieved 20. June 2016 and the Evangelical Church for 22.6 million (27.9% of the population).[http://www.ekd.de/download/kirchenmitglieder_2014.pdf Official membership statistics of the Evangelical Church in Germany 2014], retrieved 05. June 2016 Both large churches have lost significant number of adherents in recent years.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGeographically, Protestantism is concentrated in the northern, central and eastern parts of the country. These are mostly members of the EKD, which encompasses Lutheran, Reformed and unions of both traditions dating back to the Prussian Union of 1817. Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn 2011, 33% of Germans were not members of officially recognised religious associations with special status. Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIslam is the second largest religion in the country. In the 2011 census, 1.9% of Germans declared themselves to be Muslims. More recent estimation suppose, there are between 2.1 and 4 million Muslims living in Germany. Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nOther religions comprising less than one percent of Germany's population are Buddhism with 250,000 adherents (roughly 0.3%) and Hinduism with some 100,000 adherents (0.1%). All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 adherents each.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nLanguages\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany. It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission. German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nRecognized native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Kurdish, Polish, the Balkan languages, and Russian. Germans are typically multilingual: 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nStandard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside Low German, Dutch, Frisian and English languages. To a lesser extent, it is also related to the East Germanic (extinct) and North Germanic languages. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek, with a smaller amount from French and most recently English (known as Denglisch). German is written using the Latin alphabet. German dialects, traditional local varieties traced back to the Germanic tribes, are distinguished from varieties of standard German by their lexicon, phonology, and syntax.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nEducation\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nResponsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual federal states. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four to six years. Secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the Realschule for intermediate students lasts six years and the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education. The Gesamtschule unifies all secondary education.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nA system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree. It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school. This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMost of the German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment. The general requirement for university is the Abitur. However, there are a number of exceptions, depending on the state, the college and the subject. Tuition free academic education is open to international students and is increasingly common. \\nAccording to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany has a long tradition of higher education reflecting the global status as a modern economy. The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386) being the oldest. It is followed by the Leipzig University (1409), the Rostock University (1419) and the Greifswald University (1456). The University of Berlin, founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, became the academic model for many European and Western universities. In the contemporary era Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence: Humboldt University Berlin, the University of Bremen, the University of Cologne, TU Dresden, the University of Tübingen, RWTH Aachen, FU Berlin, Heidelberg University, the University of Konstanz, LMU Munich, and the Technical University of Munich.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany's system of hospices, called spitals, dates from medieval times, and today, Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s, Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system. Currently the population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract. According to the World Health Organization, Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded . In 2005, Germany spent 11% of its GDP on health care. Germany ranked 20th in the world in life expectancy with 77 years for men and 82 years for women, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\n, the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 41%, followed by malignant tumours, at 26%. \\n, about 82,000 Germans had been infected with HIV/AIDS and 26,000 had died from the disease (cumulatively, since 1982).This article may incorporate text from this source, which is in the public domain.\\nAccording to a 2005 survey, 27% of German adults are smokers. Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue. A 2007 study shows Germany has the highest number of overweight people in Europe.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCulture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular. Historically Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und Denker (\\\"the land of poets and thinkers\\\"), because of the major role its writers and philosophers have played in the development of Western thought.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is well known for such folk festival traditions as Oktoberfest and Christmas customs, which include Advent wreaths, Christmas pageants, Christmas trees, Stollen cakes, and other practices. UNESCO inscribed 40 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List. There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the Tag der Deutschen Einheit (German Unity Day).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nIn the 21st century Berlin has emerged as a major international creative center. According to the Anholt–GfK Nation Brands Index, in 2014 Germany was the world's most respected nation among 50 countries (ahead of US, UK, and France). A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMusic\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers. Dieterich Buxtehude composed oratorios for organ, which influenced the later work of Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel; these men were influential composers of the Baroque period. During his tenure as violinist and teacher at the Salzburg cathedral, Augsburg-born composer Leopold Mozart mentored one of the most noted musicians of all time: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn were important in the early Romantic period. Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms composed in the Romantic idiom. Richard Wagner was known for his operas. Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Hans Zimmer are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is the second largest music market in Europe, and fourth largest in the world. German popular music of the 20th and 21st century includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle, pop, Ostrock, heavy metal/rock, punk, pop rock, indie and schlager pop. German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre. DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known (e.g. Robin Schulz, Paul van Dyk, Paul Kalkbrenner, and Scooter).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nArt\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman painters have influenced western art. Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance, Peter Paul Rubens and Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque, Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism, Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism.Marzona, Daniel. (2005) Conceptual Art. Cologne: Taschen. Various pages Such German sculptors as Otto Schmidt-Hofer, Franz Iffland, and Julius Schmidt-Felling made important contributions to German art history in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nSeveral German art groups formed in the 20th century, such as the November Group or Die Brücke (The Bridge) and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), by the Russian-born Wassily Kandinsky, influenced the development of Expressionism in Munich and Berlin. The New Objectivity arose as a counter-style to it during the Weimar Republic. Post-World War II art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Neo-expressionism, performance art and Conceptualism. Especially notable neo-expressionists include Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg Immendorff, A. R. Penck, Markus Lüpertz, Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting. Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger, Gerhard Richter, Sigmar Polke, and Neo Rauch. Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hanne Darboven, Hans-Peter Feldmann, Hans Haacke, Joseph Beuys, HA Schult, Aris Kalaizis, Neo Rauch (New Leipzig School) and Andreas Gursky (photography). Major art exhibitions and festivals in Germany are the documenta, the Berlin Biennale, transmediale and Art Cologne.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nArchitecture\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nArchitectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque. Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany. Also in Renaissance and Baroque art, regional and typically German elements evolved (e.g. Weser Renaissance and Dresden Baroque). Among many renowned Baroque masters were Pöppelmann, Balthasar Neumann, Knobelsdorff and the Asam brothers. The Wessobrunner School exerted a decisive influence on, and at times even dominated, the art of stucco in southern Germany in the 18th century. The Upper Swabian Baroque Route offers a baroque-themed tourist route that highlights the contributions of such artists and craftsmen as the sculptor and plasterer Johann Michael Feuchtmayer, one of the foremost members of the Feuchtmayer family and the brothers Johann Baptist Zimmermann and Dominikus Zimmermann. Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing (Fachwerk) traditions and varies across regions, and among carpentry styles.Wilhelm Süvern: 1971. Torbögen und Inschriften lippischer Fachwerkhäuser in Volume 7 of Heimatland Lippe. Lippe Heimatbund: 1971. 48 pagesHeinrich Stiewe: 2007. Fachwerkhäuser in Deutschland: Konstruktion, Gestalt und Nutzung vom Mittelalter bis heute. Primus Verlag: 2007. ISBN 978-3-89678-589-3. 160 pages\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nWhen industrialisation spread across Europe, Classicism and a distinctive style of historism developed in Germany, sometimes referred to as Gründerzeit style, due to the economical boom years at the end of the 19th century. Regional historicist styles include the Hanover School, Nuremberg Style and Dresden's Semper-Nicolai School. Among the most famous of German buildings, the Schloss Neuschwanstein represents Romanesque Revival. Notable sub-styles that evolved since the 18th century are the German spa and seaside resort architecture. German artists, writers and gallerists like Siegfried Bing, Georg Hirth and Bruno Möhring also contributed to the development of Art Nouveau at the turn of the 20th century, known as Jugendstil in German.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nExpressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles, with e.g. Fritz Höger, Erich Mendelsohn, Dominikus Böhm and Fritz Schumacher being influential architects. Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement: it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius (New Objectivity), and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius. Consequently, Germany is often considered the cradle of modern architecture and design. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived of the glass façade skyscraper. Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Hans Kollhoff, Sergei Tchoban, KK Architekten, Helmut Jahn, Behnisch, GMP, Ole Scheeren, J. Mayer H., OM Ungers, Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto (the last two being Pritzker Prize winners).\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nLiterature and philosophy\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level. The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language, grounding their work in historical principles; their Deutsches Wörterbuch, or German Dictionary, sometimes called the Grimm dictionary, was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854.History of the Deutsches Wörterbuch from the [http://150-grimm.bbaw.de/start.htm DWB 150th Anniversary Exhibition and Symposium], Berlin: Humboldt-Universität, 2004. , retrieved 27 June 2012.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nInfluential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass. The German book market is the third largest in the world, after the United States and China. The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years, also the Leipzig Book Fair retains a major position in Europe.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman philosophy is historically significant: Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; the development of the Frankfurt school by Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas have been particularly influential; and Oswald Spengler's historical philosophy, including his book The Decline of the West, in which he predicts the fall of the western European civilization and describes the Germanic culture as Faustian.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMedia\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are the Bertelsmann enterprise, Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media. The German Press Agency DPA is also significant. Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 38 million TV households. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels. There are more than 500 public and private radio stations in Germany, with the public Deutsche Welle being the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages. Germany's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio while ARD stations are covering local services.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMany of Europe's best-selling newspapers and magazines are produced in Germany. The papers (and internet portals) with the highest circulation are Bild (a tabloid), Die Zeit, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt, the largest magazines include Der Spiegel, Stern and Focus.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe German video gaming market is one of the largest in the world. The Gamescom in Cologne is the world's leading gaming convention. Popular game series from Germany include Turrican, the Anno series, The Settlers series, the Gothic series, SpellForce, the FIFA Manager series, Far Cry and Crysis. Relevant game developers and publishers are Blue Byte, Crytek, Deep Silver, Kalypso Media, Piranha Bytes, Yager Development, and some of the largest social network game companies like Bigpoint, Gameforge, Goodgame and Wooga.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCinema\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895. The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Berlin's suburb Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world. Today it is Europe's largest studio. Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film. In 1930 Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, the first major German sound film, with Marlene Dietrich. Films of Leni Riefenstahl set new artistic standards, in particular Triumph of the Will.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAfter 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as Trümmerfilm. Such films included Wolfgang Staudte's Die Mörder sind unter uns (The Murderers are among us) (1946). Notable East German films included Der Untertan (1951); Konrad Wolf's Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) (1964) and Frank Beyer's Jacob the Liar (1975). The defining film genre in West Germany of the 1950s was arguably the Heimatfilm (\\\"homeland film\\\"); these films depicted the beauty of the land and the moral integrity of the people living in it.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nDuring the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim. German movies such as Das Boot (1981), The Never Ending Story (1984), Good Bye, Lenin! (2003), Head On (2004), The White Ribbon (2009), Animals United (2010), and Cloud Atlas (2012) also had international success. The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (\\\"Oscar\\\") went to the German production Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nirgendwo in Afrika (Nowhere in Africa) in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others) in 2007.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy. The Berlin International Film Festival, known as \\\"Berlinale\\\", awarding the \\\"Golden Bear\\\" and held annually since 1951, is one of the world's leading film festivals. The \\\"Lolas\\\" are annually awarded in Berlin, at the German Film Awards, that have been presented since 1951.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nCuisine\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman cuisine varies from region to region and often neighboring regions share some culinary similarities (e.g. the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia share some traditions with Switzerland and Austria). International varieties such as pizza, sushi, Chinese food, Greek food, Indian cuisine and doner kebab are also popular and available, thanks to diverse ethnic communities.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nBread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 different types of pastries and rolls (Brötchen). German cheeses account for about a third of all cheese produced in Europe.[https://books.google.com/books?id\\nsjW9adVFS2kC&pg=PA113 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Cheeses of the World - Steve Ehlers, Jeanette Hurt]. pp. 113-115. In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef. Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts, Weisswursts, and Currywursts. In 2012, organic foods accounted for 3.9% of total food sales.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nAlthough wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, especially in German wine regions, the national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per person stands at 110 litres in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world. German beer purity regulations date back to the 15th century.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nThe 2015 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars, the highest designation, while 38 more received two stars and 233 one star. German restaurants have become the world's second-most decorated after France.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nSports\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nTwenty-seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue sports individually. Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6.3 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide, and the German top league, the Bundesliga, attracts the second highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world. The German men's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990, and 2014, and the UEFA European Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996. Germany hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Championship in 1988.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nOther popular spectator sports include winter sports, boxing, basketball, handball, volleyball, ice hockey, tennis, horse riding and golf. Water sports like sailing, rowing, and swimming are popular in Germany as well.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 17 times, and Audi 13 times (). The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won more Formula One World Drivers' Championships with seven titles, than any other. He is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history. Sebastian Vettel is also among the top three most successful Formula One drivers of all time.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nHistorically, German athletes have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count (when combining East and West German medals). Germany was the last country to host both the summer and winter games in the same year, in 1936 the Berlin Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and in Munich it hosted the Summer Games of 1972.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nFashion and design\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGerman designers were leaders of modern product design, with the Bauhaus designers like Mies van der Rohe, and Dieter Rams of Braun being essential.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nGermany is a leading country in the fashion industry. The German textile industry consisted of about 1,300 companies with more than 130,000 employees in 2010, which generated a revenue of 28 billion Euro. Almost 44 percent of the products are exported. The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year.\",\n \"Germany\\n\\nMunich, Hamburg and Düsseldorf are also important design, production and trade hubs of the domestic fashion industry, among smaller towns. Renowned fashion designers from Germany include Karl Lagerfeld, Jil Sander, Wolfgang Joop, Philipp Plein and Michael Michalsky. Important brands include Hugo Boss, Escada, Adidas, Puma and Triumph. The German supermodels Claudia Schiffer, Heidi Klum, Tatjana Patitz and Nadja Auermann have come to international fame.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin was a city that existed between 1949 and 1990 as a political enclave surrounded by East Berlin and East Germany. It was 100 mi east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by a narrow rail and highway corridor. It consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and shared economic, political, legal, and sporting systems with West Germany, but was not de jure part of it. It had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies. East Berlin, occupied and administered by the Soviet Union, was the capital of East Germany. The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, physically divided East and West Berlin until it fell in 1989.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWith about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOrigins\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Potsdam Agreement established the legal framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. According to the agreement, Germany would be formally under the administration of the four major wartime Allies—the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union—until a German government acceptable to all parties could be established. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former eastern territories of Germany. The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the allied countries. Berlin, which was surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation—newly established in most of Middle Germany—would be similarly divided, with the Western Allies occupying an enclave consisting of the western parts of the city. According to the agreement, the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road and rail access between West Berlin and the western parts of Germany (see section on traffic).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAt first, this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the western allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany and Berlin broke down. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food and other goods in the Berlin Airlift. In May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nLegal status\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAccording to the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany (23 May 1949) and the German Democratic Republic (7 October 1949). Under Article 127 of the Basic Law (or constitution) of the Federal Republic, provision was made for federal laws to be extended to Greater Berlin (as West Berlin was officially known) as well Baden, Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg-Hohenzollern within one year of its promulgation. \\nHowever, because the occupation of Berlin could only be ended by a quadripartite agreement, Berlin remained an occupied territory under the formal sovereignty of the allies. Hence, the Basic Law was not fully applicable to West Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 4 August 1950 the House of Representatives (the city's legislature) passed a new constitution, declaring Berlin a state of the Federal Republic and the provisions of the Basic Law as binding law superior to Berlin state law (Article 1, clauses 2 and 3). However, this became statutory law only on 1 September and only with the inclusion of the western Allied provision that Art. 1, clauses 2 and 3, were not valid, or rather, deferred for the time being; the clauses became valid law on 3 October 1990 (the day of Germany's unification). It stated that:\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nArticle 87 is interpreted as meaning that during the transitional period Berlin shall possess none of the attributes of a twelfth Land. The provision of this Article concerning the Basic Law will only apply to the extent necessary to prevent a conflict between this Law and the Berlin Constitution...\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThus civic liberties and personal rights (save the secrecy of telecommunications) guaranteed by the Basic Law were also valid in West Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn addition, West German federal statutes could only take effect in West Berlin with the approval of the city's legislature.\\nThe ambiguous legal status of the city, then still legally styled as Greater Berlin, although technically only comprising the western sectors, meant that West Berliners were not eligible to vote in federal elections. In their notification of permission of 12 May 1949 the three western military governors for Germany explained their proviso in No. 4, as follows:\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nA third reservation concerns the participation of Greater Berlin in the Federation. We interpret the effect of Articles 23 and 144 (2) of the Basic Law as constituting acceptance of our previous request that while Berlin may not be accorded voting membership in the Bundestag or Bundesrat nor be governed by the Federation she may, nevertheless, designate a small number of representatives to the meetings of those legislative bodies\\\".\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nConsequently, West Berliners were indirectly represented in the Bundestag in Bonn by 22 non-voting delegates chosen by the House of Representatives. Similarly, the Senate (the city's executive) sent four non-voting delegates to the Bundesrat.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nHowever, as West German citizens, West Berliners were able to stand for election, such as Social Democrat Chancellor Willy Brandt, who was elected via his party's list of candidates. Also, male residents of West Berlin were exempt from the Federal Republic's compulsory military service; this exemption made the city a popular destination for West German youths, which resulted in a flourishing counterculture, which in turn became one of the defining features of the city.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Western Allies remained the ultimate political authorities in West Berlin. All legislation of the House of Representatives, the domestic state and the adopted federal law, only applied under the proviso of the confirmation by the three Western Allied commanders-in-chief. If they approved a bill, it was enacted as part of West Berlin's statutory law. If the commanders-in-chief rejected a bill, it did not become law in West Berlin; this, for example, was the case with West German laws on military duty. West Berlin was run by the elected Governing Mayor and Senate seated at Rathaus Schöneberg. The Governing Mayor and Senators (ministers) had to be approved by the Western Allies and thus derived their authority from the occupying forces, not from their electoral mandate.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Soviets unilaterally declared the occupation of East Berlin at an end along with the rest of East Germany. This move was, however, not recognised by the Western Allies, who continued to view all of Berlin as a jointly occupied territory belonging to neither of the two states. This view was supported by the continued practice of patrols of Allied soldiers of all four Allies in all four sectors. Thus, occasionally Western Allied soldiers were on patrol in East Berlin and Soviet soldiers were patrolling in West Berlin. After the Wall was built, East Germany wanted to control Western Allied patrols upon entering or leaving East Berlin, a practice that the Western Allies regarded as unacceptable. So, after protests to the Soviets, the patrols continued uncontrolled on both sides, with the tacit agreement that the western Allies would not use their patrolling privileges for helping Easterners to flee to the West.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn many ways, West Berlin functioned as the de facto 11th state of West Germany, and was depicted on maps published in the West as being a part of West Germany. There was freedom of movement (to the extent allowed by geography) between West Berlin and West Germany. There were no separate immigration regulations for West Berlin, all immigration rules for West Germany were followed in West Berlin. West German entry visas issued to visitors were originally stamped with \\\"valid for entry into the Federal Republic of Germany including the state of Berlin\\\", prompting complaints from the Soviet Union.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin remained a military occupation zone until 3 October 1990, the day of unification of East Germany, East and West Berlin with the West German Federal Republic of Germany. The West German Federal Government, as well as the governments of most western nations, considered East Berlin to be a \\\"separate entity\\\" from East Germany, and while the Western Allies later opened embassies in East Berlin, they recognised the city only as the seat of government of the GDR, not as its capital.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nCommunist countries, however, did not recognise West Berlin as part of West Germany and usually described it as a \\\"third\\\" German jurisdiction, called selbständige politische Einheit (\\\"independent political unit\\\"). On maps of East Berlin, West Berlin often did not appear as an adjacent urban area but as a monochrome terra incognita, sometimes showing the letters WB, meaning West Berlin, or overlaid with a legend or pictures. It was often labelled \\\"Besonderes politisches Gebiet Westberlin\\\" (West Berlin special political area).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nCitizenship\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhile East Germany established an East German citizenship as part of its second constitution in 1967, a distinct West German citizenship did not exist. Instead, West Germany continued the definition of pre-World War II German citizenship for all ethnic or naturalised Germans in West Germany, East Germany or any part of Berlin. So while West Berlin was not unanimously regarded as part of the Federal Republic, its citizens were treated like West German citizens by West German authorities, save for the limitations imposed by West Berlin's legal status.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nImmigration\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Federal Republic of Germany issued West German passports to West Berliners on request that showed West Berlin as their place of residence. However, West Berliners could not use their passports for crossing East German borders and were denied entrance by any country of the Eastern Bloc, since governments of these countries held the view that West Germany was not authorized to issue legal papers for West Berliners.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nSince West Berlin was not a sovereign state, it did not issue passports, so West Berliners were issued with \\\"auxiliary identity cards\\\" by the West Berlin authorities. These differed visually from the regular West German identity cards, with green bindings instead of the grey standard, did not show the \\\"Federal Eagle\\\" or coat of arms, and did not contain any indications as to the issuing State. However, they did a statement that the holder of the document was a German citizen. From 11 June 1968, East Germany made it mandatory that West Berlin and West German \\\"transit passengers\\\" obtain a transit visa, issued upon entering East Germany, because under its second constitution East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners as foreigners. Since identity cards had no pages to stamp visas, the Eastern visa departments stamped their visas onto separate leaflets which were loosely stuck into the identity cards, which until the mid-1980s, were little booklets. Although the West German government subsidized visa fees, these were still payable by individual travelers.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFor entering visa-requiring western countries, such as the US, West Berliners commonly used West German passports. However, for countries which did not require stamped visas for entry, including Switzerland, Austria, and many members of the then European Economic Community, including the United Kingdom, West Berlin identity cards were also acceptable for entry.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nNaming conventions\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nMost Westerners called the Western sectors \\\"Berlin\\\", unless further distinction was necessary. The West German Federal government officially called West Berlin \\\"Berlin (West)\\\", although it also used the hyphenated \\\"West-Berlin\\\", whereas the East German government commonly referred to it as \\\"Westberlin\\\". Starting from 31 May 1961, East Berlin was officially called Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (Berlin, Capital of the GDR), replacing the formerly used term Democratic Berlin, or simply \\\"Berlin,\\\" by East Germany, and \\\"Berlin (Ost)\\\" by the West German Federal government. Other names used by West German media included \\\"Ost-Berlin\\\", \\\"Ostberlin\\\", or \\\"Ostsektor\\\". These different naming conventions for the divided parts of Berlin, when followed by individuals, governments, or media, commonly indicated their political leanings, with the centre-right Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung using \\\"Ost-Berlin\\\" and the centre-left Süddeutsche Zeitung using \\\"Ostberlin\\\".\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nPeriod following the building of the Wall\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAfter the Wall was constructed, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggested to U.S. President John F. Kennedy that the United States propose a swap of West Berlin with Thuringia and parts of Saxony and Mecklenburg; the city's population would have been relocated to West Germany. While the Kennedy administration seriously considered the idea, it did not make the proposal to the Soviet Union.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 26 June 1963, President Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech known for its famous phrase \\\"Ich bin ein Berliner\\\".\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971) and the Transit Agreement (May 1972) helped to significantly ease tensions over the status of West Berlin. While many restrictions remained in place, it also made it easier for West Berliners to travel to East Germany and it simplified the regulations for Germans travelling along the autobahn transit routes.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAt the Brandenburg Gate in 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan provided a challenge to the then Soviet leader:\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\n\\\"General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\\\"\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 9 November 1989, the Wall was opened, and the two parts of the city were once again physically — though at this point not legally — united. The Two Plus Four Treaty, signed by the two German states and the four wartime allies, paved the way for German reunification and an end to the Western Allies' occupation of West Berlin. On 3 October 1990 — the day Germany was officially reunified — East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin, which then joined the enlarged Federal Republic as a city-state along the lines of the existing West German city-states of Bremen and Hamburg. Walter Momper, the mayor of West Berlin, became the first mayor of the reunified city.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nBoroughs of West Berlin\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin comprised the following boroughs:\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn the American Sector:\\n* Neukölln\\n* Kreuzberg\\n* Schöneberg\\n* Steglitz\\n* Tempelhof\\n* Zehlendorf\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn the British Sector:\\n* Charlottenburg\\n* Tiergarten\\n* Wilmersdorf\\n* Spandau\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn the French Sector:\\n* Reinickendorf\\n* Wedding\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nExclaves\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin's border was identical to the municipal boundary of Berlin as defined in the Greater Berlin Act of 1920 and amended in 1938, and the border between the Soviet sector and the French, British, and American sectors respectively, which followed the boundaries of Berlin administrative boroughs as defined in the same years. Another amendment was added in 1945 at the border between the British sector of Berlin and the Soviet zone such that the Wehrmacht airfield at Berlin-Gatow became British and the airfield at Berlin-Staaken became Soviet. The resulting borderline of all these changes was complicated with a lot of geographical oddities, including a number of exclaves and enclaves that Greater Berlin had inside some neighbouring municipalities since 1920, all of which happened to become part of the British or American sectors after 1945, thus parts of West Berlin surrounded by East Germany.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFurthermore, the Gatow/Staaken exchange in August 1945 resulted in the geographically western half of Berlin-Staaken, which was located at the western outskirts of the city, becoming de jure Soviet occupied. However, the de facto administration remained with the Borough of Spandau in the British sector. So all inhabitants of Staaken could vote for West Berlin's city state elections in 1948 and 1950. On 1 February 1951 East German Volkspolizei surprised the people of western Staaken by occupying the area and ended the administration by the Spandau Borough; instead, western Staaken became an exclave of the Soviet occupied borough Berlin-Mitte in the city centre. However, on 1 June 1952, western Staaken's de facto administration was conveyed to neighbouring East German Falkensee in the East German district Nauen. This situation was undone on 3 October 1990, the day of German unification, when western Staaken was reincorporated into united Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nPost and telecommunications\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin had its own postal administration first called Deutsche Post Berlin (1947–1955) and then Deutsche Bundespost Berlin, separate from West Germany's Deutsche Bundespost, and issuing its own postage stamps until 1990. However, the separation was merely symbolic; in reality West Berlin's postal service was completely integrated with West Germany's, using the same postal code system.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berlin was also integrated into the West German telephone network, using the same international dialling code as West Germany, +49, with the area code 030. As in West Germany, calls to East Berlin from West Berlin were made using the prefix 00372 (international access code 00, East German country code 37, area code 2).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn order to reduce Eastern tapping of telecommunications between West Berlin and West Germany microwave radio relay connections were built, which wirelessly transmitted telephone calls between antenna towers in West Germany and West Berlin, where two of which were built, one antenna in Berlin-Wannsee and later a second in Berlin-Frohnau, finished on 16 May 1980 with a height of 358 m (this tower was demolished on 8 February 2009).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTransport and transit travel\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berliners could travel to West Germany and all Western and non-aligned states at all times, except during the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union (24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949), due to restrictions on passenger flight capacity imposed by the airlift. \\nTravelling to and from West Berlin by road or train always required passing through East German border checks, since West Berlin was an enclave surrounded by East Germany and East Berlin. On October 2, 1967, six years after the Wall was erected, tram tracks in West Berlin were uprooted because the authorities wanted to promote car usage, meaning that the tram system remaining today runs almost entirely within the former East Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nRoad traffic\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFor travel from West Berlin through East Germany by car or rail a valid passport was required for citizens of West Germany and other western nationals to be produced at East German border checks; West Berliners could only get admission through their identity cards (see above). For travel from West Berlin to Denmark, West Germany, or Sweden, via dedicated East German transit routes (), East German border guards issued a transit visa for a fee of 5 Western Deutsche Mark. For journeys between West Berlin and Poland or Czechoslovakia through East Germany, each traveller was also required to present a valid visa for the destination country.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe transit routes for road travel connecting West Berlin to other destinations usually consisted of autobahns and other highways, marked by Transit signs. Transit travellers () were prohibited to leave the transit routes, and occasional traffic checkpoints would check for violators. There were four transit routes between West Berlin and West Germany:\\n* One between West Berlin's Heerstraße with the East German checkpoint in Dallgow until 1951, then replaced by Staaken for destinations in Northern Germany (originally via highway F 5) at the Eastern checkpoint in Horst (a part of today's Nostorf) and the Western Lauenburg upon Elbe. These were replaced on 20 November 1982 by a new autobahn crossing at Zarrentin (E)/Gudow (W). On 1 January 1988, the new Stolpe checkpoint opened on this route to West Berlin. This is part of today's Hohen Neuendorf (E)/Berlin-Heiligensee (W). * A second transit route led to Northwestern and Western Germany – following today's A 2 – crossing the inner German border at Marienborn (E)/Helmstedt (W), also called Checkpoint Alpha. * A third route to Southwestern Germany consisted of today's A 9 and A 4 with border crossing at Wartha (E)/Herleshausen (W).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\n* A fourth (via today's A 9) to Southern Germany had border crossings originally at Mount Juchhöh (E)/Töpen (W) and later at Hirschberg upon Saale (E)/ Rudolphstein (a part of today's Berg in Upper Franconia) (W).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe latter three routes used autobahns built during the Nazi era. They left West Berlin at Checkpoint Dreilinden, also called Checkpoint Bravo (W)/Potsdam-Drewitz (E). Transit routes to Poland were via today's A 11 to Nadrensee-Pomellen (East Germany, GDR)/Kołbaskowo (Kolbitzow) (PL), eastwards via today's A 12 to Frankfurt upon Oder (GDR)/Słubice (PL), or southeastwards via today's A 13 and A 15 to Forst in Lusatia/Baršć (GDR)/Zasieki (Berge) (PL). Additional routes led to Denmark and Sweden by ferry between Warnemünde (GDR) and Gedser (DK) and by ferry between Sassnitz (GDR) and Rønne (DK) or Trelleborg (S). Routes to Czechoslovakia were via Schmilka (GDR)/Hřensko (Herrnskretschen) (ČSSR) and via Fürstenau (a part of today's Geising) (GDR)/Cínovec (Cinvald/Böhmisch Zinnwald) (ČSSR).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe transit routes were also used for East German domestic traffic. This meant that transit passengers could potentially meet with East Germans and East Berliners at restaurants at motorway rest stops. Since such meetings were deemed illegal by the East German government, border guards would calculate the travel duration from the time of entry and exit of the transit route. Excessive time spent for transit travel could arouse their suspicion and prompt questioning or additional checking by the border guards. Western coaches could stop only at dedicated service areas, since the East German government was concerned that East Germans might potentially use coaches to escape into the West.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 1 September 1951 East Germany, because of shortages in foreign currencies, started to levy road tolls from cars using the transit routes. At first the toll amounted to Eastern Deutsche Mark 10 per passenger car and 10 to 50 for trucks, depending on size. Eastern Deutsche Marks had to be exchanged for Western Deutsche Mark a rate of 1:1. On 30 March 1955, East Germany raised the toll for passenger cars to 30 Deutsche Marks, but after West German protests, in June of the same year it changed it back to the previous rate. Following a new agreement between East and West Germany, starting from 1 January 1980 the Western Federal Government paid an annual lump sum () of 50 million Western Deutsche Marks to the Eastern government, so that transit passengers no longer had to pay tolls individually.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nRailway\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFour transit train connections—earlier also called interzonal train ()—connected West Berlin with Hamburg via Schwanheide (E)/Büchen (W) in the North, with Hanover via Marienborn (E)/Helmstedt (W) in the West, with Frankfurt upon Main via Gerstungen (E)/Hönebach (W) in the Southwest, and with Nuremberg via Probstzella (E)/Ludwigsstadt (W) in the South of West Germany. These transit trains did not service domestic passengers of East Germany and made stops in East Germany almost only for East German border guards upon entering and leaving of the country. Until the construction of the Berlin Wall, interzonal trains would also stop once on their way within East Germany for travellers having a visa for entering or leaving East Germany. Train travel from West Berlin to Czechoslovakia, Denmark (by ferry), Poland, or Sweden (by ferry) required a visa to enter East Berlin or East Germany to allow transfer to an international train—which also carried domestic passengers—bound for an international destination. One railway connection between West Berlin and Oebisfelde (E)/Wolfsburg (W) was reserved for freight trains only.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn July and August 1945, the three Western Allies and the Soviet Union decided that the railways, previously serviced by the Deutsche Reichsbahn (German Reich Railways), should continue to be operated by one railway administration to service all four sectors. So West Berlin had – with the exception of a few small private railway lines – no separate railway administration. Furthermore, the operation of the Reichsbahn's Berlin S-Bahn electric metropolitan transport network, consisting of commuter trains, was also maintained. After the founding of East Germany on 7 October 1949 it gained responsibility for the Reichsbahn in its territory. East Germany continued to run its railways under the official name Deutsche Reichsbahn, which thus maintained responsibility for almost all railway transport in all four sectors of Berlin. The GDR-controlled 'Bahnpolizei', the Reichsbahn's railway police, were authorised to patrol station premises and other railway property in the whole city including West Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAfter the Berlin Blockade transit trains () would leave and enter West Berlin only via one line through Berlin-Wannsee railway station (W) and Potsdam Griebnitzsee railway station (E). All transit trains would start or end in East Berlin, passing through West Berlin with only one stop in the Western Berlin Zoologischer Garten railway station, which became West Berlin's main railway station. Until 1952, the Reichsbahn also permitted stops at other stations on the way through the Western sectors. After easing of tensions between East and West Germany, starting on 30 May 1976 transit trains going westwards, southwestwards, or southwards stopped once again at station of Wannsee. For transit trains going northwestwards, a shorter line was reopened on 26 September 1976 with an additional stop at the then Berlin-Spandau railway station, entering East Germany at Staaken.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nMany Reichsbahn employees working in West Berlin were West Berliners. Their East German employer, whose proceeds from ticket sales for Western Deutsche Marks contributed to East Germany's foreign revenues, tried to hold down wage social security contributions in Western Deutsche Mark. Therefore, West Berlin employees of the Reichsbahn were paid partly in Eastern German currency. They could spend this money in East Germany and take their purchases to West Berlin, which other Westerners could not do to the same extent. West Berlin employees were trained in East Germany and employed under East German labour laws. West Berliners employed by the Reichsbahn were not included in the Western health insurance system. The Reichsbahn ran its own hospital for them in West Berlin, the building of which is now used as the headquarters of Bombardier Transportation. For certain patients, the Reichsbahn would facilitate treatment in a hospital in East Berlin. In medical emergencies, the employees could use West Berlin doctors and hospitals, which would then be paid for by the Reichsbahn.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe GDR used the western stations to distribute propaganda and display posters with slogans like \\\"Americans Go Home.\\\" On 1 May, May Day, a state holiday in East and West, S-Bahn trains were sometimes decorated with the East German banner and a red flag.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWaterways\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTwo waterways via the rivers and canals Havel and Mittellandkanal were open for inland navigation, but only freight vessels were allowed to cross from West Berlin into East German waters. The Havel crossed at the East German border in Nedlitz (a part of Potsdam-Bornstedt), continuing through the Elbe-Havel Canal and then either taking the Elbe northwestwards crossing the border again at Cumlosen (E)/Schnackenburg (W) or westwards following the Mittellandkanal to Buchhorst (Oebisfelde) (E)/Rühen (W). Western freight vessels could stop only at dedicated service areas, because the East German government wanted to prevent any East Germans from boarding them. Through these waterways, West Berlin was connected with the western European inland navigation network, connecting to seaports like Hamburg and Rotterdam, as well as industrial areas such as the Ruhr Area, Mannheim, Basel, Belgium, and eastern France.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn July and August 1945, the Western Allies and the Soviet Union decided that the operation and maintenance of the waterways and locks, which were previously run by the national German directorate for inland navigation (), should be continued and reconstructed in all four sectors. So, except of the originally city-owned Neukölln Ship Canal and some later built canals (e.g. Westhafen Canal) and locks, West Berlin had no separate inland navigation authority, but the East Berlin-based authority operated most waterways and locks, their lockmasters were employed by the East. Because of the negligent maintenance the western Allies later conveyanced it to the Senate of Berlin (West).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe western entrance to the Teltowkanal, connecting several industrial areas of West Berlin for heavy freight transport, was blocked by East Germany in Potsdam-Klein Glienicke. Therefore, vessels going to the Teltowkanal had to take a detour via the river Spree through West and East Berlin's city centre to enter the canal from the East. On 20 November 1981, East Germany reopened the western entrance, which required two more vessel border checkpoints – Dreilinden and Kleinmachnow – because the waterway crossed the border between East Germany and West Berlin four times. Another transit waterway connected West Berlin via the East German vessel checkpoint at Hennigsdorf and the Oder-Havel Canal with the Oder river and Polish Szczecin (Stettin).\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAir traffic\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAir traffic was the only connection between West Berlin and the Western world that was not directly under East German control. British European Airways opened the first regular service for civilians on 4 July 1948 between West Berlin and Hamburg. Tickets were originally sold for pounds sterling only. West Berliners and West Germans who had earlier fled East Germany or East Berlin, and thus could face imprisonment on entering East Germany or East Berlin, could only take flights for travel to and from West Berlin. To enable individuals threatened by East German imprisonment to fly to and from West Berlin the West German government subsidised the flights.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe flights between West Germany and West Berlin were under Allied control by the quadripartite Berlin Air Safety Center. According to permanent agreements, three air corridors to West Germany were provided, which were open only for British, French, or U.S. military planes or civilian planes registered with companies in those countries.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe airspace controlled by the Berlin Air Safety Center comprised a radius of 20 miles (32.12 km) around the seat of the Center in the Kammergericht building in Berlin-Schöneberg – thus covering most of East and West Berlin and the three corridors, of the same width – one northwestwards to Hamburg-Fuhlsbüttel Airport, one westwards to Hanover, and one southwestwards to Frankfurt upon Main (Rhein-Main Air Base). Also the airspace expanding to a width of 20 mi over the German-German border was subject to the control by the Berlin Air Safety Center.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe West German airline Lufthansa and most other international airlines were not permitted to fly to West Berlin. Flights of Lufthansa or the East German airline Interflug servicing connections between East and West Germany (such as between Düsseldorf and Hamburg in West Germany and the East German city of Leipzig) began in August 1989, but these routes had to go through Czechoslovak or Danish airspace.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTraffic between West Berlin and East Germany\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nUntil 1953, travelling from West Berlin into East Germany (German Democratic Republic (GDR)), fell under Interzonal traffic regulations overseen by three Allied military governments (the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SVAG), the Control Commission for Germany – British Element, and the Office of Military Government/United States (OMGUS)). On 27 May 1952, East Germany closed its border with West Germany and its 115 km-long border with West Berlin. From then on West Berliners required a permit to enter East Germany. East German border checkpoints were established in East German suburbs of West Berlin, and most streets were gradually closed for interzonal travel into East Germany. The last checkpoint to remain open was located at the Glienicker Brücke towards Potsdam, until it was also closed by East Germany on 3 July 1953. The checkpoint at Staaken's Heerstraße remained open only for transit traffic to West Germany. This caused hardship for many West Berlin residents, especially those who had friends and family in East Germany. However, East Germans could still enter West Berlin. A number of cemeteries located in East Germany were also affected by the closure.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nMany church congregations in Berlin owned cemeteries outside the city, so many West Berlin congregations had cemeteries that were located in East Germany. For example, the Friedhof vor Charlottenburg (in Cemetery in front/outside of Charlottenburg) was located in the East German suburb of Dallgow, yet belonged to Catholic congregations in Berlin-Charlottenburg. So many West Berliners wishing to visit the grave of a relative or friend on cemeteries located in East Germany were now unable to do so. Until 1961, East Germany sparsely issued permits to West Berliners to visit the cemeteries on the Catholic feast of All Saints on 1 November and on the Protestant Day of Repentance and Prayer.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn 1948–1952, the Reichsbahn connected the western suburbs of West Berlin to its S-Bahn network. Train routes servicing these suburbs formerly went through West Berlin stations, but ceased to make stops in the western stations or terminated service before entering West Berlin. Private West Berlin railway lines like the Neukölln–Mittenwalde railway (Neukölln-Mittenwalder Eisenbahn, NME), connecting the East German Mittenwalde with West Berlin-Neukölln and the Bötzowbahn between West Berlin-Spandau and East German Hennigsdorf, were disrupted at the border between West Berlin and East Germany on 26 October 1948 and August 1950, respectively. Tramways and bus routes that connected West Berlin with its East German suburbs and were operated by West Berlin's public transport operator Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe Gesellschaft (BVG West) ceased operation on 14 October 1950, after West Berlin tram and bus drivers had been repeatedly stopped and arrested by East German police for having western currency on them, considered a crime in the East.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe BVG (West) terminated route sections that extended into East Germany, like the southern end of tram line 47 to Schönefeld, the southwestern end of tram line 96 to Kleinmachnow, as well as two bus lines to Glienicke at the Nordbahn, north, and to Falkensee, northwest of West Berlin. The East German section of tram line 96 continued operating with eastern personnel and cars, obliging the eastern passengers – rarely westerners who needed special permits to enter East Germany - to change from eastern into western trains crossing the border by foot, until it was closed by the Wall.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe Reichsbahn shut down all of its West Berlin terminal stations and redirected its trains to stations in East Berlin, starting with Berlin Görlitzer Bahnhof – closed on 29 April 1951 – before serving rail traffic with Görlitz and the southeast of East Germany. On 28 August 1951, trains usually serving Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof were redirected to stations in East Berlin, while trains from West Germany were redirected to the Western Berlin Zoologischer Garten. The Reichsbahn also closed down both Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof and Berlin Nordbahnhof, on 18 May 1952.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 28 August 1951, the Reichsbahn opened a new connection – from Spandau via Berlin Jungfernheide station – for the S-Bahn lines connecting East German suburbs to the west of West Berlin (namely Falkensee, Staaken) with East Berlin, thus circumventing the centre of West Berlin. In June 1953, the Reichsbahn further cut off West Berlin from its East German suburbs by the introduction of additional express S-Bahn trains (). These routes originated from several East German suburbs bordering West Berlin (such as Falkensee, Potsdam, Oranienburg, Staaken, and Velten), crossing West Berlin non-stop until reaching its destinations in East Berlin. However, also the regular S-Bahn connections with West Berlin's East German suburbs, stopping at every Western station, continued. From 17 June to 9 July 1953, East Germany blocked off any traffic between East and West due to the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany. From 4 October 1953, all S-Bahn trains crossing the border between East Germany and Berlin had to pass a border checkpoint in East Germany. Travellers from East Germany were checked before entering any part of Berlin, to identify individuals intending to escape into West Berlin or smuggling rationed or rare goods into West Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nS-Bahn trains were checked at Hoppegarten, Mahlow, and Zepernick in East Germany bordering East Berlin and in Hohen Neuendorf, Potsdam-Griebnitzsee, and Staaken-Albrechtshof in East Germany bordering West Berlin. On 4 June 1954, the Bahnhof Hennigsdorf Süd station located next to West Berlin was opened solely for border controls, also to monitor West Berliners entering or leaving East Berlin, which they could still do freely, while they were not allowed to cross into East Germany proper without a special permit. In 1951, the Reichsbahn began construction work on the Berlin outer-circle railway line. This circular line connected all train routes heading for West Berlin and accommodated all domestic GDR traffic, thus directing railway traffic into East Berlin while by-passing West Berlin. Commuters in the East German suburbs around West Berlin now boarded Sputnik express trains, which took them into East Berlin without crossing any western sectors. With the completion of the outer-circle railway, there was no further need for express S-Bahn trains crossing the West Berlin border and thus their service ended on 4 May 1958, while stopping S-Bahn trains continued service.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nHowever, while East Germans could get off in West Berlin, West Berliners needed the hard-to get permits to enter East Germany by S-Bahn. With the construction of the Berlin Wall on 13 August 1961, any remaining railway traffic between West Berlin and its East German suburbs ended. The rail traffic between East and West Berlin was sharply reduced and restricted to few checkpoints under GDR control. East Berliners and East Germans were then unable to freely enter and leave West Berlin. However, international visitors could obtain visas for East Berlin upon crossing one of the checkpoints at the Wall.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFollowing the policy of détente of the Federal Government under Chancellor Willy Brandt, West Berliners could again apply for visas to visit East Germany, which were granted more freely than in the period until 1961. On 4 June 1972, West Berlin's public transport operator BVG could open its first bus line into the East German suburbs since 1950 (line E to Potsdam via Checkpoint Bravo as it was known to the US military). This route was open only to persons bearing all the necessary East German permits and visas. For visits to East Germany, West Berliners could use four checkpoints along the East German border around West Berlin: The two road transit checkpoints Dreilinden (W)/Drewitz (E) and Berlin-Heiligensee (W)/Stolpe (E) as well as the old transit checkpoint at Heerstraße (W)/Staaken (E) and the checkpoint at Waltersdorfer Chaussee (W)/Schönefeld (E), which was also open for travellers boarding international flights at Schönefeld Airport.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTraffic between East and West Berlin\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhile East and West Berlin became formally separate jurisdictions in September 1948, and while there were travel restrictions in all other directions, for more than a decade, freedom of movement existed between the western sectors and the eastern sector of the city. However, time and again Soviet and later East German authorities imposed temporary restrictions for certain persons, certain routes, and certain means of transport. Gradually the eastern authorities disconnected and separated the two parts of the city.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhile the Soviets blocked all transport to West Berlin (Berlin Blockade between 24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949) they increased the supplies for food in East Berlin in order to gain the compliance of West Berliners who at that time still had free access to East Berlin. West Berliners buying food in East Berlin were regarded as approving of the Soviet attempt to repress the Western Allies from West Berlin. This was seen as support by the communists and as treason by most Westerners. Until that time all over Germany food and other necessary supplies had been available only with ration stamps issued by one's municipality, this was until the Communist putsch in Berlin's city government in September 1948 – the unitary City Council of Greater Berlin () for East and West.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nBy July 1948 a mere 19,000 West Berliners out of a total of almost 2 million covered their food requirements in East Berlin. So 99% of the West Berliners preferred to live with shorter supplies than before the Blockade but support the Western Allies' position. In West Germany rationing of most products had ended with the introduction of the Western Deutsche Mark on 21 June 1948. The new currency was also introduced in West Berlin on 24 June and this, at least officially was the justification for the Soviet Blockade due to which, rationing in West Berlin had to continue. However, in the course of the Berlin Air Lift some supplies were increased beyond the pre-Blockade level and therefore certain rations in West Berlin were raised.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhile West Berliners were officially welcome to buy food in East Berlin, the Soviets tried to prevent them buying other essential supplies there, particularly coal and fuel. For this reason, on 9 November 1948, they opened checkpoints on 70 streets entering West Berlin and closed the others for horse carriages, lorries and cars, later (16 March 1949) the Soviets erected roadblocks on the closed streets. From 15 November 1948 West Berlin ration stamps were no longer accepted in East Berlin. All the same, the Soviets started a campaign with the slogan The smart West Berliner buys at the HO (), the HO being the Soviet zone chain of shops. They also opened so-called \\\"Free Shops\\\" in the Eastern Sector, offering supplies without ration stamps, but at extremely high prices in Eastern Deutsche Marks. Ordinary East and West Berliners could only afford to buy there if they had revenues in Western Deutsche Mark and bartered the needed Eastern Deutsche Mark on the spontaneous currency markets, which developed in the British sector at the Zoo station.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTheir demand and supply determined a barter ratio in favour of the Western Deutsche Mark with more than 2 Eastern Deutsche Marks offered for one Western Deutsche Mark. After the Blockade – when holders of Western Deutsche Marks could buy as much they could afford, up to five and six east marks were offered for one west mark. In the East, however, the Soviets had arbitrarily decreed a rate of 1 for 1 and exchanging at other rates was criminalised. On 12 May 1949 the Blockade ended and all roadblocks and checkpoints between East and West Berlin were removed. The Berlin Airlift, however, continued until 30 September 1949 to amass sufficient supplies in West Berlin, the so-called Senate Reserve, in readiness for another possible blockade, ensuring that an airlift could then be restarted with ease. On 2 May 1949 the power stations in East Berlin again started to supply West Berlin with sufficient electricity, which had to be rationed to some hours a day after the usual supplies had been interrupted at the start of the Blockade.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nHowever, the Western Allies and the West Berlin City Council decided to be self-sufficient in terms of electricity generation capacity, to be independent of Eastern supplies and not to be held to ransom by the eastern authorities. On 1 December 1949 the new powerhouse West (, in 1953 renamed after the former Governing Mayor of West Berlin into Kraftwerk Reuter West) went on line and West Berlin's electricity board declared independence from Eastern supplies. However, for a time Eastern electricity continued to be supplied albeit intermittently. Supply was interrupted from 1 July until the end of 1950 and then started again until 4 March 1952, when the East finally switched it off. From then on West Berlin turned into an 'electricity island' within a pan-European electricity grid that had developed from the 1920s, because electricity transfers between East and West Germany never fully ceased. The 'electricity island' situation was noticed most in situations of particularly high demand; in other areas of Europe peaks in demand could be met by tapping into electricity supplies from neighbouring areas, but in West Berlin this was not an option and for certain users the lights would go out.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn 1952 West Berliners were restricted entry to East Germany proper by means of a hard-to-obtain East German permit. Free entry to East Berlin remained possible until 1961 and the building of the Wall. Berlin's underground (Untergrundbahn, U-Bahn) and Berlin's S-Bahn (a metropolitan public transit network), rebuilt after the war, continued to span all occupation sectors. Many people lived in one half of the city and had family, friends, and jobs in the other. However, the East continuously reduced the means of public transport between East and West, with private cars being a very rare privilege in the East and still a luxury in the West. Starting on 15 January 1953 the tram network was interrupted. East Berlin's public transport operator Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG-East, BVB as of 1 January 1969) staffed all trams, whose lines crossed the sectorial border, with women drivers, which were not permitted as drivers by the BVG (West), West Berlin's public transport operator. Instead of changing the Western rules, so that the Easterly intended interruption of the cross-border tram traffic would not happen, the BVG (West) insisted on male drivers. So cross-border tram traffic ended on 16 January.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn East German propaganda this was a point for the East, arguing that the West did not allow drivers coming with their trams from the East to continue along their line into the West, but remaining silent on the fact that the end of cross-border tram traffic was most welcome to the East. The underground and the S-Bahn networks, except the above-mentioned traverse S-Bahn trains, continued to provide services between East and West Berlin. However, occasionally the East Berlin police – in the streets and on cross-border trains in East Berlin – identified suspicious behaviour (such as carrying heavy loads westwards) and watched out for unwelcome Westerners. Once in a while West Germans were banned from entering East Berlin. This was the case between 29 August and 1 September 1960, when ex prisoners of war and deportees, homecomers (), from all around West Germany and West Berlin met for a convention in that city. The homecomers released mostly from a long detention in the Soviet Union were unwelcome in East Berlin. Since they could not be recognised by their identification papers all West Germans were banned for these days from East Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWest Berliners were allowed, since the quadripartite Allied status quo provided for their free movement around all four sectors. From 8 September 1960 on, the East subjected all West Germans to apply for a permit before entering East Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAs the communist government in the East gained tighter control, and the economic recovery in the West significantly outperformed the Eastern development, more than a hundred thousand East Germans and East Berliners left East Germany and East Berlin for the West every year. East Germany closed the borders between East and West Germany and sealed off the border with West Berlin in 1952; but because of the quadripartite Allied status of the city, the 46 km-long sectorial border between East and West Berlin remained open. As there was freedom of movement between West Berlin and West Germany, Easterners could use the city as a transit point to West Germany, usually travelling there by air.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTo stop this drain of people defecting, the East German government built the Berlin Wall, thus physically closing off West Berlin from East Berlin and East Germany, on 13 August 1961. All Eastern streets, bridges, paths, windows, doors, gates, and sewers opening to West Berlin were systematically sealed off by walls, concrete elements, barbed wire, and/or bars. The Wall was directed against the Easterners, who by its construction were no longer allowed to leave the East, except with an Eastern permit, not usually granted.\\nWesterners were still granted visas on entering East Berlin. Initially eight street checkpoints were opened, and one checkpoint in the Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station, which was reached by one line of the Western underground (today's U 6), two Western S-Bahn lines, one under and one above ground (approximate to today's S 2 and S 3, however lines changed a lot from 1990 onwards), and transit trains between West Germany and West Berlin started and ended there.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe eight street checkpoints were – from North to South along the Wall – on Bornholmer Straße, Chausseestraße, Invalidenstraße, Brandenburg Gate, Friedrichstraße (Checkpoint Charlie in US military denomination, since this crossing was to their sector), Heinrich-Heine-Straße (also Checkpoint Delta), and Sonnenallee.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhen the construction of the Wall started after midnight early on 13 August, West Berlin's Governing Mayor Willy Brandt was on a West German federal election campaigning tour in West Germany. Arriving by train in Hanover at 4 am he was informed about the Wall and flew back to West Berlin's Tempelhof Central Airport.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nIn the course of the day he protested along with many other West Berliners on Potsdamer Platz and at the Brandenburg Gate. On 14 August, under the pretext that Western demonstrations required it, the East closed the checkpoint at the Brandenburg Gate, 'until further notice', a situation that was to last until 22 December 1989, when it was finally reopened.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 26 August 1961 East Germany generally banned West Berliners from entering the Eastern sector. West Germans and other nationals, however, could still get visas on entering East Berlin. Since intra-city phone lines had been cut by the East already in May 1952 (see below) the only remaining way of communication with family or friends on the other side was by mail or at meeting in a motorway restaurant on a transit route, because the transit traffic remained unaffected throughout.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 18 May 1962 East Germany opened the so-called Tränenpalast checkpoint hall (Palace of Tears) at Berlin Friedrichstraße station, where Easterners had to say a sometimes tearful farewell to returning Westerners as well as the few Easterners who had managed to get a permit to visit the West. Until June 1963 the East deepened its border zone around West Berlin in East Germany and East Berlin by clearing existing buildings and vegetation to create an open field of view, sealed off by the Berlin Wall towards the West and a second wall or fence of similar characteristics to the East, observed by armed men in towers, with orders to shoot at escapees.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nFinally in 1963 West Berliners were again allowed to visit East Berlin. On this occasion a further checkpoint for pedestrians only was opened on the Oberbaumbrücke. West Berliners were granted visas for a one-day visit between 17 December 1963 and 5 January the following year. 1.2 million out of a total 1.9 million West Berliners visited East Berlin during this period. In 1964, 1965, and 1966 East Berlin was opened again to West Berliners, but each time only for a limited period.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nEast Germany found particular joy in playing with the different legal statuses it assigned to East Germans, East Berliners, West Germans, and West Berliners, as well as citizens from other countries in the world. Until 1990 East Germany designated each Border crossings in East Berlin for certain categories of persons, with only one street checkpoint being open simultaneously for West Berliners and West Germans (Bornholmer Straße) and Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station being open for all travellers.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 9 September 1964, the East German Council of Ministers (government) decided to allow Eastern pensioners to visit family in West Germany or West Berlin. According to the specified regulations valid from 2 November on Eastern pensioners could apply, and were usually allowed, to travel into the West to visit relatives once a year for a maximum of four weeks. If pensioners decided not to return, the government did not miss them as manpower, unlike younger Easterners, who were subject to a system of labour and employment, which demanded almost everybody work in the Eastern command production system. On 2 December 1964 East Germany, always short of hard currency, decreed that every Western visitor had to buy a minimum of 5 Eastern Mark der Deutschen Notenbank per day (MDN, 1964–1968 the official name of the East German mark, to distinguish it from the West Deutsche Mark) at the still held arbitrary compulsory rate of 1:1. The five marks had to be spent, as exporting Eastern currency was illegal, which is why importing it after having bargained for it at the currency market at Zoo station was also illegal.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWestern pensioners and children were spared from the compulsory exchange (officially in , i.e. minimum exchange). Not long after East Germany held the first cash harvest from the new compulsory exchange rules by allowing West Berliners to visit East Berlin once more for a day during the Christmas season. The following year, 1965, East Germany opened the travelling season for West Berliners on 18 December. In 1966 it opened for a second harvest of Western money between the Easter (10 April) and Pentecost (29 May) holidays and later again at Christmas.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nThe situation only changed fundamentally after 11 December 1971 when, representing the two German states, the Western Egon Bahr and the Eastern Michael Kohl signed the Transit Agreement. This followed by a comparable agreement for West Berliners, once more allowing regular visits to East Germany and East Berlin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAfter ratification of the Agreement and specifying the pertaining regulations West Berliners could apply for the first time again for visas for any chosen date to East Berlin or East Germany from 3 October 1972 onwards. If granted, a one-day-visa entitled them to leave the East until 2 am the following day. West Berliners were now spared the visa fee of 5 Western Deutsche Marks, not to be confused with the compulsory exchange amounting to the same sum, but yielding in return 5 Eastern marks. This financial relief did not last long, because on 15 November 1973 East Germany doubled the compulsory exchange to 10 Eastern marks, payable in West German Deutsche Marks at par.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOne-day-visas for East Berlin were now issued in a fast procedure on entering East Berlin; visas for longer stays and visas for East Germany proper needed a prior application, which could be a lengthy procedure. To ease the application for West Berliners seeking such Eastern visas, the GDR Foreign Ministry was later allowed to open Offices for the Affairs of Visits and Travelling () in West Berlin, but were not allowed to show any official symbols of East Germany. The Eastern officials working commuted every morning and evening between East and West Berlin. Their uniforms showed no official symbols except the name Büro für Besuchs- und Reiseangelegenheiten. They accepted visa applications and handed out confirmed visas issued in the East, to the West Berlin applicants. A shed formerly housing one such Büro für Besuchs- und Reiseangelegenheiten can be found on Waterlooufer 5–7 in Berlin-Kreuzberg, close to Hallesches Tor underground station.Wissenswertes über Berlin: Nachschlagewerk für zuziehende Arbeitnehmer von A-Z (11968), Senator für Wirtschaft und Arbeit (ed.), Berlin (West): Senator für Wirtschaft und Arbeit, 121986, p. 117. No ISBN. The disagreement about Berlin's status was one of the most important debates of the Cold War.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAnother form of traffic between East and West Berlin was the transfer of West Berlin's sewage into East Berlin and East Germany through the sewer pipes built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The sewage flowed into the East because most of the pre-war premises for sewage treatment, mostly sewage farms, happened to be in the East after the division of the city. Sewer pipes, however, once discovered as a way to flee the East, were blocked by bars. West Berlin paid for the treatment of its sewage in Western Deutsche Marks which were desperately needed by the Eastern government. Since the methods used in the East did not meet Western standards, West Berlin increased the capacity of modern sewage treatment within its own territory, so that the amount of its sewage treated in the East had considerably reduced by the time the Wall came down. Similar was the situation with refuse. The removal, burning or disposal of the ever-growing amount of West Berlin's rubbish became a costly problem, but here too an agreement was found, since West Berlin would pay in Western Deutsche Marks.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 11 December 1974 East Germany and West Berlin's garbage utility company BSR signed a contract to dispose of refuse on a dump right beside the Wall in East German Groß-Ziethen (today a part of Schönefeld). An extra checkpoint, solely open for Western bin lorries (garbage trucks) was opened there. Later a second dump, further away, was opened in Vorketzin, a part of Ketzin.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nAs for the S-Bahn, operated in all of Berlin by the East German Reichsbahn, the construction of the Wall meant a deep cut into its integrated network of lines, especially for Berlin's circular S-Bahn line around all of the Western and Eastern inner city. The lines were separated and those mostly located in West Berlin were continued, but only accessible from West Berlin with all access in East Berlin closed. However, even before the Wall had been built, West Berliners increasingly refrained from using the S-Bahn, since boycotts against it were issued, the argument being that every S-Bahn ticket bought provided the GDR government with valuable Western Deutsche Marks.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nUsage dropped further as the Western public transport operator BVG (West) offered parallel bus lines and expanded its network of underground lines. After the construction of the Wall usage dropped so much that running the S-Bahn lines in West Berlin turned into a loss-making exercise: wages and maintenance costs – however badly it was carried out – outdid the proceeds from ticket sales. So the Reichsbahn finally agreed to surrender operation of the S-Bahn in West Berlin, as had been determined by all Allies in 1945, and on 29 December 1983 the Allies, the Senate of Berlin (West; i.e. the city state government) and the Reichsbahn signed an agreement to change the operator from Reichsbahn to BVG (West) which took effect on 9 January 1984.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nOn 9 November 1989 East Germany opened the borders for East Germans and East Berliners, who could then freely enter West Berlin. West Berlin itself had never restricted their entry. For West Berliners and West Germans the opening of the border for free entry lasted longer. The regulation concerning one-day-visas on entering the East and the compulsory minimum exchange of 25 Western Deutsche Marks by 1989, continued. However, more checkpoints were opened. Finally on 22 December 1989 East Germany granted West Berliners and West Germans free entry without charge at the existing checkpoints, demanding only valid papers. Eastern controls were slowly eased into spot checks and finally abolished on 30 June 1990, the day East and West introduced the union concerning currency, economy and social security ().\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nTraffic between different parts of West Berlin crossing the East\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nWhen the Wall was built in 1961, three metro lines starting in northern parts of West Berlin passed through tunnels under the Eastern city centre and ended again in southern parts of West Berlin. The lines concerned were today's underground lines U 6 and U 8 and the S-Bahn line S 2 (today partly also used by other lines). On the sealing off of West Berlin from East Berlin by the Berlin Wall the entrances of the stations on these lines located in East Berlin were shut, however, western trains were allowed to continue to pass through without stopping. Passengers in these trains experienced the empty and barely lit ghost stations where time had stood still since 13 August 1961. West Berlin's public transport operator BVG (West) paid the east an annual charge in Western Deutsche Marks for its underground lines to use the tunnels under East Berlin. U 6 and S 2 also had one subterranean stop at the Eastern Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station, the only station beneath East Berlin where western U Bahn trains were still allowed to stop.\",\n \"West Berlin\\n\\nPassengers could change there between U 6, S 2 and the elevated S 3 (then starting and ending in Friedrichstraße) or for the transit trains to West Germany, buy duty-free tobacco and liquor for west marks in GDR run Intershop kiosks, or enter East Berlin through an inbuilt checkpoint.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nWest Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG () in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border. After 1961, West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states, became known simply as \\\"Germany\\\". The FRG during the Cold War is sometimes referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France (the \\\"Western Zones\\\"). Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990. The city of Bonn was its ' capital city (Berlin was symbolically named the ' capital city in the West German Basic Law). The fourth Allied occupation zone (the East Zone, or ') was held by the Soviet Union. The parts of this zone lying east of the Oder-Neisse were in fact annexed by the Soviet Union and communist Poland; the remaining central part around Berlin became the communist German Democratic Republic (abbreviated GDR; in German ' or ') with its ' capital in East Berlin. As a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAt the onset of the Cold War, Germany (and, indeed, Europe) was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs. Germany was ' divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, considering itself to be the democratically reorganised continuation of the 1871–1945 German Reich. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state. Though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state. From the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThree southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, and the Saarland joined the Federal Republic of Germany in 1957. In addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial ' 11th state. While legally not part of the Federal Republic of Germany, as Berlin was under the control of the Allied Control Council, West Berlin aligned itself politically with West Germany and was directly or indirectly represented in its federal institutions.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nRelations with the Soviet bloc improved during the era of \\\"\\\" around 1970, and West Germany began taking the line of \\\"two German states within one German nation\\\", but formally maintained the exclusive mandate. It recognised the GDR as a ' government within a single German nation that in turn was represented ' by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries ', and the West as both ' and ' foreign country. The Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe foundation for the influential position held by Germany today was laid during the ' (economic miracle) of the 1950s when West Germany rose from the enormous destruction wrought by World War II to become the world's third largest economy. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for a full alignment with the West rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union. When the G6/G8 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nWith the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, there was a rapid move towards German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states (') were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin, which ended its special status and formed an additional '. They formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany. The expanded Federal Republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances like NATO and the European Union.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nNaming conventions\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe official name of West Germany, adopted in 1949 and unchanged since, is ' (Federal Republic of Germany). Its abbreviation \\\"\\\" (German) or \\\"FRG\\\" (English) was sometimes also used.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn East Germany usage, the terms ' (West Germany) or ' (West German Federal Republic) were preferred during the 1950s and 1960s. This changed once East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners foreigners under its 1968 constitution, where the idea of a single German nation was abandoned. In the early 1970s, starting in the East German ', the initialism \\\"\\\" (FRG) for the \\\"Federal Republic of Germany\\\" began to prevail. In 1973, official East German sources adopted it as a standard expression and other Eastern Bloc nations soon followed suit.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn reaction to this move, in 1965 the Federal Minister of All-German Affairs Erich Mende issued the Directives for the appellation of Germany recommending avoiding the initialism. On 31 May 1974 the heads of German federal and state governments recommended to always use the full name in official publications. From then on West German sources avoided the abbreviated form, with the exception of left-leaning organizations which embraced it. In November 1979 the federal government informed the that the West German public broadcasters and had agreed to refuse to use the initialism.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe colloquial term \\\"West Germany\\\" or its equivalent was used in many languages. \\\"\\\" was also a widespread colloquial form used in German-speaking countries, usually without political overtones.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nHistory\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nOn 4–11 February 1945, leaders from the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union held the Yalta Conference where future arrangements as regards post-war Europe and strategy against Japan in the Pacific were negotiated. The conference agreed to split Germany into four occupation zones: a French Zone in the far west; a British Zone in the northwest; an American Zone in the south; and a Soviet Zone in the east. At the time, the intention was not to split Germany, only to designate zones of administration.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nFormer German areas east of the rivers Oder and Neisse were put under Polish administration. Millions of Germans were expelled and replaced by Poles. In similar fashion, the Soviet Union took over areas of eastern Poland and East Prussia. Between 1946 and 1949, three of the occupation zones began to merge. First, the British and American zones were combined into the quasi-state of Bizonia. Soon afterwards, the French zone was included into Trizonia. At the same time, new federal states (') were formed in the Allied zones, replacing the pre-war states.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn 1949, with the continuation and aggravation of the Cold War (witness the Berlin Airlift of 1948–49), the two German states that were originated in the Western Allied and the Soviet Zones became known internationally as West Germany and East Germany. Commonly known in English as East Germany, the former Soviet Occupation Zone, eventually became the German Democratic Republic or GDR. From 3 October 1990, after the reformation of the GDR's ', the East German states joined the Federal Republic.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nNATO membership\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nWith territories and frontiers that coincided largely with the ones of old Medieval East Francia and the 19th-century Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine, the Federal Republic of Germany, founded on 23 May 1949, under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions it obtained \\\"the full authority of a sovereign state\\\" on 5 May 1955 (although \\\"full sovereignty\\\" was not obtained until the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990). The former occupying Western troops remained on the ground, now as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which West Germany joined on 9 May 1955, promising to rearm itself soon.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nWest Germany became a focus of the Cold War with its juxtaposition to East Germany, a member of the subsequently founded Warsaw Pact. The former capital, Berlin, had been divided into four sectors, with the Western Allies joining their sectors to form West Berlin, while the Soviets held East Berlin. West Berlin was completely surrounded by East German territory and had suffered a Soviet blockade in 1948–49, which was overcome by the Berlin airlift.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 led to U.S. calls to rearm West Germany to help defend Western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community proposed to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThough the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Other means then had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, at the London and Paris Conferences, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm (an idea many Germans rejected), and have full sovereign control of its military, called the . The WEU, however, would regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Also, the German constitution prohibited any military action, except in case of an external attack against Germany or its allies ('). Also, Germans could reject military service on grounds of conscience, and serve for civil purposes instead.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 55,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nReforms during the 1960s\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nKonrad Adenauer was 73 years old when he became chancellor, and for this reason he was initially reckoned as a caretaker. However, he stayed in power for 14 years. The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would nominate Erhard, the architect of the economic miracle. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. He apparently believed that this would allow him to dominate the scene for up to ten more years in spite of the growing mood for change. However, when his advisers informed him that the powers of the president were almost entirely ceremonial, he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, Heinrich Lübke took on the task and was duly elected.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn October 1962, the weekly news magazine ' published an analysis of the West German military defence. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of ' in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis. Adenauer was still wounded by his brief run for president, and this episode damaged his reputation even further. He announced that he would step down in the Fall of 1963. His successor was to be Ludwig Erhard.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate slowed again into a recession, with no growth in 1967.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn order to deal with this problem, a new coalition was formed. Erhard stepped down in 1966 and was succeeded by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He led a grand coalition between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts: the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nDuring the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself ' (\\\"Democracy in Crisis\\\") and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967, when the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as '), armed with staves and bricks attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the centre was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain clothed policeman. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, as a massive disruption to life in Berlin, in a massive campaign against the protesters.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nProtests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigour with which demonstrations were repressed led to mounting militance among the students at the universities in Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of the parent-generation in the Nazi era. The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but until a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the concentration camp and about twenty were put on trial in Frankfurt in 1963. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term \\\"Holocaust\\\" for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when an American mini-series with that name was shown on German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe calling in question of the actions and policies of government led to a new climate of debate. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1977, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Further reforms in 1979 to parental rights law gave equal legal rights to the mother and the father, abolishing the legal authority of the father. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAnger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims led to growing militance among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt, they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the \\\"struggle against imperialism\\\". The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalising the industrial workers and taking an example from activities in Italy of the Red Brigades ('), many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe most notorious of the underground groups was the \\\"\\\", later known as the Red Army Faction which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name \\\"RAF\\\". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPolitical developments 1969–90\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by Willy Brandt—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Willy Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbours, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries. (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972.) These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long-term to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Europe.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nChancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \\\"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\\\".\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn October 1982, the SPD–FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD Chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen Vogel. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nReunification\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe official German reunification ceremony on 3 October 1990 was held at the building, including Chancellor Helmut Kohl, President Richard von Weizsäcker, former Chancellor Willy Brandt and many others. One day later, the parliament of the united Germany would assemble in an act of symbolism in the Reichstag building. Germany had split into two places in 1945, after the end of World War Two.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nHowever, at that time, the role of Berlin had not yet been decided upon. Only after a fierce debate, considered by many as one of the most memorable sessions of parliament, the concluded on 20 June 1991, with quite a slim majority, that both government and parliament should move to Berlin from Bonn.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nWest German \\\"economic miracle\\\"\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe West German ' (\\\"economic miracle\\\", coined by The Times in 1950) was partly due to the economic aid provided by the United States and the Marshall Plan, but mainly due to the currency reform of 1948 which replaced the with the and halted rampant inflation. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industry finally ended in 1950.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn addition to the physical obstacles that had to be overcome for the German economic recovery (see the Plan) there were also intellectual challenges. The Allies confiscated intellectual privileges of huge value, such as all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Meanwhile, some of the best German researchers were being put to work in the Soviet Union and in the USA.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nContrary to popular belief, the Marshall Plan, which was extended to include the newly formed West Germany in 1949, was not the main force behind the '. Had that been the case, other countries such as the United Kingdom and France (which both received higher economic assistance from the plan than Germany) should have experienced the same phenomenon. In fact, the amount of monetary aid (which was in the form of loans) received by Germany through the Marshall Plan was far overshadowed by the amount the Germans had to pay back as war reparations and by the charges the Allies exacted from the Germans for the ongoing cost of occupation (about $2.4 billion per year). In 1953 it was decided that Germany was to repay $1.1 billion of the aid it had received. The last repayment was made in June 1971.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAs demand for consumer goods increased after WWII, the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products. At the time Germany had a large pool of skilled and cheap labour, partly as a result of the flight and expulsion of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe, which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped Germany to more than double the value of its exports during the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population and in the late 1950s and 1960s extra labour supplied by thousands of ' (\\\"guest workers\\\") provided a vital base for the economic upturn. This would have implications later on for successive German governments as they tried to assimilate this group of workers.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nFrom the late 1950s onwards, West Germany had one of the strongest economies in the world, almost as strong as before the Second World War. The East German economy showed a certain growth, but not as much as in West Germany, partly because of continued reparations to the USSR in terms of resources.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn 1952, West Germany became part of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union. On 5 May 1955 West Germany was declared to have the \\\"authority of a sovereign state\\\". The British, French and U.S. militaries remained in the country, just as the Soviet Army remained in East Germany. Four days after obtaining the \\\"authority of a sovereign state\\\" in 1955, West Germany joined NATO. The UK and the USA retained an especially strong presence in West Germany, acting as a deterrent in case of a Soviet invasion. In 1976 West Germany became one of the founding nations of the Group of Six (G6). In 1973, West Germany—home to roughly 1.26% of the world's population—featured the world's fourth largest GDP of 944 billion (5.9% of the world total). In 1987 the FRG held a 7.4% share of total world production.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nDemographics\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPopulation\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nTotal population of West Germany from 1950 to 1990, as collected by the .\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nReligion\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nReligious affiliation in West Germany as collected by ().\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\n* Protestantism in Germany ()\\n* Roman Catholicism in Germany\\n* Islam in Germany\\n* Central Council of Jews in Germany\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPosition towards East Germany\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe official position of West Germany concerning East Germany was that the West German government was the only democratically elected and therefore the only legitimate representative of the German people. According to the Hallstein Doctrine, any country (with the exception of the USSR) that recognised the authorities of the German Democratic Republic would not have diplomatic relations with West Germany.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the early 1970s, Willy Brandt's policy of \\\"\\\" led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. The Hallstein Doctrine was abolished.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe West German Constitution (', \\\"Basic Law\\\") provided two articles for the unification with other parts of Germany:\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\n* Article 23 provided the possibility for other parts of Germany to join the Federal Republic (under the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany).\\n* Article 146 provided the possibility for unification of all parts of Germany under a new constitution.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAfter the peaceful revolution of 1989 in East Germany, the first freely elected East German parliament decided in June 1990 that the ' soon to be re-established would join the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the (West) German Basic Law ('). This made a quick unification possible. In July/August 1990 the East German parliament enacted a law for the re-establishment of ' on the territory of the German Democratic Republic.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe two German states entered into a currency and customs union in July 1990, and on 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic dissolved and the re-established five East German ' (as well as a unified Berlin) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, bringing an end to the East-West divide.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPolitics\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPolitical life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by the united caucus of the Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP) or other right-wing parties.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nKiesinger's 1966–69 \\\"Grand Coalition\\\" was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts—the Grand Coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required to see them in. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nLeading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the FDP, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself (\\\"Democracy in a State of Emergency\\\") and the labour unions. Demonstrations and protests grew in number, and in 1967 the student Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head by a policeman. The press, especially the tabloid ' newspaper, launched a vast campaign against the protesters and in 1968, believed by some as a result, there was an attempted assassination of one of the top members of the German socialist students' union, Rudi Dutschke.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nBy 1958, a stronger desire to confront the Nazi past had come into being. In the 1960s environmentalism and anti-nationalism became fundamental values among left-wing Germans. As a result, in 1979 the Greens were able to reach the 5% minimum required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen state election, and with the foundation of the national party in 1980 developed into one of the most politically successful green movements in the world.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAnother result of the unrest in the 1960s was the founding of the Red Army Faction (RAF). The RAF was active from 1968, carrying out a succession of terrorist attacks in West Germany during the 1970s. Even in the 1990s, attacks were still being committed under the name RAF. The last action took place in 1993, and in 1998 the group announced it was ceasing activities.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the 1969 election, the SPD gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. SPD leader and Chancellor Willy Brandt remained head of government until May 1974, when he resigned after the Guillaume Affair, in which a senior member of his staff was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the . However the affair is widely considered to have been merely a trigger for Brandt's resignation, not a fundamental cause. Instead, Brandt, dogged by scandal relating to alcohol and depression as well as the economic fallout of the 1973 oil crisis, almost seems simply to have had enough. As Brandt himself later said, \\\"I was exhausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the process going on at the time\\\".\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nFinance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) then formed a government, continuing the SPD–FDP coalition. He served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, was Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the same years. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to \\\"the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA\\\".\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe goals of SPD and FDP however drifted apart in the late 1970s and early 1980s. On 1 October 1982, the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, because of the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn January 1987, the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. The Social Democrats concluded that not only were the Greens unlikely to form a coalition, but also that such a coalition would be far from a majority. Neither condition changed until 1998.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nCulture\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn many aspects, German culture continued in spite of the dictatorship and wartime. Old and new forms coexisted next to each other, and the American influence, already strong in the 1920s, grew.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nSport\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn the 20th century, association football became the largest sport in Germany. The Germany national football team, established in 1900, continued its tradition based in the Federal Republic of Germany, winning the 1954 FIFA World Cup in a stunning upset dubbed the miracle of Bern. Earlier, the German team was not considered part of the international top. The 1974 FIFA World Cup was held in West German cities and West Berlin. After having been beaten by their East German counterparts in the first round, the team of the German Football Association won the cup again, defeating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final. With the process of unification in full swing in the summer of 1990, the Germans won a third World Cup, with players that had been capped for East Germany not yet permitted to contribute. European championships have been won too, in 1972, 1980 and 1996.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAfter both Olympic Games of 1936 had been held in Germany, Munich was selected to host the 1972 Summer Olympics. These were also the first summer games in which the East Germans showed up with the separate flag and anthem of the GDR. Since the 1950s, Germany at the Olympics had been represented by a united team led by the pre-war German NOC officials as the IOC had denied East German demands for a separate team.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nAs in 1957, when the Saarland acceded, East German sport organisations ceased to exist in late 1990 as their subdivisions and their members joined their Western counterparts. Thus, the present German organisations and teams in football, Olympics and elsewhere are identical to those that had been informally called \\\"West German\\\" before 1991. The only differences were a larger membership and a different name used by some foreigners. These organisations and teams in turn mostly continued the traditions of those that represented Germany before the Second World War, and even the First World War, thus providing a century-old continuity despite political changes. On the other hand, the separate East German teams and organisations were founded in the 1950s; they were an episode lasting less than four decades, yet quite successful in that time.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nLiterary scene\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nBesides the interest in the older generation of writers, new authors emerged on the background of the experiences of war and after war period. Wolfgang Borchert, a former soldier who died young in 1947, is one of the best known representatives of the . Heinrich Böll is considered an observer of the young Federal Republic from the 1950s to the 1970s, and caused some political controversies because of his increasingly critical view on society. The Frankfurt Book Fair (and its Peace Prize of the German Book Trade) soon developed into a regarded institution. Exemplary for West Germany's literature are – among others – Siegfried Lenz (with The German Lesson) and Günter Grass (with The Tin Drum and The Flounder).\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nDaily life\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nDuring the 40 years of separation some divergence occurred in the cultural life of the two parts of the severed nation. Both West Germany and East Germany followed along traditional paths of the common German culture, but West Germany, being obviously more affected by influences from western Europe and North America, became more cosmopolitan. Conversely, East Germany, while remaining more conservative than West Germany in its adherence to some aspects of the received tradition, was strongly moulded by the dictates of a state socialist ideology of predominantly Soviet inspiration. On the non-political level, East Germany was also influenced by the Eastern Bloc's Slavic cultures that manifested in art, culinary scene, and sports. Nevertheless, young East Germans were also fascinated by Western and particularly American culture, which they had a degree of access to in a variety of ways, not least through West German television and radio, whose broadcasts reached many parts of the country.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nFor the majority of Germans in present-day Germany who lived in pre-reunification West Germany, there has been minimal change in daily life stemming from German reunification as the reunified country is essentially West Germany incorporating East Germany on a West German base. In contrast, for East Germans the scale of change has been sweeping in all aspects of life from that before '. Although movements like ' exist attempting to celebrate and preserve parts of the GDR culture, since reunification the former East Germany has been converging towards the western part of the country in most parts of daily life.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nGeographical distribution of government\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nIn West Germany, most of the political agencies and buildings were located in Bonn, while the German Stock Market was located in Frankfurt am Main, which became the economic center. The judicial branch of both the German Federal Constitutional Court (') and the highest Court of Appeals, were located in Karlsruhe.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nThe West German government was known to be much more decentralised than its state socialist East German counterpart, the former being a federal state and the latter a unitary one. Whilst East Germany was divided into 15 administrative districts ('), which were merely local branches of the national government, West Germany was divided into states (') with independently elected state parliaments and control of the , the second legislative chamber of the Federal Government.\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nPresent geographical and political terminology\",\n \"West Germany\\n\\nToday, North Rhine-Westphalia is often considered to be Western Germany in geographical terms. When distinguishing between former West Germany and former East Germany as parts of present-day unified Germany, it has become most common to refer to the ' (old states) and the ' (new states), although ' and ' are still heard as well.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1594,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2516"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"\"In which Cypriot town will you find the \"\"Tombs of the Rings\"\"?\""},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Paphos"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["paphian","paphus","πάφος","páfos","paphos cyprus","paphos","city of paphos","kato paphos","nea paphos","pafos","ktima"],"string":"[\n \"paphian\",\n \"paphus\",\n \"πάφος\",\n \"páfos\",\n \"paphos cyprus\",\n \"paphos\",\n \"city of paphos\",\n \"kato paphos\",\n \"nea paphos\",\n \"pafos\",\n \"ktima\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\n\nTombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com","Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\n\nDescription\nAbout 2 miles northwards of the Old Harbour you will find the Tombs of the Kings. The tombs are impressive enough to be worthy of kings. They are burial caves carved into the bedrock of the hill and decorated with Doric columns and capitals. You can freely walk about the place once inside, searching through the rooms of the tombs, with parts underground carved into the rock.\nThis Necropolis of Pafos is situated on the North East section of the town, right outside the ancient town fortific...","Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\n\nCyprus Holidays 2017/2018 | Holidays to Cyprus | Thomas Cook\nFood And Drink\nFor a real taste of Cyprus, visit a taverna and try a collection of small dishes known as meze. Tuck into freshly grilled halloumi cheese, crispy fried calamari drizzled with lemon juice and juicy Cypriot sausages known as sheftalia. Another classic Cypriot dish is afelia, succulent chunks of pork, slow-cooked in red wine with spicy coriander seeds. Traditional coffee shops are a great place to stop and watch the world go by. Try a cup of strong Cypriot coffee and delicate fruit sweets known as glyko. The most famous sweets are the soft and sugary Cyprus Delights, known locally as loukoumi. CYPRUS IS BEST FOR... Families: Cyprus' waterparks are some of the largest in Europe. Nature lovers: Discover the scenic Troodos Mountains and visit the home of the island's loggerhead turtles on a Cyprus Jeep Safari. History fans: The ancient ruins of Paphos and the Kourion amphitheatre. FAST FACTS\nLanguage: The languages spoken in Cyprus are Greek, Turkish and English. Currency: The currency used in Cyprus is the Euro (€). Local time: Cyprus is 2 hours ahead of UK time.","Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\n\nFly to: Paphos International Airport (PFO) is in western Cyprus and Larnaca International Airport (LCA) is in the south east of Cyprus\nFlight time from UK: 4-5 hours\nTourist Information: Further Cyprus tourist information can be found here . Visa & Health: Before you travel, click here for recommendations and advice on visas and health for your holiday to Cyprus. WEATHER AND CLIMATE\nTemperature: 13-26 (°C) \nBoasting glorious highs of 30 (°C) and up to 14 hours of sunshine a day, summer is the best time to hit the beach in Cyprus. The weather is a little more comfortable in the spring and autumn, with average temperatures in the mid-teens to high 20s offering the perfect conditions for exploring the historic attractions. Winter is the wettest time of the year, but the average temperature rarely drops below 13 throughout the season. GETTING AROUND\nBy bus: Buses in Cyprus don’t run to a set schedule, but they are cheap and comfortable. They make a great option if you’re on a budget and just want to visit the island’s main attractions. By hire car: If you fancy exploring rural Cyprus then it’s worth hiring a car.","Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\n\nTake a leisurely drive to the Troodos Mountains, stopping off at the picturesque villages of Omodos and Lania along the way. Driving is also the best way to explore some of Cyprus’ wine villages and popular archaeological sites, such as the Kourion in Limassol and Mosaics in Paphos. EVENTS\nEuropean Capital of Culture: As the European Capital of Culture for 2017, Paphos will be hosting a range of cultural events throughout the year. Find out how you can get involved online . Flower power: In May, fresh flowers fill the town of Paphos for the Anthestiria Festival. Floats decorated with brightly coloured blooms travel through the streets in a celebration of spring and nature’s rebirth. For opera lovers: At the end of summer, an international theatre troupe performs a world famous opera for the Aphrodite Festival. The opera is performed outside Paphos’ medieval castle and is one of the most popular annual events on the island. Wine tasting: Taking place around the same time is the Limassol Wine Festival. Have a glass or two with the locals as you enjoy live theatre and traditional Cypriot music.","Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\n\nWhy choose Thomas Cook\nWith hotels available to suit every person and every budget look no further than Thomas Cook for your getaway this year! Thousands of hotels to choose from\nDedicated online customer service\nOver 175 years of travel experience\nAward winning travel company","Tomb of The Kings Road Works - YouTube\n\nTomb of The Kings Road Works - YouTube\nTomb of The Kings Road Works\nWant to watch this again later?\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\nNeed to report the video?\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\nPublished on Apr 11, 2015\nRoadworks progress on the Tomb of Tthe Kings Road, Paphos, Cyprus\nCategory"],"string":"[\n \"Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\\n\\nTombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\",\n \"Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\\n\\nDescription\\nAbout 2 miles northwards of the Old Harbour you will find the Tombs of the Kings. The tombs are impressive enough to be worthy of kings. They are burial caves carved into the bedrock of the hill and decorated with Doric columns and capitals. You can freely walk about the place once inside, searching through the rooms of the tombs, with parts underground carved into the rock.\\nThis Necropolis of Pafos is situated on the North East section of the town, right outside the ancient town fortific...\",\n \"Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\\n\\nCyprus Holidays 2017/2018 | Holidays to Cyprus | Thomas Cook\\nFood And Drink\\nFor a real taste of Cyprus, visit a taverna and try a collection of small dishes known as meze. Tuck into freshly grilled halloumi cheese, crispy fried calamari drizzled with lemon juice and juicy Cypriot sausages known as sheftalia. Another classic Cypriot dish is afelia, succulent chunks of pork, slow-cooked in red wine with spicy coriander seeds. Traditional coffee shops are a great place to stop and watch the world go by. Try a cup of strong Cypriot coffee and delicate fruit sweets known as glyko. The most famous sweets are the soft and sugary Cyprus Delights, known locally as loukoumi. CYPRUS IS BEST FOR... Families: Cyprus' waterparks are some of the largest in Europe. Nature lovers: Discover the scenic Troodos Mountains and visit the home of the island's loggerhead turtles on a Cyprus Jeep Safari. History fans: The ancient ruins of Paphos and the Kourion amphitheatre. FAST FACTS\\nLanguage: The languages spoken in Cyprus are Greek, Turkish and English. Currency: The currency used in Cyprus is the Euro (€). Local time: Cyprus is 2 hours ahead of UK time.\",\n \"Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\\n\\nFly to: Paphos International Airport (PFO) is in western Cyprus and Larnaca International Airport (LCA) is in the south east of Cyprus\\nFlight time from UK: 4-5 hours\\nTourist Information: Further Cyprus tourist information can be found here . Visa & Health: Before you travel, click here for recommendations and advice on visas and health for your holiday to Cyprus. WEATHER AND CLIMATE\\nTemperature: 13-26 (°C) \\nBoasting glorious highs of 30 (°C) and up to 14 hours of sunshine a day, summer is the best time to hit the beach in Cyprus. The weather is a little more comfortable in the spring and autumn, with average temperatures in the mid-teens to high 20s offering the perfect conditions for exploring the historic attractions. Winter is the wettest time of the year, but the average temperature rarely drops below 13 throughout the season. GETTING AROUND\\nBy bus: Buses in Cyprus don’t run to a set schedule, but they are cheap and comfortable. They make a great option if you’re on a budget and just want to visit the island’s main attractions. By hire car: If you fancy exploring rural Cyprus then it’s worth hiring a car.\",\n \"Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\\n\\nTake a leisurely drive to the Troodos Mountains, stopping off at the picturesque villages of Omodos and Lania along the way. Driving is also the best way to explore some of Cyprus’ wine villages and popular archaeological sites, such as the Kourion in Limassol and Mosaics in Paphos. EVENTS\\nEuropean Capital of Culture: As the European Capital of Culture for 2017, Paphos will be hosting a range of cultural events throughout the year. Find out how you can get involved online . Flower power: In May, fresh flowers fill the town of Paphos for the Anthestiria Festival. Floats decorated with brightly coloured blooms travel through the streets in a celebration of spring and nature’s rebirth. For opera lovers: At the end of summer, an international theatre troupe performs a world famous opera for the Aphrodite Festival. The opera is performed outside Paphos’ medieval castle and is one of the most popular annual events on the island. Wine tasting: Taking place around the same time is the Limassol Wine Festival. Have a glass or two with the locals as you enjoy live theatre and traditional Cypriot music.\",\n \"Cyprus Holidays 2016 / 2017 | Thomas Cook\\n\\nWhy choose Thomas Cook\\nWith hotels available to suit every person and every budget look no further than Thomas Cook for your getaway this year! Thousands of hotels to choose from\\nDedicated online customer service\\nOver 175 years of travel experience\\nAward winning travel company\",\n \"Tomb of The Kings Road Works - YouTube\\n\\nTomb of The Kings Road Works - YouTube\\nTomb of The Kings Road Works\\nWant to watch this again later?\\nSign in to add this video to a playlist.\\nNeed to report the video?\\nSign in to report inappropriate content.\\nRating is available when the video has been rented.\\nThis feature is not available right now. Please try again later.\\nPublished on Apr 11, 2015\\nRoadworks progress on the Tomb of Tthe Kings Road, Paphos, Cyprus\\nCategory\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1595,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2517"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which country did Grand Duke Jean become head of state in 1964?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Luxembourg"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["county duchy and grand duchy of luxembourg","grossherzogtum luxemburg","grand duchy of luxembourg","luxemburger","iso 3166 1 lu","luxumburg","luxemberg","luxemburg","luxembourgh","state of luxembourg","groussherzogtum lëtzebuerg","luxembourg country","luxemborg","lexenburg","lexumbourg","grand duchy of luxemburg","grand duche de luxembourg","lëtzebuerg","groussherzogtum letzebuerg","lussemburgo","letzebuerg","health in luxembourg","grand duché de luxembourg","country luxembourg","großherzogtum luxemburg","luxembourg"],"string":"[\n \"county duchy and grand duchy of luxembourg\",\n \"grossherzogtum luxemburg\",\n \"grand duchy of luxembourg\",\n \"luxemburger\",\n \"iso 3166 1 lu\",\n \"luxumburg\",\n \"luxemberg\",\n \"luxemburg\",\n \"luxembourgh\",\n \"state of luxembourg\",\n \"groussherzogtum lëtzebuerg\",\n \"luxembourg country\",\n \"luxemborg\",\n \"lexenburg\",\n \"lexumbourg\",\n \"grand duchy of luxemburg\",\n \"grand duche de luxembourg\",\n \"lëtzebuerg\",\n \"groussherzogtum letzebuerg\",\n \"lussemburgo\",\n \"letzebuerg\",\n \"health in luxembourg\",\n \"grand duché de luxembourg\",\n \"country luxembourg\",\n \"großherzogtum luxemburg\",\n \"luxembourg\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nJean (given names: Jean Benoît Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano; born 5 January 1921) reigned as Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He is the father of the current ruler, Grand Duke Henri, and the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma. Among his godparents was Pope Benedict XV, who gave him his second name.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nEarly life","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nJean was born on 5 January 1921, at Berg Castle, in central Luxembourg, the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and of Prince Félix of Bourbon-Parma. He attended primary school in Luxembourg, where he continued the initial stage of secondary education. He completed secondary school at Ampleforth College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in the United Kingdom. Upon reaching maturity, on 5 January 1938, he was styled 'Hereditary Grand Duke', recognising his status as heir apparent.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nSecond World War","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nOn 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, beginning a four-year occupation. Having been warned of an imminent invasion, the Grand Ducal Family escaped the previous night. At first, they sought refuge in Paris, before fleeing France only weeks later. The Grand Ducal Family sought refuge in the United States, renting an estate in Brookville, New York. Jean studied Law and Political Science at Université Laval, Quebec City.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nHe joined the British Army as a volunteer in the Irish Guards in November 1942. After receiving officer training at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, Jean was commissioned as a Lieutenant in July 1943, before being promoted to captain in 1944. He landed in Normandy on 11 June 1944, and took part in the Battle for Caen and the liberation of Brussels. On 10 September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Luxembourg before moving on to Arnhem and the invasion of Germany. After the war, from 1984 until his abdication, he served as Colonel of the Regiment of the Irish Guards, often riding in uniform behind Queen Elizabeth II during the Sovereign's Birthday Parade.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nReign","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nHe was named Lieutenant-Representative of the Grand Duchess on 28 April 1961.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nHe became Grand Duke when his mother, the Grand Duchess Charlotte, abdicated on 12 November 1964. The same day, he was made a General of the Luxembourg Army.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nGrand Duke Jean abdicated on 7 October 2000, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Henri. Grand Duke Jean now lives at Fischbach Castle.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nThe Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam) bears his name.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nIssue","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nHe was married in Luxembourg on 9 April 1953 to Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium (1927–2005), daughter of Léopold III, King of the Belgians. They had three sons and two daughters, twenty-two grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren:","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n*Princess Marie-Astrid (17 February 1954). married HI&RH Carl Christian Marcus d'Aviano, Prince Imperial and Archduke of Austria (born 1954) on 6 February 1982. They have five children and five grandchildren:\n**Archduchess Marie Christine Anne Astrid Zita Charlotte of Austria (31 July 1983), Countess of Limburg-Stirum after her marriage on 6 December 2008 in Mechelen, Belgium, to Count Rodolphe of Limburg-Stirum (b. Uccle, 20 March 1979). They have two sons:\n***Count Léopold Menno Philippe Gabriel François-Xavier Marie Joseph Ghislain of Limburg-Stirum (19 April 2011)\n***Count Constantin of Limburg-Stirum (25 October 2013)\n**Archduke Imre Emanuel Simeon Jean Carl Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (8 December 1985) married Kathleen Elizabeth Walker on 8 September 2012. They have two daughters:\n***Archduchess Maria-Stella Elizabeth Christiana Yolande Alberta of Austria (11 November 2013)\n***Archduchess Magdalena Maria Alexandra Zita Charlotte of Austria (24 February 2016)\n**Archduke Christoph Henri Alexander Maria Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (2 February 1988), who married Adélaïde Marie Béatrice Drapé-Frisch on 29 December 2012. They have a daughter:\n***Archduchess Katarina Marie-Christine Fabiola of Austria (22 December 2014) \n**Archduke Alexander Hector Marie Karl Leopold Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (26 September 1990).","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n**Archduchess Gabriella Maria Pilar Yolande Joséphine Charlotte of Austria (26 March 1994)\n*Grand Duke Henri (16 April 1955). Married María Teresa Mestre y Batista (born 1956) on 4 February 1981, and five children and three grandchildren. Ascended to the grand ducal throne in 2000. **Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume Jean Joseph Marie (born 11 November 1981), married Countess Stéphanie of Lannoy on 19 and 20 October 2012. **Prince Félix Léopold Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (3 June 1984) married German Claire Margareta Lademacher on 21 September 2013. The couple has one daughter:\n***Princess Amalia Gabriela Maria Teresa of Nassau, (15 June 2014)\n**Prince Louis Xavier Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (3 August 1986) married Tessy Antony on 29 September 2006 in Gilsdorf, Luxembourg. They have two sons:\n***Prince Gabriel Michael Louis Ronny of Nassau, (12 March 2006)\n***Prince Noah Etienne Guillaume Gabriel Matthias Xavier of Nassau, (21 September 2007)\n**Princess Alexandra Joséphine Teresa Charlotte Marie Wilhelmine of Luxembourg, (16 February 1991)\n**Prince Sébastien Henri Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (16 April 1992)\n*Prince Jean (15 May 1957). Married Hélène Vestur (born 1958) on 27 May 1987 and has four children. In 2009 he married Diane De Guerre.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n**Princess Marie-Gabrielle of Nassau (8 September 1986)\n**Prince Constantin Jean Philippe Marie Albert Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (22 July 1988)\n**Prince Wenceslas François Baudoin Léopold Juraj Marie Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (17 November 1990)\n**Prince Carl-Johan Félix Julien Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (15 August 1992)\n*Princess Margaretha (15 May 1957). married HSH Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein (1947), son of Sovereign Prince Franz Joseph II on 20 March 1982 and has four children. **Prince Leopold Emmanuel Jean Marie of Liechtenstein (20 May 1984 - Brussels, 22 May 1984)\n**Princess Maria-Anunciata Astrid Joséphine Veronica of Liechtenstein (12 May 1985)\n**Princess Marie-Astrid Nora Margarita Veronica of Liechtenstein (26 June 1987)\n**Prince Josef-Emanuel Leopold Marie of Liechtenstein (7 May 1989)\n*Prince Guillaume (1 May 1963).","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nMarried Sibilla Weiller (born 1968), a great-granddaughter of King Alfonso XIII of Spain through her mother Donna Olimpia Torlonia di Civitella-Cesi, herself a daughter of Infanta Beatriz of Spain on 24 September 1994 and has four children:\n**Prince Paul Louis Jean Marie Guillaume of Nassau (4 March 1998) \n**Prince Léopold Guillaume Marie Joseph of Nassau (2 May 2000)\n**Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine Maria da Gloria of Nassau (2 May 2000)\n**Prince Jean André Guillaume Marie Gabriel Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (13 July 2004)","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nTitles, styles, and honours","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nTitles and styles","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n*5 January 1921 – 12 November 1964: His Royal Highness The Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Hereditary Prince of Nassau, Prince of Bourbon-Parma\n*12 November 1964 – 7 October 2000: His Royal Highness The Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau\n*7 October 2000 – present: His Royal Highness Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nHis full title is \"by the Grace of God, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Count of Sayn, Königstein, Katzenelnbogen and Diez, Burgrave of Hammerstein, Lord of Mahlberg, Wiesbaden, Idstein, Merenberg, Limburg and Eppstein.\" Many of the titles are held without regard to the strict rules of salic inheritance.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nChange of dynastic titles","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nJean renounced the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family in 1986 when his eldest son, then-Hereditary Grand Duke Henri married Maria-Theresa Mestre. The reason for this was that the Duke of Parma, Carlos Hugo, ruled the marriage unequal in 1981, as well as the marriage of Prince Jean to Hélène Suzanna Vestur in 1987, for which he had renounced his rights to Luxembourg in 1986. It is not known if the marriage of Prince Guillaume was seen by Carlos Hugo as equal.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nThe Arrêté Grand-Ducal (Grand Ducal decree) of 21 September 1995 established that the title of Prince/Princesse de Luxembourg is reserved for the children of the sovereign and the heir to the throne. It also stated that the descendants in male lineage of the sovereign should be styled as Royal Highnesses and titled Prince/Princess of Nassau and that the descendants of unapproved marriages should be styled as Count/Countess of Nassau.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nLuxembourgish honours and awards","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nSee also List of honours of the Luxembourgish Grand-Ducal Family by country","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n*Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (Grand Master 1964–2000)\n*Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau (Grand Master 1964–2000)\n*Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown (Grand Master 1964–2000)\n*Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Grand Master 1964–2000)\n*Luxembourg War Cross (with bar)","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nForeign honours and awards","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\n*: Great Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1975) \n*: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold \n*: Croix de guerre (with bar)\n*: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (22/11/1976) \n*: Croix de guerre 1939–1945\n*: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\n* House of Habsburg: 1,293rd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece\n*: Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur \n*: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Falcon \n*: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (26/10/1973) \n*: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion \n*: Commemorative War Cross\n* : Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Princess Beatrix, Princess of Orange and Claus Van Amsberg \n*: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St.","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nOlav\n*: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland\n*: 379th Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword\n*: Grand Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique\n* House of Savoy: Supreme Knight of the Order of the Annunziata (1978)\n* House of Savoy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1978)\n* House of Savoy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (1978)\n*: 1,184th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (16/06/1983) \n*: Collar of the Order of Charles III (08/07/1980) \n*: Stranger Knight of the Order of the Garter (948th member; 1972)\n*: 1939-1945 Star\n*: France and Germany Star\n*: Defence Medal\n*: War Medal 1939–1945\n*: Silver Star\n*: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim\n*: HM King Carl XVI Gustaf 50th Anniversary Medal (30/04/1996) \n*: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer\n*: Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire (14/10/1971)","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nAncestry","Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nPatrilineal descent","Head of state\n\nA head of state is the highest-ranking position in a sovereign state and is vested with powers to act as the chief public representative of that state. In most countries, the head of state is a natural person, but the position is held by a body of persons in the Federal Council of Switzerland and the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and, in two other United Nations member states, the position is held by two persons jointly: the Co-Princes of Andorra and the Captains Regent of San Marino.[https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS], Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (2016-04-08). Retrieved on 2016-04-15. The role and functions of the office of a head of state may range from being purely ceremonial figurehead to one that wields autocratic executive power, for the nature of the position of a head of state is for each state to decide. Although several models or patterns exist, there are many idiosyncrasies in different states which preclude tidy classifications.","Head of state\n\nThe office of a head of state is often distinct from a head of government. For example, the distinction is made in article 7 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, article 1 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents and the United Nations protocol list. In parliamentary systems like the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the monarch and the president are recognized as their respective heads of state, while the prime minister and the chancellor are recognized as the heads of government. However, in republics with a presidential system (as in the United States and Brazil) or certain parliamentary republics (as in South Africa and Botswana), their presidents are recognized as being both heads of state and heads of government.","Head of state\n\nThe role of the head of state generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution, laws, unwritten customs, or by their traditions, including the appointment of members of the government and ambassadors. Before the enactment of the modern French constitution, Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French presidency by stating the head of state should embody \"the spirit of the nation\" for the nation itself and the world and embody \"a certain idea about France\" (). Today, many countries expect their head of state to carry out their duties with dignity in a similar fashion.","Head of state\n\nConstitutional models","Head of state\n\nSome academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of \"models\".","Head of state\n\nAn independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.Watts.\nIn protocolary terms, the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy, or the president, in the case of a republic.","Head of state\n\nAmong the different state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:","Head of state\n\n# The parliamentary system, with two subset models;\n## The standard model, in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but the exercise of such power is done on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g., United Kingdom, India, Pakistan).\n## The non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (E.g.: Sweden, Japan).\n# The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g., Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and\n# The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g., United States, Brazil).","Head of state\n\nParliamentary system","Head of state\n\nStandard model","Head of state\n\nIn parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and his cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.","Head of state\n\nIn parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).","Head of state\n\nIn republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel) the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.","Head of state\n\nIn reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.","Head of state\n\nFor example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure \"presidential\" system.","Head of state\n\nExamples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as \"unable to reign\" for twenty-four hours.","Head of state\n\nNon-executive model","Head of state\n\nThese officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.","Head of state\n\nThe was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor is defined in the constitution as \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\" (article 1), and is generally recognized throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate \"as designated by the Diet\", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.","Head of state\n\nSince the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \"On Behalf of the Government\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.","Head of state\n\nIn contrast, the only contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the supreme court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.","Head of state\n\nThe most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsowever. The least ceremonial powers held by the President are to appoint the Prime Minister, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the Prime Minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.","Head of state\n\nExecutive model","Head of state\n\nSome parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Suriname) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister, since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.","Head of state\n\nSemi-presidential systems","Head of state\n\nSemi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.","Head of state\n\nOther countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.","Head of state\n\nPresidential system","Head of state\n\nNote: The head of state in a \"presidential\" system may not actually hold the title of \"president\" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.","Head of state\n\nSome constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a \"presidential system\" and sometimes called the \"imperial model\", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centers on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.","Head of state\n\nPresidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g. Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.","Head of state\n\nIn the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations (Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.","Head of state\n\nSingle-party states","Head of state\n\nIn certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).","Head of state\n\nThis may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il-Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of \"Eternal President\" (while all substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared \"the highest post of the state\", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.","Head of state\n\nComplications with categorization","Head of state\n\nWhile clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.","Head of state\n\nConstitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet.[http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101)] (2009). Retrieved on 2014-08-03. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.","Head of state\n\nAnother complication exists with South Africa, in which the President is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognized as the head of state. The offices of President of Nauru and President of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.[http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf Constitution of Botswana], Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU], Parliament of Nauru. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\nPanama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.","Head of state\n\nHistorically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920-1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India.","Head of state\n\nRoles of heads of state","Head of state\n\nHead of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.","Head of state\n\nSymbolic role","Head of state\n\nOne of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the \"personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians\".","Head of state\n\nIn many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.","Head of state\n\nOther common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective \"royal\" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.","Head of state\n\nHeads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.","Head of state\n\nAt home, heads of state are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honor box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.","Head of state\n\nThe Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.","Head of state\n\nAs such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offense) just a military officer or civil servant.","Head of state\n\nFor non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.","Head of state\n\nBelow follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:\n::The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws. :Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:\n::(1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time. ::(2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand. :Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:\n::The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html The Constitution of Japan], Office of the Prime Minister. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.[http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf Constitution of the Italian Republic], Senate of the Republic. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. :Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\n::The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005)], Portuguese Constitutional Court. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\n::(1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states. ::(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution. :Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:\n::The President of the Republic shall be Head of State. ::He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws. :Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:\n::1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State. ::2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms.","Head of state\n\nIn accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html Constitution of the Russian Federation], Government of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:\n::The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of \"President of the Argentine Nation\".[http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION], Argentine Senate. Retrieved on 2012-11-16.","Head of state\n\nExecutive role","Head of state\n\nIn the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as \"Her Majesty's Government\" and \"His Excellency's Government.\" Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Germany, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:\n::Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.[http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition], The Communications Section, Danish Parliament (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:\n::The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986.], ComLaw, Government of Australia (2003) ISBN 0 642 78285 7. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:\n::The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The Constitution], Publications Department, Hellenic Parliament (2008) ISBN 960 560 073 0. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:\n::The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss%289%29.pdf Constitution of India, Part V], Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.","Head of state\n\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:\n::The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.[http://bd.camara.gov.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/1344/constituicao_ingles_3ed.pdf?sequence\n7 Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition], Chamber of Deputies (2010) ISBN 978-85-736-5737-1. Retrieved on 2012-11-13.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:\n::The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.","Head of state\n\nThe few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.","Head of state\n\nAppointment of senior officials","Head of state\n\nThe head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.","Head of state\n\nIn practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.","Head of state\n\nIn presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.","Head of state\n\nThe head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html Constitution of Ireland], Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 2014-08-03. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:\n::The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf THE BELGIAN CONSTITUTION], Legal Department, Belgian House of Representatives (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:\n::The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\n::The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \n:::I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State: \n:::XIII - ...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them; \n:::XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law; \n:::XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts; \n:::XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union; \n:::XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII\n:::XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law.","Head of state\n\nSome countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.","Head of state\n\nDiplomatic role","Head of state\n\nThe Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.Roberts: pp. 71-79. The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.Roberts: pp. 61-68. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2012) 187 sovereign states has ratified.","Head of state\n\nHowever, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a Chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).","Head of state\n\nThe head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.Roberts: pp. 542-543. However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g. between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:\n::1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.\n::2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:\n::The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;\n:::b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;\n:::c) shall sign instruments of ratification;\n:::d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:\n::The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.","Head of state\n\nIn Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the Royal Prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.","Head of state\n\nMilitary role","Head of state\n\nA head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.","Head of state\n\nIn a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military maneuvers is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.","Head of state\n\nIn military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:\n::The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting. ::The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended.], Information Service, Parliament of Norway. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees. :Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. :Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:\n::The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. :Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:\n::The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.","Head of state\n\nHe shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.","Head of state\n\nSome countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers. \n* In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peace-time (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.[https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany], Bundestag (Print version. As at: October 2010). Retrieved on 2012-11-11. \n* In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the Minister is the Chief of General Staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.","Head of state\n\nLegislative roles","Head of state\n\nIt is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America.","Head of state\n\nMost countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure Royal Assent.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:\n::The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:\n::Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:\n::The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;\n:::c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;\n:::d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;\n:::e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;\n:::f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:\n::Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated...","Head of state\n\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \n:::III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;\n:::IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;\n:::V - veto bills, wholly or in part;\n:::XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary; \n:::XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution; \n:::XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:\n::1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.\n::2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.\n::3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id\n80 Constitution of the State of Qatar], Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2012-11-17.","Head of state\n\nIn some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.","Head of state\n\nIf he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.","Head of state\n\nSummoning and dissolving the legislature","Head of state\n\nA head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:\n::The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.\n:Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;","Head of state\n\nOther prerogatives","Head of state\n\nGranting nobility, knighthood and various titles and other honors","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:\n::The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honorably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.","Head of state\n\nImmunity","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:\n::The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council. :Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:\n::(1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict. ::(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it. ::(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\n::1.","Head of state\n\nThe President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions. ::2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office. ::3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election. ::4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended. :Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:\n::The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.","Head of state\n\nReserve Powers","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties.","Head of state\n\nThe Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.Parliament shall sit as of right.The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp Constitution of October 4, 1958], The French National Assembly. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:\n::Article 69\n:::The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.","Head of state\n\n::Article 70\n:::The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.","Head of state\n\nRight of pardon","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:\n::The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament. :Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:\n::He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation. :Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons. :Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:\n::...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:\n::The President may-\n:::(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;\n:::(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;\n:::(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or\n:::(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.","Head of state\n\nGovernors-general (Commonwealth realms)","Head of state\n\nIn the Commonwealth realms, other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the relevant prime minister, as a representative and to exercise almost all the Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her \"representatives\". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that \"references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the Governor-General\" ). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.","Head of state\n\nAn example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: \"I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision.\"","Head of state\n\nAnother example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General unexpectedly dismissed the Prime Minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The Governor-General issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general. A letter from the Australian monarch's Private Secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.","Head of state\n\nOther Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Elizabeth II are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.","Head of state\n\nSelection and various types and styles of heads of state","Head of state\n\nAlthough many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognized as such by other countries. In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.Robertson: p. 221.Roberts: pp. 35-44. In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or had had other titles.","Head of state\n\nIn medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.Roberts: p. 39. The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.Roberts: pp. 37-38. This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia. Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718. However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.Roberts: pp. 42-43. On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.","Head of state\n\nContemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).Roberts: p. 43.","Head of state\n\nThere are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.","Head of state\n\nEuropean writers and revolutions, 16th–20th centuries","Head of state\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli used Prince () as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise The Prince, originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes. Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) used the term Sovereign. In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign rulerin the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the \"L'etat c'est moi\"to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations. Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g. Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.","Head of state\n\nFile:Machiavelli Principe Cover Page.jpg|Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince\nFile:Albergati Discorsi politici.jpg|Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle\nFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)","Head of state\n\nShared and substitute heads of state","Head of state\n\nInterim","Head of state\n\nWhenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the Vice-President acts when the President is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the Queen's powers may be delegated to Counselors of State when she is abroad or unavailable.","Head of state\n\nShared","Head of state\n\nIn some countries where there is no resident head of state, such as Andorra, a local representative is appointed. In the case of Andorra, two co-princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the President of France, residing in France, and the other is the Bishop of Urgell, residing in Spain. Each co-prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.","Head of state\n\nExtraordinary arrangements","Head of state\n\nIn exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by a new \"provisionary\" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost).","Head of state\n\nReligious heads of state","Head of state\n\nSince antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practicing incestuous marriage. In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.","Head of state\n\nChristianity","Head of state\n\nIn Roman Catholicism, the Pope was once Sovereign Pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States. After Italian unification, the Pope remains head of state of Vatican City. Furthermore, the Bishop of Urgell is ex officio one of the two Co-Princes of Andorra. In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as Supreme Governor of the Church of England, although this is purely symbolic role. Therefore, the Head of State of the United Kingdom has to be of the protestant faith, meaning the role of the British monarchy cannot be expanded to other large minorities within the state.","Head of state\n\nIslam","Head of state\n\nDuring the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.","Head of state\n\nIn the modern Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.","Head of state\n\nHinduism","Head of state\n\nIn Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as \"servant\" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling \"in the name of\" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.","Head of state\n\nBuddhism","Head of state\n\nFrom the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders (\"god-king\") of Tibet.","Head of state\n\nOuter Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924.","Head of state\n\nCity states and crowned republics","Head of state\n\n* The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the Maya civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.\n* Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but \"reigned\" as sovereign dukes.\n* The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine \"republican\" and \"monarchic\" characteristics.\n* The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning \"lieutenant\" or \"governor\", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.","Head of state\n\nMultiple or collective heads of state","Head of state\n\nA collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates; the Directoire; the seven-member Swiss Federal Council, where each member acts in turn as ceremonial head of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two \"Captains-regent\"), which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics, where there always was an even number of consuls.","Head of state\n\nIn condominiums, sovereignty is shared between two external powers: e.g. Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), and the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).","Head of state\n\nIn the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled Consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges). In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two different dynasties.","Head of state\n\nSuch arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).","Head of state\n\nThe National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.","Head of state\n\nUnique cases and titles","Head of state\n\nThough president and various monarchichal titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning \"leader\" in the national language, e.g. Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.","Head of state\n\nIn 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means \"head of state\" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.","Head of state\n\nIn 1959 after the resignation of Vice President of Indonesia Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; \"panglima\" meaning \"commander or martial figurehead\", \"tertinggi\" meaning \"highest\"; roughly translated to English as \"Supreme Commander of the Revolution\"). He was praised as \"Paduka Yang Mulia\", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.","Head of state\n\nThere are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China.","Head of state\n\nIn North Korea, the late Kim Il-sung was named \"Eternal President\" 4 years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the President are constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.","Head of state\n\nThere is debate as to whether Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.","Head of state\n\nIn some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as \"Guide of the Revolution\"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya (\"state of the masses\"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.","Head of state\n\nSometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.","Head of state\n\nIn certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g. the title Sardar-i-Riyasat was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first \"President of the Palestinian National Authority\" in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as \"President of the State of Palestine\".","Head of state\n\nLegitimacy","Head of state\n\nThe position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.","Head of state\n\nBy fiction or fiat","Head of state\n\nPower can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by laws of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.","Head of state\n\nBy divine appointment","Head of state\n\nUnder a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood. In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitamcy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.","Head of state\n\nBy social contract","Head of state\n\nThe notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.","Head of state\n\nBy constitution","Head of state\n\nIndividual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution.","Head of state\n\nBy hereditary succession","Head of state\n\nThe position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.","Head of state\n\nPrimogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically \"agnatic primogeniture\" or \"patrilineal primogeniture\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and male-line males inheriting before females of the male line. This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law (see Terra salica).","Head of state\n\nBefore primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.","Head of state\n\nSometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, but have yet to pass into law, pending approval by all of the affected nations. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.","Head of state\n\nIn some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.","Head of state\n\nOther hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).","Head of state\n\nBy election","Head of state\n\nElection usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.","Head of state\n\nBy appointment","Head of state\n\nA head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.","Head of state\n\nBy force or revolution","Head of state\n\nA head of state may seize power by force or revolution. This is not the same as the use of force to maintain power, as is practiced by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.","Head of state\n\nBy foreign imposition","Head of state\n\nA foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome of the Russo-Swedish War from 1741 to 1743 where the Russian Empress made the imposition of her relative Adolf Frederick as the heir to the Swedish Throne, to succeed Frederick I who lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.","Head of state\n\nLoss","Head of state\n\nApart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.","Head of state\n\nHeads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.","Head of state\n\nSerious violations of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the United Nations Security Council or certain alliances may do.","Head of state\n\nFormer heads of state","Head of state\n\nEffigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century (monument demolished 1950); or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837 - 1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876. Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927-1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the USA in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the \"Shrine of Democracy\".","Head of state\n\nPersonal influence or privileges","Head of state\n\nFormer Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.","Head of state\n\nA monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.","Head of state\n\nBy tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives. Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be King of the Hellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if they were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012. The Republic of Greece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinder acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.","Head of state\n\nHowever, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.","Head of state\n\nIn the Italian constitution provides that after the period sent the President of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe House of Bourbon-Parma () is an Italian cadet branch of the House of Bourbon. It is thus descended from the French Capetian dynasty in male line. The name of Bourbon-Parma comes from the main name (Bourbon) and the other (Parma) from the title of Duke of Parma. \nThe title was held by the Spanish Bourbons as the founder was the great-grandson of Duke Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nDuchy of Parma","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from that part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, as a fief for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, centered on the city of Parma. \nIn 1556, the second Duke, Ottavio Farnese, was given the city of Piacenza, becoming thus also Duke of Piacenza, and so the state was thereafter properly known as the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe Farnese family continued to rule until their extinction in 1731, at which point the duchy was inherited by the young son of the King of Spain, Charles, whose mother Elisabeth was a member of the Farnese family. He ruled until the end of the War of the Polish Succession in 1735, when Parma was ceded to Emperor Charles VI in exchange for the Two Sicilies.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nTemporary Habsburg rule","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe Habsburgs only ruled until the conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when it was ceded back to the Bourbons in the person of Philip, Charles's younger brother. As duke Philip, he became the founder of the House of Bourbon-Parma.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nIn 1796, the duchy was occupied by French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte. In the Treaty of Aranjuez of 1801, duke Ferdinand formally agreed to cede the duchy to Napoleon. The territories were integrated into the Cisalpine Republic until 1802, the Italian Republic, from 1802 until 1805, and the Kingdom of Italy, from 1805 until 1808, until in 1808 the French Empire annexed them and formed out of them the Département of Taro.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nIn 1814, the duchies were restored under Napoleon's Habsburg wife, Marie Louise, who was to rule them for her lifetime. The duchy was renamed the duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, the name that it retained until the end.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nReturn to the Bourbons","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nAfter Marie Louise's death in 1847, the duchy was restored to the Bourbon-Parma line, which had been ruling the tiny duchy of Lucca. The Bourbons ruled until 1859, when they were driven out by a revolution following the Sardinian victory in their war against Austria.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla and the duchy of Lucca joined with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the duchy of Modena to form the United Provinces of Central Italy in December 1859, and were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia in March 1860.\nThe House of Bourbon continues to claim the title of duke of Parma to this day. Carlos-Hugo (Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne in the 1970s) held the title from 1977 to his death. His son now claims the title.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nThe Dukes","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma 1731–1735","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma 1748–1803","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nDuring the French ownership of the Duchy of Parma, the title of Duke of Parma was used as an honorary form and style. From 1808, the title was used by Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès. He kept the style of Duc de Parme till 1814. Only in 1847 was the actual title restored to the Bourbons, after a period of being held by Marie Louise of Austria, wife of Napoleon I, who was a Habsburg.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma, 1847–1859","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nNominal Dukes of Parma (since 1859)","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nFamily","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\n*Carlos, Duke of Parma, born on Annemarie, Duchess of Parma, born on \n**Carlos Klynstra (illegitimate), born on \n**Princess Luisa of Bourbon-Parma, born on \n**Princess Cecilia of Bourbon-Parma, born on \n**Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Parma, born on \n*Princess Margarita of Bourbon-Parma, born on Tajlling ten Cate, born on \n**Julia ten Cate, born on \n**Paola ten Cate, born on \n*Prince Jaime, Count of Bardi, born on Viktória, Countess of Bardi, born on \n**Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma, born on \n**Princess Gloria of Bourbon-Parma, born on \n*Princess Carolina, Marchioness of Sala, born on Albert Brenninkmeijer, born on \n**Alaïa-Maria Brenninkmeijer, born on \n**Xavier Brenninkmeijer, born on","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nGrand Duchy of Luxemburg","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nSince 1964, the House of Bourbon-Parma has reigned agnatically in Luxembourg when upon the abdication of his mother Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, ascended to the throne. Jean was the son of Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma, a younger son of Robert I of Parma, and Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Charlotte's descendants have since reigned as the continued dynasty of Nassau.","House of Bourbon-Parma\n\nIn October 2000 Jean abdicated the Luxembourgian throne in favour of his eldest son, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg."],"string":"[\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nJean (given names: Jean Benoît Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano; born 5 January 1921) reigned as Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He is the father of the current ruler, Grand Duke Henri, and the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma. Among his godparents was Pope Benedict XV, who gave him his second name.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nJean was born on 5 January 1921, at Berg Castle, in central Luxembourg, the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and of Prince Félix of Bourbon-Parma. He attended primary school in Luxembourg, where he continued the initial stage of secondary education. He completed secondary school at Ampleforth College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in the United Kingdom. Upon reaching maturity, on 5 January 1938, he was styled 'Hereditary Grand Duke', recognising his status as heir apparent.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nSecond World War\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nOn 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, beginning a four-year occupation. Having been warned of an imminent invasion, the Grand Ducal Family escaped the previous night. At first, they sought refuge in Paris, before fleeing France only weeks later. The Grand Ducal Family sought refuge in the United States, renting an estate in Brookville, New York. Jean studied Law and Political Science at Université Laval, Quebec City.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nHe joined the British Army as a volunteer in the Irish Guards in November 1942. After receiving officer training at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, Jean was commissioned as a Lieutenant in July 1943, before being promoted to captain in 1944. He landed in Normandy on 11 June 1944, and took part in the Battle for Caen and the liberation of Brussels. On 10 September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Luxembourg before moving on to Arnhem and the invasion of Germany. After the war, from 1984 until his abdication, he served as Colonel of the Regiment of the Irish Guards, often riding in uniform behind Queen Elizabeth II during the Sovereign's Birthday Parade.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nReign\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nHe was named Lieutenant-Representative of the Grand Duchess on 28 April 1961.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nHe became Grand Duke when his mother, the Grand Duchess Charlotte, abdicated on 12 November 1964. The same day, he was made a General of the Luxembourg Army.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nGrand Duke Jean abdicated on 7 October 2000, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Henri. Grand Duke Jean now lives at Fischbach Castle.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nThe Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam) bears his name.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nIssue\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nHe was married in Luxembourg on 9 April 1953 to Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium (1927–2005), daughter of Léopold III, King of the Belgians. They had three sons and two daughters, twenty-two grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren:\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n*Princess Marie-Astrid (17 February 1954). married HI&RH Carl Christian Marcus d'Aviano, Prince Imperial and Archduke of Austria (born 1954) on 6 February 1982. They have five children and five grandchildren:\\n**Archduchess Marie Christine Anne Astrid Zita Charlotte of Austria (31 July 1983), Countess of Limburg-Stirum after her marriage on 6 December 2008 in Mechelen, Belgium, to Count Rodolphe of Limburg-Stirum (b. Uccle, 20 March 1979). They have two sons:\\n***Count Léopold Menno Philippe Gabriel François-Xavier Marie Joseph Ghislain of Limburg-Stirum (19 April 2011)\\n***Count Constantin of Limburg-Stirum (25 October 2013)\\n**Archduke Imre Emanuel Simeon Jean Carl Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (8 December 1985) married Kathleen Elizabeth Walker on 8 September 2012. They have two daughters:\\n***Archduchess Maria-Stella Elizabeth Christiana Yolande Alberta of Austria (11 November 2013)\\n***Archduchess Magdalena Maria Alexandra Zita Charlotte of Austria (24 February 2016)\\n**Archduke Christoph Henri Alexander Maria Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (2 February 1988), who married Adélaïde Marie Béatrice Drapé-Frisch on 29 December 2012. They have a daughter:\\n***Archduchess Katarina Marie-Christine Fabiola of Austria (22 December 2014) \\n**Archduke Alexander Hector Marie Karl Leopold Marcus d'Aviano of Austria (26 September 1990).\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n**Archduchess Gabriella Maria Pilar Yolande Joséphine Charlotte of Austria (26 March 1994)\\n*Grand Duke Henri (16 April 1955). Married María Teresa Mestre y Batista (born 1956) on 4 February 1981, and five children and three grandchildren. Ascended to the grand ducal throne in 2000. **Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume Jean Joseph Marie (born 11 November 1981), married Countess Stéphanie of Lannoy on 19 and 20 October 2012. **Prince Félix Léopold Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (3 June 1984) married German Claire Margareta Lademacher on 21 September 2013. The couple has one daughter:\\n***Princess Amalia Gabriela Maria Teresa of Nassau, (15 June 2014)\\n**Prince Louis Xavier Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (3 August 1986) married Tessy Antony on 29 September 2006 in Gilsdorf, Luxembourg. They have two sons:\\n***Prince Gabriel Michael Louis Ronny of Nassau, (12 March 2006)\\n***Prince Noah Etienne Guillaume Gabriel Matthias Xavier of Nassau, (21 September 2007)\\n**Princess Alexandra Joséphine Teresa Charlotte Marie Wilhelmine of Luxembourg, (16 February 1991)\\n**Prince Sébastien Henri Marie Guillaume of Luxembourg, (16 April 1992)\\n*Prince Jean (15 May 1957). Married Hélène Vestur (born 1958) on 27 May 1987 and has four children. In 2009 he married Diane De Guerre.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n**Princess Marie-Gabrielle of Nassau (8 September 1986)\\n**Prince Constantin Jean Philippe Marie Albert Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (22 July 1988)\\n**Prince Wenceslas François Baudoin Léopold Juraj Marie Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (17 November 1990)\\n**Prince Carl-Johan Félix Julien Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (15 August 1992)\\n*Princess Margaretha (15 May 1957). married HSH Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein (1947), son of Sovereign Prince Franz Joseph II on 20 March 1982 and has four children. **Prince Leopold Emmanuel Jean Marie of Liechtenstein (20 May 1984 - Brussels, 22 May 1984)\\n**Princess Maria-Anunciata Astrid Joséphine Veronica of Liechtenstein (12 May 1985)\\n**Princess Marie-Astrid Nora Margarita Veronica of Liechtenstein (26 June 1987)\\n**Prince Josef-Emanuel Leopold Marie of Liechtenstein (7 May 1989)\\n*Prince Guillaume (1 May 1963).\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nMarried Sibilla Weiller (born 1968), a great-granddaughter of King Alfonso XIII of Spain through her mother Donna Olimpia Torlonia di Civitella-Cesi, herself a daughter of Infanta Beatriz of Spain on 24 September 1994 and has four children:\\n**Prince Paul Louis Jean Marie Guillaume of Nassau (4 March 1998) \\n**Prince Léopold Guillaume Marie Joseph of Nassau (2 May 2000)\\n**Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine Maria da Gloria of Nassau (2 May 2000)\\n**Prince Jean André Guillaume Marie Gabriel Marc d'Aviano of Nassau (13 July 2004)\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nTitles, styles, and honours\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nTitles and styles\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n*5 January 1921 – 12 November 1964: His Royal Highness The Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Hereditary Prince of Nassau, Prince of Bourbon-Parma\\n*12 November 1964 – 7 October 2000: His Royal Highness The Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau\\n*7 October 2000 – present: His Royal Highness Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nHis full title is \\\"by the Grace of God, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Duke of Nassau, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Count of Sayn, Königstein, Katzenelnbogen and Diez, Burgrave of Hammerstein, Lord of Mahlberg, Wiesbaden, Idstein, Merenberg, Limburg and Eppstein.\\\" Many of the titles are held without regard to the strict rules of salic inheritance.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nChange of dynastic titles\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nJean renounced the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family in 1986 when his eldest son, then-Hereditary Grand Duke Henri married Maria-Theresa Mestre. The reason for this was that the Duke of Parma, Carlos Hugo, ruled the marriage unequal in 1981, as well as the marriage of Prince Jean to Hélène Suzanna Vestur in 1987, for which he had renounced his rights to Luxembourg in 1986. It is not known if the marriage of Prince Guillaume was seen by Carlos Hugo as equal.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nThe Arrêté Grand-Ducal (Grand Ducal decree) of 21 September 1995 established that the title of Prince/Princesse de Luxembourg is reserved for the children of the sovereign and the heir to the throne. It also stated that the descendants in male lineage of the sovereign should be styled as Royal Highnesses and titled Prince/Princess of Nassau and that the descendants of unapproved marriages should be styled as Count/Countess of Nassau.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nLuxembourgish honours and awards\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nSee also List of honours of the Luxembourgish Grand-Ducal Family by country\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n*Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (Grand Master 1964–2000)\\n*Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau (Grand Master 1964–2000)\\n*Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown (Grand Master 1964–2000)\\n*Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Grand Master 1964–2000)\\n*Luxembourg War Cross (with bar)\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nForeign honours and awards\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\n*: Great Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1975) \\n*: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold \\n*: Croix de guerre (with bar)\\n*: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (22/11/1976) \\n*: Croix de guerre 1939–1945\\n*: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany\\n* House of Habsburg: 1,293rd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece\\n*: Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur \\n*: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Falcon \\n*: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (26/10/1973) \\n*: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion \\n*: Commemorative War Cross\\n* : Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Princess Beatrix, Princess of Orange and Claus Van Amsberg \\n*: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St.\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nOlav\\n*: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland\\n*: 379th Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword\\n*: Grand Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique\\n* House of Savoy: Supreme Knight of the Order of the Annunziata (1978)\\n* House of Savoy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1978)\\n* House of Savoy: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy (1978)\\n*: 1,184th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece (16/06/1983) \\n*: Collar of the Order of Charles III (08/07/1980) \\n*: Stranger Knight of the Order of the Garter (948th member; 1972)\\n*: 1939-1945 Star\\n*: France and Germany Star\\n*: Defence Medal\\n*: War Medal 1939–1945\\n*: Silver Star\\n*: Knight of the Order of the Seraphim\\n*: HM King Carl XVI Gustaf 50th Anniversary Medal (30/04/1996) \\n*: Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer\\n*: Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire (14/10/1971)\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nAncestry\",\n \"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\\n\\nPatrilineal descent\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is the highest-ranking position in a sovereign state and is vested with powers to act as the chief public representative of that state. In most countries, the head of state is a natural person, but the position is held by a body of persons in the Federal Council of Switzerland and the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and, in two other United Nations member states, the position is held by two persons jointly: the Co-Princes of Andorra and the Captains Regent of San Marino.[https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS], Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (2016-04-08). Retrieved on 2016-04-15. The role and functions of the office of a head of state may range from being purely ceremonial figurehead to one that wields autocratic executive power, for the nature of the position of a head of state is for each state to decide. Although several models or patterns exist, there are many idiosyncrasies in different states which preclude tidy classifications.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe office of a head of state is often distinct from a head of government. For example, the distinction is made in article 7 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, article 1 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents and the United Nations protocol list. In parliamentary systems like the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the monarch and the president are recognized as their respective heads of state, while the prime minister and the chancellor are recognized as the heads of government. However, in republics with a presidential system (as in the United States and Brazil) or certain parliamentary republics (as in South Africa and Botswana), their presidents are recognized as being both heads of state and heads of government.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe role of the head of state generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution, laws, unwritten customs, or by their traditions, including the appointment of members of the government and ambassadors. Before the enactment of the modern French constitution, Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French presidency by stating the head of state should embody \\\"the spirit of the nation\\\" for the nation itself and the world and embody \\\"a certain idea about France\\\" (). Today, many countries expect their head of state to carry out their duties with dignity in a similar fashion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nConstitutional models\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of \\\"models\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAn independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.Watts.\\nIn protocolary terms, the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy, or the president, in the case of a republic.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAmong the different state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n# The parliamentary system, with two subset models;\\n## The standard model, in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but the exercise of such power is done on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g., United Kingdom, India, Pakistan).\\n## The non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (E.g.: Sweden, Japan).\\n# The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g., Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and\\n# The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g., United States, Brazil).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nParliamentary system\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nStandard model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and his cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel) the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFor example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure \\\"presidential\\\" system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExamples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as \\\"unable to reign\\\" for twenty-four hours.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNon-executive model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThese officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor is defined in the constitution as \\\"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\\\" (article 1), and is generally recognized throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate \\\"as designated by the Diet\\\", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSince the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \\\"On Behalf of the Government\\\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn contrast, the only contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the supreme court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsowever. The least ceremonial powers held by the President are to appoint the Prime Minister, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the Prime Minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExecutive model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Suriname) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister, since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSemi-presidential systems\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSemi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPresidential system\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNote: The head of state in a \\\"presidential\\\" system may not actually hold the title of \\\"president\\\" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a \\\"presidential system\\\" and sometimes called the \\\"imperial model\\\", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centers on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPresidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g. Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations (Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSingle-party states\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThis may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il-Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of \\\"Eternal President\\\" (while all substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared \\\"the highest post of the state\\\", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nComplications with categorization\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nWhile clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nConstitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet.[http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101)] (2009). Retrieved on 2014-08-03. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAnother complication exists with South Africa, in which the President is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognized as the head of state. The offices of President of Nauru and President of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.[http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf Constitution of Botswana], Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU], Parliament of Nauru. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPanama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHistorically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920-1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nRoles of heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHead of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSymbolic role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOne of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the \\\"personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective \\\"royal\\\" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHeads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAt home, heads of state are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honor box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAs such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offense) just a military officer or civil servant.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFor non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBelow follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:\\n::The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws. :Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:\\n::(1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time. ::(2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand. :Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:\\n::The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html The Constitution of Japan], Office of the Prime Minister. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.[http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf Constitution of the Italian Republic], Senate of the Republic. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:\\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. :Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\\n::The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005)], Portuguese Constitutional Court. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\\n::(1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states. ::(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution. :Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall be Head of State. ::He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws. :Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:\\n::1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State. ::2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html Constitution of the Russian Federation], Government of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:\\n::The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of \\\"President of the Argentine Nation\\\".[http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION], Argentine Senate. Retrieved on 2012-11-16.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExecutive role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as \\\"Her Majesty's Government\\\" and \\\"His Excellency's Government.\\\" Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Germany, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:\\n::Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.[http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition], The Communications Section, Danish Parliament (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:\\n::The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986.], ComLaw, Government of Australia (2003) ISBN 0 642 78285 7. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:\\n::The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The Constitution], Publications Department, Hellenic Parliament (2008) ISBN 960 560 073 0. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:\\n::The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss%289%29.pdf Constitution of India, Part V], Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:\\n::The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.[http://bd.camara.gov.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/1344/constituicao_ingles_3ed.pdf?sequence\\n7 Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition], Chamber of Deputies (2010) ISBN 978-85-736-5737-1. Retrieved on 2012-11-13.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAppointment of senior officials\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html Constitution of Ireland], Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 2014-08-03. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:\\n::The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf THE BELGIAN CONSTITUTION], Legal Department, Belgian House of Representatives (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:\\n::The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\\n::The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:\\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \\n:::I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State: \\n:::XIII - ...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them; \\n:::XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law; \\n:::XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts; \\n:::XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union; \\n:::XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII\\n:::XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nDiplomatic role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.Roberts: pp. 71-79. The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.Roberts: pp. 61-68. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2012) 187 sovereign states has ratified.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHowever, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a Chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.Roberts: pp. 542-543. However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g. between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:\\n::1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.\\n::2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:\\n::The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;\\n:::b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;\\n:::c) shall sign instruments of ratification;\\n:::d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:\\n::The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the Royal Prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMilitary role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military maneuvers is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:\\n::The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting. ::The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended.], Information Service, Parliament of Norway. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees. :Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. :Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. :Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:\\n::The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHe shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers. \\n* In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peace-time (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.[https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany], Bundestag (Print version. As at: October 2010). Retrieved on 2012-11-11. \\n* In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the Minister is the Chief of General Staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLegislative roles\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIt is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMost countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure Royal Assent.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:\\n::The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:\\n::Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:\\n::The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;\\n:::c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;\\n:::d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;\\n:::e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;\\n:::f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated...\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:\\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \\n:::III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;\\n:::IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;\\n:::V - veto bills, wholly or in part;\\n:::XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary; \\n:::XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution; \\n:::XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:\\n::1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.\\n::2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.\\n::3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id\\n80 Constitution of the State of Qatar], Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2012-11-17.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIf he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSummoning and dissolving the legislature\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:\\n::The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.\\n:Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther prerogatives\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nGranting nobility, knighthood and various titles and other honors\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:\\n::The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honorably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nImmunity\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:\\n::The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council. :Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:\\n::(1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict. ::(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it. ::(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\\n::1.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions. ::2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office. ::3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election. ::4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended. :Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:\\n::The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nReserve Powers\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.Parliament shall sit as of right.The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp Constitution of October 4, 1958], The French National Assembly. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:\\n::Article 69\\n:::The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n::Article 70\\n:::The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nRight of pardon\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:\\n::The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament. :Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:\\n::He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation. :Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons. :Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:\\n::...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:\\n::The President may-\\n:::(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;\\n:::(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;\\n:::(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or\\n:::(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nGovernors-general (Commonwealth realms)\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Commonwealth realms, other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the relevant prime minister, as a representative and to exercise almost all the Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her \\\"representatives\\\". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that \\\"references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the Governor-General\\\" ). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAn example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: \\\"I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision.\\\"\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAnother example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General unexpectedly dismissed the Prime Minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The Governor-General issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general. A letter from the Australian monarch's Private Secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Elizabeth II are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSelection and various types and styles of heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAlthough many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognized as such by other countries. In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.Robertson: p. 221.Roberts: pp. 35-44. In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or had had other titles.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.Roberts: p. 39. The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.Roberts: pp. 37-38. This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia. Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718. However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.Roberts: pp. 42-43. On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nContemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).Roberts: p. 43.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nEuropean writers and revolutions, 16th–20th centuries\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNiccolò Machiavelli used Prince () as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise The Prince, originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes. Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) used the term Sovereign. In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign rulerin the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the \\\"L'etat c'est moi\\\"to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations. Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g. Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFile:Machiavelli Principe Cover Page.jpg|Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince\\nFile:Albergati Discorsi politici.jpg|Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle\\nFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nShared and substitute heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nInterim\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nWhenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the Vice-President acts when the President is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the Queen's powers may be delegated to Counselors of State when she is abroad or unavailable.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nShared\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some countries where there is no resident head of state, such as Andorra, a local representative is appointed. In the case of Andorra, two co-princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the President of France, residing in France, and the other is the Bishop of Urgell, residing in Spain. Each co-prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExtraordinary arrangements\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by a new \\\"provisionary\\\" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nReligious heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSince antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practicing incestuous marriage. In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nChristianity\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Roman Catholicism, the Pope was once Sovereign Pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States. After Italian unification, the Pope remains head of state of Vatican City. Furthermore, the Bishop of Urgell is ex officio one of the two Co-Princes of Andorra. In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as Supreme Governor of the Church of England, although this is purely symbolic role. Therefore, the Head of State of the United Kingdom has to be of the protestant faith, meaning the role of the British monarchy cannot be expanded to other large minorities within the state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIslam\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nDuring the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the modern Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHinduism\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as \\\"servant\\\" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling \\\"in the name of\\\" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBuddhism\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFrom the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders (\\\"god-king\\\") of Tibet.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOuter Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nCity states and crowned republics\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n* The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the Maya civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.\\n* Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but \\\"reigned\\\" as sovereign dukes.\\n* The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine \\\"republican\\\" and \\\"monarchic\\\" characteristics.\\n* The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning \\\"lieutenant\\\" or \\\"governor\\\", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMultiple or collective heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates; the Directoire; the seven-member Swiss Federal Council, where each member acts in turn as ceremonial head of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two \\\"Captains-regent\\\"), which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics, where there always was an even number of consuls.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn condominiums, sovereignty is shared between two external powers: e.g. Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), and the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled Consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges). In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two different dynasties.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSuch arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nUnique cases and titles\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThough president and various monarchichal titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning \\\"leader\\\" in the national language, e.g. Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means \\\"head of state\\\" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn 1959 after the resignation of Vice President of Indonesia Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; \\\"panglima\\\" meaning \\\"commander or martial figurehead\\\", \\\"tertinggi\\\" meaning \\\"highest\\\"; roughly translated to English as \\\"Supreme Commander of the Revolution\\\"). He was praised as \\\"Paduka Yang Mulia\\\", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn North Korea, the late Kim Il-sung was named \\\"Eternal President\\\" 4 years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the President are constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere is debate as to whether Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as \\\"Guide of the Revolution\\\"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya (\\\"state of the masses\\\"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g. the title Sardar-i-Riyasat was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first \\\"President of the Palestinian National Authority\\\" in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as \\\"President of the State of Palestine\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLegitimacy\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy fiction or fiat\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPower can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by laws of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy divine appointment\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nUnder a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood. In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitamcy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy social contract\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy constitution\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIndividual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy hereditary succession\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPrimogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically \\\"agnatic primogeniture\\\" or \\\"patrilineal primogeniture\\\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and male-line males inheriting before females of the male line. This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law (see Terra salica).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBefore primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, but have yet to pass into law, pending approval by all of the affected nations. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy election\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nElection usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy appointment\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy force or revolution\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state may seize power by force or revolution. This is not the same as the use of force to maintain power, as is practiced by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy foreign imposition\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome of the Russo-Swedish War from 1741 to 1743 where the Russian Empress made the imposition of her relative Adolf Frederick as the heir to the Swedish Throne, to succeed Frederick I who lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLoss\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nApart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHeads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSerious violations of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the United Nations Security Council or certain alliances may do.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFormer heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nEffigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century (monument demolished 1950); or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837 - 1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876. Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927-1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the USA in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the \\\"Shrine of Democracy\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPersonal influence or privileges\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFormer Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives. Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be King of the Hellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if they were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012. The Republic of Greece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinder acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHowever, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Italian constitution provides that after the period sent the President of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe House of Bourbon-Parma () is an Italian cadet branch of the House of Bourbon. It is thus descended from the French Capetian dynasty in male line. The name of Bourbon-Parma comes from the main name (Bourbon) and the other (Parma) from the title of Duke of Parma. \\nThe title was held by the Spanish Bourbons as the founder was the great-grandson of Duke Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nDuchy of Parma\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from that part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, as a fief for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese, centered on the city of Parma. \\nIn 1556, the second Duke, Ottavio Farnese, was given the city of Piacenza, becoming thus also Duke of Piacenza, and so the state was thereafter properly known as the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe Farnese family continued to rule until their extinction in 1731, at which point the duchy was inherited by the young son of the King of Spain, Charles, whose mother Elisabeth was a member of the Farnese family. He ruled until the end of the War of the Polish Succession in 1735, when Parma was ceded to Emperor Charles VI in exchange for the Two Sicilies.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nTemporary Habsburg rule\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe Habsburgs only ruled until the conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when it was ceded back to the Bourbons in the person of Philip, Charles's younger brother. As duke Philip, he became the founder of the House of Bourbon-Parma.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nIn 1796, the duchy was occupied by French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte. In the Treaty of Aranjuez of 1801, duke Ferdinand formally agreed to cede the duchy to Napoleon. The territories were integrated into the Cisalpine Republic until 1802, the Italian Republic, from 1802 until 1805, and the Kingdom of Italy, from 1805 until 1808, until in 1808 the French Empire annexed them and formed out of them the Département of Taro.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nIn 1814, the duchies were restored under Napoleon's Habsburg wife, Marie Louise, who was to rule them for her lifetime. The duchy was renamed the duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, the name that it retained until the end.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nReturn to the Bourbons\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nAfter Marie Louise's death in 1847, the duchy was restored to the Bourbon-Parma line, which had been ruling the tiny duchy of Lucca. The Bourbons ruled until 1859, when they were driven out by a revolution following the Sardinian victory in their war against Austria.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla and the duchy of Lucca joined with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the duchy of Modena to form the United Provinces of Central Italy in December 1859, and were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia in March 1860.\\nThe House of Bourbon continues to claim the title of duke of Parma to this day. Carlos-Hugo (Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne in the 1970s) held the title from 1977 to his death. His son now claims the title.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nThe Dukes\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma 1731–1735\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma 1748–1803\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nDuring the French ownership of the Duchy of Parma, the title of Duke of Parma was used as an honorary form and style. From 1808, the title was used by Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès. He kept the style of Duc de Parme till 1814. Only in 1847 was the actual title restored to the Bourbons, after a period of being held by Marie Louise of Austria, wife of Napoleon I, who was a Habsburg.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nHouse of Bourbon-Parma, 1847–1859\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nNominal Dukes of Parma (since 1859)\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\n*Carlos, Duke of Parma, born on Annemarie, Duchess of Parma, born on \\n**Carlos Klynstra (illegitimate), born on \\n**Princess Luisa of Bourbon-Parma, born on \\n**Princess Cecilia of Bourbon-Parma, born on \\n**Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Parma, born on \\n*Princess Margarita of Bourbon-Parma, born on Tajlling ten Cate, born on \\n**Julia ten Cate, born on \\n**Paola ten Cate, born on \\n*Prince Jaime, Count of Bardi, born on Viktória, Countess of Bardi, born on \\n**Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma, born on \\n**Princess Gloria of Bourbon-Parma, born on \\n*Princess Carolina, Marchioness of Sala, born on Albert Brenninkmeijer, born on \\n**Alaïa-Maria Brenninkmeijer, born on \\n**Xavier Brenninkmeijer, born on\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nGrand Duchy of Luxemburg\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nSince 1964, the House of Bourbon-Parma has reigned agnatically in Luxembourg when upon the abdication of his mother Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, ascended to the throne. Jean was the son of Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma, a younger son of Robert I of Parma, and Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Charlotte's descendants have since reigned as the continued dynasty of Nassau.\",\n \"House of Bourbon-Parma\\n\\nIn October 2000 Jean abdicated the Luxembourgian throne in favour of his eldest son, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1596,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2519"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which country was Pope John Paul II a cardinal before his election?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Poland"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["lenkija","poleland","iso 3166 1 pl","po land","pologne","country poland","polska","pole land","ploand","polland","fourth poland","polskor","rzeczpospolita polska","polish state","pols land","bastarnia","etymology of poland","poland","polnd","architecture of poland","polija","republic of poland","poleand"],"string":"[\n \"lenkija\",\n \"poleland\",\n \"iso 3166 1 pl\",\n \"po land\",\n \"pologne\",\n \"country poland\",\n \"polska\",\n \"pole land\",\n \"ploand\",\n \"polland\",\n \"fourth poland\",\n \"polskor\",\n \"rzeczpospolita polska\",\n \"polish state\",\n \"pols land\",\n \"bastarnia\",\n \"etymology of poland\",\n \"poland\",\n \"polnd\",\n \"architecture of poland\",\n \"polija\",\n \"republic of poland\",\n \"poleand\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Pope John Paul II\n\nPope Saint John Paul II (; ; ), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was pope from 1978 to 2005. He is widely known to Catholics as Saint John Paul the Great, especially in the names of institutions.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1978, which was called after Pope John Paul I, who had been elected in August after the death of Pope Paul VI, died after thirty-three days.\nCardinal Wojtyła was elected on the third day of the conclave and adopted his predecessor's name in tribute to him. John Paul II is recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Church's teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women, but also supported the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reforms.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. As part of his special emphasis on the universal call to holiness, he beatified 1,340 people and canonised 483 saints, more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the preceding five centuries. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the world's bishops, and ordained many priests. A key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was \"to place his Church at the heart of a new religious alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims and Christians in a great religious armada\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe was the second longest-serving pope in modern history after Pope Pius IX, who served for nearly 32 years from 1846 to 1878. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, who served from 1522 to 1523. John Paul II's cause for canonisation commenced in 2005 one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. On 19 December 2009, John Paul II was proclaimed Venerable by his successor Pope Benedict XVI and was beatified on 1 May 2011 (Divine Mercy Sunday) after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints attributed one miracle to his intercession, the healing of a French nun from Parkinson's disease. A second miracle attributed to John Paul II's intercession was approved on 2 July 2013, and confirmed by Pope Francis two days later (two miracles must be attributed to a person's intercession to be declared a saint). John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014 (again Divine Mercy Sunday), together with Pope John XXIII. On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added John Paul II's optional memorial feast day to the worldwide General Roman Calendar of saints, in response to worldwide requests.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIt is traditional to celebrate saints' feast days on the anniversary of their deaths, but that of John Paul II (22 October) is celebrated on the anniversary of his papal inauguration.","Pope John Paul II\n\nEarly life","Pope John Paul II\n\nKarol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice. He was the youngest of three children born to Karol Wojtyła (1879–1941), an ethnic Pole, and Emilia Kaczorowska (1884–1929), whose mother's maiden surname was Scholz. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died in childbirth in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old. His elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmund's work as a physician eventually led to his death from scarlet fever, a loss that affected Wojtyła deeply.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAs a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing football as goalkeeper. During his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with Wadowice's large Jewish community. School football games were often organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. \"I remember that at least a third of my classmates at elementary school in Wadowice were Jews. At elementary school there were fewer. With some I was on very friendly terms. And what struck me about some of them was their Polish patriotism.\" Wojtyła's first, and possibly only, love affair was with a Jewish girl, Ginka Beer, who was described as \"slender\", \"a superb actress\" and \"having stupendous dark eyes and jet black hair\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn mid-1938, Wojtyła and his father left Wadowice and moved to Kraków, where he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University. While studying such topics as philology and various languages, he worked as a volunteer librarian and was required to participate in compulsory military training in the Academic Legion, but he refused to fire a weapon. He performed with various theatrical groups and worked as a playwright. During this time, his talent for language blossomed, and he learned as many as 12 foreign languages, nine of which he used extensively as pope.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1939, Nazi German occupation forces closed the university after invading Poland. Able-bodied males were required to work, so from 1940 to 1944 Wojtyła variously worked as a messenger for a restaurant, a manual labourer in a limestone quarry and for the Solvay chemical factory, to avoid deportation to Germany. In 1940 he was struck by a tram, suffering a fractured skull. The same year he was hit by a lorry in a quarry, which left him with one shoulder higher than the other and a permanent stoop. His father, a former Austro-Hungarian non-commissioned officer and later officer in the Polish Army, died of a heart attack in 1941, leaving Wojtyła as the immediate family's only surviving member. \"I was not at my mother's death, I was not at my brother's death, I was not at my father's death,\" he said, reflecting on these times of his life, nearly forty years later, \"At twenty, I had already lost all the people I loved.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nAfter his father's death, he started thinking seriously about the priesthood. In October 1942, while the war continued, he knocked on the door of the Bishop's Palace in Kraków and asked to study for the priesthood. Soon after, he began courses in the clandestine underground seminary run by the Archbishop of Kraków, Adam Stefan Cardinal Sapieha. On 29 February 1944, Wojtyła was hit by a German truck. German Wehrmacht officers tended to him and sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there recovering from a severe concussion and a shoulder injury. It seemed to him that this accident and his survival was a confirmation of his vocation. On 6 August 1944, a day known as 'Black Sunday', the Gestapo rounded up young men in Kraków to curtail the uprising there, similar to the recent uprising in Warsaw. Wojtyła escaped by hiding in the basement of his uncle's house at 10 Tyniecka Street, while the German troops searched above. More than eight thousand men and boys were taken that day, while Wojtyła escaped to the Archbishop's Palace, where he remained until after the Germans had left.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn the night of 17 January 1945, the Germans fled the city, and the students reclaimed the ruined seminary. Wojtyła and another seminarian volunteered for the task of clearing away piles of frozen excrement from the toilets. Wojtyła also helped a 14-year-old Jewish refugee girl named Edith Zierer, who had escaped from a Nazi labour camp in Częstochowa. Edith had collapsed on a railway platform, so Wojtyła carried her to a train and stayed with her throughout the journey to Kraków. Edith credits Wojtyła with saving her life that day. B'nai B'rith and other authorities have said that Wojtyła helped protect many other Polish Jews from the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, a Jewish family sent its son, Stanley Berger, to be hidden by a Gentile Polish family. Berger's biological Jewish parents died during the Holocaust, and after the war Berger's new Christian parents asked a young Polish priest named Karol Wojtyła, the future Pope John Paul II, to baptise the boy. The future pope refused, claiming that the child should be raised in the Jewish faith of his birth parents and nation, not as a Catholic.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn September 2003, Emmanuelle Pacifici, the head of Italy's Jewish community, proposed that John Paul II receive the medal of a Righteous Among the Nations for saving a two-year-old Jewish boy by giving him to a Gentile Polish family to be hidden in 1942, when Karol Wojtyła was just a seminarian. After the war, this boy's Christian adopted parents asked the future Pope John Paul II to baptise the boy, yet once again he refused, as with Berger. After the war, Karol Wojtyła did everything he could to ensure that this Jewish boy he saved leave Poland to be raised by his Jewish relatives in the United States. In April 2005, shortly after John Paul II's death, the Israeli government created a commission to honour the legacy of John Paul II. One of the proposed ways of honouring him was to give him the medal of the Righteous Among the Nations. In Wojtyła's last book, Memory and Identity, he described the 12 years of the Nazi régime as 'bestiality', quoting from the Polish theologian and philosopher Konstanty Michalski.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPriesthood","Pope John Paul II\n\nAfter finishing his studies at the seminary in Kraków, Wojtyła was ordained as a priest on All Saints' Day, 1 November 1946, by the Archbishop of Kraków, Cardinal Sapieha. Sapieha sent Wojtyła to Rome's Pontifical International Athenaeum Angelicum, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum to study under the French Dominican Fr. Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange beginning on 26 November 1946. Wojtyła earned a licence in July 1947, passed his doctoral exam on 14 June 1948, and successfully defended his doctoral thesis titled Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce (The Doctrine of Faith in St. John of the Cross) in philosophy on 19 June 1948. The Angelicum preserves the original copy of Wojtyła's typewritten thesis. Among other courses at the Angelicum, Wojtyła studied Hebrew with the Dutch Dominican Peter G. Duncker, author of the Compendium grammaticae linguae hebraicae biblicae.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAccording to Wojtyła's schoolmate the future Austrian Cardinal Alfons Stickler, in 1947 during his sojourn at the Angelicum Wojtyła visited Padre Pio, who heard his confession and told him that one day he would ascend to \"the highest post in the Church\". Cardinal Stickler added that Wojtyła believed that the prophecy was fulfilled when he became a Cardinal.","Pope John Paul II\n\nWojtyła returned to Poland in the summer of 1948 for his first pastoral assignment in the village of Niegowić, 15 mi from Kraków, at the Church of the Assumption. He arrived at Niegowić at harvest time, where his first action was to kneel and kiss the ground. He repeated this gesture, which he adapted from the French saint Jean Marie Baptiste Vianney, throughout his papacy.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn March 1949, Wojtyła was transferred to the parish of Saint Florian in Kraków. He taught ethics at Jagiellonian University and subsequently at the Catholic University of Lublin. While teaching, he gathered a group of about 20 young people, who began to call themselves Rodzinka, the \"little family\". They met for prayer, philosophical discussion, and to help the blind and sick. The group eventually grew to approximately 200 participants, and their activities expanded to include annual skiing and kayaking trips.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1953, Wojtyła's habilitation thesis was accepted by the Faculty of Theology at the Jagiellonian University. In 1954, he earned a Doctorate in Sacred Theology, evaluating the feasibility of a Catholic ethic based on the ethical system of the phenomenologist Max Scheler with a dissertation titled \"Reevaluation of the possibility of founding a Catholic ethic on the ethical system of Max Scheler\" (Ocena możliwości zbudowania etyki chrześcijańskiej przy założeniach systemu Maksa Schelera). Scheler was a German philosopher who founded a broad philosophical movement that emphasised the study of conscious experience. However, the Communist authorities abolished the Faculty of Theology at the Jagellonian University, thereby preventing him from receiving the degree until 1957. Wojtyła developed a theological approach that combined traditional Catholic Thomism with the ideas of personalism, a philosophical approach deriving from phenomenology, which was popular among Catholic intellectuals in Kraków during Wojtyła's intellectual development. He translated Scheler's Formalism and the Ethics of Substantive Values.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring this period, Wojtyła wrote a series of articles in Kraków's Catholic newspaper, Tygodnik Powszechny (\"Universal Weekly\"), dealing with contemporary church issues. He focused on creating original literary work during his first dozen years as a priest. War, life under Communism, and his pastoral responsibilities all fed his poetry and plays. Wojtyła published his work under two pseudonyms—Andrzej Jawień and Stanisław Andrzej Gruda—to distinguish his literary from his religious writings (under his own name), and also so that his literary works would be considered on their merits. In 1960, Wojtyła published the influential theological book Love and Responsibility, a defence of traditional Church teachings on marriage from a new philosophical standpoint.","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhile a priest in Kraków, groups of students regularly joined Wojtyła for hiking, skiing, bicycling, camping and kayaking, accompanied by prayer, outdoor Masses and theological discussions. In Stalinist-era Poland, it was not permitted for priests to travel with groups of students. Father Wojtyła asked his younger companions to call him \"Wujek\" (Polish for \"Uncle\") to prevent outsiders from deducing he was a priest. The nickname gained popularity among his followers. In 1958, when Wojtyła was named auxiliary bishop of Kraków, his acquaintances expressed concern that this would cause him to change. Wojtyła responded to his friends, \"Wujek will remain Wujek,\" and he continued to live a simple life, shunning the trappings that came with his position as Bishop. This beloved nickname stayed with Wojtyła for his entire life and continues to be affectionately used, particularly by the Polish people.","Pope John Paul II\n\nBishop and Cardinal","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 4 July 1958, while Wojtyła was on a kayaking holiday in the lakes region of northern Poland, Pope Pius XII appointed him as the Auxiliary Bishop of Kraków. He was then summoned to Warsaw to meet the Primate of Poland, Stefan Cardinal Wyszyński, who informed him of his appointment. He agreed to serve as Auxiliary Bishop to Kraków's Archbishop Eugeniusz Baziak, and he received episcopal consecration (as Titular Bishop of Ombi) on 28 September 1958. Baziak was the principal consecrator. Principal co-consecrators were Bishop Boleslaw Kominek (Titular Bishop of Sophene and Vågå, auxiliary of the Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław, and future Cardinal and Archbishop of Wrocław) and then-Auxiliary Bishop Franciszek Jop of the Catholic Diocese of Sandomierz (Titular Bishop of Daulia; later Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of Wrocław and then Bishop of the Catholic Diocese of Opole). At the age of 38, Wojtyła became the youngest bishop in Poland. Baziak died in June 1962 and on 16 July Wojtyła was selected as Vicar Capitular (temporary administrator) of the Archdiocese until an Archbishop could be appointed.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn October 1962, Wojtyła took part in the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), where he made contributions to two of its most historic and influential products, the Decree on Religious Freedom (in Latin, Dignitatis humanae) and the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et spes). Wojtyła and the Polish bishops contributed a draft text to the Council for Gaudium et spes. According to the historian John W. O'Malley, the draft text Gaudium et spes that Wojtyła and the Polish delegation sent \"had some influence on the version that was sent to the council fathers that summer but was not accepted as the base text\". According to John F. Crosby, as pope, John Paul II used the words of Gaudium et spes later to introduce his own views on the nature of the human person in relation to God: man is \"the only creature on earth that God has wanted for its own sake\", but man \"can fully discover his true self only in a sincere giving of himself\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe also participated in the assemblies of the Synod of Bishops. On 13 January 1964, Pope Paul VI appointed him Archbishop of Kraków. On 26 June 1967, Paul VI announced Archbishop Karol Wojtyła's promotion to the Sacred College of Cardinals. Wojtyła was named Cardinal-Priest of the titulus of San Cesareo in Palatio.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1967, he was instrumental in formulating the encyclical Humanae vitae, which dealt with the same issues that forbid abortion and artificial birth control.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1970, according to a contemporary witness, Cardinal Wojtyła was against the distribution of a letter around Kraków, stating that the Polish Episcopate was preparing for the 50th anniversary of the Polish–Soviet War.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1973 Cardinal Wojtyła met philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, the wife of Hendrik S. Houthakker, Professor of Economy at Stanford University and Harvard University, and member of President Nixon's Council of Economic Advisers Tymieniecka collaborated with Wojtyła on a number of proects including an English translation of Wojtyła's book „Osoba i czyn” (Person and Act). Person and Act, one of Pope John Paul II's foremost literary works, was initially written in Polish. Tymieniecka produced the English-language version. The two of them corresponded over the years, and grew to be good friends. When Wojtyła visited New England, USA in summer 1976, Tymieniecka put him up as a guest in her family home. Wojtyła enjoyed his holiday in Pomfret, Vermont kayaking and enjoying as he had done in his beloved Poland. Photos of the two friends on holiday together; skiing, camping and picnicking, show Cardinal Wojtyła in his shorts, in his most relaxed state.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring Wojtyła's visits to Pomfret, Tymieniecka also organised his meeting with the American Cardinals through connections of her husband. These same Cardinals would be the ones who would give him most support at his soon-to-be election to the papacy","Pope John Paul II\n\nElection to the papacy","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn August 1978, following the death of Pope Paul VI, Cardinal Wojtyła voted in the Papal conclave, which elected Pope John Paul I. John Paul I died after only 33 days as pope, triggering another conclave.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe second conclave of 1978 started on 14 October, ten days after the funeral. It was split between two strong candidates for the papacy: Giuseppe Cardinal Siri, the conservative Archbishop of Genoa, and the liberal Archbishop of Florence, Giovanni Cardinal Benelli, a close friend of John Paul I.","Pope John Paul II\n\nSupporters of Benelli were confident that he would be elected, and in early ballots, Benelli came within nine votes of success. However, both men faced sufficient opposition for neither to be likely to prevail. Giovanni Colombo, the Archbishop of Milan was considered as a compromise candidate among the Italian cardinal-electors, but when he started to receive votes, he announced that, if elected, he would decline to accept the papacy. Franz Cardinal König, Archbishop of Vienna, suggested to his fellow electors another compromise candidate: the Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła. Wojtyła won on the eighth ballot on the third day (16 October) with, according to the Italian press, 99 votes from the 111 participating electors.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAlso among those cardinals who rallied behind Wojtyła were supporters of Giuseppe Siri, Stefan Wyszyński, most of the American cardinals (led by John Krol), and other moderate cardinals. He accepted his election with these words: \"With obedience in faith to Christ, my Lord, and with trust in the Mother of Christ and the Church, in spite of great difficulties, I accept.\" The pope, in tribute to his immediate predecessor, then took the regnal name of John Paul II, also in honour of the late Pope Paul VI, and the traditional white smoke informed the crowd gathered in St. Peter's Square that a pope had been chosen. There had been rumours that the new pope wished to be known as Pope Stanislaus I in honour of the Polish saint of the name, but was convinced by the cardinals that it was not a Roman name. When the new pontiff appeared on the balcony, he broke tradition by addressing the gathered crowd:","Pope John Paul II\n\nDear brothers and sisters, we are saddened at the death of our beloved Pope John Paul I, and so the cardinals have called for a new bishop of Rome. They called him from a faraway land—far and yet always close because of our communion in faith and Christian traditions. I was afraid to accept that responsibility, yet I do so in a spirit of obedience to the Lord and total faithfulness to Mary, our most Holy Mother. I am speaking to you in your—no, our Italian language. If I make a mistake, please 'corrict' me .... [deliberately mispronouncing the word 'correct']","Pope John Paul II\n\nWojtyła became the 264th pope according to the chronological list of popes, the first non-Italian in 455 years. At only 58 years of age, he was the youngest pope since Pope Pius IX in 1846, who was 54. Like his predecessor, John Paul II dispensed with the traditional Papal coronation and instead received ecclesiastical investiture with a simplified Papal inauguration on 22 October 1978. During his inauguration, when the cardinals were to kneel before him to take their vows and kiss his ring, he stood up as the Polish prelate Stefan Cardinal Wyszyński knelt down, stopped him from kissing the ring, and simply hugged him.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPastoral trips","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring his pontificate, Pope John Paul II made trips to 129 countries, travelling more than 1100000 km while doing so. He consistently attracted large crowds, some among the largest ever assembled in human history, such as the Manila World Youth Day, which gathered up to four million people, the largest Papal gathering ever, according to the Vatican. John Paul II's earliest official visits were to the Dominican Republic and Mexico in January 1979. While some of his trips (such as to the United States and the Holy Land) were to places previously visited by Pope Paul VI, John Paul II became the first pope to visit the White House in October 1979, where he was greeted warmly by then-President Jimmy Carter. He was the first pope ever to visit several countries in one year, starting in 1979 with Mexico and Ireland. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. While in England, he also visited Canterbury Cathedral and knelt in prayer with Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury, at the spot where Thomas à Becket had been killed.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe travelled to Haiti in 1983, where he spoke in Creole to thousands of impoverished Catholics gathered to greet him at the airport. His message, \"things must change in Haiti,\" referring to the disparity between the wealthy and the poor, was met with thunderous applause. In 2000, he was the first modern pope to visit Egypt, where he met with the Coptic pope, Pope Shenouda III and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria. He was the first Catholic pope to visit and pray in an Islamic mosque, in Damascus, Syria, in 2001. He visited the Umayyad Mosque, a former Christian church where John the Baptist is believed to be interred, where he made a speech calling for Muslims, Christians and Jews to live together.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 15 January 1995, during the X World Youth Day, he offered Mass to an estimated crowd of between five and seven million in Luneta Park, Manila, Philippines, which was considered to be the largest single gathering in Christian history. In March 2000, while visiting Jerusalem, John Paul became the first pope in history to visit and pray at the Western Wall. In September 2001, amid post-11 September concerns, he travelled to Kazakhstan, with an audience largely consisting of Muslims, and to Armenia, to participate in the celebration of 1,700 years of Armenian Christianity.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn June 1979, Pope John Paul II travelled to Poland where ecstatic crowds constantly surrounded him. This first papal trip to Poland uplifted the nation's spirit and sparked the formation of the Solidarity movement in 1980, which later brought freedom and human rights to his troubled homeland.\nPoland's Communist leaders intended to use the pope's visit to show the people that although the pope was Polish it did not alter their capacity to govern, oppress, and distribute the goods of society. They also hoped that if the pope abided by the rules they set, that the Polish people would see his example and follow them as well. If the pope's visit inspired a riot, the Communist leaders of Poland were prepared to crush the uprising and blame the suffering on the pope.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAccording to John Lewis Gaddis, one of the most influential historians of the Cold War, the trip led to the formation of Solidarity and would begin the process of Communism's demise in Eastern Europe:","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhen Pope John Paul II kissed the ground at the Warsaw airport he began the process by which Communism in Poland—and ultimately elsewhere in Europe—would come to an end.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn later trips to Poland, he gave tacit support to the Solidarity organisation. These visits reinforced this message and contributed to the collapse of East European Communism that took place between 1989/1990 with the reintroduction of democracy in Poland, and which then spread through Eastern Europe (1990–1991) and South-Eastern Europe (1990–1992).","Pope John Paul II\n\nTeachings","Pope John Paul II\n\nAs pope, John Paul II wrote 14 papal encyclicals and taught about sexuality in what is referred as the \"Theology of the Body\". Some key elements of his strategy to \"reposition the Catholic Church\" were encyclicals such as Ecclesia de Eucharistia, Reconciliatio et paenitentia and Redemptoris Mater. In his At the beginning of the new millennium (Novo Millennio Ineunte), he emphasised the importance of \"starting afresh from Christ\": \"No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person.\" In The Splendour of the Truth (Veritatis Splendor), he emphasised the dependence of man on God and His Law (\"Without the Creator, the creature disappears\") and the \"dependence of freedom on the truth\". He warned that man \"giving himself over to relativism and scepticism, goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself\". In Fides et Ratio (On the Relationship between Faith and Reason) John Paul promoted a renewed interest in philosophy and an autonomous pursuit of truth in theological matters. Drawing on many different sources (such as Thomism), he described the mutually supporting relationship between faith and reason, and emphasised that theologians should focus on that relationship.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II wrote extensively about workers and the social doctrine of the Church, which he discussed in three encyclicals: Laborem exercens, Sollicitudo rei socialis, and Centesimus annus. Through his encyclicals and many Apostolic Letters and Exhortations, John Paul II talked about the dignity of women and the importance of the family for the future of humanity. Other encyclicals include The Gospel of Life (Evangelium Vitae) and Ut Unum Sint (That They May Be One). Though critics accused him of inflexibility in explicitly re-asserting Catholic moral teachings against abortion and euthanasia that have been in place for well over a thousand years, he urged a more nuanced view of capital punishment. In his second encyclical Dives in misericordia he stressed that divine mercy is the greatest feature of God, needed especially in modern times.","Pope John Paul II\n\nMoral stances","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was considered a conservative on doctrine and issues relating to human sexual reproduction and the ordination of women.","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhile the pope was visiting the United States of America he said, \"All human life, from the moments of conception and through all subsequent stages, is sacred.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nA series of 129 lectures given by John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in Rome between September 1979 and November 1984 were later compiled and published as a single work titled Theology of the Body, an extended meditation on human sexuality. He extended it to the condemnation of abortion, euthanasia and virtually all capital punishment, calling them all a part of the \"culture of death\" that is pervasive in the modern world. He campaigned for world debt forgiveness and social justice. He coined the term \"social mortgage\", which related that all private property had a social dimension, namely, that \"the goods of this are originally meant for all.\" In 2000, he publicly endorsed the Jubilee 2000 campaign on African debt relief fronted by Irish rock stars Bob Geldof and Bono, once famously interrupting a U2 recording session by telephoning the studio and asking to speak to Bono.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II, who was present and very influential at the 1962–65 Second Vatican Council, affirmed the teachings of that Council and did much to implement them. Nevertheless, his critics often wished that he would embrace the so-called \"progressive\" agenda that some hoped would evolve as a result of the Council. In fact, the Council did not advocate \"progressive\" changes in these areas; for example, they still condemned abortion as an unspeakable crime. Pope John Paul II continued to declare that contraception, abortion, and homosexual acts were gravely sinful, and, with Joseph Ratzinger (future Pope Benedict XVI), opposed liberation theology.","Pope John Paul II\n\nFollowing the Church's exaltation of the marital act of sexual intercourse between a baptised man and woman within sacramental marriage as proper and exclusive to the sacrament of marriage, John Paul II believed that it was, in every instance, profaned by contraception, abortion, divorce followed by a 'second' marriage, and by homosexual acts. In 1994, John Paul II asserted the Church's lack of authority to ordain women to the priesthood, stating that without such authority ordination is not legitimately compatible with fidelity to Christ. This was also deemed a repudiation of calls to break with the constant tradition of the Church by ordaining women to the priesthood. In addition, John Paul II chose not to end the discipline of mandatory priestly celibacy, although in a small number of unusual circumstances, he did allow certain married clergymen of other Christian traditions who later became Catholic to be ordained as Catholic priests.","Pope John Paul II\n\nApartheid in South Africa","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of apartheid in South Africa. In 1985, while visiting the Netherlands, he gave an impassioned speech condemning apartheid at the International Court of Justice, proclaiming that \"No system of apartheid or separate development will ever be acceptable as a model for the relations between peoples or races.\" In September 1988, Pope John Paul II made a pilgrimage to ten Southern African countries, including those bordering South Africa, while demonstratively avoiding South Africa. During his visit to Zimbabwe, John Paul II called for economic sanctions against South Africa's government. After John Paul II's death, both Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu praised the pope for defending human rights and condemning economic injustice.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCapital punishment","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of the death penalty, although previous popes had accepted the practice. At a papal mass in St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States he said:","Pope John Paul II\n\nA sign of hope is the increasing recognition that the dignity of human life must never be taken away, even in the case of someone who has done great evil. Modern society has the means of protecting itself, without definitively denying criminals the chance to reform. I renew the appeal I made most recently at Christmas for a consensus to end the death penalty, which is both cruel and unnecessary.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring that visit, John Paul II convinced the then governor of Missouri, Mel Carnahan, to reduce the death sentence of convicted murderer Darrell J. Mease to life imprisonment without parole. John Paul II's other attempts to reduce the sentence of death-row inmates were unsuccessful. In 1983, John Paul II visited Guatemala and unsuccessfully asked the country's president, Efraín Ríos Montt, to reduce the sentence for six left-wing guerrillas sentenced to death.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2002, John Paul II again traveled to Guatemala. At that time, Guatemala was one of only two countries in Latin America (the other being Cuba) to apply capital punishment. John Paul II asked the Guatemalan president, Alfonso Portillo, for a moratorium on executions.","Pope John Paul II\n\nEuropean Union","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II pushed for a reference to Europe's Christian cultural roots in the draft of the European Constitution. In his 2003 apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Europa, John Paul II wrote that he \"fully (respected) the secular nature of (European) institutions\". However, he wanted the EU Constitution to enshrine religious rights, including acknowledging the rights of religious groups to organise freely, recognise the specific identity of each denomination and allow for a \"structured dialogue\" between each religious community and the EU, and extend across the European Union the legal status enjoyed by religious institutions in individual member states. \"I wish once more to appeal to those drawing up the future European Constitutional Treaty so that it will include a reference to the religion and in particular to the Christian heritage of Europe,\" John Paul II said. The pope's desire for a reference to Europe's Christian identity in the Constitution was supported by non-Catholic representatives of the Church of England and Orthodox Churches from Russia, Romania, and Greece.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II's demand to include a reference to Europe's Christian roots in the European Constitution was supported by some non-Christians, such as Joseph Weiler, a practising Orthodox Jew and renowned constitutional lawyer, who said that the Constitution's lack of a reference to Christianity was not a \"demonstration of neutrality,\" but, rather, \"a Jacobin attitude\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nAt the same time, however, John Paul II was an enthusiastic supporter of European integration; in particular, he supported his native Poland's entry into the bloc. On 19 May 2003, three weeks before a referendum was held in Poland on EU membership, the Polish pope addressed his compatriots and urged them to vote for Poland's EU membership at St. Peter's Square in Vatican City State. While some conservative, Catholic politicians in Poland opposed EU membership, John Paul II said:","Pope John Paul II\n\nI know that there are many in opposition to integration. I appreciate their concern about maintaining the cultural and religious identity of our nation. However, I must emphasise that Poland has always been an important part of Europe. Europe needs Poland. The Church in Europe needs the Poles' testimony of faith. Poland needs Europe.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe Polish pope compared Poland's entry into the EU to the Union of Lublin, which was signed in 1564 and united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one nation and created an elective monarchy.","Pope John Paul II\n\nEvolution","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 22 October 1996, in a speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences plenary session at the Vatican, John Paul II said of evolution that \"this theory has been progressively accepted by researchers, following a series of discoveries in various fields of knowledge. The convergence, neither sought nor fabricated, of the results of work that was conducted independently is in itself a significant argument in favour of this theory.\" John Paul II's embrace of evolution was enthusiastically praised by American paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould, with whom he had an audience in 1984.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAlthough generally accepting the theory of evolution, John Paul II made one major exception—the human soul. \"If the human body has its origin in living material which pre-exists it, the spiritual soul is immediately created by God.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nIraq War","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2003 John Paul II criticised the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq, saying in his State of the World address \"No to war! War is not always inevitable. It is always a defeat for humanity.\" He sent Pío Cardinal Laghi, the former Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to the United States, to talk with George W. Bush, the American President, to express opposition to the war. John Paul II said that it was up to the United Nations to solve the international conflict through diplomacy and that a unilateral aggression is a crime against peace and a violation of international law. The pope's opposition to the Iraq War led to him being a candidate to win the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize, which was ultimately awarded to Iranian attorney/judge and noted human rights advocate, Shirin Ebadi.","Pope John Paul II\n\nLiberation theology","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1984 and 1986, through Cardinal Ratzinger (future Pope Benedict XVI) as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, John Paul II officially condemned aspects of liberation theology, which had many followers in South America. Visiting Europe, Óscar Romero unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a Vatican condemnation of El Salvador's regime, for violations of human rights and its support of death squads. In his travel to Managua, Nicaragua, in 1983, John Paul II harshly condemned what he dubbed the \"popular Church\" (i.e. \"ecclesial base communities\" supported by the CELAM), and the Nicaraguan clergy's tendencies to support the leftist Sandinistas, reminding the clergy of their duties of obedience to the Holy See. During that visit Ernesto Cardenal, a priest and minister in the Sandinista government, knelt to kiss his hand. John Paul withdrew it, wagged his finger in Cardenal's face, and told him, \"You must straighten out your position with the church.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nOrganised crime","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II was the first pontiff to actively fight against Mafia violence in Southern Italy. In 1993, during a pilgrimage to Agrigento, Sicily, he appealed to the Mafiosi: \"I say to those responsible: 'Convert! One day, the judgment of God will arrive!'\" In 1994, John Paul II visited Catania and told victims of Mafia violence to \"rise up and cloak yourself in light and justice!\" In 1995, the Mafia bombed two historical churches in Rome. Some believed that this was the mob's vendetta against the pope for his denounciations of organised crime.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPersian Gulf War","Pope John Paul II\n\nBetween 1990 and 1991, a 34-nation coalition led by the United States waged a war against Saddam Hussein's Iraq, which had invaded and annexed Kuwait. Pope John Paul II was a staunch opponent of the Gulf War. Throughout the conflict, he appealed to the international community to stop the war, and after it was over led diplomatic initiatives to negotiate peace in the Middle East. In his 1991 encyclical Centesimus Annus, John Paul II harshly condemned the conflict:","Pope John Paul II\n\nNo, never again war, which destroys the lives of innocent people, teaches how to kill, throws into upheaval even the lives of those who do the killing and leaves behind a trail of resentment and hatred, thus making it all the more difficult to find a just solution of the very problems which provoked the war.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn April 1991, during his Urbi et Orbi Sunday message at St. Peter's Basilica, John Paul II called for the international community to \"lend an ear\" to \"the long-ignored aspirations of oppressed peoples\". He specifically named the Kurds, a people who were fighting a civil war against Saddam Hussein's troops in Iraq, as one such people, and referred to the war as a \"darkness menacing the earth\". During this time, the Vatican had expressed its frustration with the international ignoring of the pope's calls for peace in the Middle East.","Pope John Paul II\n\nRwandan genocide","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was the first world leader to describe as genocide the massacre by Hutus of Tutsis in the mostly Catholic country of Rwanda, which started in 1990 and reached its height in 1994. He called for a ceasefire and condemned the massacres on 10 April and 15 May 1990. In 1995, during his third visit to Kenya before an audience of 300,000, John Paul II pleaded for an end to the violence in Rwanda and Burundi, pleading for forgiveness and reconciliation as a solution to the genocide. He told Rwandan and Burundian refugees that he \"was close to them and shared their immense pain\". He said:","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhat is happening in your countries is a terrible tragedy that must end. During the African Synod, we, the pastors of the church, felt the duty to express our consternation and to launch an appeal for forgiveness and reconciliation. This is the only way to dissipate the threats of ethnocentrism that are hovering over Africa these days and that have so brutally touched Rwanda and Burundi.","Pope John Paul II\n\nViews on sexuality","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhile taking a traditional position on human sexuality, maintaining the Church's moral opposition to homosexual acts, John Paul II asserted that people with homosexual inclinations possess the same inherent dignity and rights as everybody else. In his book Memory and Identity he referred to the \"strong pressures\" by the European Parliament to recognise homosexual unions as an alternative type of family, with the right to adopt children. In the book, as quoted by Reuters, he wrote: \"It is legitimate and necessary to ask oneself if this is not perhaps part of a new ideology of evil, more subtle and hidden, perhaps, intent upon exploiting human rights themselves against man and against the family.\" A 1997 study determined that 3% of the pope's statements were about the issue of sexual morality.","Pope John Paul II\n\nReform of canon law","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II completed a full-scale reform of the Catholic Church's legal system, Latin and Eastern, and a reform of the Roman Curia.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 18 October 1990, when promulgating the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, John Paul II stated","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1998 Pope John Paul II issued the motu proprio Ad tuendam fidem, which amended two canons (750 and 1371) of the 1983 Code of Canon Law and two canons (598 and 1436) of the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.","Pope John Paul II\n\n1983 Code of Canon Law","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 25 January 1983, with the Apostolic Constitution Sacrae disciplinae leges John Paul II promulgated the current Code of Canon Law for all members of the Catholic Church who belonged to the Latin Church. It entered into force the first Sunday of the following Advent,Ap. Const. Sacræ Disciplinæ Leges which was 27 November 1983. John Paul II described the new Code as \"the last document of Vatican II\". Edward N. Peters has referred to the 1983 Code as the \"Johanno-Pauline Code\" (Johannes Paulus is Latin for \"John Paul\"), paralleling the \"Pio-Benedictine\" 1917 code that it replaced.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCode of Canons of the Eastern Churches","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II promulgated the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO) on October 18, 1990, by the document Sacri Canones. The CCEO came into force of law on October 1, 1991. It is the codification of the common portions of the Canon Law for the 23 of the 24 sui iuris churches in the Catholic Church that are the Eastern Catholic Churches. It is divided into 30 titles and has a total of 1540 canons.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPastor Bonus","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II promulgated the apostolic constitution Pastor bonus on 28 June 1988. It instituted a number of reforms in the process of running the Roman Curia. Pastor Bonus laid out in considerable detail the organization of the Roman Curia, specifying precisely the names and composition of each dicastery, and enumerating the competencies of each dicastery. It replaced the previous special law, Regimini Ecclesiæ universæ, which was promulgated by Paul VI in 1967.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCatechism of the Catholic Church","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 11 October 1992, in his apostolic constitution Fidei depositum (The Deposit of Faith), John Paul ordered the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHe declared the publication to be \"a sure norm for teaching the faith … a sure and authentic reference text for teaching Catholic doctrine and particularly for preparing local catechisms\". It was \"meant to encourage and assist in the writing of new local catechisms [both applicable and faithful]\" rather than replacing them.","Pope John Paul II\n\nRole in the collapse of dictatorships","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II has been credited with inspiring political change that not only led to the collapse of Communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Eastern Europe, but also in many countries ruled by dictators. In the words of Joaquín Navarro-Valls, John Paul II's press secretary:","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe single fact of John Paul II's election in 1978 changed everything. In Poland, everything began. Not in East Germany or Czechoslovakia. Then the whole thing spread. Why in 1980 did they lead the way in Gdansk? Why did they decide, now or never? Only because there was a Polish pope. He was in Chile and Pinochet was out. He was in Haiti and Duvalier was out. He was in the Philippines and Marcos was out. On many of those occasions, people would come here to the Vatican thanking the Holy Father for changing things.","Pope John Paul II\n\nChile","Pope John Paul II\n\nBefore John Paul II's pilgrimage to Latin America, during a meeting with reporters, he criticised Augusto Pinochet's regime as \"dictatorial\". In the words of The New York Times, he used \"unusually strong language\" to criticise Pinochet and asserted to journalists that the Church in Chile must not only pray, but actively fight for the restoration of democracy in Chile.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring his visit to Chile in 1987, John Paul II asked Chile's 31 Catholic bishops to campaign for free elections in the country. According to George Weigel and Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, he encouraged Pinochet to accept a democratic opening of the regime, and may even have called for his resignation According to Monsignor Sławomir Oder, the postulator of John Paul II's beatification cause, John Paul's words to Pinochet had a profound impact on the Chilean dictator. The pope confided to a friend: \"I received a letter from Pinochet in which he told me that as a Catholic he had listened to my words, he had accepted them, and he had decided to begin the process to change the leadership of his country.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring his visit to Chile, John Paul II supported the Vicariate of Solidarity, the Church-led pro-democracy, anti-Pinochet organisation. John Paul II visited the Vicariate of Solidarity's offices, spoke with its workers, and \"called upon them to continue their work, emphasizing that the Gospel consistently urges respect for human rights\". While in Chile, Pope John Paul II made gestures of public support of Chile's anti-Pinochet democratic opposition. For instance, he hugged and kissed Carmen Gloria Quintana, a young student burned alive by Chilean police and told her that \"We must pray for peace and justice in Chile.\" Later, he met with several opposition groups, including those that had been declared illegal by Pinochet's government. The opposition praised John Paul II for denouncing Pinochet as a \"dictator\", for many members of Chile's opposition were persecuted for much milder statements. Bishop Carlos Camus, one of the harshest critics of Pinochet's dictatorship within the Chilean Church, praised John Paul II's stance during the papal visit: \"I am quite moved, because our pastor supports us totally.","Pope John Paul II\n\nNever again will anyone be able to say that we are interfering in politics when we defend human dignity.\" He added: \"No country the Pope has visited has remained the same after his departure. The Pope's visit is a mission, an extraordinary social catechism, and his stay here will be a watershed in Chilean history.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nSome have erroneously accused John Paul II of affirming Pinochet's regime by appearing with the Chilean ruler in public. However, Cardinal Roberto Tucci, the organiser of John Paul II's visits, revealed that Pinochet tricked the pontiff by telling him he would take him to his living room, while in reality he took him to his balcony. Tucci claims that the pontiff was \"furious\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nHaiti","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II visited Haiti on 9 March 1983, when the country was ruled by Jean-Claude \"Baby Doc\" Duvalier. He bluntly criticised the poverty of the country, directly addressing Baby Doc and his wife, Michèle Bennett in front of a large crowd of Haitians:","Pope John Paul II\n\nYours is a beautiful country, rich in human resources, but Christians cannot be unaware of the injustice, the excessive inequality, the degradation of the quality of life, the misery, the hunger, the fear suffered by the majority of the people.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II spoke in French and occasionally in Creole, and in the homily outlined the basic human rights that most Haitians lacked: \"the opportunity to eat enough, to be cared for when ill, to find housing, to study, to overcome illiteracy, to find worthwhile and properly paid work; all that provides a truly human life for men and women, for young and old.\" Following John Paul II's pilgrimage, the Haitian opposition to Duvalier frequently reproduced and quoted the pope's message. Shortly before leaving Haiti, John Paul II called for social change in Haiti by saying: \"Lift up your heads, be conscious of your dignity of men created in God's image....\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II's visit inspired massive protests against the Duvalier dictatorship. In response to the visit, 860 Catholic priests and Church workers signed a statement committing the Church to work on behalf of the poor. In 1986, Duvalier was deposed in an uprising.","Pope John Paul II\n\nParaguay","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe collapse of the dictatorship of General Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay was linked, among other things, to Pope John Paul II's visit to the South American country in 1989. Since Stroessner's taking power through a coup d'état in 1954, Paraguay's bishops increasingly criticised the regime for human rights abuses, rigged elections, and the country's feudal economy. During his private meeting with Stroessner, John Paul II told the dictator:","Pope John Paul II\n\nPolitics has a fundamental ethical dimension because it is first and foremost a service to man. The Church can and must remind men—and in particular those who govern—of their ethical duties for the good of the whole of society. The Church cannot be isolated inside its temples just as men's consciences cannot be isolated from God.","Pope John Paul II\n\nLater, during a Mass, Pope John Paul II criticised the regime for impoverishing the peasants and the unemployed, claiming that the government must give people greater access to the land. Although Stroessner tried to prevent him from doing so, Pope John Paul II met opposition leaders in the one-party state.","Pope John Paul II\n\nRole in the fall of Communism","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II has been credited with being instrumental in bringing down Communism in Central and Eastern Europe, by being the spiritual inspiration behind its downfall and catalyst for \"a peaceful revolution\" in Poland. Lech Wałęsa, the founder of Solidarity and the first post-Communist President of Poland, credited John Paul II with giving Poles the courage to demand change. According to Wałęsa, \"Before his pontificate, the world was divided into blocs. Nobody knew how to get rid of Communism. In Warsaw, in 1979, he simply said: 'Do not be afraid', and later prayed: 'Let your Spirit descend and change the image of the land … this land'.\" It has also been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank covertly funded Solidarity.","Pope John Paul II\n\nUS President Ronald Reagan's correspondence with the pope reveals \"a continuous scurrying to shore up Vatican support for U.S. policies. Perhaps most surprisingly, the papers show that, as late as 1984, the pope did not believe the Communist Polish government could be changed.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe British historian Timothy Garton Ash, who describes himself as an \"agnostic liberal\", said shortly after John Paul II's death:","Pope John Paul II\n\nNo one can prove conclusively that he was a primary cause of the end of communism. However, the major figures on all sides—not just Lech Wałęsa, the Polish Solidarity leader, but also Solidarity's arch-opponent, General Wojciech Jaruzelski; not just the former American president George Bush Senior but also the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev—now agree that he was. I would argue the historical case in three steps: without the Polish Pope, no Solidarity revolution in Poland in 1980; without Solidarity, no dramatic change in Soviet policy towards eastern Europe under Gorbachev; without that change, no velvet revolutions in 1989.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn December 1989, John Paul II met with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev at the Vatican and each expressed his respect and admiration for the other. Gorbachev once said \"The collapse of the Iron Curtain would have been impossible without John Paul II.\" On John Paul II's death, Mikhail Gorbachev said: \"Pope John Paul II's devotion to his followers is a remarkable example to all of us.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 4 June 2004 U.S. President George W. Bush presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honour, to John Paul II during a ceremony at the Apostolic Palace. The president read the citation that accompanied the medal, which recognised \"this son of Poland\" whose \"principled stand for peace and freedom has inspired millions and helped to topple communism and tyranny\". \nAfter receiving the award, John Paul II said, \"May the desire for freedom, peace, a more humane world symbolised by this medal inspire men and women of goodwill in every time and place.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nCommunist attempt to humiliate John Paul II","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1983 Poland's Communist government unsuccessfully tried to humiliate John Paul II by falsely saying he had fathered an illegitimate child. Section D of Służba Bezpieczeństwa (SB), the security service, had an action named \"Triangolo\" to carry out criminal operations against the Catholic Church; the operation encompassed all Polish hostile actions against the pope. Captain Grzegorz Piotrowski, one of the murderers of Jerzy Popiełuszko, was the leader of section D. They drugged Irena Kinaszewska, the secretary of the Kraków-based weekly Catholic magazine Tygodnik Powszechny where Karol Wojtyła had worked, and unsuccessfully attempted to make her admit to having had sexual relations with him.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe SB then attempted to compromise Cracow priest Andrzej Bardecki, an editor of Tygodnik Powszechny and one of the closest friends of Cardinal Karol Wojtyła before he became pope, by planting false memoirs in his dwelling, but Piotrowski was exposed and the forgeries were found and destroyed before the SB could \"discover\" them.","Pope John Paul II\n\nRelations with other churches and religions","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II travelled extensively and met with believers from many divergent faiths. At the World Day of Prayer for Peace, held in Assisi on 27 October 1986, more than 120 representatives of different religions and denominations spent a day of fasting and prayer.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAnglicanism","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II had good relations with the Church of England. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. He preached in Canterbury Cathedral and received Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He said that he was disappointed by the Church of England's decision to ordain women and saw it as a step away from unity between the Anglican Communion and the Catholic Church.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1980 John Paul II issued a Pastoral Provision allowing married former Episcopal priests to become Catholic priests, and for the acceptance of former Episcopal Church parishes into the Catholic Church. He allowed the creation of the Anglican Use form of the Latin Rite, which incorporates the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. He helped establish Our Lady of the Atonement Catholic Church, together with Archbishop Patrick Flores of San Antonio, Texas, as the inaugural parish for the Anglican Use liturgy.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAnimism","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn his book-length interview Crossing the Threshold of Hope with the Italian journalist Vittorio Messori published in 1995, John Paul II praises animism, drawing parallels with Christianity. He says:","Pope John Paul II\n\n… it would be helpful to recall … the animist religions which stress ancestor worship. It seems that those who practice them are particularly close to Christianity, and among them, the Church's missionaries also find it easier to speak a common language. Is there, perhaps, in this veneration of ancestors a kind of preparation for the Christian faith in the Communion of Saints, in which all believers—whether living or dead—form a single community, a single body? […] There is nothing strange, then, that the African and Asian animists would become believers in Christ more easily than followers of the great religions of the Far East.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1985, the pope visited the African country of Togo, where 60 per cent of the population espouses animist beliefs. To honour the pope, animist religious leaders met him at a Catholic Marian shrine in the forest, much to the pontiff's delight. John Paul II proceeded to call for the need for religious tolerance, praised animism, and emphasised common elements between animism and Christianity, saying:","Pope John Paul II\n\nNature, exuberant and splendid in this area of forests and lakes, impregnates spirits and hearts with its mystery and orients them spontaneously toward the mystery of He who is the author of life. It is this religious sentiment that animates you and one can say that animates all of your compatriots.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring the investiture of President Thomas Boni Yayi of Benin as a titled Yoruba chieftain on 20 December 2008, the reigning Ooni of Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Olubuse II, referred to Pope John Paul II as a previous recipient of the same royal honour.","Pope John Paul II\n\nArmenian Apostolic Church","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II had good relations with the Armenian Apostolic Church. In 1996, he brought the Catholic Church and the Armenian Church closer by agreeing with Armenian Archbishop Karekin II on Christ's nature. During an audience in 2000, John Paul II and Karekin II, by then the Catholicos of All Armenians, issued a joint statement condemning the Armenian genocide. Meanwhile, the pope gave Karekin the relics of St. Gregory the Illuminator, the first head of the Armenian Church that had been kept in Naples, Italy, for 500 years. In September 2001, John Paul II went on a three-day pilgrimage to Armenia to take part in an ecumenical celebration with Karekin II in the newly consecrated St. Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral in Yerevan. The two Church leaders signed a declaration remembering the victims of the Armenian genocide.","Pope John Paul II\n\nBuddhism","Pope John Paul II\n\nTenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, visited John Paul II eight times. The two men held many similar views and understood similar plights, both coming from nations affected by Communism and both serving as heads of major religious bodies. As Archbishop of Kraków, long before the 14th Dalai Lama was a world-famous figure, Wojtyła held special Masses to pray for the Tibetan people's non-violent struggle for freedom from Maoist China. During his 1995 visit to Sri Lanka, a country where a majority of the population adheres to Theravada Buddhism, John Paul II expressed his admiration for Buddhism:","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn particular I express my highest regard for the followers of Buddhism, the majority religion in Sri Lanka, with its … four great values of … loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; with its ten transcendental virtues and the joys of the Sangha expressed so beautifully in the Theragathas. I ardently hope that my visit will serve to strengthen the goodwill between us, and that it will reassure everyone of the Catholic Church's desire for interreligious dialogue and cooperation in building a more just and fraternal world. To everyone I extend the hand of friendship, recalling the splendid words of the Dhammapada: \"Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace....\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nEastern Orthodox Church","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn May 1999, John Paul II visited Romania on the invitation from Patriarch Teoctist Arăpaşu of the Romanian Orthodox Church. This was the first time a pope had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the Great Schism in 1054. On his arrival, the Patriarch and the President of Romania, Emil Constantinescu, greeted the pope. The Patriarch stated, \"The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 23–27 June 2001 John Paul II visited Ukraine, another heavily Orthodox nation, at the invitation of the President of Ukraine and bishops of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The Pope spoke to leaders of the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches and Religious Organisations, pleading for \"open, tolerant and honest dialogue\". About 200 thousand people attended the liturgies celebrated by the Pope in Kiev, and the liturgy in Lviv gathered nearly one and a half million faithful. John Paul II said that an end to the Great Schism was one of his fondest wishes. Healing divisions between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches regarding Latin and Byzantine traditions was clearly of great personal interest. For many years, John Paul II sought to facilitate dialogue and unity stating as early as 1988 in Euntes in mundum, \"Europe has two lungs, it will never breathe easily until it uses both of them.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nDuring his 2001 travels, John Paul II became the first pope to visit Greece in 1291 years. In Athens, the pope met with Archbishop Christodoulos, the head of the Greek Orthodox Church. After a private 30-minute meeting, the two spoke publicly. Christodoulos read a list of \"13 offences\" of the Catholic Church against the Eastern Orthodox Church since the Great Schism, including the pillaging of Constantinople by crusaders in 1204, and bemoaned the lack of apology from the Catholic Church, saying \"Until now, there has not been heard a single request for pardon\" for the \"maniacal crusaders of the 13th century\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe pope responded by saying \"For the occasions past and present, when sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by action or omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us forgiveness\", to which Christodoulos immediately applauded. John Paul II said that the sacking of Constantinople was a source of \"profound regret\" for Catholics. Later John Paul II and Christodoulos met on a spot where Saint Paul had once preached to Athenian Christians. They issued a 'common declaration', saying \"We shall do everything in our power, so that the Christian roots of Europe and its Christian soul may be preserved.... We condemn all recourse to violence, proselytism and fanaticism, in the name of religion.\" The two leaders then said the Lord's Prayer together, breaking an Orthodox taboo against praying with Catholics.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe pope had said throughout his pontificate that one of his greatest dreams was to visit Russia, but this never occurred. He attempted to solve the problems that had arisen over centuries between the Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches, and in 2004 gave them a 1730 copy of the lost icon of Our Lady of Kazan.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIslam","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II made considerable efforts to improve relations between Catholicism and Islam.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 6 May 2001 he became the first Catholic pope to enter and pray in a mosque, namely the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. Respectfully removing his shoes, he entered the former Byzantine era Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist, who is also revered as a prophet of Islam. He gave a speech including the statement: \"For all the times that Muslims and Christians have offended one another, we need to seek forgiveness from the Almighty and to offer each other forgiveness.\" He kissed the Qur'an in Syria, an act that made him popular among Muslims but that disturbed many Catholics.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2004 John Paul II hosted the \"Papal Concert of Reconciliation\", which brought together leaders of Islam with leaders of the Jewish community and of the Catholic Church at the Vatican for a concert by the Kraków Philharmonic Choir from Poland, the London Philharmonic Choir from the United Kingdom, the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra from the United States, and the Ankara State Polyphonic Choir of Turkey. The event was conceived and conducted by Sir Gilbert Levine, KCSG and was broadcast throughout the world.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II oversaw the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which makes a special provision for Muslims; therein, it is written, \"The plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the Creator, in 'the first place amongst whom are the Muslims'; these profess to hold the faith of Abraham, and together with us they adore the one, merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nJainism","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1995, Pope John Paul II held a meeting with 21 Jains, a sect that broke away from mainstream Hinduism in 600 BC, organized by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. He praised Mahatma Gandhi for his \"unshakeable faith in God\", assured the Jains that the Catholic Church will continue to engage in dialogue with their religion and spoke of the common need to aid the poor. The Jain leaders were impressed with the pope's \"transparency and simplicity\", and the meeting received much attention in the Gujarat state in western India, home to many Jains.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJudaism","Pope John Paul II\n\nRelations between Catholicism and Judaism improved dramatically during the pontificate of John Paul II. He spoke frequently about the Church's relationship with the Jewish faith.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1979 John Paul II visited the Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland where many of his compatriots (mostly Jews) had perished during the Nazi occupation in World War II, the first pope to do so. In 1998 he issued We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, which outlined his thinking on the Holocaust. He became the first pope known to have made an official papal visit to a synagogue, when he visited the Great Synagogue of Rome on 13 April 1986.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 30 December 1993 John Paul II established formal diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the State of Israel, acknowledging its centrality in Jewish life and faith.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 7 April 1994 he hosted the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Holocaust. It was the first-ever Vatican event dedicated to the memory of the six million Jews murdered in World War II. This concert, which was conceived and conducted by American conductor Gilbert Levine, was attended by the Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, the President of Italy Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, and survivors of the Holocaust from around the world. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, actor Richard Dreyfuss and cellist Lynn Harrell performed on this occasion under Levine's direction. On the morning of the concert, the pope received the attending members of survivor community in a special audience in the Apostolic Palace.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn March 2000 John Paul II visited Yad Vashem, the national Holocaust memorial in Israel, and later made history by touching one of the holiest sites in Judaism, the Western Wall in Jerusalem, placing a letter inside it (in which he prayed for forgiveness for the actions against Jews). In part of his address he said: \"I assure the Jewish people the Catholic Church … is deeply saddened by the hatred, acts of persecution and displays of anti-Semitism directed against the Jews by Christians at any time and in any place,\" he added that there were \"no words strong enough to deplore the terrible tragedy of the Holocaust.\" Israeli cabinet minister Rabbi Michael Melchior, who hosted the pope's visit, said he was \"very moved\" by the pope's gesture. It was beyond history, beyond memory. We are deeply saddened by the behaviour of those who in the course of history have caused these children of yours to suffer, and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant. In October 2003, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) issued a statement congratulating John Paul II on entering the 25th year of his papacy.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn January 2005, John Paul II became the first pope known to receive a priestly blessing from a rabbi, when Rabbis Benjamin Blech, Barry Dov Schwartz, and Jack Bemporad visited the Pontiff at Clementine Hall in the Apostolic Palace.","Pope John Paul II\n\nImmediately after John Paul II's death, the ADL said in a statement that he had revolutionised Catholic-Jewish relations, saying, \"more change for the better took place in his 27-year Papacy than in the nearly 2,000 years before.\" In another statement issued by the Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council, Director Dr Colin Rubenstein said, \"The Pope will be remembered for his inspiring spiritual leadership in the cause of freedom and humanity. He achieved far more in terms of transforming relations with both the Jewish people and the State of Israel than any other figure in the history of the Catholic Church.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nWith Judaism, therefore, we have a relationship which we do not have with any other religion. You are our dearly beloved brothers, and in a certain way, it could be said that you are our elder brothers.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn an interview with the Polish Press Agency, Michael Schudrich, chief rabbi of Poland, said that never in history did anyone do as much for Christian-Jewish dialogue as Pope John Paul II, adding that many Jews had a greater respect for the late pope than for some rabbis. Schudrich praised John Paul II for condemning anti-Semitism as a sin, which no previous pope had done.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn John Paul II's beatification the Chief Rabbi of Rome Riccardo Di Segni said in an interview with the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano that \"John Paul II was revolutionary because he tore down a thousand-year wall of Catholic distrust of the Jewish world.\" Meanwhile, Elio Toaff, the former Chief Rabbi of Rome, said that: Remembrance of the Pope Karol Wojtyła will remain strong in the collective Jewish memory because of his appeals to fraternity and the spirit of tolerance, which excludes all violence. In the stormy history of relations between Roman popes and Jews in the ghetto in which they were closed for over three centuries in humiliating circumstances, John Paul II is a bright figure in his uniqueness. In relations between our two great religions in the new century that was stained with bloody wars and the plague of racism, the heritage of John Paul II remains one of the few spiritual islands guaranteeing survival and human progress.","Pope John Paul II\n\nLutheranism","Pope John Paul II\n\nFrom 15 to 19 November 1980, John Paul II visited West Germany on his first trip to a country with a large Lutheran Protestant population. In Mainz, he met with leaders of the Evangelical Church in Germany, and with representatives of other Christian denominations.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 11 December 1983, John Paul II participated in an ecumenical service in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Rome, the first papal visit ever to a Lutheran church. The visit took place 500 years after the birth of Martin Luther, the German Augustinian monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn his apostolic pilgrimage to Norway, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Sweden of June 1989, John Paul II became the first pope to visit countries with Lutheran majorities. In addition to celebrating Mass with Catholic believers, he participated in ecumenical services at places that had been Catholic shrines before the Reformation: Nidaros Cathedral in Norway; near St. Olav's Church at Thingvellir in Iceland; Turku Cathedral in Finland; Roskilde Cathedral in Denmark; and Uppsala Cathedral in Sweden.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 31 October 1999, (the 482nd anniversary of Reformation Day, Martin Luther's posting of the 95 Theses), representatives of the Vatican and the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) signed a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, as a gesture of unity. The signing was a fruit of a theological dialogue that had been going on between the LWF and the Vatican since 1965.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAssassination attempts and plots","Pope John Paul II\n\nAs he entered St. Peter's Square to address an audience on 13 May 1981, Pope John Paul II was shot and critically wounded by Mehmet Ali Ağca, an expert Turkish gunman who was a member of the militant fascist group Grey Wolves. The assassin used a Browning 9 mm semi-automatic pistol, shooting the pope in the abdomen and perforating his colon and small intestine multiple times. John Paul II was rushed into the Vatican complex and then to the Gemelli Hospital. On the way to the hospital, he lost consciousness. Even though the two bullets missed his mesenteric artery and abdominal aorta, he lost nearly three-quarters of his blood. He underwent five hours of surgery to treat his wounds. Surgeons performed a colostomy, temporarily rerouting the upper part of the large intestine to let the damaged lower part heal. When he briefly regained consciousness before being operated on, he instructed the doctors not to remove his Brown Scapular during the operation. One of the few people allowed in to see him at the Gemelli Clinic was one of his closest friends philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, who arrived on Saturday 16 May and kept him company while he recovered from emergency surgery.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe pope later stated that Our Lady of Fátima helped keep him alive throughout his ordeal.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCould I forget that the event in St. Peter's Square took place on the day and at the hour when the first appearance of the Mother of Christ to the poor little peasants has been remembered for over sixty years at Fátima, Portugal? For in everything that happened to me on that very day, I felt that extraordinary motherly protection and care, which turned out to be stronger than the deadly bullet.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAğca was caught and restrained by a nun and other bystanders until police arrived. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Two days after Christmas in 1983, John Paul II visited Ağca in prison. John Paul II and Ağca spoke privately for about twenty minutes. John Paul II said, \"What we talked about will have to remain a secret between him and me. I spoke to him as a brother whom I have pardoned and who has my complete trust.″","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 2 March 2006 the Italian parliament's Mitrokhin Commission, set up by Silvio Berlusconi and headed by Forza Italia senator Paolo Guzzanti, concluded that the Soviet Union was behind the attempt on John Paul II's life, in retaliation for the pope's support of Solidarity, the Catholic, pro-democratic Polish workers' movement, a theory that had already been supported by Michael Ledeen and the United States Central Intelligence Agency at the time. The Italian report stated that Communist Bulgarian security departments were utilised to prevent the Soviet Union's role from being uncovered. The report stated that Soviet military intelligence (Glavnoje Razvedyvatel'noje Upravlenije), not the KGB, were responsible. Russian Foreign Intelligence Service spokesman Boris Labusov called the accusation \"absurd\". The pope declared during a May 2002 visit to Bulgaria that the country's Soviet-bloc-era leadership had nothing to do with the assassination attempt. However, his secretary, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, alleged in his book A Life with Karol, that the pope was convinced privately that the former Soviet Union was behind the attack.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIt was later discovered that many of John Paul II's aides had foreign-government attachments; Bulgaria and Russia disputed the Italian commission's conclusions, pointing out that the pope had publicly denied the Bulgarian connection.","Pope John Paul II\n\nA second assassination attempt was made on 12 May 1982, just a day before the anniversary of the first attempt on his life, in Fátima, Portugal when a man tried to stab John Paul II with a bayonet. He was stopped by security guards. Stanisław Dziwisz later said that John Paul II had been injured during the attempt but managed to hide a non-life-threatening wound. The assailant, a traditionalist Catholic Spanish priest named Juan María Fernández y Krohn, had been ordained as a priest by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre of the Society of Saint Pius X and was opposed to the changes made by the Second Vatican Council, claiming that the pope was an agent of Communist Moscow and of the Marxist Eastern Bloc. Fernández y Krohn subsequently left the priesthood and served three years of a six-year sentence. The ex-priest was treated for mental illness and then expelled from Portugal to become a solicitor in Belgium.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe Al-Qaeda-funded Bojinka plot planned to kill John Paul II during a visit to the Philippines during World Youth Day 1995 celebrations. On 15 January 1995 a suicide bomber was planning to dress as a priest and detonate a bomb when the pope passed in his motorcade on his way to the San Carlos Seminary in Makati City. The assassination was supposed to divert attention from the next phase of the operation. However, a chemical fire inadvertently started by the cell alerted police to their whereabouts, and all were arrested a week before the pope's visit, and confessed to the plot.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2009 John Koehler, a journalist and former army intelligence officer, published Spies in the Vatican: The Soviet Union's Cold War Against the Catholic Church. Mining mostly East German and Polish secret police archives, Koehler says the assassination attempts were \"KGB-backed\" and gives details. During John Paul II's papacy there were many clerics within the Vatican who on nomination, declined to be ordained, and then mysteriously left the church. There is wide speculation that they were, in reality, KGB agents.","Pope John Paul II\n\nApologies","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II apologised to many groups that had suffered at the hands of the Catholic Church through the years. Before becoming pope he had been a prominent editor and supporter of initiatives such as the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops from 1965. As pope, he officially made public apologies for over 100 wrongdoings, including: \n* The legal process on the Italian scientist and philosopher Galileo Galilei, himself a devout Catholic, around 1633 (31 October 1992). * Catholics' involvement with the African chiefs who sold their subjects and captives in the African slave trade (9 August 1993). * The Church Hierarchy's role in burnings at the stake and the religious wars that followed the Protestant Reformation (May 1995, in the Czech Republic). * The injustices committed against women, the violation of women's rights and the historical denigration of women (10 July 1995, in a letter to \"every woman\"). * The inactivity and silence of many Catholics during the Holocaust (see the article Religion in Nazi Germany) (16 March 1998).","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 20 November 2001, from a laptop in the Vatican, Pope John Paul II sent his first e-mail apologising for the Catholic sex abuse cases, the Church-backed \"Stolen Generations\" of Aboriginal children in Australia, and to China for the behaviour of Catholic missionaries in colonial times.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHealth","Pope John Paul II\n\nWhen he became pope in 1978 at the age of 58, John Paul II was an avid sportsman. He was extremely healthy and active, jogging in the Vatican gardens, weight training, swimming, and hiking in the mountains. He was fond of football. The media contrasted the new pope's athleticism and trim figure to the poor health of John Paul I and Paul VI, the portliness of John XXIII and the constant claims of ailments of Pius XII. The only modern pope with a fitness regimen had been Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who was an avid mountaineer. An Irish Independent article in the 1980s labelled John Paul II the keep-fit pope.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHowever, after over twenty-five years as pope, two assassination attempts, one of which injured him severely, and a number of cancer scares, John Paul's physical health declined. In 2001 he was diagnosed as suffering from Parkinson's disease. International observers had suspected this for some time, but it was only publicly acknowledged by the Vatican in 2003. Despite difficulty speaking more than a few sentences at a time, trouble hearing, and severe osteoarthrosis, he continued to tour the world although rarely walking in public.","Pope John Paul II\n\nDeath and funeral","Pope John Paul II\n\nFinal months","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul II was hospitalised with breathing problems caused by a bout of influenza on 1 February 2005. He left the hospital on 10 February, but was subsequently hospitalised again with breathing problems two weeks later and underwent a tracheotomy.","Pope John Paul II\n\nFinal illness and death","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 31 March 2005 following a urinary tract infection, he developed septic shock, a form of infection with a high fever and low blood pressure, but was not hospitalised. Instead, he was monitored by a team of consultants at his private residence. This was taken as an indication that the pope and those close to him believed that he was nearing death; it would have been in accordance with his wishes to die in the Vatican. Later that day, Vatican sources announced that John Paul II had been given the Anointing of the Sick by his friend and secretary Stanisław Dziwisz. The day before his death, one of his closest personal friends, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka visited him at his bedside. During the final days of the pope's life, the lights were kept burning through the night where he lay in the Papal apartment on the top floor of the Apostolic Palace. Tens of thousands of people assembled and held vigil in St. Peter's Square and the surrounding streets for two days. Upon hearing of this, the dying pope was said to have stated: \"I have searched for you, and now you have come to me, and I thank you.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn Saturday, 2 April 2005, at approximately 15:30 CEST, John Paul II spoke his final words in Polish, \"Pozwólcie mi odejść do domu Ojca\" (\"Allow me to depart to the house of the Father\"), to his aides, and fell into a coma about four hours later. The Mass of the vigil of the Second Sunday of Easter commemorating the canonisation of Saint Maria Faustina on 30 April 2000, had just been celebrated at his bedside, presided over by Stanisław Dziwisz and two Polish associates. Present at the bedside was a cardinal from Ukraine, who served as a priest with John Paul in Poland, along with Polish nuns of the Congregation of the Sisters Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, who ran the papal household. Pope John Paul II died in his private apartment at 21:37 CEST (19:37 UTC) of heart failure from profound hypotension and complete circulatory collapse from septic shock, 46 days before his 85th birthday. He had no close family by the time of his death; his feelings are reflected in his words written in 2000 at the end of his Last Will and Testament.","Pope John Paul II\n\nStanisław Dziwisz later said he had not burned the pontiff's personal notes despite the request being part of the will.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAftermath","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe death of the pontiff set in motion rituals and traditions dating back to medieval times. The Rite of Visitation took place from 4 April 2005 to 7 April 2005 at St. Peter's Basilica. John Paul II's testament, published on 7 April 2005, revealed that the pontiff contemplated being buried in his native Poland but left the final decision to The College of Cardinals, which in passing, preferred burial beneath St. Peter's Basilica, honouring the pontiff's request to be placed \"in bare earth\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe Requiem Mass held on 8 April 2005 was said to have set world records both for attendance and number of heads of state present at a funeral. (See: List of Dignitaries.) It was the single largest gathering of heads of state in history, surpassing the funerals of Winston Churchill (1965) and Josip Broz Tito (1980). Four kings, five queens, at least 70 presidents and prime ministers, and more than 14 leaders of other religions attended alongside the faithful. It is likely to have been the largest single pilgrimage of Christianity ever with numbers estimated in excess of four million mourners gathering in and around Vatican City. Between 250,000 and 300,000 watched the event from within the Vatican's walls.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe Dean of the College of Cardinals, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, conducted the ceremony. John Paul II was interred in the grottoes under the basilica, the Tomb of the Popes. He was lowered into a tomb created in the same alcove previously occupied by the remains of Pope John XXIII. The alcove had been empty since John XXIII's remains had been moved into the main body of the basilica after his beatification.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPosthumous recognition","Pope John Paul II\n\nTitle \"the Great\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nUpon the death of John Paul II, a number of clergy at the Vatican and laymen throughout the world began referring to the late pontiff as \"John Paul the Great\"—only the fourth pope to be so acclaimed, and the first since the first millennium. Scholars of Canon Law say that there is no official process for declaring a pope \"Great\"; the title simply establishes itself through popular and continued usage, as was the case with celebrated secular leaders (for example, Alexander III of Macedon became popularly known as Alexander the Great). The three popes who today commonly are known as \"Great\" are Leo I, who reigned from 440–461 and persuaded Attila the Hun to withdraw from Rome; Gregory I, 590–604, after whom the Gregorian Chant is named; and Pope Nicholas I, 858–867.","Pope John Paul II\n\nHis successor, Benedict XVI, referred to him as \"the great Pope John Paul II\" in his first address from the loggia of St. Peter's Basilica, and Cardinal Angelo Sodano referred to John Paul as \"the Great\" in his published written homily for the pope's funeral Mass of Repose.","Pope John Paul II\n\nSince giving his homily at the funeral of Pope John Paul, Pope Benedict XVI continued to refer to John Paul II as \"the Great\". At the 20th World Youth Day in Germany 2005, Pope Benedict XVI, speaking in Polish, John Paul's native language, said, \"As the Great Pope John Paul II would say: Keep the flame of faith alive in your lives and your people.\" In May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI visited John Paul's native Poland. During that visit, he repeatedly made references to \"the great John Paul\" and \"my great predecessor\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nTwo newspapers have called him \"the Great\" or \"the Greatest\". The Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera called him \"the Greatest\" and the South African Catholic newspaper, The Southern Cross, called him \"John Paul II the Great\". Some Catholic institutions changed their names to incorporate \"the Great\", including John Paul the Great Catholic University and schools called some variant of John Paul the Great High School.","Pope John Paul II\n\nInstitutions named after St. John Paul the Great","Pope John Paul II\n\n* John Paul the Great Catholic University\n* John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Indiana)\n* Saint John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Virginia)","Pope John Paul II\n\nBeatification","Pope John Paul II\n\nInspired by calls of \"Santo Subito!\" (\"[Make him a] Saint Immediately!\") from the crowds gathered during the funeral Mass that he performed, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, bypassing the normal restriction that five years must pass after a person's death before beginning the beatification process. In an audience with Pope Benedict XVI, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome, who was responsible for promoting the cause for canonisation of any person who died within that diocese, cited \"exceptional circumstances\", which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the assassination attempt on John Paul II at St. Peter's Square.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn early 2006 it was reported that the Vatican was investigating a possible miracle associated with John Paul II. Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun and member of the Congregation of Little Sisters of Catholic Maternity Wards, confined to her bed by\nParkinson's disease, was reported to have experienced a \"complete and lasting cure after members of her community prayed for the intercession of Pope John Paul II\". , Sister Marie-Simon-Pierre, then 46, was working again at a maternity hospital run by her religious institute.","Pope John Paul II\n\n\"I was sick and now I am cured,\" she told reporter Gerry Shaw. \"I am cured, but it is up to the church to say whether it was a miracle or not.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 28 May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI celebrated Mass before an estimated 900,000 people in John Paul II's native Poland. During his homily, he encouraged prayers for the early canonisation of John Paul II and stated that he hoped canonisation would happen \"in the near future\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn January 2007 Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz announced that the interview phase of the beatification process, in Italy and Poland, was nearing completion. In February 2007, relics of Pope John Paul II—pieces of white papal cassocks he used to wear—were freely distributed with prayer cards for the cause, a typical pious practice after a saintly Catholic's death. On 8 March 2007, the Vicariate of Rome announced that the diocesan phase of John Paul's cause for beatification was at an end. Following a ceremony on 2 April 2007—the second anniversary of the Pontiff's death—the cause proceeded to the scrutiny of the committee of lay, clerical, and episcopal members of the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints, to conduct a separate investigation. On the fourth anniversary of Pope John Paul's death, 2 April 2009, Cardinal Dziwisz, told reporters of a presumed miracle that had recently occurred at the former pope's tomb in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-year-old Polish boy from Gdańsk, who was suffering from kidney cancer and was completely unable to walk, had been visiting the tomb with his parents. On leaving St. Peter's Basilica, the boy told them, \"I want to walk,\" and began walking normally.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 16 November 2009, a panel of reviewers at the Congregation for the Causes of Saints voted unanimously that Pope John Paul II had lived a life of heroic virtue. On 19 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI signed the first of two decrees needed for beatification and proclaimed John Paul II \"Venerable\", asserting that he had lived a heroic, virtuous life. The second vote and the second signed decree certifying the authenticity of the first miracle, the curing of Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun, from Parkinson's disease. Once the second decree is signed, the positio (the report on the cause, with documentation about his life and writings and with information on the cause) is complete. He can then be beatified. Some speculated that he would be beatified sometime during (or soon after) the month of the 32nd anniversary of his 1978 election, in October 2010. As Monsignor Oder noted, this course would have been possible if the second decree were signed in time by Benedict XVI, stating that a posthumous miracle directly attributable to his intercession had occurred, completing the positio.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe Vatican announced on 14 January 2011 that Pope Benedict XVI had confirmed the miracle involving Sister Marie Simon-Pierre and that John Paul II was to be beatified on 1 May, the Feast of Divine Mercy. 1 May is commemorated in former communist countries, such as Poland, and some Western European countries as May Day, and John Paul II was well known for his contributions to communism's relatively peaceful demise. In March 2011 the Polish mint issued a gold 1,000 Polish złoty coin (equivalent to US$350), with the Pope's image to commemorate his beatification.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 29 April 2011 John Paul II's coffin was exhumed from the grotto beneath St. Peter's Basilica ahead of his beatification, as tens of thousands of people arrived in Rome for one of the biggest events since his funeral. John Paul II's remains (in a closed coffin) were placed in front of the Basilica's main altar, where believers could pay their respect before and after the beatification mass in St. Peter's Square on 1 May 2011. On 3 May 2011 his remains were reinterred in the marble altar in Pier Paolo Cristofari's Chapel of St. Sebastian, where Pope Innocent XI was buried. This more prominent location, next to the Chapel of the Pietà, the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, and statues of Popes Pius XI and Pius XII, was intended to allow more pilgrims to view his memorial.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn July 2012 Colombian man, Marco Fidel Rojas, the former mayor of Huila, Colombia, testified that he was \"miraculously cured\" of Parkinson's disease after a trip to Rome where he met John Paul II and prayed with him. Dr. Antonio Schlesinger Piedrahita, a renowned neurologist in Colombia, has certified Fidel’s healing. The documentation has been sent to the Vatican office for sainthood cause's.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCanonisation","Pope John Paul II\n\nTo be eligible for canonisation (being declared a saint) by the Catholic Church, two miracles must be attributed to a candidate, the first having been his healing a case of Parkinson's disease, which was recognized during the beatification process.","Pope John Paul II\n\nAccording to an article on the Catholic News Service (CNS) dated 23 April 2013, a Vatican commission of doctors concluded that a healing had no natural (medical) explanation, which is the first requirement for an alleged miracle to be officially documented.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe miracle was deemed to have taken place shortly after the late pope's beatification on 1 May 2011; it was reported to be the healing of Costa Rican woman Floribeth Mora of an otherwise terminal brain aneurysm. A Vatican panel of expert theologians examined the evidence, determined that it was directly attributable to the intercession of John Paul II, and recognised it as miraculous. The next stage was for Cardinals who compose the membership of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to give their opinion to Pope Francis to decides whether to sign and promulgate the decree and set a date for canonisation.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 4 July 2013, Pope Francis confirmed his approval of John Paul II's canonisation, formally recognising the second miracle attributed to his intercession. He was canonised together with Pope John XXIII. The date of the canonisation was on 27 April 2014, Divine Mercy Sunday.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe canonisation Mass for Blessed Popes John Paul II and John XXIII, was celebrated by Pope Francis (with Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI), on 27 April 2014 in St. Peter's Square at the Vatican (Pope John Paul had died on vigil of Divine Mercy Sunday in 2005). About 150 cardinals and 700 bishops concelebrated the Mass, and at least 500,000 people attended the Mass, with an estimated 300,000 others watching from video screens placed around Rome.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCriticism and controversy","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was widely criticised for, among other things, his views against the ordination of women and contraception, his support for the Second Vatican Council and its reform of the Liturgy and his alleged lack of action against child sexual abuse within the Church.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOpposition to his beatification","Pope John Paul II\n\nSome Catholic theologians disagreed with the call for beatification of John Paul II. Eleven dissident theologians, including Jesuit professor José María Castillo and Italian theologian Giovanni Franzoni, raised seven religiously liberal, unorthodox points of contention including the pope's stance against contraception and the ordination of women as well as the Church scandals that presented \"facts which according to their consciences and convictions should be an obstacle to beatification.\" These objections were not sustained, and his beatification (and eventual canonisation) moved forward.","Pope John Paul II\n\nChild sex abuse scandals","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was criticised for failing to respond quickly enough to the Catholic sex abuse crisis. In his response, he stated that \"there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young.\" The Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring background checks for Church employees and, because a significant majority of victims were teenage boys, disallowing ordination of men with \"deep-seated homosexual tendencies\". They now require dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty. In 2008, the Church asserted that the scandal was a very serious problem and estimated that it was \"probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent' \" (or 5,000) of the over 500,000 Catholic priests worldwide.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn April 2002, John Paul II, despite being frail from Parkinson's disease, summoned all the American cardinals to the Vatican to discuss possible solutions to the issue of sexual abuse in the American Church. He asked them to \"diligently investigate accusations\". John Paul II suggested that American bishops be more open and transparent in dealing with such scandals and emphasised the role of seminary training to prevent sexual deviance among future priests. In what The New York Times called \"unusually direct language\", John Paul condemned the arrogance of priests that led to the scandals:","Pope John Paul II\n\nPriests and candidates for the priesthood often live at a level both materially and educationally superior to that of their families and the members of their own age group. It is therefore very easy for them to succumb to the temptation of thinking of themselves as better than others. When this happens, the ideal of priestly service and self-giving dedication can fade, leaving the priest dissatisfied and disheartened.","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe pope read a statement intended for the American cardinals, calling the sex abuse \"an appalling sin\" and said the priesthood had no room for such men.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2002, Archbishop Juliusz Paetz, the Catholic Archbishop of Poznań, was accused of molesting seminarians. Pope John Paul II accepted his resignation, and placed sanctions on him, prohibiting Paetz from exercising his ministry as bishop. These restrictions were lifted in 2010 by Pope Benedict XVI.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2003 John Paul II reiterated that \"there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young.\" and in April 2003, the Pontifical Academy for Life organised a three-day conference, titled \"Abuse of Children and Young People by Catholic Priests and Religious\", where eight non-Catholic psychiatric experts were invited to speak to near all Vatican dicasteries' representatives. The panel of experts overwhelmingly opposed implementation of policies of \"zero-tolerance\" such as was proposed by the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. One expert called such policies a \"case of overkill\" since they do not permit flexibility to allow for differences among individual cases.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 2004 John Paul II recalled Bernard Francis Law to be Archpriest of the Papal Basilica of Saint Mary Major in Rome. Law had previously resigned as archbishop of Boston in 2002 in response to the Catholic Church sex abuse scandal after Church documents were revealed that suggested he had covered up sexual abuse committed by priests in his archdiocese. Law resigned from this position in November 2011.","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was a firm supporter of the Legion of Christ, and in 1998 discontinued investigations into sexual misconduct by its leader Marcial Maciel, who in 2005 resigned his leadership and was later requested by the Vatican to withdraw from his ministry.","Pope John Paul II\n\nOpus Dei controversies","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul II was criticised for his support of the Opus Dei prelature and the 2002 canonisation of its founder, Josemaría Escrivá, whom he called 'the saint of ordinary life.' Other movements and religious organisations of the Church went decidedly under his wing Legion of Christ, the Neocatechumenal Way, Schoenstatt, the charismatic movement, etc.) and he was accused repeatedly of taking a soft hand with them, especially in the case of Marcial Maciel, founder of the Legion of Christ.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1984 John Paul II appointed Joaquín Navarro-Valls, a member of Opus Dei, as Director of the Vatican Press Office. An Opus Dei spokesman says \"the influence of Opus Dei in the Vatican has been exaggerated.\" Of the nearly 200 cardinals in the Catholic Church, only two are known to be members of Opus Dei.","Pope John Paul II\n\nBanco Ambrosiano scandal","Pope John Paul II\n\nPope John Paul was alleged to have links with Banco Ambrosiano, an Italian bank that collapsed in 1982. At the centre of the bank's failure was its chairman, Roberto Calvi, and his membership in the illegal Masonic Lodge Propaganda Due (aka P2). The Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosiano's main shareholder, and the death of Pope John Paul I in 1978 is rumoured to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCalvi, often referred to as \"God's Banker\", was also involved the Vatican Bank, Istituto per le Opere di Religione, in his dealings, and was close to Bishop Paul Marcinkus, the bank's chairman. Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. It has been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank provided money for Solidarity in Poland.","Pope John Paul II\n\nCalvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to arrange massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the Bank of Italy produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster. On 5 June 1982, two weeks before the collapse of Banco Ambrosiano, Calvi had written a letter of warning to Pope John Paul II, stating that such a forthcoming event would \"provoke a catastrophe of unimaginable proportions in which the Church will suffer the gravest damage\". On 18 June 1982 Calvi's body was found hanging from scaffolding beneath Blackfriars Bridge in the financial district of London. Calvi's clothing was stuffed with bricks, and contained cash valued at US$14,000, in three different currencies.","Pope John Paul II\n\nProblems with traditionalists","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn addition to all the criticism from those demanding modernisation, traditionalist Catholics sometimes denounced him as well. These issues included demanding a return to the Tridentine Mass and repudiation of the reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, such as the use of the vernacular language in the formerly Latin Roman Rite Mass, ecumenism, and the principle of religious liberty. He also was criticized for allowing and appointing liberal bishops in their sees and thus silently promoting Modernism, which was firmly condemned as the \"synthesis of all heresies\" by his predecessor Pope St. Pius X. In 1988, the controversial traditionalist Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of the Society of St. Pius X (1970), was excommunicated under John Paul II because of the unapproved ordination of four bishops, which was called by the Holy See a \"schismatic act\".","Pope John Paul II\n\nThe World Day of Prayer for Peace, with a meeting in Assisi, Italy, in 1986, in which the pope prayed only with the Christians,\nwas heavily criticised as giving the impression that syncretism and indifferentism were openly embraced by the Papal Magisterium. When a second 'Day of Prayer for Peace in the World' was held, in 2002, it was condemned as confusing the laity and compromising to false religions. Likewise criticised was his kissing of the Qur'an in Damascus, Syria, on one of his travels on 6 May 2001. His call for religious freedom was not always supported; bishops like Antônio de Castro Mayer promoted religious tolerance, but at the same time rejected the Vatican II principle of religious liberty as being liberalist and already condemned by Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus errorum (1864) and at the First Vatican Council.","Pope John Paul II\n\nSome Catholics oppose his beatification and canonisation for the above reasons.","Pope John Paul II\n\nReligion and AIDS","Pope John Paul II\n\nJohn Paul's position against artificial birth control, including the use of condoms to prevent the spread of HIV, was harshly criticised by doctors and AIDS activists, who said that it led to countless deaths and millions of AIDS orphans. Critics have also claimed that large families are caused by lack of contraception and exacerbate Third World poverty and problems such as street children in South America. The Catholic Agency for Overseas Development published a paper stating, \"Any strategy that enables a person to move from a higher-risk towards the lower end of the continuum, [we] believe, is a valid risk reduction strategy.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nSocial programmes","Pope John Paul II\n\nThere was strong criticism of the pope for the controversy surrounding the alleged use of charitable social programmes as a means of converting people in the Third World to Catholicism. The pope created an uproar in the Indian subcontinent when he suggested that a great harvest of faith would be witnessed on the subcontinent in the third Christian millennium.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIan Paisley","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1988, when Pope John Paul II was delivering a speech to the European Parliament, Ian Paisley, the leader of the Democratic Unionist Party and Moderator of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, shouted \"I denounce you as the Antichrist!\" from 1:45 m into video and held up a red banner reading \"Pope John Paul II ANTICHRIST\". Otto von Habsburg (the last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary), an MEP for Germany, snatched Paisley's banner, tore it up and, along with other MEPs, helped eject him from the chamber.\nThe pope continued with his address after Paisley had been ejected.","Pope John Paul II\n\nMeđugorje apparitions","Pope John Paul II\n\nA number of quotes about the apparitions of Međugorje, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, have been attributed to John Paul II. In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements that were supposedly made by the pope and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: \"The only thing I can say regarding statements on Međugorje ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are complete invention.\"","Pope John Paul II\n\nStolen relic","Pope John Paul II\n\nOn 27 January 2014, it was reported that a relic of John Paul II, a vial containing drops of his blood, had been stolen from the church of San Pietro della Ienca north of L'Aquila in the mountainous Abruzzo region of central Italy, an area where he had loved to go on skiing vacations. Cardinal Dziwisz had previously given the vial to the church in recognition of its connections to the Pontiff. Because there are only three relics containing his blood, few or no other items were disturbed, and it would be difficult to sell, the investigating Italian police believe it was a commissioned theft, and speculated that the blood might be used in satanic rites. The theft sparked a major search for the culprits. Two men confessed to the crime, and an iron reliquary and a stolen cross, but not the relic, were recovered from the grounds of a drug rehabilitation facility in L'Aquila on 30 January; the blood was recovered shortly after from rubbish bins near where the reliquary had been found.","Pope John Paul II\n\nPersonal life","Pope John Paul II\n\nHaving played the game himself as a goalkeeper, John Paul II was a fan of English football team Liverpool, where his compatriot Jerzy Dudek played in the same position.","Pope John Paul II\n\nIn 1973, while still the archbishop of Kraków, Karol Wojtyła befriended a Polish-born, later American philosopher, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka. The thirty-two-year friendship (and occasional academic collaboration) lasted until his death. She served as his host when he visited New England in 1976 and photos show them together on skiing and camping trips. Letters that he wrote to her were part of a collection of documents sold by Tymieniecka’s estate in 2008 to the National Library of Poland. According to the BBC the library had initially kept the letters from public view, partly because of John Paul’s path to sainthood, but a library official announced in February 2016 the letters would be made public. In February 2016 the BBC documentary programme Panorama revealed that John Paul II had apparently had a 'close relationship' with the Polish-born philosopher. The pair exchanged personal letters over 30 years, with Tymieniecka telling Wojtyła that she loved him. The Vatican described the documentary as \"more smoke than mirrors\", and Tymieniecka denied being involved with John Paul II.","Pope John Paul II\n\nWriters Carl Bernstein, the veteran investigative journalist of the Watergate scandal, and Vatican expert Marco Politi, were the first journalists to talk to Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the 1990s about her importance in John Paul's life. They interviewed her and dedicated 20 pages to her in their 1996 book His Holiness. Bernstein and Politi even asked her if she had ever developed any romantic relationship with John Paul II, “however one-sided it might have been.” She responded, “No, I never fell in love with the cardinal. How could I fall in love with a middle-aged clergyman? Besides, I’m a married woman.”"],"string":"[\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope Saint John Paul II (; ; ), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was pope from 1978 to 2005. He is widely known to Catholics as Saint John Paul the Great, especially in the names of institutions.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1978, which was called after Pope John Paul I, who had been elected in August after the death of Pope Paul VI, died after thirty-three days.\\nCardinal Wojtyła was elected on the third day of the conclave and adopted his predecessor's name in tribute to him. John Paul II is recognised as helping to end Communist rule in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He upheld the Church's teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women, but also supported the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reforms.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting 129 countries during his pontificate. As part of his special emphasis on the universal call to holiness, he beatified 1,340 people and canonised 483 saints, more than the combined tally of his predecessors during the preceding five centuries. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the world's bishops, and ordained many priests. A key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church. His wish was \\\"to place his Church at the heart of a new religious alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims and Christians in a great religious armada\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe was the second longest-serving pope in modern history after Pope Pius IX, who served for nearly 32 years from 1846 to 1878. Born in Poland, John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope since the Dutch Pope Adrian VI, who served from 1522 to 1523. John Paul II's cause for canonisation commenced in 2005 one month after his death with the traditional five-year waiting period waived. On 19 December 2009, John Paul II was proclaimed Venerable by his successor Pope Benedict XVI and was beatified on 1 May 2011 (Divine Mercy Sunday) after the Congregation for the Causes of Saints attributed one miracle to his intercession, the healing of a French nun from Parkinson's disease. A second miracle attributed to John Paul II's intercession was approved on 2 July 2013, and confirmed by Pope Francis two days later (two miracles must be attributed to a person's intercession to be declared a saint). John Paul II was canonised on 27 April 2014 (again Divine Mercy Sunday), together with Pope John XXIII. On 11 September 2014, Pope Francis added John Paul II's optional memorial feast day to the worldwide General Roman Calendar of saints, in response to worldwide requests.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIt is traditional to celebrate saints' feast days on the anniversary of their deaths, but that of John Paul II (22 October) is celebrated on the anniversary of his papal inauguration.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nEarly life\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nKarol Józef Wojtyła was born in the Polish town of Wadowice. He was the youngest of three children born to Karol Wojtyła (1879–1941), an ethnic Pole, and Emilia Kaczorowska (1884–1929), whose mother's maiden surname was Scholz. Emilia, who was a schoolteacher, died in childbirth in 1929 when Wojtyła was eight years old. His elder sister Olga had died before his birth, but he was close to his brother Edmund, nicknamed Mundek, who was 13 years his senior. Edmund's work as a physician eventually led to his death from scarlet fever, a loss that affected Wojtyła deeply.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAs a boy, Wojtyła was athletic, often playing football as goalkeeper. During his childhood, Wojtyła had contact with Wadowice's large Jewish community. School football games were often organised between teams of Jews and Catholics, and Wojtyła often played on the Jewish side. \\\"I remember that at least a third of my classmates at elementary school in Wadowice were Jews. At elementary school there were fewer. With some I was on very friendly terms. And what struck me about some of them was their Polish patriotism.\\\" Wojtyła's first, and possibly only, love affair was with a Jewish girl, Ginka Beer, who was described as \\\"slender\\\", \\\"a superb actress\\\" and \\\"having stupendous dark eyes and jet black hair\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn mid-1938, Wojtyła and his father left Wadowice and moved to Kraków, where he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University. While studying such topics as philology and various languages, he worked as a volunteer librarian and was required to participate in compulsory military training in the Academic Legion, but he refused to fire a weapon. He performed with various theatrical groups and worked as a playwright. During this time, his talent for language blossomed, and he learned as many as 12 foreign languages, nine of which he used extensively as pope.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1939, Nazi German occupation forces closed the university after invading Poland. Able-bodied males were required to work, so from 1940 to 1944 Wojtyła variously worked as a messenger for a restaurant, a manual labourer in a limestone quarry and for the Solvay chemical factory, to avoid deportation to Germany. In 1940 he was struck by a tram, suffering a fractured skull. The same year he was hit by a lorry in a quarry, which left him with one shoulder higher than the other and a permanent stoop. His father, a former Austro-Hungarian non-commissioned officer and later officer in the Polish Army, died of a heart attack in 1941, leaving Wojtyła as the immediate family's only surviving member. \\\"I was not at my mother's death, I was not at my brother's death, I was not at my father's death,\\\" he said, reflecting on these times of his life, nearly forty years later, \\\"At twenty, I had already lost all the people I loved.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAfter his father's death, he started thinking seriously about the priesthood. In October 1942, while the war continued, he knocked on the door of the Bishop's Palace in Kraków and asked to study for the priesthood. Soon after, he began courses in the clandestine underground seminary run by the Archbishop of Kraków, Adam Stefan Cardinal Sapieha. On 29 February 1944, Wojtyła was hit by a German truck. German Wehrmacht officers tended to him and sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there recovering from a severe concussion and a shoulder injury. It seemed to him that this accident and his survival was a confirmation of his vocation. On 6 August 1944, a day known as 'Black Sunday', the Gestapo rounded up young men in Kraków to curtail the uprising there, similar to the recent uprising in Warsaw. Wojtyła escaped by hiding in the basement of his uncle's house at 10 Tyniecka Street, while the German troops searched above. More than eight thousand men and boys were taken that day, while Wojtyła escaped to the Archbishop's Palace, where he remained until after the Germans had left.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn the night of 17 January 1945, the Germans fled the city, and the students reclaimed the ruined seminary. Wojtyła and another seminarian volunteered for the task of clearing away piles of frozen excrement from the toilets. Wojtyła also helped a 14-year-old Jewish refugee girl named Edith Zierer, who had escaped from a Nazi labour camp in Częstochowa. Edith had collapsed on a railway platform, so Wojtyła carried her to a train and stayed with her throughout the journey to Kraków. Edith credits Wojtyła with saving her life that day. B'nai B'rith and other authorities have said that Wojtyła helped protect many other Polish Jews from the Nazis. During the Nazi occupation of Poland, a Jewish family sent its son, Stanley Berger, to be hidden by a Gentile Polish family. Berger's biological Jewish parents died during the Holocaust, and after the war Berger's new Christian parents asked a young Polish priest named Karol Wojtyła, the future Pope John Paul II, to baptise the boy. The future pope refused, claiming that the child should be raised in the Jewish faith of his birth parents and nation, not as a Catholic.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn September 2003, Emmanuelle Pacifici, the head of Italy's Jewish community, proposed that John Paul II receive the medal of a Righteous Among the Nations for saving a two-year-old Jewish boy by giving him to a Gentile Polish family to be hidden in 1942, when Karol Wojtyła was just a seminarian. After the war, this boy's Christian adopted parents asked the future Pope John Paul II to baptise the boy, yet once again he refused, as with Berger. After the war, Karol Wojtyła did everything he could to ensure that this Jewish boy he saved leave Poland to be raised by his Jewish relatives in the United States. In April 2005, shortly after John Paul II's death, the Israeli government created a commission to honour the legacy of John Paul II. One of the proposed ways of honouring him was to give him the medal of the Righteous Among the Nations. In Wojtyła's last book, Memory and Identity, he described the 12 years of the Nazi régime as 'bestiality', quoting from the Polish theologian and philosopher Konstanty Michalski.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPriesthood\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAfter finishing his studies at the seminary in Kraków, Wojtyła was ordained as a priest on All Saints' Day, 1 November 1946, by the Archbishop of Kraków, Cardinal Sapieha. Sapieha sent Wojtyła to Rome's Pontifical International Athenaeum Angelicum, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum to study under the French Dominican Fr. Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange beginning on 26 November 1946. Wojtyła earned a licence in July 1947, passed his doctoral exam on 14 June 1948, and successfully defended his doctoral thesis titled Doctrina de fide apud S. Ioannem a Cruce (The Doctrine of Faith in St. John of the Cross) in philosophy on 19 June 1948. The Angelicum preserves the original copy of Wojtyła's typewritten thesis. Among other courses at the Angelicum, Wojtyła studied Hebrew with the Dutch Dominican Peter G. Duncker, author of the Compendium grammaticae linguae hebraicae biblicae.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAccording to Wojtyła's schoolmate the future Austrian Cardinal Alfons Stickler, in 1947 during his sojourn at the Angelicum Wojtyła visited Padre Pio, who heard his confession and told him that one day he would ascend to \\\"the highest post in the Church\\\". Cardinal Stickler added that Wojtyła believed that the prophecy was fulfilled when he became a Cardinal.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWojtyła returned to Poland in the summer of 1948 for his first pastoral assignment in the village of Niegowić, 15 mi from Kraków, at the Church of the Assumption. He arrived at Niegowić at harvest time, where his first action was to kneel and kiss the ground. He repeated this gesture, which he adapted from the French saint Jean Marie Baptiste Vianney, throughout his papacy.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn March 1949, Wojtyła was transferred to the parish of Saint Florian in Kraków. He taught ethics at Jagiellonian University and subsequently at the Catholic University of Lublin. While teaching, he gathered a group of about 20 young people, who began to call themselves Rodzinka, the \\\"little family\\\". They met for prayer, philosophical discussion, and to help the blind and sick. The group eventually grew to approximately 200 participants, and their activities expanded to include annual skiing and kayaking trips.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1953, Wojtyła's habilitation thesis was accepted by the Faculty of Theology at the Jagiellonian University. In 1954, he earned a Doctorate in Sacred Theology, evaluating the feasibility of a Catholic ethic based on the ethical system of the phenomenologist Max Scheler with a dissertation titled \\\"Reevaluation of the possibility of founding a Catholic ethic on the ethical system of Max Scheler\\\" (Ocena możliwości zbudowania etyki chrześcijańskiej przy założeniach systemu Maksa Schelera). Scheler was a German philosopher who founded a broad philosophical movement that emphasised the study of conscious experience. However, the Communist authorities abolished the Faculty of Theology at the Jagellonian University, thereby preventing him from receiving the degree until 1957. Wojtyła developed a theological approach that combined traditional Catholic Thomism with the ideas of personalism, a philosophical approach deriving from phenomenology, which was popular among Catholic intellectuals in Kraków during Wojtyła's intellectual development. He translated Scheler's Formalism and the Ethics of Substantive Values.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring this period, Wojtyła wrote a series of articles in Kraków's Catholic newspaper, Tygodnik Powszechny (\\\"Universal Weekly\\\"), dealing with contemporary church issues. He focused on creating original literary work during his first dozen years as a priest. War, life under Communism, and his pastoral responsibilities all fed his poetry and plays. Wojtyła published his work under two pseudonyms—Andrzej Jawień and Stanisław Andrzej Gruda—to distinguish his literary from his religious writings (under his own name), and also so that his literary works would be considered on their merits. In 1960, Wojtyła published the influential theological book Love and Responsibility, a defence of traditional Church teachings on marriage from a new philosophical standpoint.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhile a priest in Kraków, groups of students regularly joined Wojtyła for hiking, skiing, bicycling, camping and kayaking, accompanied by prayer, outdoor Masses and theological discussions. In Stalinist-era Poland, it was not permitted for priests to travel with groups of students. Father Wojtyła asked his younger companions to call him \\\"Wujek\\\" (Polish for \\\"Uncle\\\") to prevent outsiders from deducing he was a priest. The nickname gained popularity among his followers. In 1958, when Wojtyła was named auxiliary bishop of Kraków, his acquaintances expressed concern that this would cause him to change. Wojtyła responded to his friends, \\\"Wujek will remain Wujek,\\\" and he continued to live a simple life, shunning the trappings that came with his position as Bishop. This beloved nickname stayed with Wojtyła for his entire life and continues to be affectionately used, particularly by the Polish people.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBishop and Cardinal\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 4 July 1958, while Wojtyła was on a kayaking holiday in the lakes region of northern Poland, Pope Pius XII appointed him as the Auxiliary Bishop of Kraków. He was then summoned to Warsaw to meet the Primate of Poland, Stefan Cardinal Wyszyński, who informed him of his appointment. He agreed to serve as Auxiliary Bishop to Kraków's Archbishop Eugeniusz Baziak, and he received episcopal consecration (as Titular Bishop of Ombi) on 28 September 1958. Baziak was the principal consecrator. Principal co-consecrators were Bishop Boleslaw Kominek (Titular Bishop of Sophene and Vågå, auxiliary of the Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław, and future Cardinal and Archbishop of Wrocław) and then-Auxiliary Bishop Franciszek Jop of the Catholic Diocese of Sandomierz (Titular Bishop of Daulia; later Auxiliary Bishop of the Archdiocese of Wrocław and then Bishop of the Catholic Diocese of Opole). At the age of 38, Wojtyła became the youngest bishop in Poland. Baziak died in June 1962 and on 16 July Wojtyła was selected as Vicar Capitular (temporary administrator) of the Archdiocese until an Archbishop could be appointed.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn October 1962, Wojtyła took part in the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), where he made contributions to two of its most historic and influential products, the Decree on Religious Freedom (in Latin, Dignitatis humanae) and the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World (Gaudium et spes). Wojtyła and the Polish bishops contributed a draft text to the Council for Gaudium et spes. According to the historian John W. O'Malley, the draft text Gaudium et spes that Wojtyła and the Polish delegation sent \\\"had some influence on the version that was sent to the council fathers that summer but was not accepted as the base text\\\". According to John F. Crosby, as pope, John Paul II used the words of Gaudium et spes later to introduce his own views on the nature of the human person in relation to God: man is \\\"the only creature on earth that God has wanted for its own sake\\\", but man \\\"can fully discover his true self only in a sincere giving of himself\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe also participated in the assemblies of the Synod of Bishops. On 13 January 1964, Pope Paul VI appointed him Archbishop of Kraków. On 26 June 1967, Paul VI announced Archbishop Karol Wojtyła's promotion to the Sacred College of Cardinals. Wojtyła was named Cardinal-Priest of the titulus of San Cesareo in Palatio.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1967, he was instrumental in formulating the encyclical Humanae vitae, which dealt with the same issues that forbid abortion and artificial birth control.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1970, according to a contemporary witness, Cardinal Wojtyła was against the distribution of a letter around Kraków, stating that the Polish Episcopate was preparing for the 50th anniversary of the Polish–Soviet War.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1973 Cardinal Wojtyła met philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, the wife of Hendrik S. Houthakker, Professor of Economy at Stanford University and Harvard University, and member of President Nixon's Council of Economic Advisers Tymieniecka collaborated with Wojtyła on a number of proects including an English translation of Wojtyła's book „Osoba i czyn” (Person and Act). Person and Act, one of Pope John Paul II's foremost literary works, was initially written in Polish. Tymieniecka produced the English-language version. The two of them corresponded over the years, and grew to be good friends. When Wojtyła visited New England, USA in summer 1976, Tymieniecka put him up as a guest in her family home. Wojtyła enjoyed his holiday in Pomfret, Vermont kayaking and enjoying as he had done in his beloved Poland. Photos of the two friends on holiday together; skiing, camping and picnicking, show Cardinal Wojtyła in his shorts, in his most relaxed state.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring Wojtyła's visits to Pomfret, Tymieniecka also organised his meeting with the American Cardinals through connections of her husband. These same Cardinals would be the ones who would give him most support at his soon-to-be election to the papacy\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nElection to the papacy\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn August 1978, following the death of Pope Paul VI, Cardinal Wojtyła voted in the Papal conclave, which elected Pope John Paul I. John Paul I died after only 33 days as pope, triggering another conclave.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe second conclave of 1978 started on 14 October, ten days after the funeral. It was split between two strong candidates for the papacy: Giuseppe Cardinal Siri, the conservative Archbishop of Genoa, and the liberal Archbishop of Florence, Giovanni Cardinal Benelli, a close friend of John Paul I.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSupporters of Benelli were confident that he would be elected, and in early ballots, Benelli came within nine votes of success. However, both men faced sufficient opposition for neither to be likely to prevail. Giovanni Colombo, the Archbishop of Milan was considered as a compromise candidate among the Italian cardinal-electors, but when he started to receive votes, he announced that, if elected, he would decline to accept the papacy. Franz Cardinal König, Archbishop of Vienna, suggested to his fellow electors another compromise candidate: the Polish Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła. Wojtyła won on the eighth ballot on the third day (16 October) with, according to the Italian press, 99 votes from the 111 participating electors.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAlso among those cardinals who rallied behind Wojtyła were supporters of Giuseppe Siri, Stefan Wyszyński, most of the American cardinals (led by John Krol), and other moderate cardinals. He accepted his election with these words: \\\"With obedience in faith to Christ, my Lord, and with trust in the Mother of Christ and the Church, in spite of great difficulties, I accept.\\\" The pope, in tribute to his immediate predecessor, then took the regnal name of John Paul II, also in honour of the late Pope Paul VI, and the traditional white smoke informed the crowd gathered in St. Peter's Square that a pope had been chosen. There had been rumours that the new pope wished to be known as Pope Stanislaus I in honour of the Polish saint of the name, but was convinced by the cardinals that it was not a Roman name. When the new pontiff appeared on the balcony, he broke tradition by addressing the gathered crowd:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDear brothers and sisters, we are saddened at the death of our beloved Pope John Paul I, and so the cardinals have called for a new bishop of Rome. They called him from a faraway land—far and yet always close because of our communion in faith and Christian traditions. I was afraid to accept that responsibility, yet I do so in a spirit of obedience to the Lord and total faithfulness to Mary, our most Holy Mother. I am speaking to you in your—no, our Italian language. If I make a mistake, please 'corrict' me .... [deliberately mispronouncing the word 'correct']\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWojtyła became the 264th pope according to the chronological list of popes, the first non-Italian in 455 years. At only 58 years of age, he was the youngest pope since Pope Pius IX in 1846, who was 54. Like his predecessor, John Paul II dispensed with the traditional Papal coronation and instead received ecclesiastical investiture with a simplified Papal inauguration on 22 October 1978. During his inauguration, when the cardinals were to kneel before him to take their vows and kiss his ring, he stood up as the Polish prelate Stefan Cardinal Wyszyński knelt down, stopped him from kissing the ring, and simply hugged him.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPastoral trips\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring his pontificate, Pope John Paul II made trips to 129 countries, travelling more than 1100000 km while doing so. He consistently attracted large crowds, some among the largest ever assembled in human history, such as the Manila World Youth Day, which gathered up to four million people, the largest Papal gathering ever, according to the Vatican. John Paul II's earliest official visits were to the Dominican Republic and Mexico in January 1979. While some of his trips (such as to the United States and the Holy Land) were to places previously visited by Pope Paul VI, John Paul II became the first pope to visit the White House in October 1979, where he was greeted warmly by then-President Jimmy Carter. He was the first pope ever to visit several countries in one year, starting in 1979 with Mexico and Ireland. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. While in England, he also visited Canterbury Cathedral and knelt in prayer with Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury, at the spot where Thomas à Becket had been killed.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe travelled to Haiti in 1983, where he spoke in Creole to thousands of impoverished Catholics gathered to greet him at the airport. His message, \\\"things must change in Haiti,\\\" referring to the disparity between the wealthy and the poor, was met with thunderous applause. In 2000, he was the first modern pope to visit Egypt, where he met with the Coptic pope, Pope Shenouda III and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria. He was the first Catholic pope to visit and pray in an Islamic mosque, in Damascus, Syria, in 2001. He visited the Umayyad Mosque, a former Christian church where John the Baptist is believed to be interred, where he made a speech calling for Muslims, Christians and Jews to live together.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 15 January 1995, during the X World Youth Day, he offered Mass to an estimated crowd of between five and seven million in Luneta Park, Manila, Philippines, which was considered to be the largest single gathering in Christian history. In March 2000, while visiting Jerusalem, John Paul became the first pope in history to visit and pray at the Western Wall. In September 2001, amid post-11 September concerns, he travelled to Kazakhstan, with an audience largely consisting of Muslims, and to Armenia, to participate in the celebration of 1,700 years of Armenian Christianity.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn June 1979, Pope John Paul II travelled to Poland where ecstatic crowds constantly surrounded him. This first papal trip to Poland uplifted the nation's spirit and sparked the formation of the Solidarity movement in 1980, which later brought freedom and human rights to his troubled homeland.\\nPoland's Communist leaders intended to use the pope's visit to show the people that although the pope was Polish it did not alter their capacity to govern, oppress, and distribute the goods of society. They also hoped that if the pope abided by the rules they set, that the Polish people would see his example and follow them as well. If the pope's visit inspired a riot, the Communist leaders of Poland were prepared to crush the uprising and blame the suffering on the pope.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAccording to John Lewis Gaddis, one of the most influential historians of the Cold War, the trip led to the formation of Solidarity and would begin the process of Communism's demise in Eastern Europe:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhen Pope John Paul II kissed the ground at the Warsaw airport he began the process by which Communism in Poland—and ultimately elsewhere in Europe—would come to an end.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn later trips to Poland, he gave tacit support to the Solidarity organisation. These visits reinforced this message and contributed to the collapse of East European Communism that took place between 1989/1990 with the reintroduction of democracy in Poland, and which then spread through Eastern Europe (1990–1991) and South-Eastern Europe (1990–1992).\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nTeachings\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAs pope, John Paul II wrote 14 papal encyclicals and taught about sexuality in what is referred as the \\\"Theology of the Body\\\". Some key elements of his strategy to \\\"reposition the Catholic Church\\\" were encyclicals such as Ecclesia de Eucharistia, Reconciliatio et paenitentia and Redemptoris Mater. In his At the beginning of the new millennium (Novo Millennio Ineunte), he emphasised the importance of \\\"starting afresh from Christ\\\": \\\"No, we shall not be saved by a formula but by a Person.\\\" In The Splendour of the Truth (Veritatis Splendor), he emphasised the dependence of man on God and His Law (\\\"Without the Creator, the creature disappears\\\") and the \\\"dependence of freedom on the truth\\\". He warned that man \\\"giving himself over to relativism and scepticism, goes off in search of an illusory freedom apart from truth itself\\\". In Fides et Ratio (On the Relationship between Faith and Reason) John Paul promoted a renewed interest in philosophy and an autonomous pursuit of truth in theological matters. Drawing on many different sources (such as Thomism), he described the mutually supporting relationship between faith and reason, and emphasised that theologians should focus on that relationship.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II wrote extensively about workers and the social doctrine of the Church, which he discussed in three encyclicals: Laborem exercens, Sollicitudo rei socialis, and Centesimus annus. Through his encyclicals and many Apostolic Letters and Exhortations, John Paul II talked about the dignity of women and the importance of the family for the future of humanity. Other encyclicals include The Gospel of Life (Evangelium Vitae) and Ut Unum Sint (That They May Be One). Though critics accused him of inflexibility in explicitly re-asserting Catholic moral teachings against abortion and euthanasia that have been in place for well over a thousand years, he urged a more nuanced view of capital punishment. In his second encyclical Dives in misericordia he stressed that divine mercy is the greatest feature of God, needed especially in modern times.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nMoral stances\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was considered a conservative on doctrine and issues relating to human sexual reproduction and the ordination of women.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhile the pope was visiting the United States of America he said, \\\"All human life, from the moments of conception and through all subsequent stages, is sacred.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nA series of 129 lectures given by John Paul II during his Wednesday audiences in Rome between September 1979 and November 1984 were later compiled and published as a single work titled Theology of the Body, an extended meditation on human sexuality. He extended it to the condemnation of abortion, euthanasia and virtually all capital punishment, calling them all a part of the \\\"culture of death\\\" that is pervasive in the modern world. He campaigned for world debt forgiveness and social justice. He coined the term \\\"social mortgage\\\", which related that all private property had a social dimension, namely, that \\\"the goods of this are originally meant for all.\\\" In 2000, he publicly endorsed the Jubilee 2000 campaign on African debt relief fronted by Irish rock stars Bob Geldof and Bono, once famously interrupting a U2 recording session by telephoning the studio and asking to speak to Bono.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II, who was present and very influential at the 1962–65 Second Vatican Council, affirmed the teachings of that Council and did much to implement them. Nevertheless, his critics often wished that he would embrace the so-called \\\"progressive\\\" agenda that some hoped would evolve as a result of the Council. In fact, the Council did not advocate \\\"progressive\\\" changes in these areas; for example, they still condemned abortion as an unspeakable crime. Pope John Paul II continued to declare that contraception, abortion, and homosexual acts were gravely sinful, and, with Joseph Ratzinger (future Pope Benedict XVI), opposed liberation theology.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nFollowing the Church's exaltation of the marital act of sexual intercourse between a baptised man and woman within sacramental marriage as proper and exclusive to the sacrament of marriage, John Paul II believed that it was, in every instance, profaned by contraception, abortion, divorce followed by a 'second' marriage, and by homosexual acts. In 1994, John Paul II asserted the Church's lack of authority to ordain women to the priesthood, stating that without such authority ordination is not legitimately compatible with fidelity to Christ. This was also deemed a repudiation of calls to break with the constant tradition of the Church by ordaining women to the priesthood. In addition, John Paul II chose not to end the discipline of mandatory priestly celibacy, although in a small number of unusual circumstances, he did allow certain married clergymen of other Christian traditions who later became Catholic to be ordained as Catholic priests.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nApartheid in South Africa\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of apartheid in South Africa. In 1985, while visiting the Netherlands, he gave an impassioned speech condemning apartheid at the International Court of Justice, proclaiming that \\\"No system of apartheid or separate development will ever be acceptable as a model for the relations between peoples or races.\\\" In September 1988, Pope John Paul II made a pilgrimage to ten Southern African countries, including those bordering South Africa, while demonstratively avoiding South Africa. During his visit to Zimbabwe, John Paul II called for economic sanctions against South Africa's government. After John Paul II's death, both Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu praised the pope for defending human rights and condemning economic injustice.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCapital punishment\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II was an outspoken opponent of the death penalty, although previous popes had accepted the practice. At a papal mass in St. Louis, Missouri, in the United States he said:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nA sign of hope is the increasing recognition that the dignity of human life must never be taken away, even in the case of someone who has done great evil. Modern society has the means of protecting itself, without definitively denying criminals the chance to reform. I renew the appeal I made most recently at Christmas for a consensus to end the death penalty, which is both cruel and unnecessary.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring that visit, John Paul II convinced the then governor of Missouri, Mel Carnahan, to reduce the death sentence of convicted murderer Darrell J. Mease to life imprisonment without parole. John Paul II's other attempts to reduce the sentence of death-row inmates were unsuccessful. In 1983, John Paul II visited Guatemala and unsuccessfully asked the country's president, Efraín Ríos Montt, to reduce the sentence for six left-wing guerrillas sentenced to death.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2002, John Paul II again traveled to Guatemala. At that time, Guatemala was one of only two countries in Latin America (the other being Cuba) to apply capital punishment. John Paul II asked the Guatemalan president, Alfonso Portillo, for a moratorium on executions.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nEuropean Union\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II pushed for a reference to Europe's Christian cultural roots in the draft of the European Constitution. In his 2003 apostolic exhortation Ecclesia in Europa, John Paul II wrote that he \\\"fully (respected) the secular nature of (European) institutions\\\". However, he wanted the EU Constitution to enshrine religious rights, including acknowledging the rights of religious groups to organise freely, recognise the specific identity of each denomination and allow for a \\\"structured dialogue\\\" between each religious community and the EU, and extend across the European Union the legal status enjoyed by religious institutions in individual member states. \\\"I wish once more to appeal to those drawing up the future European Constitutional Treaty so that it will include a reference to the religion and in particular to the Christian heritage of Europe,\\\" John Paul II said. The pope's desire for a reference to Europe's Christian identity in the Constitution was supported by non-Catholic representatives of the Church of England and Orthodox Churches from Russia, Romania, and Greece.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II's demand to include a reference to Europe's Christian roots in the European Constitution was supported by some non-Christians, such as Joseph Weiler, a practising Orthodox Jew and renowned constitutional lawyer, who said that the Constitution's lack of a reference to Christianity was not a \\\"demonstration of neutrality,\\\" but, rather, \\\"a Jacobin attitude\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAt the same time, however, John Paul II was an enthusiastic supporter of European integration; in particular, he supported his native Poland's entry into the bloc. On 19 May 2003, three weeks before a referendum was held in Poland on EU membership, the Polish pope addressed his compatriots and urged them to vote for Poland's EU membership at St. Peter's Square in Vatican City State. While some conservative, Catholic politicians in Poland opposed EU membership, John Paul II said:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nI know that there are many in opposition to integration. I appreciate their concern about maintaining the cultural and religious identity of our nation. However, I must emphasise that Poland has always been an important part of Europe. Europe needs Poland. The Church in Europe needs the Poles' testimony of faith. Poland needs Europe.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe Polish pope compared Poland's entry into the EU to the Union of Lublin, which was signed in 1564 and united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one nation and created an elective monarchy.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nEvolution\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 22 October 1996, in a speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences plenary session at the Vatican, John Paul II said of evolution that \\\"this theory has been progressively accepted by researchers, following a series of discoveries in various fields of knowledge. The convergence, neither sought nor fabricated, of the results of work that was conducted independently is in itself a significant argument in favour of this theory.\\\" John Paul II's embrace of evolution was enthusiastically praised by American paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould, with whom he had an audience in 1984.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAlthough generally accepting the theory of evolution, John Paul II made one major exception—the human soul. \\\"If the human body has its origin in living material which pre-exists it, the spiritual soul is immediately created by God.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIraq War\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2003 John Paul II criticised the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq, saying in his State of the World address \\\"No to war! War is not always inevitable. It is always a defeat for humanity.\\\" He sent Pío Cardinal Laghi, the former Apostolic Pro-Nuncio to the United States, to talk with George W. Bush, the American President, to express opposition to the war. John Paul II said that it was up to the United Nations to solve the international conflict through diplomacy and that a unilateral aggression is a crime against peace and a violation of international law. The pope's opposition to the Iraq War led to him being a candidate to win the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize, which was ultimately awarded to Iranian attorney/judge and noted human rights advocate, Shirin Ebadi.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nLiberation theology\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1984 and 1986, through Cardinal Ratzinger (future Pope Benedict XVI) as Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, John Paul II officially condemned aspects of liberation theology, which had many followers in South America. Visiting Europe, Óscar Romero unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a Vatican condemnation of El Salvador's regime, for violations of human rights and its support of death squads. In his travel to Managua, Nicaragua, in 1983, John Paul II harshly condemned what he dubbed the \\\"popular Church\\\" (i.e. \\\"ecclesial base communities\\\" supported by the CELAM), and the Nicaraguan clergy's tendencies to support the leftist Sandinistas, reminding the clergy of their duties of obedience to the Holy See. During that visit Ernesto Cardenal, a priest and minister in the Sandinista government, knelt to kiss his hand. John Paul withdrew it, wagged his finger in Cardenal's face, and told him, \\\"You must straighten out your position with the church.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOrganised crime\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II was the first pontiff to actively fight against Mafia violence in Southern Italy. In 1993, during a pilgrimage to Agrigento, Sicily, he appealed to the Mafiosi: \\\"I say to those responsible: 'Convert! One day, the judgment of God will arrive!'\\\" In 1994, John Paul II visited Catania and told victims of Mafia violence to \\\"rise up and cloak yourself in light and justice!\\\" In 1995, the Mafia bombed two historical churches in Rome. Some believed that this was the mob's vendetta against the pope for his denounciations of organised crime.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPersian Gulf War\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBetween 1990 and 1991, a 34-nation coalition led by the United States waged a war against Saddam Hussein's Iraq, which had invaded and annexed Kuwait. Pope John Paul II was a staunch opponent of the Gulf War. Throughout the conflict, he appealed to the international community to stop the war, and after it was over led diplomatic initiatives to negotiate peace in the Middle East. In his 1991 encyclical Centesimus Annus, John Paul II harshly condemned the conflict:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nNo, never again war, which destroys the lives of innocent people, teaches how to kill, throws into upheaval even the lives of those who do the killing and leaves behind a trail of resentment and hatred, thus making it all the more difficult to find a just solution of the very problems which provoked the war.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn April 1991, during his Urbi et Orbi Sunday message at St. Peter's Basilica, John Paul II called for the international community to \\\"lend an ear\\\" to \\\"the long-ignored aspirations of oppressed peoples\\\". He specifically named the Kurds, a people who were fighting a civil war against Saddam Hussein's troops in Iraq, as one such people, and referred to the war as a \\\"darkness menacing the earth\\\". During this time, the Vatican had expressed its frustration with the international ignoring of the pope's calls for peace in the Middle East.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nRwandan genocide\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was the first world leader to describe as genocide the massacre by Hutus of Tutsis in the mostly Catholic country of Rwanda, which started in 1990 and reached its height in 1994. He called for a ceasefire and condemned the massacres on 10 April and 15 May 1990. In 1995, during his third visit to Kenya before an audience of 300,000, John Paul II pleaded for an end to the violence in Rwanda and Burundi, pleading for forgiveness and reconciliation as a solution to the genocide. He told Rwandan and Burundian refugees that he \\\"was close to them and shared their immense pain\\\". He said:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhat is happening in your countries is a terrible tragedy that must end. During the African Synod, we, the pastors of the church, felt the duty to express our consternation and to launch an appeal for forgiveness and reconciliation. This is the only way to dissipate the threats of ethnocentrism that are hovering over Africa these days and that have so brutally touched Rwanda and Burundi.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nViews on sexuality\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhile taking a traditional position on human sexuality, maintaining the Church's moral opposition to homosexual acts, John Paul II asserted that people with homosexual inclinations possess the same inherent dignity and rights as everybody else. In his book Memory and Identity he referred to the \\\"strong pressures\\\" by the European Parliament to recognise homosexual unions as an alternative type of family, with the right to adopt children. In the book, as quoted by Reuters, he wrote: \\\"It is legitimate and necessary to ask oneself if this is not perhaps part of a new ideology of evil, more subtle and hidden, perhaps, intent upon exploiting human rights themselves against man and against the family.\\\" A 1997 study determined that 3% of the pope's statements were about the issue of sexual morality.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nReform of canon law\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II completed a full-scale reform of the Catholic Church's legal system, Latin and Eastern, and a reform of the Roman Curia.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 18 October 1990, when promulgating the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, John Paul II stated\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1998 Pope John Paul II issued the motu proprio Ad tuendam fidem, which amended two canons (750 and 1371) of the 1983 Code of Canon Law and two canons (598 and 1436) of the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\n1983 Code of Canon Law\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 25 January 1983, with the Apostolic Constitution Sacrae disciplinae leges John Paul II promulgated the current Code of Canon Law for all members of the Catholic Church who belonged to the Latin Church. It entered into force the first Sunday of the following Advent,Ap. Const. Sacræ Disciplinæ Leges which was 27 November 1983. John Paul II described the new Code as \\\"the last document of Vatican II\\\". Edward N. Peters has referred to the 1983 Code as the \\\"Johanno-Pauline Code\\\" (Johannes Paulus is Latin for \\\"John Paul\\\"), paralleling the \\\"Pio-Benedictine\\\" 1917 code that it replaced.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCode of Canons of the Eastern Churches\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II promulgated the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO) on October 18, 1990, by the document Sacri Canones. The CCEO came into force of law on October 1, 1991. It is the codification of the common portions of the Canon Law for the 23 of the 24 sui iuris churches in the Catholic Church that are the Eastern Catholic Churches. It is divided into 30 titles and has a total of 1540 canons.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPastor Bonus\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II promulgated the apostolic constitution Pastor bonus on 28 June 1988. It instituted a number of reforms in the process of running the Roman Curia. Pastor Bonus laid out in considerable detail the organization of the Roman Curia, specifying precisely the names and composition of each dicastery, and enumerating the competencies of each dicastery. It replaced the previous special law, Regimini Ecclesiæ universæ, which was promulgated by Paul VI in 1967.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCatechism of the Catholic Church\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 11 October 1992, in his apostolic constitution Fidei depositum (The Deposit of Faith), John Paul ordered the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHe declared the publication to be \\\"a sure norm for teaching the faith … a sure and authentic reference text for teaching Catholic doctrine and particularly for preparing local catechisms\\\". It was \\\"meant to encourage and assist in the writing of new local catechisms [both applicable and faithful]\\\" rather than replacing them.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nRole in the collapse of dictatorships\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II has been credited with inspiring political change that not only led to the collapse of Communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Eastern Europe, but also in many countries ruled by dictators. In the words of Joaquín Navarro-Valls, John Paul II's press secretary:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe single fact of John Paul II's election in 1978 changed everything. In Poland, everything began. Not in East Germany or Czechoslovakia. Then the whole thing spread. Why in 1980 did they lead the way in Gdansk? Why did they decide, now or never? Only because there was a Polish pope. He was in Chile and Pinochet was out. He was in Haiti and Duvalier was out. He was in the Philippines and Marcos was out. On many of those occasions, people would come here to the Vatican thanking the Holy Father for changing things.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nChile\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBefore John Paul II's pilgrimage to Latin America, during a meeting with reporters, he criticised Augusto Pinochet's regime as \\\"dictatorial\\\". In the words of The New York Times, he used \\\"unusually strong language\\\" to criticise Pinochet and asserted to journalists that the Church in Chile must not only pray, but actively fight for the restoration of democracy in Chile.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring his visit to Chile in 1987, John Paul II asked Chile's 31 Catholic bishops to campaign for free elections in the country. According to George Weigel and Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, he encouraged Pinochet to accept a democratic opening of the regime, and may even have called for his resignation According to Monsignor Sławomir Oder, the postulator of John Paul II's beatification cause, John Paul's words to Pinochet had a profound impact on the Chilean dictator. The pope confided to a friend: \\\"I received a letter from Pinochet in which he told me that as a Catholic he had listened to my words, he had accepted them, and he had decided to begin the process to change the leadership of his country.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring his visit to Chile, John Paul II supported the Vicariate of Solidarity, the Church-led pro-democracy, anti-Pinochet organisation. John Paul II visited the Vicariate of Solidarity's offices, spoke with its workers, and \\\"called upon them to continue their work, emphasizing that the Gospel consistently urges respect for human rights\\\". While in Chile, Pope John Paul II made gestures of public support of Chile's anti-Pinochet democratic opposition. For instance, he hugged and kissed Carmen Gloria Quintana, a young student burned alive by Chilean police and told her that \\\"We must pray for peace and justice in Chile.\\\" Later, he met with several opposition groups, including those that had been declared illegal by Pinochet's government. The opposition praised John Paul II for denouncing Pinochet as a \\\"dictator\\\", for many members of Chile's opposition were persecuted for much milder statements. Bishop Carlos Camus, one of the harshest critics of Pinochet's dictatorship within the Chilean Church, praised John Paul II's stance during the papal visit: \\\"I am quite moved, because our pastor supports us totally.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nNever again will anyone be able to say that we are interfering in politics when we defend human dignity.\\\" He added: \\\"No country the Pope has visited has remained the same after his departure. The Pope's visit is a mission, an extraordinary social catechism, and his stay here will be a watershed in Chilean history.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSome have erroneously accused John Paul II of affirming Pinochet's regime by appearing with the Chilean ruler in public. However, Cardinal Roberto Tucci, the organiser of John Paul II's visits, revealed that Pinochet tricked the pontiff by telling him he would take him to his living room, while in reality he took him to his balcony. Tucci claims that the pontiff was \\\"furious\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHaiti\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II visited Haiti on 9 March 1983, when the country was ruled by Jean-Claude \\\"Baby Doc\\\" Duvalier. He bluntly criticised the poverty of the country, directly addressing Baby Doc and his wife, Michèle Bennett in front of a large crowd of Haitians:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nYours is a beautiful country, rich in human resources, but Christians cannot be unaware of the injustice, the excessive inequality, the degradation of the quality of life, the misery, the hunger, the fear suffered by the majority of the people.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II spoke in French and occasionally in Creole, and in the homily outlined the basic human rights that most Haitians lacked: \\\"the opportunity to eat enough, to be cared for when ill, to find housing, to study, to overcome illiteracy, to find worthwhile and properly paid work; all that provides a truly human life for men and women, for young and old.\\\" Following John Paul II's pilgrimage, the Haitian opposition to Duvalier frequently reproduced and quoted the pope's message. Shortly before leaving Haiti, John Paul II called for social change in Haiti by saying: \\\"Lift up your heads, be conscious of your dignity of men created in God's image....\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II's visit inspired massive protests against the Duvalier dictatorship. In response to the visit, 860 Catholic priests and Church workers signed a statement committing the Church to work on behalf of the poor. In 1986, Duvalier was deposed in an uprising.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nParaguay\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe collapse of the dictatorship of General Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay was linked, among other things, to Pope John Paul II's visit to the South American country in 1989. Since Stroessner's taking power through a coup d'état in 1954, Paraguay's bishops increasingly criticised the regime for human rights abuses, rigged elections, and the country's feudal economy. During his private meeting with Stroessner, John Paul II told the dictator:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPolitics has a fundamental ethical dimension because it is first and foremost a service to man. The Church can and must remind men—and in particular those who govern—of their ethical duties for the good of the whole of society. The Church cannot be isolated inside its temples just as men's consciences cannot be isolated from God.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nLater, during a Mass, Pope John Paul II criticised the regime for impoverishing the peasants and the unemployed, claiming that the government must give people greater access to the land. Although Stroessner tried to prevent him from doing so, Pope John Paul II met opposition leaders in the one-party state.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nRole in the fall of Communism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II has been credited with being instrumental in bringing down Communism in Central and Eastern Europe, by being the spiritual inspiration behind its downfall and catalyst for \\\"a peaceful revolution\\\" in Poland. Lech Wałęsa, the founder of Solidarity and the first post-Communist President of Poland, credited John Paul II with giving Poles the courage to demand change. According to Wałęsa, \\\"Before his pontificate, the world was divided into blocs. Nobody knew how to get rid of Communism. In Warsaw, in 1979, he simply said: 'Do not be afraid', and later prayed: 'Let your Spirit descend and change the image of the land … this land'.\\\" It has also been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank covertly funded Solidarity.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nUS President Ronald Reagan's correspondence with the pope reveals \\\"a continuous scurrying to shore up Vatican support for U.S. policies. Perhaps most surprisingly, the papers show that, as late as 1984, the pope did not believe the Communist Polish government could be changed.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe British historian Timothy Garton Ash, who describes himself as an \\\"agnostic liberal\\\", said shortly after John Paul II's death:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nNo one can prove conclusively that he was a primary cause of the end of communism. However, the major figures on all sides—not just Lech Wałęsa, the Polish Solidarity leader, but also Solidarity's arch-opponent, General Wojciech Jaruzelski; not just the former American president George Bush Senior but also the former Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev—now agree that he was. I would argue the historical case in three steps: without the Polish Pope, no Solidarity revolution in Poland in 1980; without Solidarity, no dramatic change in Soviet policy towards eastern Europe under Gorbachev; without that change, no velvet revolutions in 1989.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn December 1989, John Paul II met with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev at the Vatican and each expressed his respect and admiration for the other. Gorbachev once said \\\"The collapse of the Iron Curtain would have been impossible without John Paul II.\\\" On John Paul II's death, Mikhail Gorbachev said: \\\"Pope John Paul II's devotion to his followers is a remarkable example to all of us.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 4 June 2004 U.S. President George W. Bush presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honour, to John Paul II during a ceremony at the Apostolic Palace. The president read the citation that accompanied the medal, which recognised \\\"this son of Poland\\\" whose \\\"principled stand for peace and freedom has inspired millions and helped to topple communism and tyranny\\\". \\nAfter receiving the award, John Paul II said, \\\"May the desire for freedom, peace, a more humane world symbolised by this medal inspire men and women of goodwill in every time and place.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCommunist attempt to humiliate John Paul II\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1983 Poland's Communist government unsuccessfully tried to humiliate John Paul II by falsely saying he had fathered an illegitimate child. Section D of Służba Bezpieczeństwa (SB), the security service, had an action named \\\"Triangolo\\\" to carry out criminal operations against the Catholic Church; the operation encompassed all Polish hostile actions against the pope. Captain Grzegorz Piotrowski, one of the murderers of Jerzy Popiełuszko, was the leader of section D. They drugged Irena Kinaszewska, the secretary of the Kraków-based weekly Catholic magazine Tygodnik Powszechny where Karol Wojtyła had worked, and unsuccessfully attempted to make her admit to having had sexual relations with him.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe SB then attempted to compromise Cracow priest Andrzej Bardecki, an editor of Tygodnik Powszechny and one of the closest friends of Cardinal Karol Wojtyła before he became pope, by planting false memoirs in his dwelling, but Piotrowski was exposed and the forgeries were found and destroyed before the SB could \\\"discover\\\" them.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nRelations with other churches and religions\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II travelled extensively and met with believers from many divergent faiths. At the World Day of Prayer for Peace, held in Assisi on 27 October 1986, more than 120 representatives of different religions and denominations spent a day of fasting and prayer.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAnglicanism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II had good relations with the Church of England. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, in 1982, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. He preached in Canterbury Cathedral and received Robert Runcie, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He said that he was disappointed by the Church of England's decision to ordain women and saw it as a step away from unity between the Anglican Communion and the Catholic Church.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1980 John Paul II issued a Pastoral Provision allowing married former Episcopal priests to become Catholic priests, and for the acceptance of former Episcopal Church parishes into the Catholic Church. He allowed the creation of the Anglican Use form of the Latin Rite, which incorporates the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. He helped establish Our Lady of the Atonement Catholic Church, together with Archbishop Patrick Flores of San Antonio, Texas, as the inaugural parish for the Anglican Use liturgy.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAnimism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn his book-length interview Crossing the Threshold of Hope with the Italian journalist Vittorio Messori published in 1995, John Paul II praises animism, drawing parallels with Christianity. He says:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\n… it would be helpful to recall … the animist religions which stress ancestor worship. It seems that those who practice them are particularly close to Christianity, and among them, the Church's missionaries also find it easier to speak a common language. Is there, perhaps, in this veneration of ancestors a kind of preparation for the Christian faith in the Communion of Saints, in which all believers—whether living or dead—form a single community, a single body? […] There is nothing strange, then, that the African and Asian animists would become believers in Christ more easily than followers of the great religions of the Far East.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1985, the pope visited the African country of Togo, where 60 per cent of the population espouses animist beliefs. To honour the pope, animist religious leaders met him at a Catholic Marian shrine in the forest, much to the pontiff's delight. John Paul II proceeded to call for the need for religious tolerance, praised animism, and emphasised common elements between animism and Christianity, saying:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nNature, exuberant and splendid in this area of forests and lakes, impregnates spirits and hearts with its mystery and orients them spontaneously toward the mystery of He who is the author of life. It is this religious sentiment that animates you and one can say that animates all of your compatriots.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring the investiture of President Thomas Boni Yayi of Benin as a titled Yoruba chieftain on 20 December 2008, the reigning Ooni of Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Olubuse II, referred to Pope John Paul II as a previous recipient of the same royal honour.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nArmenian Apostolic Church\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II had good relations with the Armenian Apostolic Church. In 1996, he brought the Catholic Church and the Armenian Church closer by agreeing with Armenian Archbishop Karekin II on Christ's nature. During an audience in 2000, John Paul II and Karekin II, by then the Catholicos of All Armenians, issued a joint statement condemning the Armenian genocide. Meanwhile, the pope gave Karekin the relics of St. Gregory the Illuminator, the first head of the Armenian Church that had been kept in Naples, Italy, for 500 years. In September 2001, John Paul II went on a three-day pilgrimage to Armenia to take part in an ecumenical celebration with Karekin II in the newly consecrated St. Gregory the Illuminator Cathedral in Yerevan. The two Church leaders signed a declaration remembering the victims of the Armenian genocide.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBuddhism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nTenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, visited John Paul II eight times. The two men held many similar views and understood similar plights, both coming from nations affected by Communism and both serving as heads of major religious bodies. As Archbishop of Kraków, long before the 14th Dalai Lama was a world-famous figure, Wojtyła held special Masses to pray for the Tibetan people's non-violent struggle for freedom from Maoist China. During his 1995 visit to Sri Lanka, a country where a majority of the population adheres to Theravada Buddhism, John Paul II expressed his admiration for Buddhism:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn particular I express my highest regard for the followers of Buddhism, the majority religion in Sri Lanka, with its … four great values of … loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity; with its ten transcendental virtues and the joys of the Sangha expressed so beautifully in the Theragathas. I ardently hope that my visit will serve to strengthen the goodwill between us, and that it will reassure everyone of the Catholic Church's desire for interreligious dialogue and cooperation in building a more just and fraternal world. To everyone I extend the hand of friendship, recalling the splendid words of the Dhammapada: \\\"Better than a thousand useless words is one single word that gives peace....\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nEastern Orthodox Church\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn May 1999, John Paul II visited Romania on the invitation from Patriarch Teoctist Arăpaşu of the Romanian Orthodox Church. This was the first time a pope had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the Great Schism in 1054. On his arrival, the Patriarch and the President of Romania, Emil Constantinescu, greeted the pope. The Patriarch stated, \\\"The second millennium of Christian history began with a painful wounding of the unity of the Church; the end of this millennium has seen a real commitment to restoring Christian unity.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 23–27 June 2001 John Paul II visited Ukraine, another heavily Orthodox nation, at the invitation of the President of Ukraine and bishops of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. The Pope spoke to leaders of the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches and Religious Organisations, pleading for \\\"open, tolerant and honest dialogue\\\". About 200 thousand people attended the liturgies celebrated by the Pope in Kiev, and the liturgy in Lviv gathered nearly one and a half million faithful. John Paul II said that an end to the Great Schism was one of his fondest wishes. Healing divisions between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches regarding Latin and Byzantine traditions was clearly of great personal interest. For many years, John Paul II sought to facilitate dialogue and unity stating as early as 1988 in Euntes in mundum, \\\"Europe has two lungs, it will never breathe easily until it uses both of them.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDuring his 2001 travels, John Paul II became the first pope to visit Greece in 1291 years. In Athens, the pope met with Archbishop Christodoulos, the head of the Greek Orthodox Church. After a private 30-minute meeting, the two spoke publicly. Christodoulos read a list of \\\"13 offences\\\" of the Catholic Church against the Eastern Orthodox Church since the Great Schism, including the pillaging of Constantinople by crusaders in 1204, and bemoaned the lack of apology from the Catholic Church, saying \\\"Until now, there has not been heard a single request for pardon\\\" for the \\\"maniacal crusaders of the 13th century\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe pope responded by saying \\\"For the occasions past and present, when sons and daughters of the Catholic Church have sinned by action or omission against their Orthodox brothers and sisters, may the Lord grant us forgiveness\\\", to which Christodoulos immediately applauded. John Paul II said that the sacking of Constantinople was a source of \\\"profound regret\\\" for Catholics. Later John Paul II and Christodoulos met on a spot where Saint Paul had once preached to Athenian Christians. They issued a 'common declaration', saying \\\"We shall do everything in our power, so that the Christian roots of Europe and its Christian soul may be preserved.... We condemn all recourse to violence, proselytism and fanaticism, in the name of religion.\\\" The two leaders then said the Lord's Prayer together, breaking an Orthodox taboo against praying with Catholics.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe pope had said throughout his pontificate that one of his greatest dreams was to visit Russia, but this never occurred. He attempted to solve the problems that had arisen over centuries between the Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches, and in 2004 gave them a 1730 copy of the lost icon of Our Lady of Kazan.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIslam\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II made considerable efforts to improve relations between Catholicism and Islam.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 6 May 2001 he became the first Catholic pope to enter and pray in a mosque, namely the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. Respectfully removing his shoes, he entered the former Byzantine era Christian church dedicated to John the Baptist, who is also revered as a prophet of Islam. He gave a speech including the statement: \\\"For all the times that Muslims and Christians have offended one another, we need to seek forgiveness from the Almighty and to offer each other forgiveness.\\\" He kissed the Qur'an in Syria, an act that made him popular among Muslims but that disturbed many Catholics.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2004 John Paul II hosted the \\\"Papal Concert of Reconciliation\\\", which brought together leaders of Islam with leaders of the Jewish community and of the Catholic Church at the Vatican for a concert by the Kraków Philharmonic Choir from Poland, the London Philharmonic Choir from the United Kingdom, the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra from the United States, and the Ankara State Polyphonic Choir of Turkey. The event was conceived and conducted by Sir Gilbert Levine, KCSG and was broadcast throughout the world.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II oversaw the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, which makes a special provision for Muslims; therein, it is written, \\\"The plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the Creator, in 'the first place amongst whom are the Muslims'; these profess to hold the faith of Abraham, and together with us they adore the one, merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJainism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1995, Pope John Paul II held a meeting with 21 Jains, a sect that broke away from mainstream Hinduism in 600 BC, organized by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. He praised Mahatma Gandhi for his \\\"unshakeable faith in God\\\", assured the Jains that the Catholic Church will continue to engage in dialogue with their religion and spoke of the common need to aid the poor. The Jain leaders were impressed with the pope's \\\"transparency and simplicity\\\", and the meeting received much attention in the Gujarat state in western India, home to many Jains.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJudaism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nRelations between Catholicism and Judaism improved dramatically during the pontificate of John Paul II. He spoke frequently about the Church's relationship with the Jewish faith.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1979 John Paul II visited the Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland where many of his compatriots (mostly Jews) had perished during the Nazi occupation in World War II, the first pope to do so. In 1998 he issued We Remember: A Reflection on the Shoah, which outlined his thinking on the Holocaust. He became the first pope known to have made an official papal visit to a synagogue, when he visited the Great Synagogue of Rome on 13 April 1986.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 30 December 1993 John Paul II established formal diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the State of Israel, acknowledging its centrality in Jewish life and faith.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 7 April 1994 he hosted the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Holocaust. It was the first-ever Vatican event dedicated to the memory of the six million Jews murdered in World War II. This concert, which was conceived and conducted by American conductor Gilbert Levine, was attended by the Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, the President of Italy Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, and survivors of the Holocaust from around the world. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, actor Richard Dreyfuss and cellist Lynn Harrell performed on this occasion under Levine's direction. On the morning of the concert, the pope received the attending members of survivor community in a special audience in the Apostolic Palace.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn March 2000 John Paul II visited Yad Vashem, the national Holocaust memorial in Israel, and later made history by touching one of the holiest sites in Judaism, the Western Wall in Jerusalem, placing a letter inside it (in which he prayed for forgiveness for the actions against Jews). In part of his address he said: \\\"I assure the Jewish people the Catholic Church … is deeply saddened by the hatred, acts of persecution and displays of anti-Semitism directed against the Jews by Christians at any time and in any place,\\\" he added that there were \\\"no words strong enough to deplore the terrible tragedy of the Holocaust.\\\" Israeli cabinet minister Rabbi Michael Melchior, who hosted the pope's visit, said he was \\\"very moved\\\" by the pope's gesture. It was beyond history, beyond memory. We are deeply saddened by the behaviour of those who in the course of history have caused these children of yours to suffer, and asking your forgiveness we wish to commit ourselves to genuine brotherhood with the people of the Covenant. In October 2003, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) issued a statement congratulating John Paul II on entering the 25th year of his papacy.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn January 2005, John Paul II became the first pope known to receive a priestly blessing from a rabbi, when Rabbis Benjamin Blech, Barry Dov Schwartz, and Jack Bemporad visited the Pontiff at Clementine Hall in the Apostolic Palace.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nImmediately after John Paul II's death, the ADL said in a statement that he had revolutionised Catholic-Jewish relations, saying, \\\"more change for the better took place in his 27-year Papacy than in the nearly 2,000 years before.\\\" In another statement issued by the Australia/Israel & Jewish Affairs Council, Director Dr Colin Rubenstein said, \\\"The Pope will be remembered for his inspiring spiritual leadership in the cause of freedom and humanity. He achieved far more in terms of transforming relations with both the Jewish people and the State of Israel than any other figure in the history of the Catholic Church.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWith Judaism, therefore, we have a relationship which we do not have with any other religion. You are our dearly beloved brothers, and in a certain way, it could be said that you are our elder brothers.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn an interview with the Polish Press Agency, Michael Schudrich, chief rabbi of Poland, said that never in history did anyone do as much for Christian-Jewish dialogue as Pope John Paul II, adding that many Jews had a greater respect for the late pope than for some rabbis. Schudrich praised John Paul II for condemning anti-Semitism as a sin, which no previous pope had done.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn John Paul II's beatification the Chief Rabbi of Rome Riccardo Di Segni said in an interview with the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano that \\\"John Paul II was revolutionary because he tore down a thousand-year wall of Catholic distrust of the Jewish world.\\\" Meanwhile, Elio Toaff, the former Chief Rabbi of Rome, said that: Remembrance of the Pope Karol Wojtyła will remain strong in the collective Jewish memory because of his appeals to fraternity and the spirit of tolerance, which excludes all violence. In the stormy history of relations between Roman popes and Jews in the ghetto in which they were closed for over three centuries in humiliating circumstances, John Paul II is a bright figure in his uniqueness. In relations between our two great religions in the new century that was stained with bloody wars and the plague of racism, the heritage of John Paul II remains one of the few spiritual islands guaranteeing survival and human progress.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nLutheranism\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nFrom 15 to 19 November 1980, John Paul II visited West Germany on his first trip to a country with a large Lutheran Protestant population. In Mainz, he met with leaders of the Evangelical Church in Germany, and with representatives of other Christian denominations.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 11 December 1983, John Paul II participated in an ecumenical service in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Rome, the first papal visit ever to a Lutheran church. The visit took place 500 years after the birth of Martin Luther, the German Augustinian monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn his apostolic pilgrimage to Norway, Iceland, Finland, Denmark and Sweden of June 1989, John Paul II became the first pope to visit countries with Lutheran majorities. In addition to celebrating Mass with Catholic believers, he participated in ecumenical services at places that had been Catholic shrines before the Reformation: Nidaros Cathedral in Norway; near St. Olav's Church at Thingvellir in Iceland; Turku Cathedral in Finland; Roskilde Cathedral in Denmark; and Uppsala Cathedral in Sweden.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 31 October 1999, (the 482nd anniversary of Reformation Day, Martin Luther's posting of the 95 Theses), representatives of the Vatican and the Lutheran World Federation (LWF) signed a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, as a gesture of unity. The signing was a fruit of a theological dialogue that had been going on between the LWF and the Vatican since 1965.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAssassination attempts and plots\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAs he entered St. Peter's Square to address an audience on 13 May 1981, Pope John Paul II was shot and critically wounded by Mehmet Ali Ağca, an expert Turkish gunman who was a member of the militant fascist group Grey Wolves. The assassin used a Browning 9 mm semi-automatic pistol, shooting the pope in the abdomen and perforating his colon and small intestine multiple times. John Paul II was rushed into the Vatican complex and then to the Gemelli Hospital. On the way to the hospital, he lost consciousness. Even though the two bullets missed his mesenteric artery and abdominal aorta, he lost nearly three-quarters of his blood. He underwent five hours of surgery to treat his wounds. Surgeons performed a colostomy, temporarily rerouting the upper part of the large intestine to let the damaged lower part heal. When he briefly regained consciousness before being operated on, he instructed the doctors not to remove his Brown Scapular during the operation. One of the few people allowed in to see him at the Gemelli Clinic was one of his closest friends philosopher Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, who arrived on Saturday 16 May and kept him company while he recovered from emergency surgery.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe pope later stated that Our Lady of Fátima helped keep him alive throughout his ordeal.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCould I forget that the event in St. Peter's Square took place on the day and at the hour when the first appearance of the Mother of Christ to the poor little peasants has been remembered for over sixty years at Fátima, Portugal? For in everything that happened to me on that very day, I felt that extraordinary motherly protection and care, which turned out to be stronger than the deadly bullet.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAğca was caught and restrained by a nun and other bystanders until police arrived. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Two days after Christmas in 1983, John Paul II visited Ağca in prison. John Paul II and Ağca spoke privately for about twenty minutes. John Paul II said, \\\"What we talked about will have to remain a secret between him and me. I spoke to him as a brother whom I have pardoned and who has my complete trust.″\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 2 March 2006 the Italian parliament's Mitrokhin Commission, set up by Silvio Berlusconi and headed by Forza Italia senator Paolo Guzzanti, concluded that the Soviet Union was behind the attempt on John Paul II's life, in retaliation for the pope's support of Solidarity, the Catholic, pro-democratic Polish workers' movement, a theory that had already been supported by Michael Ledeen and the United States Central Intelligence Agency at the time. The Italian report stated that Communist Bulgarian security departments were utilised to prevent the Soviet Union's role from being uncovered. The report stated that Soviet military intelligence (Glavnoje Razvedyvatel'noje Upravlenije), not the KGB, were responsible. Russian Foreign Intelligence Service spokesman Boris Labusov called the accusation \\\"absurd\\\". The pope declared during a May 2002 visit to Bulgaria that the country's Soviet-bloc-era leadership had nothing to do with the assassination attempt. However, his secretary, Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz, alleged in his book A Life with Karol, that the pope was convinced privately that the former Soviet Union was behind the attack.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIt was later discovered that many of John Paul II's aides had foreign-government attachments; Bulgaria and Russia disputed the Italian commission's conclusions, pointing out that the pope had publicly denied the Bulgarian connection.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nA second assassination attempt was made on 12 May 1982, just a day before the anniversary of the first attempt on his life, in Fátima, Portugal when a man tried to stab John Paul II with a bayonet. He was stopped by security guards. Stanisław Dziwisz later said that John Paul II had been injured during the attempt but managed to hide a non-life-threatening wound. The assailant, a traditionalist Catholic Spanish priest named Juan María Fernández y Krohn, had been ordained as a priest by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre of the Society of Saint Pius X and was opposed to the changes made by the Second Vatican Council, claiming that the pope was an agent of Communist Moscow and of the Marxist Eastern Bloc. Fernández y Krohn subsequently left the priesthood and served three years of a six-year sentence. The ex-priest was treated for mental illness and then expelled from Portugal to become a solicitor in Belgium.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe Al-Qaeda-funded Bojinka plot planned to kill John Paul II during a visit to the Philippines during World Youth Day 1995 celebrations. On 15 January 1995 a suicide bomber was planning to dress as a priest and detonate a bomb when the pope passed in his motorcade on his way to the San Carlos Seminary in Makati City. The assassination was supposed to divert attention from the next phase of the operation. However, a chemical fire inadvertently started by the cell alerted police to their whereabouts, and all were arrested a week before the pope's visit, and confessed to the plot.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2009 John Koehler, a journalist and former army intelligence officer, published Spies in the Vatican: The Soviet Union's Cold War Against the Catholic Church. Mining mostly East German and Polish secret police archives, Koehler says the assassination attempts were \\\"KGB-backed\\\" and gives details. During John Paul II's papacy there were many clerics within the Vatican who on nomination, declined to be ordained, and then mysteriously left the church. There is wide speculation that they were, in reality, KGB agents.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nApologies\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II apologised to many groups that had suffered at the hands of the Catholic Church through the years. Before becoming pope he had been a prominent editor and supporter of initiatives such as the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops from 1965. As pope, he officially made public apologies for over 100 wrongdoings, including: \\n* The legal process on the Italian scientist and philosopher Galileo Galilei, himself a devout Catholic, around 1633 (31 October 1992). * Catholics' involvement with the African chiefs who sold their subjects and captives in the African slave trade (9 August 1993). * The Church Hierarchy's role in burnings at the stake and the religious wars that followed the Protestant Reformation (May 1995, in the Czech Republic). * The injustices committed against women, the violation of women's rights and the historical denigration of women (10 July 1995, in a letter to \\\"every woman\\\"). * The inactivity and silence of many Catholics during the Holocaust (see the article Religion in Nazi Germany) (16 March 1998).\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 20 November 2001, from a laptop in the Vatican, Pope John Paul II sent his first e-mail apologising for the Catholic sex abuse cases, the Church-backed \\\"Stolen Generations\\\" of Aboriginal children in Australia, and to China for the behaviour of Catholic missionaries in colonial times.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWhen he became pope in 1978 at the age of 58, John Paul II was an avid sportsman. He was extremely healthy and active, jogging in the Vatican gardens, weight training, swimming, and hiking in the mountains. He was fond of football. The media contrasted the new pope's athleticism and trim figure to the poor health of John Paul I and Paul VI, the portliness of John XXIII and the constant claims of ailments of Pius XII. The only modern pope with a fitness regimen had been Pope Pius XI (1922–1939), who was an avid mountaineer. An Irish Independent article in the 1980s labelled John Paul II the keep-fit pope.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHowever, after over twenty-five years as pope, two assassination attempts, one of which injured him severely, and a number of cancer scares, John Paul's physical health declined. In 2001 he was diagnosed as suffering from Parkinson's disease. International observers had suspected this for some time, but it was only publicly acknowledged by the Vatican in 2003. Despite difficulty speaking more than a few sentences at a time, trouble hearing, and severe osteoarthrosis, he continued to tour the world although rarely walking in public.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nDeath and funeral\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nFinal months\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul II was hospitalised with breathing problems caused by a bout of influenza on 1 February 2005. He left the hospital on 10 February, but was subsequently hospitalised again with breathing problems two weeks later and underwent a tracheotomy.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nFinal illness and death\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 31 March 2005 following a urinary tract infection, he developed septic shock, a form of infection with a high fever and low blood pressure, but was not hospitalised. Instead, he was monitored by a team of consultants at his private residence. This was taken as an indication that the pope and those close to him believed that he was nearing death; it would have been in accordance with his wishes to die in the Vatican. Later that day, Vatican sources announced that John Paul II had been given the Anointing of the Sick by his friend and secretary Stanisław Dziwisz. The day before his death, one of his closest personal friends, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka visited him at his bedside. During the final days of the pope's life, the lights were kept burning through the night where he lay in the Papal apartment on the top floor of the Apostolic Palace. Tens of thousands of people assembled and held vigil in St. Peter's Square and the surrounding streets for two days. Upon hearing of this, the dying pope was said to have stated: \\\"I have searched for you, and now you have come to me, and I thank you.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn Saturday, 2 April 2005, at approximately 15:30 CEST, John Paul II spoke his final words in Polish, \\\"Pozwólcie mi odejść do domu Ojca\\\" (\\\"Allow me to depart to the house of the Father\\\"), to his aides, and fell into a coma about four hours later. The Mass of the vigil of the Second Sunday of Easter commemorating the canonisation of Saint Maria Faustina on 30 April 2000, had just been celebrated at his bedside, presided over by Stanisław Dziwisz and two Polish associates. Present at the bedside was a cardinal from Ukraine, who served as a priest with John Paul in Poland, along with Polish nuns of the Congregation of the Sisters Servants of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus, who ran the papal household. Pope John Paul II died in his private apartment at 21:37 CEST (19:37 UTC) of heart failure from profound hypotension and complete circulatory collapse from septic shock, 46 days before his 85th birthday. He had no close family by the time of his death; his feelings are reflected in his words written in 2000 at the end of his Last Will and Testament.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nStanisław Dziwisz later said he had not burned the pontiff's personal notes despite the request being part of the will.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAftermath\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe death of the pontiff set in motion rituals and traditions dating back to medieval times. The Rite of Visitation took place from 4 April 2005 to 7 April 2005 at St. Peter's Basilica. John Paul II's testament, published on 7 April 2005, revealed that the pontiff contemplated being buried in his native Poland but left the final decision to The College of Cardinals, which in passing, preferred burial beneath St. Peter's Basilica, honouring the pontiff's request to be placed \\\"in bare earth\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe Requiem Mass held on 8 April 2005 was said to have set world records both for attendance and number of heads of state present at a funeral. (See: List of Dignitaries.) It was the single largest gathering of heads of state in history, surpassing the funerals of Winston Churchill (1965) and Josip Broz Tito (1980). Four kings, five queens, at least 70 presidents and prime ministers, and more than 14 leaders of other religions attended alongside the faithful. It is likely to have been the largest single pilgrimage of Christianity ever with numbers estimated in excess of four million mourners gathering in and around Vatican City. Between 250,000 and 300,000 watched the event from within the Vatican's walls.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe Dean of the College of Cardinals, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, conducted the ceremony. John Paul II was interred in the grottoes under the basilica, the Tomb of the Popes. He was lowered into a tomb created in the same alcove previously occupied by the remains of Pope John XXIII. The alcove had been empty since John XXIII's remains had been moved into the main body of the basilica after his beatification.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPosthumous recognition\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nTitle \\\"the Great\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nUpon the death of John Paul II, a number of clergy at the Vatican and laymen throughout the world began referring to the late pontiff as \\\"John Paul the Great\\\"—only the fourth pope to be so acclaimed, and the first since the first millennium. Scholars of Canon Law say that there is no official process for declaring a pope \\\"Great\\\"; the title simply establishes itself through popular and continued usage, as was the case with celebrated secular leaders (for example, Alexander III of Macedon became popularly known as Alexander the Great). The three popes who today commonly are known as \\\"Great\\\" are Leo I, who reigned from 440–461 and persuaded Attila the Hun to withdraw from Rome; Gregory I, 590–604, after whom the Gregorian Chant is named; and Pope Nicholas I, 858–867.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHis successor, Benedict XVI, referred to him as \\\"the great Pope John Paul II\\\" in his first address from the loggia of St. Peter's Basilica, and Cardinal Angelo Sodano referred to John Paul as \\\"the Great\\\" in his published written homily for the pope's funeral Mass of Repose.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSince giving his homily at the funeral of Pope John Paul, Pope Benedict XVI continued to refer to John Paul II as \\\"the Great\\\". At the 20th World Youth Day in Germany 2005, Pope Benedict XVI, speaking in Polish, John Paul's native language, said, \\\"As the Great Pope John Paul II would say: Keep the flame of faith alive in your lives and your people.\\\" In May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI visited John Paul's native Poland. During that visit, he repeatedly made references to \\\"the great John Paul\\\" and \\\"my great predecessor\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nTwo newspapers have called him \\\"the Great\\\" or \\\"the Greatest\\\". The Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera called him \\\"the Greatest\\\" and the South African Catholic newspaper, The Southern Cross, called him \\\"John Paul II the Great\\\". Some Catholic institutions changed their names to incorporate \\\"the Great\\\", including John Paul the Great Catholic University and schools called some variant of John Paul the Great High School.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nInstitutions named after St. John Paul the Great\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\n* John Paul the Great Catholic University\\n* John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Indiana)\\n* Saint John Paul the Great Catholic High School (Virginia)\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBeatification\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nInspired by calls of \\\"Santo Subito!\\\" (\\\"[Make him a] Saint Immediately!\\\") from the crowds gathered during the funeral Mass that he performed, Benedict XVI began the beatification process for his predecessor, bypassing the normal restriction that five years must pass after a person's death before beginning the beatification process. In an audience with Pope Benedict XVI, Camillo Ruini, Vicar General of the Diocese of Rome, who was responsible for promoting the cause for canonisation of any person who died within that diocese, cited \\\"exceptional circumstances\\\", which suggested that the waiting period could be waived. This decision was announced on 13 May 2005, the Feast of Our Lady of Fátima and the 24th anniversary of the assassination attempt on John Paul II at St. Peter's Square.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn early 2006 it was reported that the Vatican was investigating a possible miracle associated with John Paul II. Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun and member of the Congregation of Little Sisters of Catholic Maternity Wards, confined to her bed by\\nParkinson's disease, was reported to have experienced a \\\"complete and lasting cure after members of her community prayed for the intercession of Pope John Paul II\\\". , Sister Marie-Simon-Pierre, then 46, was working again at a maternity hospital run by her religious institute.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\n\\\"I was sick and now I am cured,\\\" she told reporter Gerry Shaw. \\\"I am cured, but it is up to the church to say whether it was a miracle or not.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 28 May 2006, Pope Benedict XVI celebrated Mass before an estimated 900,000 people in John Paul II's native Poland. During his homily, he encouraged prayers for the early canonisation of John Paul II and stated that he hoped canonisation would happen \\\"in the near future\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn January 2007 Cardinal Stanisław Dziwisz announced that the interview phase of the beatification process, in Italy and Poland, was nearing completion. In February 2007, relics of Pope John Paul II—pieces of white papal cassocks he used to wear—were freely distributed with prayer cards for the cause, a typical pious practice after a saintly Catholic's death. On 8 March 2007, the Vicariate of Rome announced that the diocesan phase of John Paul's cause for beatification was at an end. Following a ceremony on 2 April 2007—the second anniversary of the Pontiff's death—the cause proceeded to the scrutiny of the committee of lay, clerical, and episcopal members of the Vatican's Congregation for the Causes of Saints, to conduct a separate investigation. On the fourth anniversary of Pope John Paul's death, 2 April 2009, Cardinal Dziwisz, told reporters of a presumed miracle that had recently occurred at the former pope's tomb in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-year-old Polish boy from Gdańsk, who was suffering from kidney cancer and was completely unable to walk, had been visiting the tomb with his parents. On leaving St. Peter's Basilica, the boy told them, \\\"I want to walk,\\\" and began walking normally.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 16 November 2009, a panel of reviewers at the Congregation for the Causes of Saints voted unanimously that Pope John Paul II had lived a life of heroic virtue. On 19 December 2009, Pope Benedict XVI signed the first of two decrees needed for beatification and proclaimed John Paul II \\\"Venerable\\\", asserting that he had lived a heroic, virtuous life. The second vote and the second signed decree certifying the authenticity of the first miracle, the curing of Sister Marie Simon-Pierre, a French nun, from Parkinson's disease. Once the second decree is signed, the positio (the report on the cause, with documentation about his life and writings and with information on the cause) is complete. He can then be beatified. Some speculated that he would be beatified sometime during (or soon after) the month of the 32nd anniversary of his 1978 election, in October 2010. As Monsignor Oder noted, this course would have been possible if the second decree were signed in time by Benedict XVI, stating that a posthumous miracle directly attributable to his intercession had occurred, completing the positio.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe Vatican announced on 14 January 2011 that Pope Benedict XVI had confirmed the miracle involving Sister Marie Simon-Pierre and that John Paul II was to be beatified on 1 May, the Feast of Divine Mercy. 1 May is commemorated in former communist countries, such as Poland, and some Western European countries as May Day, and John Paul II was well known for his contributions to communism's relatively peaceful demise. In March 2011 the Polish mint issued a gold 1,000 Polish złoty coin (equivalent to US$350), with the Pope's image to commemorate his beatification.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 29 April 2011 John Paul II's coffin was exhumed from the grotto beneath St. Peter's Basilica ahead of his beatification, as tens of thousands of people arrived in Rome for one of the biggest events since his funeral. John Paul II's remains (in a closed coffin) were placed in front of the Basilica's main altar, where believers could pay their respect before and after the beatification mass in St. Peter's Square on 1 May 2011. On 3 May 2011 his remains were reinterred in the marble altar in Pier Paolo Cristofari's Chapel of St. Sebastian, where Pope Innocent XI was buried. This more prominent location, next to the Chapel of the Pietà, the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament, and statues of Popes Pius XI and Pius XII, was intended to allow more pilgrims to view his memorial.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn July 2012 Colombian man, Marco Fidel Rojas, the former mayor of Huila, Colombia, testified that he was \\\"miraculously cured\\\" of Parkinson's disease after a trip to Rome where he met John Paul II and prayed with him. Dr. Antonio Schlesinger Piedrahita, a renowned neurologist in Colombia, has certified Fidel’s healing. The documentation has been sent to the Vatican office for sainthood cause's.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCanonisation\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nTo be eligible for canonisation (being declared a saint) by the Catholic Church, two miracles must be attributed to a candidate, the first having been his healing a case of Parkinson's disease, which was recognized during the beatification process.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nAccording to an article on the Catholic News Service (CNS) dated 23 April 2013, a Vatican commission of doctors concluded that a healing had no natural (medical) explanation, which is the first requirement for an alleged miracle to be officially documented.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe miracle was deemed to have taken place shortly after the late pope's beatification on 1 May 2011; it was reported to be the healing of Costa Rican woman Floribeth Mora of an otherwise terminal brain aneurysm. A Vatican panel of expert theologians examined the evidence, determined that it was directly attributable to the intercession of John Paul II, and recognised it as miraculous. The next stage was for Cardinals who compose the membership of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints to give their opinion to Pope Francis to decides whether to sign and promulgate the decree and set a date for canonisation.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 4 July 2013, Pope Francis confirmed his approval of John Paul II's canonisation, formally recognising the second miracle attributed to his intercession. He was canonised together with Pope John XXIII. The date of the canonisation was on 27 April 2014, Divine Mercy Sunday.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe canonisation Mass for Blessed Popes John Paul II and John XXIII, was celebrated by Pope Francis (with Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI), on 27 April 2014 in St. Peter's Square at the Vatican (Pope John Paul had died on vigil of Divine Mercy Sunday in 2005). About 150 cardinals and 700 bishops concelebrated the Mass, and at least 500,000 people attended the Mass, with an estimated 300,000 others watching from video screens placed around Rome.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCriticism and controversy\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was widely criticised for, among other things, his views against the ordination of women and contraception, his support for the Second Vatican Council and its reform of the Liturgy and his alleged lack of action against child sexual abuse within the Church.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOpposition to his beatification\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSome Catholic theologians disagreed with the call for beatification of John Paul II. Eleven dissident theologians, including Jesuit professor José María Castillo and Italian theologian Giovanni Franzoni, raised seven religiously liberal, unorthodox points of contention including the pope's stance against contraception and the ordination of women as well as the Church scandals that presented \\\"facts which according to their consciences and convictions should be an obstacle to beatification.\\\" These objections were not sustained, and his beatification (and eventual canonisation) moved forward.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nChild sex abuse scandals\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was criticised for failing to respond quickly enough to the Catholic sex abuse crisis. In his response, he stated that \\\"there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young.\\\" The Church instituted reforms to prevent future abuse by requiring background checks for Church employees and, because a significant majority of victims were teenage boys, disallowing ordination of men with \\\"deep-seated homosexual tendencies\\\". They now require dioceses faced with an allegation to alert the authorities, conduct an investigation and remove the accused from duty. In 2008, the Church asserted that the scandal was a very serious problem and estimated that it was \\\"probably caused by 'no more than 1 per cent' \\\" (or 5,000) of the over 500,000 Catholic priests worldwide.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn April 2002, John Paul II, despite being frail from Parkinson's disease, summoned all the American cardinals to the Vatican to discuss possible solutions to the issue of sexual abuse in the American Church. He asked them to \\\"diligently investigate accusations\\\". John Paul II suggested that American bishops be more open and transparent in dealing with such scandals and emphasised the role of seminary training to prevent sexual deviance among future priests. In what The New York Times called \\\"unusually direct language\\\", John Paul condemned the arrogance of priests that led to the scandals:\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPriests and candidates for the priesthood often live at a level both materially and educationally superior to that of their families and the members of their own age group. It is therefore very easy for them to succumb to the temptation of thinking of themselves as better than others. When this happens, the ideal of priestly service and self-giving dedication can fade, leaving the priest dissatisfied and disheartened.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe pope read a statement intended for the American cardinals, calling the sex abuse \\\"an appalling sin\\\" and said the priesthood had no room for such men.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2002, Archbishop Juliusz Paetz, the Catholic Archbishop of Poznań, was accused of molesting seminarians. Pope John Paul II accepted his resignation, and placed sanctions on him, prohibiting Paetz from exercising his ministry as bishop. These restrictions were lifted in 2010 by Pope Benedict XVI.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2003 John Paul II reiterated that \\\"there is no place in the priesthood and religious life for those who would harm the young.\\\" and in April 2003, the Pontifical Academy for Life organised a three-day conference, titled \\\"Abuse of Children and Young People by Catholic Priests and Religious\\\", where eight non-Catholic psychiatric experts were invited to speak to near all Vatican dicasteries' representatives. The panel of experts overwhelmingly opposed implementation of policies of \\\"zero-tolerance\\\" such as was proposed by the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. One expert called such policies a \\\"case of overkill\\\" since they do not permit flexibility to allow for differences among individual cases.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 2004 John Paul II recalled Bernard Francis Law to be Archpriest of the Papal Basilica of Saint Mary Major in Rome. Law had previously resigned as archbishop of Boston in 2002 in response to the Catholic Church sex abuse scandal after Church documents were revealed that suggested he had covered up sexual abuse committed by priests in his archdiocese. Law resigned from this position in November 2011.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was a firm supporter of the Legion of Christ, and in 1998 discontinued investigations into sexual misconduct by its leader Marcial Maciel, who in 2005 resigned his leadership and was later requested by the Vatican to withdraw from his ministry.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOpus Dei controversies\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul II was criticised for his support of the Opus Dei prelature and the 2002 canonisation of its founder, Josemaría Escrivá, whom he called 'the saint of ordinary life.' Other movements and religious organisations of the Church went decidedly under his wing Legion of Christ, the Neocatechumenal Way, Schoenstatt, the charismatic movement, etc.) and he was accused repeatedly of taking a soft hand with them, especially in the case of Marcial Maciel, founder of the Legion of Christ.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1984 John Paul II appointed Joaquín Navarro-Valls, a member of Opus Dei, as Director of the Vatican Press Office. An Opus Dei spokesman says \\\"the influence of Opus Dei in the Vatican has been exaggerated.\\\" Of the nearly 200 cardinals in the Catholic Church, only two are known to be members of Opus Dei.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nBanco Ambrosiano scandal\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPope John Paul was alleged to have links with Banco Ambrosiano, an Italian bank that collapsed in 1982. At the centre of the bank's failure was its chairman, Roberto Calvi, and his membership in the illegal Masonic Lodge Propaganda Due (aka P2). The Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosiano's main shareholder, and the death of Pope John Paul I in 1978 is rumoured to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCalvi, often referred to as \\\"God's Banker\\\", was also involved the Vatican Bank, Istituto per le Opere di Religione, in his dealings, and was close to Bishop Paul Marcinkus, the bank's chairman. Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. It has been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank provided money for Solidarity in Poland.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nCalvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to arrange massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the Bank of Italy produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster. On 5 June 1982, two weeks before the collapse of Banco Ambrosiano, Calvi had written a letter of warning to Pope John Paul II, stating that such a forthcoming event would \\\"provoke a catastrophe of unimaginable proportions in which the Church will suffer the gravest damage\\\". On 18 June 1982 Calvi's body was found hanging from scaffolding beneath Blackfriars Bridge in the financial district of London. Calvi's clothing was stuffed with bricks, and contained cash valued at US$14,000, in three different currencies.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nProblems with traditionalists\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn addition to all the criticism from those demanding modernisation, traditionalist Catholics sometimes denounced him as well. These issues included demanding a return to the Tridentine Mass and repudiation of the reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, such as the use of the vernacular language in the formerly Latin Roman Rite Mass, ecumenism, and the principle of religious liberty. He also was criticized for allowing and appointing liberal bishops in their sees and thus silently promoting Modernism, which was firmly condemned as the \\\"synthesis of all heresies\\\" by his predecessor Pope St. Pius X. In 1988, the controversial traditionalist Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of the Society of St. Pius X (1970), was excommunicated under John Paul II because of the unapproved ordination of four bishops, which was called by the Holy See a \\\"schismatic act\\\".\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThe World Day of Prayer for Peace, with a meeting in Assisi, Italy, in 1986, in which the pope prayed only with the Christians,\\nwas heavily criticised as giving the impression that syncretism and indifferentism were openly embraced by the Papal Magisterium. When a second 'Day of Prayer for Peace in the World' was held, in 2002, it was condemned as confusing the laity and compromising to false religions. Likewise criticised was his kissing of the Qur'an in Damascus, Syria, on one of his travels on 6 May 2001. His call for religious freedom was not always supported; bishops like Antônio de Castro Mayer promoted religious tolerance, but at the same time rejected the Vatican II principle of religious liberty as being liberalist and already condemned by Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus errorum (1864) and at the First Vatican Council.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSome Catholics oppose his beatification and canonisation for the above reasons.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nReligion and AIDS\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nJohn Paul's position against artificial birth control, including the use of condoms to prevent the spread of HIV, was harshly criticised by doctors and AIDS activists, who said that it led to countless deaths and millions of AIDS orphans. Critics have also claimed that large families are caused by lack of contraception and exacerbate Third World poverty and problems such as street children in South America. The Catholic Agency for Overseas Development published a paper stating, \\\"Any strategy that enables a person to move from a higher-risk towards the lower end of the continuum, [we] believe, is a valid risk reduction strategy.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nSocial programmes\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nThere was strong criticism of the pope for the controversy surrounding the alleged use of charitable social programmes as a means of converting people in the Third World to Catholicism. The pope created an uproar in the Indian subcontinent when he suggested that a great harvest of faith would be witnessed on the subcontinent in the third Christian millennium.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIan Paisley\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1988, when Pope John Paul II was delivering a speech to the European Parliament, Ian Paisley, the leader of the Democratic Unionist Party and Moderator of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, shouted \\\"I denounce you as the Antichrist!\\\" from 1:45 m into video and held up a red banner reading \\\"Pope John Paul II ANTICHRIST\\\". Otto von Habsburg (the last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary), an MEP for Germany, snatched Paisley's banner, tore it up and, along with other MEPs, helped eject him from the chamber.\\nThe pope continued with his address after Paisley had been ejected.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nMeđugorje apparitions\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nA number of quotes about the apparitions of Međugorje, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, have been attributed to John Paul II. In 1998, when a certain German gathered various statements that were supposedly made by the pope and Cardinal Ratzinger, and then forwarded them to the Vatican in the form of a memorandum, Ratzinger responded in writing on 22 July 1998: \\\"The only thing I can say regarding statements on Međugorje ascribed to the Holy Father and myself is that they are complete invention.\\\"\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nStolen relic\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nOn 27 January 2014, it was reported that a relic of John Paul II, a vial containing drops of his blood, had been stolen from the church of San Pietro della Ienca north of L'Aquila in the mountainous Abruzzo region of central Italy, an area where he had loved to go on skiing vacations. Cardinal Dziwisz had previously given the vial to the church in recognition of its connections to the Pontiff. Because there are only three relics containing his blood, few or no other items were disturbed, and it would be difficult to sell, the investigating Italian police believe it was a commissioned theft, and speculated that the blood might be used in satanic rites. The theft sparked a major search for the culprits. Two men confessed to the crime, and an iron reliquary and a stolen cross, but not the relic, were recovered from the grounds of a drug rehabilitation facility in L'Aquila on 30 January; the blood was recovered shortly after from rubbish bins near where the reliquary had been found.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nPersonal life\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nHaving played the game himself as a goalkeeper, John Paul II was a fan of English football team Liverpool, where his compatriot Jerzy Dudek played in the same position.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nIn 1973, while still the archbishop of Kraków, Karol Wojtyła befriended a Polish-born, later American philosopher, Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka. The thirty-two-year friendship (and occasional academic collaboration) lasted until his death. She served as his host when he visited New England in 1976 and photos show them together on skiing and camping trips. Letters that he wrote to her were part of a collection of documents sold by Tymieniecka’s estate in 2008 to the National Library of Poland. According to the BBC the library had initially kept the letters from public view, partly because of John Paul’s path to sainthood, but a library official announced in February 2016 the letters would be made public. In February 2016 the BBC documentary programme Panorama revealed that John Paul II had apparently had a 'close relationship' with the Polish-born philosopher. The pair exchanged personal letters over 30 years, with Tymieniecka telling Wojtyła that she loved him. The Vatican described the documentary as \\\"more smoke than mirrors\\\", and Tymieniecka denied being involved with John Paul II.\",\n \"Pope John Paul II\\n\\nWriters Carl Bernstein, the veteran investigative journalist of the Watergate scandal, and Vatican expert Marco Politi, were the first journalists to talk to Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka in the 1990s about her importance in John Paul's life. They interviewed her and dedicated 20 pages to her in their 1996 book His Holiness. Bernstein and Politi even asked her if she had ever developed any romantic relationship with John Paul II, “however one-sided it might have been.” She responded, “No, I never fell in love with the cardinal. How could I fall in love with a middle-aged clergyman? Besides, I’m a married woman.”\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1597,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2520"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which two countries have a border with Liechtenstein?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Switzerland and Austria"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["switzerland and austria"],"string":"[\n \"switzerland and austria\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nLiechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\nTime Zone\nUTC +1\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein (German: Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a small, alpine German-speaking country doubly landlocked by Switzerland and Austria . It is the last remnant of the Holy Roman Empire and an independent nation with very close ties to Switzerland. It enjoys a very high standard of living and is home to some incredibly beautiful mountain scenery. The principality's capital, Vaduz , is mainly a modern city and a major centre of commerce and international banking. History[ edit ]\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein was established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719 and became a sovereign state in 1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria , but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money laundering and tax evasion. However, the days of bringing suitcases of money into banks for deposit without questions asked is over.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nLiechtensteiners are also very proud of the fact that their nation has never been physically involved in a battle or military confrontation with an \"enemy state\" and see their flag as a banner of peace. Economy[ edit ]\nDespite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. The Liechtenstein economy is widely diversified with a large number of small businesses. Low business taxes--the maximum tax rate is 20%--and easy incorporation rules have induced a large number of holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been, since May 1995, a member of the European Economic Area, an organization serving as a bridge between the EFTA and the EU. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nLiechtenstein has one of the highest personal income rates (GDP Per Capita) in the world, with the base rate of income tax currently standing at just 1.2%. Liechtenstein was the home of the Curta calculator. Geography[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein is very mountainous and one of the world's two doubly-landlocked countries (Meaning that the countries that border it are themselves landlocked too) along with Uzbekistan . Most of Liechtenstein's population lives in the long and wide Rhine Valley in the western third. Roads are mainly laid out in a north-south pattern following the valley as well. To the north the main roads lead to the border with Austria, to the south they enter Switzerland, and to the west across the river the bridges also cross into Switzerland. Most of the eastern border with Austria is not passable and is only accessible by foot as it is very mountainous, though the north of the country is well connected by road to Feldkirch in Austria . The country's highest point is the Grauspitz, which stretches to 2,599m. Liechtenstein is 2.5 time bigger than San Marino and it is 81 times bigger than Monaco .","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nClimate[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein has a continental climate featuring cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain, making the country a moderately popular ski destination. Summers are cool to moderately warm, also often cloudy and humid. Entry requirements[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein is a member of the Schengen Agreement . There are no border controls between countries that have signed and implemented this treaty - the European Union (except Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Ireland, Romania and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. Likewise, a visa granted for any Schengen member is valid in all other countries that have signed and implemented the treaty. But be careful: not all EU members have signed the Schengen treaty, and not all Schengen members are part of the European Union. This means that there may be spot customs checks but no immigration checks (travelling within Schengen but to/from a non-EU country) or you may have to clear immigration but not customs (travelling within the EU but to/from a non-Schengen country). Please see the article Travel in the Schengen Zone for more information about how the scheme works and what entry requirements are.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nDespite the country being a member of the Schengen Agreement and the EEA , Liechtenstein is not a member of the EU . Therefore, travellers entering Liechtenstein from Austria (and vice versa) are subject to non-systematic customs controls, despite the fact that there are no immigration controls. Liechtenstein, however, maintains a complete customs union with Switzerland and is represented by Switzerland in embassies around the globe. Since 1923 there have been no border formalities needed for crossing between the two countries. In essence there is nothing more than a sign announcing your arrival in Switzerland or Liechtenstein (when you cross the Rhine or the land border), similar to the situation at smaller border crossings in many EU nations (Austria/Germany/France/Italy etc.). Stamp hunters can, however, get an authentic Liechtenstein entry stamp in their passport at Vaduz 's tourist office for 3.00 Swiss franc (CHF) or €2.50. The stamp is not available at the Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum; the tourist office is the only place that you can purchase the stamp. Be aware that such memorial stamps may render your passport 'falsified' in the eyes of Finland's consular and border control officials.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nBy plane[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein has no airports due to the size of the country. You can take a flight to Zürich Airport (115km). Although the airport was the only major airport near Liechtenstein, there were some limited services from Vienna to St. Gallen -Altenrhein Airport (53km) by Austrian Arrows . There was also a private airport in Bad Ragaz, very near the country. Another popular point of entry is through Friedrichshafen in Germany , which is served by low-cost airlines and Turkish Airlines. There is a heliport in Balzers owned and operated by Swiss Helicopter. From there, one can take scenic flights around the country or book shuttle flights, e.g. from or to Zurich airport. The latter being private charter flights, not scheduled ones, cost around 4000 CHF for up to five passengers. By train or bus[ edit ]\nThe easiest way of getting to Liechtenstein by train is to travel to Sargans or Buchs in Switzerland, or Feldkirch in Austria, and then take a connecting bus to Liechtenstein. ÖBB, the Austrian federal railway company, runs a very limited train service from Buchs SG station in Switzerland , via Schaan - Vaduz station (near Schaan) to Feldkirch in Austria .","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nTrains only run during weekday peak hours, which makes buses far more convenient. Fast trains from Zurich and many international train services serve Sargans during the day. Consult the SBB timetable [1] to find out what'll be quickest when you're travelling. There are lockers at Sargans station so you can leave your luggage there. The link [2] provides a plan of the station showing the lockers and where to catch the bus from. Liechtenstein buses are a distinctive light green colour. Tickets can be purchased from the driver. Bus route 11 runs from Sargans railway station to Feldkirch railway station via central Vaduz and Schaan . It leaves from outside each station approximately every 30 minutes during the day. A fare to Vaduz is 5.80 CHF from Sargans. Consider buying a whole network one-day pass (12 CHF) or one-week pass (24 CHF) if you are making multiple journeys. Bus route 12 runs every 15 minutes from the train station at Buchs (a town on the Swiss side of the border to Liechtenstein) to Schaan, from where connecting buses run to Vaduz .","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nTickets can be purchased on the bus for 3.40 CHF and it only takes about 10 minutes to Schaan and another 5 to Vaduz. Liechtenstein Bus route 14 is a more direct service from Feldkirch to Vaduz . By car[ edit ]\nThe Swiss Autobahn A13/E34 runs along the Swiss side of the Rhine River, the border between Switzerland and Liechtenstein. There are several access points that cross the Rhine into Liechtenstein, the two that are most commonly used are the bridge crossing into the southern town of Balzers and the crossing into Vaduz. Parking in Vaduz is easy, with a large parking garage located below the Kunstmuseum. Driving in Liechtenstein is relatively safe, but extra care should be taken on narrow and winding mountain roads. Speed traps are everywhere! Hitch-Hiking[ edit ]\nVery easy indeed from Feldkirch in Austria. Rush hour sees lots of commuters head into the capital. A simple sign as you stand by the main road in Feldkirch should get you a lift within minutes. Get around[ edit ]\nPublic transport in Liechtenstein is amazingly efficient and commonly used. The country's sole bus operator is LBA [3] .","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nLBA fares are reasonable, a 7-day unlimited use card costs CHF 24. Another cheap way to travel, weather permitting, is by bike. The roads in Liechtenstein are in excellent condition and many (in the Balzers-Schaan corridor) even offer bike lanes. Biking through the whole country (entering from Austria going all the way south through to Switzerland) takes only a few hours, but is worth every minute of the wonderful alpine scenery! Talk[ edit ]\nThe national language is German, but the main language in everyday use is Alemannic German dialect, which Liechtenstein shares with German-speaking Eastern Switzerland, Baden-Württemberg (south of Stuttgart, Germany), and Vorarlberg, Austria. Almost everyone can speak standard German when necessary, and English is also prevalent. French and Latin are also widely taught in the secondary public school system. Liechtenstein boasts a number of attractions that are of interest to visitors. Balzers Castle\nBalzers - Home to a beautiful church and a spectacular Gothic castle. Vaduz - The capital is the main shopping area in the country, with many souvenir stores and assorted restaurants. The city is also home to a modest cathedral and the decade-old Liechtenstein Kunstmuseum. A ski museum is north of the town centre.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nSchloss Vaduz - This imposing and historic castle, home to the royal family, overlooks the city of Vaduz and can be seen closer by following the Castle Trail starting in Vaduz. The castle is not open to the public, but it is possible to view it from quite close up. It is entirely possible to encounter the royal family at the Kunstmuseum, coming in and out of Schloss Vaduz or skiing during winter time. This is one benefit of such a small country. They are recognizable in their cars, which use their birth year for their licence plate number. Triesenberg - Go here if you want to have one of the best views to the swiss alps. Certainly a unique experience. Do[ edit ][ add listing ]\nLiechtenstein offers great hiking, road biking, and mountain biking terrain. Skiing and snowboarding are also offered at a reasonable price at the country's small resort, Malbun , in comparison to the expensive lift prices in neighboring Switzerland or Austria. Get up early one morning and drive up the mountains on the east side of the river. From here you have an incredible view over Vaduz & Switzerland that you can stand and admire.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nCosts[ edit ]\nCosts in Liechtenstein are roughly equivalent to those in Switzerland and are therefore somewhat more expensive than other European countries. You will find a few restaurants in the larger cities of Liechtenstein. There is also a McDonald's restaurant (opened in 1996; serves beer), which is very popular and is widely publicised by road signs throughout the country. The many small bakeries are a great place to get a warm, fresh roll or pastry. One recommended restaurant is the Old Castle Inn, Aeulestrasse 22, +423 232 1065, in the centre of Vaduz. It is impossible to miss and offers authentic food at a reasonable price and with a pleasant atmosphere. Contact[ edit ]\nInternet access is available with one station at Telecom Liechtenstein immediate south of Vaduz's centre on the main road, but this is only open during business hours. Most hotels and some bars/restaurants will have net access such as in Schaan . The last real Internet cafe disappeared, because every one in the country has net access in their homes, so the local market completely disappeared and only visitors need access.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nDrink[ edit ][ add listing ]\nThe legal drinking/purchasing age is 16 for wine, beer, and cider. While the legal drinking/purchasing age is 18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. There is a small amount of wine that is produced in Liechtenstein that is available in supermarkets and tourist shops throughout the country. Expect to pay around 25 Swiss Francs for an average bottle. The Prince even owns his own vineyard in Vaduz, off the main road. Beer is also available for purchase that is made with malt from Liechtenstein, although most of the beer itself is brewed in Switzerland. A variety of other European wines, beers, and soft drinks are also available. There is now a brewery in Liechtenstein that produces a variety of beers; lagers including Helles (blonde) and Hefe Weizen (unfiltered wheat) styles are brewed. There is also a one-man distillery in Triesen who makes liquors and schnapps from fruits. Tours on Saturdays. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ]\nThere are a few hotels in Liechtenstein, but they tend to run on the expensive side. There is one youth hostel located in Schaan, but it closes for the winter.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nYou will probably be able to find cheaper accommodation in neighbouring Feldkirch , Austria. Camping Mittagspitz is the only full-service campsite in the Principality. It offers excellent facilities, a friendly reception and a fabulous reasonably priced restaurant. There are three other camp grounds in Liechtenstein. One in Bendern, one in Vaduz, and one in Triesen. All are pretty much full year round. Gasthaus Krone, Dorf 36, 9488 Schellenberg (next to post office and bus-station), ☎ +423 373 1168, [4] . Very inexpensive rooms. Familly run hotel and restaurant. 15 km away from Vaduz, regular (hourly) bus service to all parts of Liechtenstein. 60 CHF (double). edit\nLearn[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein's university offers courses only in technical sciences. Without either Liechtenstein/Swiss or EU citizenship, a large bank balance and a fluency in German, it is unlikely to interest visitors. Work[ edit ]\nFinding work in Liechtenstein is difficult. A majority of non-nationals working in the Principality are Swiss, with a smaller number of Austrians and Germans. Liechtenstein is not a member of the European Union, so the government has no obligation to let nationals of EU member states work and live in the country.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nStay safe[ edit ]\nLiechtenstein is easily one of the safest countries in the world, though it is not without its problems. The most common crime in Liechtenstein is of a non-violent nature, though the Principality maintains a well-equipped police force which maintains a presence on the streets. In the late 1990s, the Liechtenstein Landespolizei launched a crackdown on prostitution in Vaduz. Considering the largest cities nearby are Innsbruck and Zürich, outside of Schaan and Vaduz, the whole place can seem very rural. Drunk drivers and winter road conditions may be your only \"realistic\" concern. Speed limits are strictly enforced by speed cameras which will be very pricey. Don't speed, enjoy the scenery instead! The country's beautiful scenery is also very dangerous. Cases of hikers finding themselves in difficulty are very common, and extreme care should be taken when leaving the well-marked trails. Follow local advice, read local weather forecasts (newspapers in the Principality print individual forecasts for the different cities in Liechtenstein, which is beneficial because the difference in altitude often cause different weather conditions), and ensure that you have the correct equipment before setting out.","Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nStay healthy[ edit ]\nThere are excellent medical facilities in Liechtenstein, but it is more likely that you would be transferred to a hospital in Switzerland should you require medical attention. If you are an Austrian or EU citizen you may want to seek medical attention in neighbouring Feldkirch, Austria. Respect[ edit ]\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein has existed for centuries as an independent state and this should be remembered. Liechtenstein is not part of Switzerland or Austria, and its citizens will not hesitate to remind you. Remember that this is a traditional Catholic country. On Sundays, the streets are almost dead except for the tourists and the tourist shops. Liechtensteiners are very proud of their national identity and would take offence at being wrongly labelled \"German\", \"Austrian\" or \"Swiss\". Those who may feel inclined to denounce the monarchy as a system of government should be advised: the prince is well loved and very popular, and he is certainly held in high esteem when discussing national politics. Get out[ edit ]\nFeldkirch , Austria and Lake Constance make for wonderful destinations.","The Two Double Landlocked Countries - Gunnar Garfors\n\nGlobetrotting Galore by Gunnar Garfors: The Two Double Landlocked Countries\nThe Two Double Landlocked Countries\nUtilising local transport in one of the only two landlocked countries in the world. There are some claims to fame that are more unusual than others. And we all know that something unusual or unique inevitably ends up on bucket lists around the world. It doesn't usually take that much, though. Just check out Instagram, Twitter or Facebook. Bragging about restaurants you have visited, drinks you have consumed, views you have experienced, clothing that you wear or celebrities you have slept with is commonplace. I am myself guilty as charged with several, but not all, of the examples listed above. But let's get down to business and concentrate on the important thing in life. Travelling. I have been to all 198 countries in the world, and written a book about it. It came out in English in July, 2015 . Visiting countries that fit a certain bill are present on a lot of bucket lists. One of the more unusual that I have heard about are double landlocked countries. What they are? A landlocked country has no access to an ocean at its borders.","The Two Double Landlocked Countries - Gunnar Garfors\n\n44 of the world's 198 countries are landlocked. See the list below. A double landlocked country on the other hand is a country that is surrounded by landlocked countries. There are only two such countries in the world. Liechtenstein in Europe is surrounded by two landlocked countries; Switzerland and Austria while Uzbekistan in Asia is surrounded by five, all of them are stan countries (ending with \"stan\"). They are Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Uzbekistan is of course a stan country on its own. As there are seven stan countries in total, the only stan country missing is then Pakistan, which is 300 kilometers from Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan is then of course the only country in the world exclusively surrounded by stan countries. Oh, the trivia you pick up here... The 44 landlocked countries of the world\nAfghanistan","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Liechtenstein\nFürstentum Liechtenstein\nCAPITAL: Vaduz\nFLAG: The national flag is divided into two horizontal rectangles, blue above red. On the blue rectangle, near the hoist, is the princely crown in gold. ANTHEM: Oben am jungen Rhein (On the Banks of the Young Rhine). MONETARY UNIT: The Swiss franc (SwFr) of 100 centimes, or rappen, has been in use since February 1921. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 centimes and 1, 2, and 5 francs, and notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 francs. SwFr1 = $0.80418 (or $1 = SwFr1.2435; as of 2004). WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard. HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Epiphany, 6 January; Candlemas, 2 February; St. Joseph's Day, 19 March; Labor Day, 1 May; Assumption, 15 August; Nativity of Our Lady, 8 September; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Immaculate Conception, 8 December; Christmas , 25 December; St. Stephen's Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension, Whitmonday, and Corpus Christi. TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT\nLiechtenstein, roughly triangular in shape, is a landlocked country situated in the Rhine River Valley. The fourth-smallest country in Europe , it is bordered by the Austrian province of Vorarlberg to the n and e, the Swiss canton of Graubünden to the s, and the Rhine River and the Swiss canton of St. Gallen to the w, with a total boundary length of 76 km (47 mi). The principality has an area of 160 sq km (62 sq mi) and extends 24.5 km (15.2 mi) n–s and 9.4 km (5.8 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Liechtenstein is about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC. Liechtenstein's capital city, Vaduz, is located in the western part of the country. TOPOGRAPHY\nLiechtenstein is divided into a comparatively narrow area of level land bordering the right bank of the Rhine River and an upland and mountainous region occupying the remainder of the country; the level land occupies about two-fifths of the total surface area. The greatest elevation, Grauspitz (2,599 m/8,527 ft), is in the south, in a spur of the Rhaetian Alps.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nCLIMATE\nClimatic conditions in Liechtenstein are less severe than might be expected from its elevated terrain and inland situation; the mitigating factor is a warm south wind called the Föhn. The annual lowland temperature varies between -4.5°c (24°f) in January and 19.9°c (68°f) in July. Late frost and prolonged dry periods are rare. Average annual precipitation is 105 cm (41 in). FLORA AND FAUNA\nThe natural plant and animal life of Liechtenstein displays a considerable variety because of the marked differences in altitude. A number of orchid species are able to grow because of the warmth carried by the Föhn. In the higher mountain reaches are such alpine plants as gentian, alpine rose, and edelweiss. Common trees include the red beech, sycamore, maple, alder, larch, and various conifers. Indigenous mammals include the deer, fox, badger, and chamois. Birds, including ravens and eagles, number about 120 species. ENVIRONMENT\nThe Nature Conservation Act, adopted in 1933, was the nation's first major piece of environmental legislation; the Water Conservation Act dates from 1957, and air pollution laws were passed in 1973 and 1974. All wastewater is purified before being discharged into the Rhine .","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nAccording to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included two types of mammals, one species of bird, and five species of invertebrates. Threatened species include the great horned owl, the Eurasian beaver, the hermit beetle, and the Apollo butterfly. POPULATION\nThe population of Liechtenstein in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 35,000, which placed it at number 187 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 11% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 18% of the population under 15 years of age. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.4%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 40,000. The population density was 219 per sq km (567 per sq mi), with the population heavily concentrated in the Rhine Valley, in which the two largest communities, Vaduz and Schaan, are located. The UN estimated that 21% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.51%.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe capital city, Vaduz, had a population of 5,000 in that year. MIGRATION\nThere were 12,000 foreign residents in Liechtenstein in 2000, comprising approximately one-third of the total population. Moreover, about 6,885 Austrians and Swiss commute to Liechtenstein daily. Several hundred Italian, Greek, and Spanish workers have migrated to the principality on a semipermanent basis. In 1998 and 1999, Liechtenstein accepted a high number of Kosovo Albanian asylum seekers, granting them temporary protection. The number of asylum seekers and people under temporary protection comprised nearly 2% of the overall population of Liechtenstein in 1999. In 2004 there were 149 refugees and 68 asylum seekers. The estimated net migration rate in 2005 was 4.8 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory. ETHNIC GROUPS\nThe indigenous population, accounting for 86% of the total population, is described as being chiefly of Alemannic stock, descendants of the German-speaking tribes that settled between the Main and Danube rivers. Italian, Turkish, and various other groups account for the remaining 14%. RELIGIONS\nThe state religion is Roman Catholicism, to which about 78% of the population adhere; however, absolute freedom of worship prevails. About 0.07% of the population are Protestants and 0.04% are Muslims.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe Eastern Orthodox Church has about 254 members. Buddhists, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Anglicans, Jews , Baha'is and New Apostolics each have less than 80 members. TRANSPORTATION\nThe line of the Arlberg express ( Paris to Vienna ) passes through Liechtenstein at Schaan-Vaduz, extending for 18.5 km (11.5 mi), but few international trains stop. The main center for reaching Liechtenstein is Buchs, Switzerland , about 8 km (5 mi) from Vaduz. Postal buses are the chief means of public transportation both within the country and to Austria and Switzerland. A tunnel, 740 m (2,428 ft) in length, connects the Samina River Valley with the Rhine River Valley. In 2002, there were some 250 km (155 mi) of paved roadways. A major highway runs through the principality, linking Austria and Switzerland. The nearest airport is in Zürich, Switzerland. As of 2004, the country had 28 km (17 mi) of navigable waterways. HISTORY\nThe territory now occupied by the Principality of Liechtenstein first acquired a political identity with the formation of the sub-country of Lower Rhaetia after the death of Charlemagne in 814.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe County of Vaduz was formally established in 1342 and became a direct dependency of the Holy Roman Empire in 1396. The area (to which, in 1434, was added the Lordship of Schellenberg, in the north) was ruled in turn by various families, such as the counts of Montfort, von Brandis, van Sulz, and von Hohenems. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), the area was invaded first by Austrian troops and then, in 1647, by the Swedes. After the von Hohenems line encountered financial difficulty, Prince Johann Adam of Liechtenstein purchased from them first Schellenberg (1699) and then Vaduz (1712). The Liechtenstein family thus added to its vast holdings in Austria and adjoining territories. The Principality of Liechtenstein as such was created on 23 January 1719 by act of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, who made it a direct fief of the crown and confirmed the rule of Prince Anton-Florian, Johann Adam's successor, under the title of Prince von und zu Liechtenstein. During the Napoleonic wars, Liechtenstein was invaded by both the French and the Russians. Following the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), Liechtenstein joined the Confederation of the Rhine, which made the principality a sovereign state.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn 1815, following the downfall of Napoleon, Liechtenstein joined the newly formed Germanic Confederation. With Prussia 's victory over Austria in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), the Confederation was dissolved and the constitutional ties of Liechtenstein to other German states came to an end. In the war, Liechtenstein had furnished Austria-Hungary with 80 soldiers; two years later, the principality disbanded its military force for all time. From 1852, when the first treaty establishing a customs union was signed, until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied economically to Austria. After the war, the collapse of the Austrian currency and economy inclined the principality to seek economic partnership with its other neighbor, Switzerland. A treaty concluded with Switzerland in 1923 provided for a customs union and the use of Swiss currency. Liechtenstein (like Switzerland) remained neutral in World War II , as it had in World War I. After Germany was defeated in 1945, Nazi sympathizers in Liechtenstein who had supported incorporation of the principality into Hitler's Third Reich were prosecuted and sentenced. The postwar decades have been marked by political stability and outstanding economic growth.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nPrince Franz Josef II, who succeeded his granduncle, Franz I, in 1938, was the first reigning monarch actually to reside in Liechtenstein. On 26 August 1984, Franz Josef II handed over executive authority to his eldest son and heir, Crown Prince Hans-Adam. Hans-Adam II has been ruling prince since 13 November 1989, after Franz Josef II died. Liechtenstein has sought further integration into the world community. The country was admitted to the UN in September 1991. In Europe, Liechtenstein joined EFTA in 1991 and became a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1995. Disagreements between Prince Hans-Adam II and parliament arose in the latter half of 1999. In September, the prince's assertion that he had the right to dissolve the government at his discretion raised tensions to the point where Hans-Adam threatened to go into exile in Austria. In October, the European Court of Human Rights ruled on a complaint filed by Dr. Herbert Wille, a senior judge whom the prince had refused to re-appoint because of Wille's assertion that the country's Supreme Court rather than its monarch should be the ultimate authority on constitutional issues.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe court ruled that in depriving Wille of his judicial position because of his political views, the prince had violated the judge's freedom of speech. Wille was awarded 10,000 Swiss francs in compensation as well as payment of his legal costs. Sixty-four percent of Liechtenstein's voters approved a new constitution for Liechtenstein in a referendum held in March 2003; Hans-Adam II will be granted near-absolute powers. Turnout was large, with 14,800 of Liechtenstein's 17,000 electorate casting votes. The prince now has the right to dissolve government, control a committee appointing judges, and has veto power over legislation. The constitution also gives the people the power to call a referendum and abolish the monarchy. As a result of the changes, which many observers deemed undemocratic, Prince Hans-Adam II rescinded his pledge to leave the country. On 15 August 2004 Prince Hans-Adam II transferred the official duties of the ruling prince to his son and heir apparent, Alois, who was seen as less confrontational than his father. Prince Hans-Adam II retained the status of Chief of State. Liechtenstein ranks as one of the world's most prosperous countries with one of the world's highest living standards while its people pay very low taxes.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn 1999, the royal family itself was ranked as the wealthiest in all of Europe while Prince Hans-Adam II personally was ranked as Europe's third-wealthiest monarch. However, in 2000 Liechtenstein ranked among the top 15 countries named by an international task force investigating countries whose banking laws make money laundering possible. Liechtenstein took steps in 2001 to make its banking system more transparent, however a 2003 International Monetary Fund report concluded that although the banking sector had updated its banking regulation, there were not enough staff to fully enforce the regulations. GOVERNMENT\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the hereditary princes of the house of Liechtenstein. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. The constitution of 5 October 1921, as amended in 1987, provides for a unicameral parliament (Landtag) of 25 members elected for four years. Election is by universal suffrage at age 18 and is on the basis of proportional representation. Women gained the right to vote in 1984. A new voting system that went into effect as of the 1974 national elections provides nine representatives for the Upper Land district and six representatives for the Lower Land district.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nA new constitution was approved in March 2003 that grants the ruling prince extensive powers, including the right to veto legislation and to control the appointment of judges, in addition to the rights guaranteed to him under the former constitution. The prince can call and dismiss the Landtag. On parliamentary recommendation, he appoints the prime minister, who must be of Liechtenstein birth, and the deputy prime minister for four-year terms. It is the regular practice for the prime minister to be of the majority party and the deputy prime minister to be selected from the opposition. The Landtag appoints four councilors for four-year terms to assist in administration. Any group of 1,000 persons or any three communes may propose legislation. Bills passed by the Landtag may be submitted to popular referendum. A law is valid when it receives majority approval by the Landtag and the prince's signed concurrence. POLITICAL PARTIES\nThe two principal parties are the Fatherland Union (Vaterländische Union—VU) and the Progressive Citizens' Party (Fortschrittliche Bürgerpartei—FBP). In the general elections of 1997, the VU, which has held a majority since 1978, won 13 seats in the Landtag and the FBP 10.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nOther parties included the Free List (Freie Liste—FL), two seats; and the Liechtenstein Non-party List (Uberparteilische Liste Liechtensteins—ULL), which was not represented. The general elections in 1993 resulted in a coalition government headed by Mario Frick of the Fatherland Union (VU). Frick was reelected as prime minister by the Landtag in 1997. Although the VU remains the largest single party, Liechtenstein had a coalition government from 1938 until 1997. In the 2001 elections, the FBP won 49.9% of the vote and 13 seats in the Landtag, to the VU's 41.1% and 11 seats. The Free List (Greens) won 8.8% of the vote and 1 seat. Otmar Hasler was named prime minister. It was the first time since 1978 that the FBP held a majority in parliament. The 2005 elections saw the FBP retaining power with 48.7% of the vote and 12 seats, to the VU's 38.2% and 10 seats. The minority party Free List increased their following with 13% of the vote and 3 seats. The next elections were scheduled for 2009. JUDICIAL SYSTEM\nThe principality has its own civil and penal codes, although in certain instances courts composed of Liechtenstein, Swiss, and Austrian judges have jurisdiction over Liechtenstein cases.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nCourts that function under sole Liechtenstein jurisdiction are the county court (Landgericht), presided over by one judge, which decides minor civil cases and summary criminal offenses; the juvenile court; and the Schöffengericht, a court for misdemeanors. The remaining courts, with five judges each, have a mixed composition for purposes of impartiality: three Liechtenstein lay judges, one Swiss judge, and one Austrian judge. The criminal court (Kriminalgericht) is for major crimes. Other courts of mixed jurisdiction are the assize court (Schöffengericht-Vergehen), the superior court (Obergericht), and a supreme court (Oberster Gerichtshof). An administrative court of appeal hears appeals from government actions, and the Constitutional Court determines the constitutionality of laws. In June 1986, Liechtenstein adopted a new penal code abolishing the death penalty. The constitution provides for public trials and judicial appeal. The judiciary is separate from the executive and legislative branches. The 2003 referendum gave the prince the ultimate right to control the appointment of the country's judges. The constitution provides for freedom of assembly, association and religion. Crime is rare and Switzerland is responsible for Liechtenstein's defense.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein retains a restrictive law on the availability of abortion, and is allowable only when the life or health of a woman is threatened. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION\nLiechtenstein became a member of the United Nations on 18 September 1990; it belongs to the IAEA, ITU, UNCTAD, UPU, and WIPO. Liechtenstein is also a member of the Council of Europe, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, EFTA, the OSCE, and the WTO. The principality joined the European Economic Area in 1995. Liechtenstein now has diplomatic relations with nearly 50 countries. In environmental cooperation, the country is part of the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification. ECONOMY\nDespite its small size and limited national resources, Liechtenstein is one of the richest countries in the world on a per capita GDP basis. It has developed since the 1940s from a mainly agricultural to an industrialized country and a prosperous center of trade and tourism. Factories produce a wide range of high-technology manufactures, especially precision instruments. Liechtenstein is also a world leader in specialized dental products. Industrial products are manufactured almost exclusively for export.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nSpecial economic advantages enjoyed by very small nations of Europe (e.g., the issuance of new postage stamps, free exchange of currencies, and liberal laws that provide incentives for the establishment of bank deposits and of nominal foreign business headquarters) also play a part in this prosperity. In 1999 Liechtenstein became the subject of an international investigation into money laundering. Although Liechtenstein subsequently drafted legislation to combat money laundering, the Finance Action Task Force placed the principality on the international \"black list\" for failing to cooperate with international authorities on the matter. About 35% of the people employed in Liechtenstein commute from Switzerland and Austria. Liechtenstein remains a well-known tax haven, and a location for holding companies to establish nominal offices; these provide for 30% of state revenues. The country has no central bank and does not print its own currency, but uses the Swiss franc instead. Liechtenstein is engaged in harmonizing its economic policies with those of the EU. In 1999, its GDP (at purchasing power parity) was $825 million, an 11% improvement over the previous year. In 2002, the unemployment rate for the country's 10,000 domestic workers was 1.3%. More than 19,000 workers commute to Liechtenstein from neighboring countries—Austria, Switzerland, and Germany.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nINCOME\nThe US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) reports that in 2005 Liechtenstein's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $825.0 million. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $25,000. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 11%. The average inflation rate in 2001 was 1%. LABOR\nAs of end 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), there were 29,000 persons in the labor force, including 19,000 foreigners, of whom 13,000 commuted to work from Switzerland, Germany and Austria. As of that date, 1.3% of the workforce were in the agricultural sector, with industry accounting for 47.4% and the services sector 51.3%. Liechtenstein's workforce is highly skilled, but there are not enough native-born workers to meet industry's needs. Unemployment as of September 2002 was 1.3%. All workers, including foreigners, are entitled to form and join unions. There is one trade union that represents about 13% of the workforce.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nStrikes are permitted but are not generally used. Most collective bargaining agreements are adapted from ones signed between Swiss workers and employers. There is no minimum wage, although wages are among the highest in the world. The legal workweek is 45 hours in the industrial sector and 48 hours in nonindustrial firms. The actual workweek is usually 40 to 43 hours. Occupational safety and health standards are set by the government and are rigorously enforced. The minimum working age is 16, but exceptions to this may be made for children wishing to leave school at the age of 14. AGRICULTURE\nLiechtenstein has only 912 hectares (2,254 acres) of arable land. Until the end of World War II (1939–45), the economy was primarily focused on agriculture. In the Rhine Valley, the most productive area, the chief vegetables are corn, potatoes, and garden produce. On gradual mountain slopes, a variety of grapes and orchard fruits are grown. Alpine pasture, particularly well suited for cattle grazing, covers over 35% of the total land area. In 2005, cattle numbered about 6,000; hogs, 3,000; and sheep, 2,900. ENERGY AND POWER\nThe first Liechtenstein power station went into operation in 1927; its capacity is now 900 kW.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nAnother station was constructed in 1947–49; it has an installed capacity of 9,600 kW. Total installed capacity in 1989 was 23,000 kW; production amounted to 150 million kWh in 1995. Since domestic production no longer meets local requirements, supplementary energy is imported from Switzerland, especially in winter. In 1995, 92.5% of Liechtenstein's energy requirement was imported from abroad. Consumption of electricity in 2001 was 313.5 million kWh. Imports of electricity in the same year totaled 232.8 million kWh. INDUSTRY\nThe industry of Liechtenstein, limited by shortages of raw materials, is primarily devoted to small-scale production of precision manufactures. The output includes optical lenses, dental products, high-vacuum pumps, heating equipment, electron microscopes, electronic measuring and control devices, steel bolts, knitting machines, and textiles. Pharmaceuticals, electronics, ceramics, and metal manufacturing are also important. The largest industrial companies in Liechtenstein are Hilti (construction services), Balzers (electro-optical coatings), Hilcona (frozen foods), and Ivoclar-Vivadent (dental medical technology). Liechtenstein's industry is completely geared to exports; industrial exports rose from SwFr196.7 million in 1967 to SwFr3.0 billion in 1996. Around 48% of the labor force is engaged in industry, trade, and construction. In 1999, industry made up approximately 40% of the overall GDP.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nBy 2004, this share fell to 26.4%. Trade and services are the main contributors to the economy, with a 71.6% share. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY\nLike Swiss industry, manufacturing in Liechtenstein entails a high degree of precision and technological sophistication. Balzers, the country's second-largest employer, is known for its leading role in providing equipment and thin film technology for the CD-ROM industry. Liechtenstein itself has no educational institutions offering advanced scientific training. The Liechtensteinische Gesell-schaft für Umweltschutz, founded in 1973, is concerned with environmental protection. DOMESTIC TRADE\nLiechtenstein and Switzerland are essentially linked in one common economic zone. The domestic economy is largely based on industry and financial services. The primary product industries are electronics, metal manufacturing, and medical precision instruments. About 48% of the work force are foreigners, with 29% commuting from Switzerland and Austria. Vaduz and Schaan, the chief commercial centers, have some specialty shops, but the smaller communities have only general stores. Regular business hours are generally from 8 am to 6:30 pm. Normal banking hours are from 8:15 am to noon and from 1:30 pm to 4 or 5 pm, Monday through Friday.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nFOREIGN TRADE\nGoods to and from Liechtenstein pass freely across the frontier with Switzerland, with which Liechtenstein maintains a customs union. Exports in the mid-1990s averaged SwFr2,021,800 per year, as compared with SwFr893,385,000 in 1980. Exports in 1994 were valued at $2.6 billion. Some 40% of exports in 1996 went to EEA countries. Important exports include precision instruments, ceramics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. Liechtenstein imports mainly raw materials, light machinery, and processed foods. In the mid-1990s, imports averaged SwFr1,074,600,000 per year. In 2003, Liechtenstein's exports reached $3.6 billion. Most of these exports went to the EU and Switzerland. The principal export commodities were construction techniques, electronic products, car parts, dental products, and processed agricultural products. BANKING AND SECURITIES\nAlthough there is a national bank, the duties of the central bank are performed by the Swiss National Bank, a consequence of the currency union with Switzerland. Liechtenstein's banks form an important part of the economy, and they have experienced significant growth in the 1990s. An estimated 4% of the work force was employed by the banking sector in the 1990s.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe National Bank of Liechtenstein (Liechtensteinische Landesbank), founded in 1861, is the state bank of issue; in addition, it deals in real estate mortgages and ordinary banking operations. Liechtenstein Global Trust (LGT), the country's biggest financial institution (owned by the royal family), and the Private Trust Bank Corp., founded in 1956, play an important role in the finance and credit spheres of Liechtenstein's economy. Banking is linked with the Swiss banking system, as is securities trading. In 1945, Liechtenstein's banks had a combined balance sheet of SwFr38 million; in 2003, it was SwFr120 billion, an astonishing SwFr3.6 million for every person in the country. Net income from Liechtenstein's banks totaled SwFr232.5 million in 1996, and contributed over 12% to the country's national income in terms of taxes and dividends paid. Because of Liechtenstein's strict bank secrecy, several thousand foreign businesses are nominally headquartered there. The secrecy laws are, however, waived in the case of criminal intent. There are at present no restrictions on foreign investors' access to financing in Liechtenstein. New laws to combat insider trading and money laundering have recently tightened fiduciary regulations.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nINSURANCE\nInsurance activities in Liechtenstein are variously conducted by the government (old age and survivors' insurance), by private companies under government regulation (e.g., life, accident, health, and fire), and by farmers' associations. In 1996, a new insurance law came into force, focusing on attracting insurance business from abroad, as Liechtenstein is now a member of the European Economic Area. PUBLIC FINANCE\nLiechtenstein's economy has experienced more extensive development and industrialization in the past 40 years than any other Western country. In that period, it went from a predominantly agricultural economy to a highly advanced industry-driven economy. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 1998 Liechtenstein's central government took in revenues of approximately $424.2 million and had expenditures of $414.1 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $10.1 million. TAXATION\nThe main taxes are levied on personal income, business income, and principal. Personal income tax rates are determined by taxable income and taxable wealth. The basic tax rate is 1.2% on income and 0.06% on wealth. However, the communes levy a communal tax of 200%, which brings the combined tax rates to 17.82% on income and 0.89% on wealth.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn addition, a surcharge is levied on the basic tax on income and wealth at rates ranging from 5–395%. Thus, the totals of basic tax, communal tax, and surcharges results in the national tax due. Corporations pay income tax at a rate of 7.5–15%. However, if the company's distributed dividends exceed 8% of taxable capital, an increase of 1–5% is added, based upon the dividend distribution percentage, which can push the maximum rate to 20%. Dividends and interest are subject to a 4% withholding tax. Royalty income is not taxed. Other levies include a capital gains tax on the sale of real estate; death, estate, and gift duties; a motor vehicle registration tax; and a value-added tax (VAT) on goods and services within Liechtenstein and Switzerland at a standard rate of 7.5%. Firms domiciled in Liechtenstein but conducting no gainful pursuits there benefit from extremely favorable tax arrangements, a prime factor in the establishment of nominal business headquarters. Foreign clients pay 1% per year in capital taxes; and only 0.5% for foundations with taxable assets exceeding SwFr10 million. The communes may impose property and income taxes.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nSince joining the European Economic Area in 1995, Liechtenstein has not entered into any agreements covering double taxation, except for Austria. CUSTOMS AND DUTIES\nThere have been no customs between Switzerland and Liechtenstein since a customs treaty was ratified in 1924. On the Austrian border, Switzerland collects the customs at its own rates. Liechtenstein's part of the duties is calculated on the basis of population and the principality pays an annual indemnification to Switzerland for customs and administration. FOREIGN INVESTMENT\nThe Prince of Liechtenstein Foundation has established a number of ventures abroad, mainly in the field of investment management and counseling. Several thousand foreign companies have established offices in Liechtenstein because taxes are very low, banking operates in strict secrecy, and the principality is politically stable. Some industrial establishments are owned and managed by Swiss interests. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\nThe government generally encourages the increasing diversification of industry and the development of tourism. The principality's low taxes and highly secret banking system are attractive to foreign corporations wanting to safeguard patents and trademarks and to individuals who want to protect their wealth for the future. Thousands of corporations have established nominal headquarters in Liechtenstein.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn recent years, the principality is accused of serving as a center for money laundering. In 2002, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) conducted an Offshore Financial Center (OFC) Assessment of Liechtenstein, to evaluate the regulation and monitoring of the country's financial center. The IMF approved of Liechtenstein's efforts to fight money laundering and the financing of international terrorism, and of its planned establishment of an independent supervisory authority. Research and development is a driving force of Liechtenstein's economic success; in 2000, total research and development spending rose over 20% to around $149 million. Also, the industrial sector is diversified and dynamic, serving mostly niche markets outside the country. The relative attractive tax base keeps some of the more prominent companies (Hilti and Unaxis Balzers) in the country, and the low public spending costs (Liechtenstein has no army, no university, and no major medical clinics) keep the federal budget on a surplus. Export income per capita outweighs that of Germany by more than 10 times. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT\nThere is a universal pension system covering all residents, employed persons, and self-employed individuals. It is funded primarily by the government along with contributions from employees and employers.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIt provides benefits for old age, disability, and survivorship. A social insurance system and universal medical coverage provides sickness and maternity benefits. All residents and persons employed in Liechtenstein are entitled to medical coverage. Work injury and unemployment insurance are provided to all employed persons. There is a family allowance based on number of children and a birth grant provided to all residents and nonresident workers. Equality for women is protected by law, and several groups monitor and promote women's rights. An equal opportunity law addresses workplace discrimination and sexual harassment. In 2004 the government-sponsored mentoring classes to inspire women to run for seats in parliament. Domestic violence laws have been enacted and are actively implemented. Human rights are fully respected in Liechtenstein. HEALTH\nThe government regulates the practice of medicine and subsidiary occupations, such as nursing and pharmacy. Life expectancy in 2005 was about 79.55 years. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 11.2 and 6.8 per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was an estimated 4.7 per 1,000 births in 2005. In 2000, Liechtenstein had an estimated 2.5 physicians per 1,000 people. There were approximately 8.3 hospital beds per 1,000 people.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nA program of preventive medicine, introduced in 1976, provides regular examinations for children up to the age of 10. HOUSING\nHouses in the countryside are similar to those found in the mountainous areas of Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein does not have a significant housing problem. About 82% of all dwellings have central heating, 89% have a kitchen, 91% have a private bath, 95% have hot water, and 88% have a common sewage system. EDUCATION\nEducation is based on Roman Catholic principles and is under government supervision. In 1974, the compulsory primary school attendance period was lowered from eight years to five, beginning at age seven. Kindergarten, offered to children ages five to seven, is optional, followed by five compulsory years of primary school. Secondary education is divided into three tracks: oberschule (general); realschule (which offers vocational and, in some cases, university preparatory education), and gymnasium (which provides an eight-year program to prepare students for a university education, with concentrations in either the classics and humanities or economics and mathematics). Liechtenstein also has an evening technical school, a music school, and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nWhile there are no universities in Liechtenstein, gymnasium graduates are may attend universities in Switzerland and Austria and the University of Tubingen in Germany without passing an examination. LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS\nThe National Library (founded in 1961) serves as the public, academic, and national library. It is located in Vaduz and has over 200,000 volumes. There are three specialized libraries maintained by private institutes, and a small library attached to a state music school. The National Museum, located in Vaduz, includes collections from the Prince and the State, containing an important Rubens collection. The Prince Liechtenstein Art Gallery, founded in 1620 and located in Vaduz, is an important cultural institution in Liechtenstein. The museum is housed upstairs in the tourist information office. Also in the capital are a postage museum and a state historical museum. A ski museum opened in Vaduz in 1994, and there are also museums in Schaan, Schellenberg, and Triesenberg. MEDIA\nThe post office (including telegraph and telephone services) is administered by Switzerland. Liechtenstein, however, issues its own postage stamps. The Swiss dial system extends to the principality. Direct-dialing is used throughout the country and includes international service.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn 2002, there were 19,900 mainline phones and 11,400 mobile phones in use throughout the country. Telegraph service is efficient. As of 2001, there were one state and one private television station broadcast, along with a private radio station. Residents also receive radio and television broadcasts from neighboring countries. In 1997 there were 21,000 radios and 12,000 television sets in the country. In 2002, there were 20,000 Internet subscribers in the country. Two daily newspapers are published. The Liechtensteiner Volksblatt reflects the political outlook of the Progressive Citizen's Party. It had a circulation of about 8,200 in 2002. The Liechtensteiner Vaterland reflects the views of the Fatherland Union. It had a circulation of about 9,580 in the same year. Liechtensteiner Wochenzeitung, a weekly, had a circulation of 14,000. The media is said to enjoy a large degree of autonomy and freedom from interference, owing to an independent press, an effective judiciary, and a democratic political system. ORGANIZATIONS\nOrganizations include the Chamber of Industry and Commerce, the Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein, three concert societies, and various other cultural organizations. There are professional organizations representing several fields and occupations. Kiwanis and Lion's clubs are active in the country.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nCharitable institutions include the Liechtenstein Caritas Society (founded in 1924) and the Liechtenstein Red Cross Society (1945). Youth organizations include the Scouts and Guides of Liechtenstein. There are also several organizations devoted to sports and leisure activities. TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION\nAttractions include mountaineering and nature walks, the castles of Vaduz and Gutenberg (overlooking Balzers), the ruins of several fortresses, the numerous local brass bands and choirs, as well as the operetta societies of Vaduz and Balzers. The most popular sports are swimming, golf, tennis, hiking, and skiing. The ski resort of Malbun has 12 hotels and 7 ski lifts. Modern, comfortable buses offer regular service throughout Liechtenstein, connecting with Austria and Switzerland. In Vaduz, the lower country, and the Alpine regions there are hotels and guest houses. The government actively encourages and supports the tourism industry. In 2003, there were 49,002 visitors, mainly from Luxembourg and Switzerland. Hotel rooms numbered 591 with 1,160 beds and an occupancy rate of 25%. The average length of stay that year was two nights. FAMOUS LIECHTENSTEINERS\nJoseph Rheinberger (1839–1901), an organist and composer who lived in Munich , was the teacher of many famous composers. Prince John II (r.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\n1858–1929) was admired for donating some SwFr 75 million to the struggling country after World War I. Prince Franz Josef II (1906–89), whose rule began in 1938, was Europe's longest-reigning sovereign. Liechtenstein's current monarch is Prince Hans Adam II (b.1945), who first was given executive power in 1984 and assumed control in 1989. Prince Alois (b.1968) is regent. In 1980, Hanni Wenzel (b.1956) and her brother Andreas (b.1958) won the World Cup international skiing championships. COUNTRY OVERVIEW\nLOCATION AND SIZE. The independent principality of Liechtenstein is located in central Europe and bordered on the east by Austria and on the south, west, and north by Switzerland . It is one of the smallest countries in the world, with a total area of only 160 square kilometers (62 square miles). Liechtenstein is about 25 kilometers (15.6 miles) long and 6 kilometers (3.75 miles) wide. Its total area is about 0.9 times the size of Washington, D.C. The western edge of the territory lies in the valley of the upper Rhine River and contains a narrow flat strip of arable land.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe rest of the area consists of the foothills of the Alps , covered with forests and rising to several high and rugged peaks in the south. Along with Uzbekistan in Central Asia, Liechtenstein is one of the only two doubly landlocked countries in the world (bounded by other land-locked countries only). The capital and principal urban center, Vaduz, is a small town with a population of about 5,000 located in the west-central part of the country near the Rhine River. POPULATION. The population of Liechtenstein was estimated at 32,207 in July of 2000; in 1998, it was 31,717. Although quite mountainous, Liechtenstein is densely populated, with an overall density of 198 persons per square kilometer (513 per square mile). The population is unevenly distributed and concentrated in the western, lower part of the country, along the Rhine . The principality has a population growth rate of 1.02 percent, with a birth rate of 11.83 births per 1,000 population. The death rate is 6.64 deaths per 1,000 population, and there is a high positive net migration rate of 5.03 immigrants per 1,000 population (all according to 2000 estimates).","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nApproximately one-third of the population are resident aliens, including Iranians, Turks , and others, while the vast majority of the Liechtenstein nationals are mostly of ethnic Germanic origin, like their neighbors in eastern Switzerland and western Austria. A south German dialect, Alemannish, is commonly spoken by some 87.5 percent of the population, while literary German is the official language of the country. In 2000, the labor force included 22,891 people, of which an astounding number of 13,847 were foreigners, mostly guest workers ; 8,231 people commuted from neighboring Austrian and Swiss towns to work daily. Unlike Switzerland, however, immigration does not seem to be a major issue in the domestic political debates in Liechtenstein (in 2000, the Swiss electorate had to vote in a referendum on a conservative proposal to impose an 18 percent quota on the number of foreign workers in the country but decided against). Approximately 88 percent of the population are traditionally Roman Catholic. In 1991, primary (elementary and junior high) school enrollment in the principality totaled 1,985 children, and about 1,200 attended secondary (high) schools. Primary and secondary education is free in Liechtenstein and schooling is required for 8 years.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe population, as elsewhere in Europe, is aging, with a high life expectancy at birth (82.47 years for women, 75.16 for men, 78.81 for the total population, all 2000 estimates). Around 18 percent of the people are 14 years of age and younger, 71 percent are between 15 and 64, and 11 percent are 65 or older. The high and stable standards of living and the declining fertility rate, combined with the limited but steady immigration flow, will contribute to a slow growth of the population and the aging of the Liechtenstein nationals, while immigrants' and guest workers' families will display a more youthful population profile. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY\nLiechtenstein is tiny in size and has very limited natural resources, but it is nevertheless a prosperous country with a highly industrialized market economy and a robust financial services sector. Since World War II (in which the principality remained neutral), its liberal political regime and remarkably low business taxes have fueled strong economic growth and attracted many foreign companies.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nFor over 80 years, Liechtenstein has been participating in a customs union with Switzerland; it uses the Swiss franc as its national currency, and in most aspects may be regarded as a part of the Swiss economy. Liechtenstein statistics are also included in the Swiss national statistics. Since 1919, Switzerland has represented Liechtenstein abroad diplomatically, as well. Living standards in the country are similar to those in the urban areas of neighboring Switzerland and Austria, both reckoned among the most affluent societies in the world. Its gross domestic product ( GDP ) per capita of $23,000 (1998 estimate) is also among the highest in the world. Favorable tax treatment and extremely streamlined incorporation legislation have lured as many as 74,000 holding (or so-called \"letter box\") companies, operating overseas, to establish their head offices nominally in Liechtenstein, providing thus as much as 30 percent of the country's revenue basically in maintenance, administrative, and office services fees. Liechtenstein has been an active member of the European Economic Area (EEA), an organization serving as an intermediary between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU) since May 1995.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe government is working to harmonize its economic policies and legislation with those of the EU, although it is not negotiating for full membership in the union. Some modern manufacturing industries have developed recently; notably in precision instruments, dental and optic materials, pharmaceuticals, and electronics. These industries contribute much to the country's positive trade balance. Yet much of the principality's income is also derived from tourism, banking, the sale of postage stamps and other retail services, and from the office expenses of the international companies maintaining their headquarters there. POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy governed by a hereditary prince. According to the constitution of 1921, legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament (Landtag), consisting of 25 members elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. The Landtag members are elected in the 2 multi-seat constituencies (electoral districts): the Upper (or highland, formerly called Vaduz) and the Lower (or lowland, formerly called Schellenberg), by proportional representation . Although very small in size, Liechtenstein is further divided into 11 administrative units or communes (Gemeinden): Balzers, Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Planken, Ruggell, Schaan, Schellenberg, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nElections for the Landtag held on 9 and 11 February 2001, gave 49.9 percent of the vote and 13 Land-tag seats to the Progressive Citizens' Party in Liechtenstein (FBPL), a conservative group. The then ruling conservative Patriotic Union (VU) received 41.1 percent and 11 seats, and its representative, chief of government Mario Frick, resigned accordingly. An environmentalist group, Free List (FL), remained third with 8.8 percent of the vote, or just 1 seat in the House. In February 1997, the Free List (FL) had achieved the best score in its history with 11.6 percent of the vote, corresponding to 2 seats in the Landtag. Like the VU, in 2001 the FL lost some votes in favor of the FBPL and was not able to retain its former positions in the lowland constituency. Participation in the election reached 86.7 percent, just a bit less than in 1997, when 86.9 percent of the electorate voted. The hereditary prince and the elected government constitute the executive branch of government. The ruling prince, Hans Adam II, assumed his executive powers in 1984, and his heir apparent is his son, Prince Alois von und zu Liechtenstein.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nOn the motion of the parliament, the prince appoints a prime minister and 4 councilors to form the cabinet. Prior to the February 2001 elections, Mario Frick of the VU was the prime minister and chief of government since 15 December 1993. Following the 2001 elections, Otmar Hasler was selected as the prime minister. Liechtenstein is a member of many international organizations such as the United Nations (it maintains a permanent mission to the UN in New York ), the Council of Europe, the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the EFTA, the World Trade Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the World Intellectual Property Organization, among others. With a maximum tax rate of 18 percent, Liechtenstein has one of the most liberal tax regimes in the world, and its banks, generally considered as members of the Swiss banking family, enjoy a stable reputation for their solidity and privacy policies. The country has a stable foreign trade balance surplus and zero foreign debt .","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nBut in 2000, it faced its biggest domestic and foreign political crisis since World War II as the affluent principality was shaken by allegations that it was an international money laundering center and by the subsequent arrests of several leading public figures ordered by a special prosecutor from Austria. A conflict between Prince Hans Adam II and the government over the extent of the royal family's powers, rein-vigorated by the money laundering allegations in 2000, almost brought about a constitutional crisis later that year. The prince and the cabinet had been at odds for quite a long time over a pending project for a constitutional reform. The prince had claimed he wanted to modernize the way Liechtenstein is run and give more power to the people, while the then prime minister Mario Frick and other critics held the opposite was true and claimed the envisaged reforms would concentrate more power in the prince's hands.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe prince threatened to muster the 1,500 signatures required by law to bring about a referendum on the issue if he did not get what he wanted, and said if he was to lose the constitutional debate he would leave for Austria, the seat of his family before World War II. That might raise serious questions about how the principality would be governed in the future. INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS\nThe transportation system of Liechtenstein consists of 18.5 kilometers (11.5 miles) of railroads, all electrified, owned and operated by, and included in the statistics of\nCommunications\naData is for 1997 unless otherwise noted. bData is for 1998 unless otherwise noted. cData is for 2000 unless otherwise noted. SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [Online]. the Austrian Federal Railways. There are 323 kilometers (201 miles) of paved highways. There are no ports or harbors (the Rhine River is not yet navigable anywhere in Liechtenstein) and there are no airports in the small mountainous principality. The country is served in these respects by the extensive infrastructure of neighboring Switzerland and Austria.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein is not traversed by any major international routes and road traffic in the country is 96 percent home-made while only 4 percent is accounted for by transit traffic, running mostly along the Schaanwald-Nendeln-Eschen-Bendern axis. Electricity production in 1995 was about 150 million kilowatt hours (kWh), and Liechtenstein imported more than 90 percent of its energy from Switzerland and Austria. There is a modern telecommunications network with 19,000 main lines in use in 1995. All are linked to and operated by the Swiss telecom networks (some of the world's most technologically advanced) by cable and microwave radio relay. In 1999, 115 of the Swiss Internet service providers were offering service in Liechtenstein. ECONOMIC SECTORS\nLiechtenstein is highly industrialized, but much of its income is derived from banking, tourism, commerce, the sale of postage stamps, and from the international firms maintaining offices in the country because of more favorable tax treatment. Major manufactures include precision machinery, instruments and tools, pharmaceuticals, food products, metal goods, furniture, and pottery.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe distribution of the labor force by occupation in 1997 was estimated to be as follows: industry, trade, and building, 45 percent; services, 53 percent; and agriculture, fishing, forestry, and horticulture less than 2 percent. AGRICULTURE\nAgriculture contributes just 2 percent of GDP, although about 24 percent of Liechtenstein's territory consists of arable land, with permanent highland pastures making up 16 percent, and forests and woodland occupying 35 percent of the land. Animal husbandry and dairy farming are among the principal agricultural activities. Livestock graze in the alpine meadows during the summer. The fertile soil of the Rhine valley is used mostly for market vegetable gardening. Local agriculture products include wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, and grapes. The principality imports food, and some of it is processed and reexported. Before World War II, almost half of the working population was occupied in agriculture. This number has continually decreased, and in 2000, about 350 persons (or 1.7 percent of the workforce) are active in agriculture, fishing, forestry, and horticulture. Despite the decline in that number, yields have been significantly increasing due to scientific rationalization and intensive machine cultivation.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nINDUSTRY\nAbout one-third of the nearly 23,000 working people of Liechtenstein are employed in industrial establishments. Due to the favorable economic conditions, an efficient, export-oriented high-tech industrial manufacturing sector developed over the last decades of the 20th century. Manufacturing, reported jointly with construction and trade, was responsible for nearly 45 percent of the jobs and the GDP by 2000 and a large percentage of the country's exports. Electronics, metal manufacturing, textiles, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, food products and beverages, and precision instruments manufacture are all well developed. The fact that Liechtenstein's economy exports so much is largely due to its high-tech manufacturing sector that accounts for the majority of its exports. Among the most important domestic manufacturers are the Hilti Corporation, a large international supplier of rail anchors and anchor installation services to the rail transport industry, and electrical equipment; Ivoclar-Vivadent, developer and distributor of well-regarded products for prosthetic, restorative, and preventive dentistry; Balzers-Bal-Tec AG, manufacturers of electron microscopy preparation products for biological specimens; Fancoldi R.T., gem industry specialists, producing colored diamonds; and Aqualine, a major Austrian Alps mineral water bottling company. Construction is also an important contributor to the economy, although its scope is necessarily limited.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nAccording to the building statistics, in the last quarter of 2000, 115 new buildings were granted permits. As compared to the same period of 1999, this corresponded to 39 permits less, but the construction volume increased by 5.6 percent and construction costs increased by 17.2 percent to 163.3 million Swiss francs. Building activities generally shifted from housing developments and public buildings towards industry and trade. The construction volume in that sector increased by 110.4 percent, while a decrease of 93.4 percent was registered for public buildings. SERVICES\nLiechtenstein's economy is increasingly service-based, as in most of western Europe. Services contributed to 53 percent of GDP, and about 10,000 people were employed in the sector in 2000. It particularly expanded over the last decade of the 20th century. In addition to the catering branch (made of 42 hotels and inns, and 81 restaurants and cafes), the public administration, insurance companies, and the health and educational systems, this sector is specially characterized by a vigorous presence in international commercial and financial transactions and in fiduciary business. Finance in Liechtenstein is traditionally a very well-developed sector.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nApart from the presence of the Swiss banks due to the monetary and customs union and the geographical and cultural proximity between the 2 states, 13 local banks exist. These include Liechtenstein-LGT Bank, an international private bank, claiming to be the largest banking operation in the country; Bank von Ernst, a financial institution providing Swiss private banking services, portfolio management, and family foundation; and Liechtenstein-VP Bank Group, a private bank founded in 1956, providing a wide range of financial services, holding assets worth some $5.5 billion, and employing about 600 people (but currently facing some serious legal troubles, as shown below), as well as the Centrum Bank AG, Liechtensteinische Landesbank AG, Neue Bank AG, Verwaltungs-und Privat-Bank AG, and Vorarlberger Volksbank AG. The largest banks in Liechtenstein belong to the Swiss Banking Association and recognize most of its rules, as do all the Swiss banks. The Liechtenstein banks, which administer 112.5 billion Swiss francs (US$70 billion), have been known for their liberal policies and privacy, yet, following some serious money laundering allegations in 2000 described below, they intend to end anonymous accounts and carry out identity checks on their customers.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLegislative changes to that effect are being pushed through parliament in hopes of averting possible sanctions from European Union countries and the United States following the scandals. However, bankers are reluctant to give up their judicial independence. Tourism is also an important contributor to the economy. Despite its small size, alpine Liechtenstein is a diverse country with various communities offering a mix of attractions for all tastes. Situated between some of the most attractive tourist regions in Europe, the Swiss and Austrian Alps, the tiny principality often appears on their visitors' itineraries. Museums, banks, boutiques, dining establishments, historical sites, vineyards, and sports (particularly skiing and hiking) facilities are varied and charming. Liechtenstein is considered a microcosm of the European continent. Apart from the 42 hotels and 81 restaurants, the sale of postal stamps by the state post offices, galleries and shops offering art objects, local handicrafts, and souvenirs are also a significant source of revenue. Retail is well-developed and targeted at serving the tourist clients as well as the local customers and commuters, but the small size of the market is still more conducive to small family-owned stores.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nRetail trade experienced a marked upswing over the 1990s as a result of increased specialization of stores, so that a wide range of diverse products is now available. As the Swiss retail sector is developing towards large-scale self-service and discount chain stores, Liechtenstein retailers have had to face fierce competition from the large Swiss shopping malls in the vicinity. Many of the small family-owned shops, relying basically on local customs, went out of business during the 1990s. Some 1,600 retail and wholesale trade enterprises are united in the Liechtenstein Chamber of Trade and Commerce as an umbrella organization. Trade enterprises cater mainly to the domestic market and contribute to the efficient infrastructure of the country. Companies specializing in serving the offshore \"letter box\" companies' various needs in Liechtenstein include the Gestina Trust, specialists in the development and management of offshore companies, legal structures, and settlement advice; the Vazus-Syndikus Treuhandanstalt, offering financial advice and consulting in economic and legal matters, accounting, and contracts; the Vazus-Wanger Group, a law and patent firm in commercial law and asset management, and many others. INTERNATIONAL TRADE\nDue to the very small size of the country's market, Liechtenstein's industry is heavily dependent on exports.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIn 1996, the country exported $2.47 billion worth of goods and services, while importing $917.3 million worth. The European Economic Area (EEA) states are its most important export destinations. Liechtenstein joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as an associate member in 1960 and has been a full member since 1991. In addition, it became a member of the EEA (the intermediary body between the EFTA and the EU) in 1995. Although small, the Liechtenstein economy is very open and its foreign trade balance is traditionally strikingly positive, with exports far outweighing imports, largely thanks to its high-tech manufacturing sector. Principal trade partners in 1995 were the EU and EFTA, recipients of 60.57 percent of exports, and Switzerland, recipient of 15.7 percent, and they were the origins of a comparable percentage of its imports. All trade numbers for Liechtenstein are included in the Swiss national statistics, and therefore a more clear-cut picture of its international trade is difficult to assemble. MONEY\nLiechtenstein has many advantages issuing from its use of the Swiss franc and from officially being part of the Swiss monetary system.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nIt has a strong currency, a balanced budget with revenues of $424.2 million and expenditures of $414.1 million in 1998 (estimate), and a leading banking sector with solid private banks with a reputation for privacy, limited regulation, and the acceptance of foreign deposits with little oversight. Similarly to Switzerland in the late 1990s, however, these conditions have also led to some serious legal drawbacks. Throughout 2000, Liechtenstein has been troubled by recurrent international allegations of domestic money laundering for transnational organized crime, an abuse of Swiss banking privacy policies. In 2000, the German press printed stunning details from a German federal intelligence agency report accusing Liechtenstein of acting as banker to Central American drug cartels and the Russian mafia. The report alleged that a former prime minister, Hans Brunhart, currently head of the Verwaltungsund Privat-Bank (VP Bank), had been laundering drug money. The report named Liechtenstein as the only European country on an International Financial Action Task Force (FATF) list of 15 nations accused of failing to cooperate against money laundering. Finally, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in another 2000 publication, listed the principality\nExchange rates: Liechtenstein\nSOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\namong harmful offshore tax havens alongside Tonga, the Bahamas, and Barbados. The allegations caused a storm of indignation in the country. Brunhart objected, and an independent investigator from Austria appointed by Liechtenstein did not support the case. The investigator found that Liechtenstein was not a hub of money laundering, although he criticized its preventive work against \"hot money.\" In early 2001, the FATF confirmed that the country had made significant progress in connection with the fight against money laundering. The country was removed from the blacklist by the FATF in June of 2001. POVERTY AND WEALTH\nLiechtenstein is renowned as one of Europe's most affluent and carefree communities. With one of the highest measures of GDP per capita in the world, a low inflation rate (in terms of consumer prices) of 0.5 percent (1997 estimate), and the benefits of the monetary and economic union with Switzerland, the tiny principality offers its subjects one of the highest standards of living in the world, although at a very high cost of living.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nNo data as to Liechtenstein's economic equality index ( Gini index ) are currently available, but if Switzerland's index is used for reference, economic equality in the principality is likely to be in better shape than the United States and even in the more egalitarian United Kingdom . No data as to any extreme cases of poverty are available. WORKING CONDITIONS\nDue to the number of specialized high-tech companies in Liechtenstein, there is an enormous demand for highly qualified specialists. Since the national job market, on account of its tiny size, can only partly satisfy the demand, the internationally active companies in particular are heavily recruiting in other countries, mostly Switzerland and Austria, but also elsewhere in Europe and the Middle East . GDP per Capita (US$)\n28,600\nNote: Data are estimates. SOURCE: Handbook of the Nations, 17th,18th, 19th and 20theditions for 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 data; CIA World Factbook 2001 [Online] for 2000 data. In 2000, the labor force included 22,891 people of which 13,847 were foreigners, mostly guest workers; 8,231 people commuted from neighboring Austrian and Swiss towns to work daily.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nA highly skilled workforce, laws promoting labor flexibility, and agreements between trade unions and employers' associations have resulted in very little labor unrest. The late 1990s have been good for Liechtenstein workers, with salaries having increased by an average of 7 percent between 1997 and 1999. It is all the more important that it was possible at the same time to realize improvements on the job market and to lower the unemployment rate. In 2000, the unemployment ratio fell to 1.0 percent of the domestic labor force. The number of 274 individuals registered as unemployed at the end of February 2001 represents the lowest figure since June 2000, when 260 individuals had been registered. In February 2001, 28 persons were registered as unemployed either for the first time or were re-registered. Some 51 individuals were taken out of the statistics, 32 of whom started a new job, and the rest reached retirement age or started a new business. Full employment is a prominent aim of domestic economic policy. It is a goal that can be reached through measures including a project for the occupation of long-time unemployed, as well as a program for the better integration of handicapped employees.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nCOUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\n1719. The former domain of Schellenberg and the country of Vaduz are combined into the Principality of Liechtenstein within the Holy Roman Empire . 1806. The principality is recognized as a sovereign state. Until the end of World War I, it remains closely tied to the Austrian Empire (named the Austro-Hungarian Empire after 1867). 1918. The military defeat and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I forces Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other prosperous yet neutral neighbor, Switzerland. 1938. Prince Franz Joseph II becomes sovereign; the principality remains neutral in World War II (1939-45), while neighboring Austria is annexed by Nazi Germany. 1984. Executive authority is transferred to Prince Hans Adam II (crowned in 1989); a referendum grants women the right to vote in national elections. 1990. Liechtenstein joins the United Nations. 1991. Liechtenstein joins the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). 1992. Voters approve Liechtenstein's membership in the European Economic Area (EEA). 2000. Liechtenstein is disturbed by a money-laundering scandal and a constitutional crisis between the prince and the government.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nFUTURE TRENDS\nThe Liechtenstein economy is closely related to the Swiss one and is dependent on the latter's progress towards full integration in the EU. It is likely that, despite financial scandals and constitutional problems, the principality will preserve its sound economy and high living standards and will continue to attract foreign companies and workers in the foreseeable future. Liechtenstein has already developed close links with the EU through its participation in the EEA, the comprehensive adjusting of its domestic economic regulations to fit the EU standards, and its close relations with the Austrian economy (Austria is a full member of the union). In the event Switzerland finally decides to join the EU, the adjustment of the monetary and banking system (and possibly some agricultural subsidy policies) will likely be among the serious problems facing the small principality in this regard. As to the problems related to the 2000 banking scandal, there is reason to believe that Liechtenstein can guarantee the implementation of some effective measures to combat money laundering.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe former prime minister appointed 4 new judges working at the national court, the prosecution was restructured , the state department for financial services was strengthened, a new Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) was founded, and a special bank department was set up within the national police force. Some needed legislative changes are being vigorously debated. It is expected that the country's banking practices will be soon brought in line with the general EU provisions, without reducing its competitive advantages too much. The positive ruling by the FATF in June of 2001 indicated the success of these measures. It is harder to predict the outcome of the constitutional crisis. In 2000, Hans Adam II announced that he would end the discussion around the constitution as soon as possible. But reflecting on his new constitutional proposal of 1 March 2001, the former head of the constitutional commission, Peter Wolff, noted that in the controversial points, on which parliamentary criticism focused, nothing had been changed. Whatever the decision, however, it is not likely to cause any serious political disturbance in the principality that might jeopardize social stability and economic development. DEPENDENCIES\nLiechtenstein has no territories or colonies. BIBLIOGRAPHY\nGlobal Investment Business Center, Inc. Staff.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein: A Country Study Guide. International Business Publications, 2000. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed July 2001. U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Europe: Liechtenstein. <http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/eurbgnhp.html> . Accessed January 2001. —Valentin Hadjiyski\nVaduz. MONETARY UNIT:\nSwiss Franc (SFR). One SFr equals 100 centimes or rappen. There are notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 1,000 Swiss francs, and coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50 centimes and 1, 2, and 5 Swiss francs. The country maintains a monetary and customs union with Switzerland. The Liechtenstein monetary, fiscal, and banking systems can therefore be regarded as an extension of their Swiss counterparts. CHIEF EXPORTS:\nSmall specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery. CHIEF IMPORTS:\nMachinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles, fuels. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:\nMalbun, Triesen\nINTRODUCTION\nThe region now known as LIECHTENSTEIN has been continuously inhabited since 3000 BC. The region was a part of Charlemagne 's empire in the 8th century, and it later was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire . The Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein was established in 1719 and has been politically independent since 1815. The principality remained neutral in both World Wars. From 1852 until 1919, Liechtenstein was closely tied economically to Austria .","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nWhen Austria's economy collapsed after World War I, Liechtenstein sought closer ties with its other neighbor, Switzerland . Liechtenstein has thrived since World War II as a prosperous center for trade, finance, precision manufacturing, and tourism. Wine production is also economically important. MAJOR CITY\nVaduz\nVaduz is Liechtenstein's capital and main city, located in the western part of the country near the Rhine River. An estimated 5,000 people (about one-sixth of the country's population) lives in Vaduz. Many Swiss and Austrian citizens commute to Vaduz. Few international trains make stops in Liechtenstein, but the main terminal for reaching the country is Buchs, Switzerland, about five miles from Vaduz. Buses regularly travel from Vaduz to Feldkirch, Austria via Schaan. Two oneway streets encircle the center of town. Banking is an increasingly important part of the local economy, and Vaduz is the headquarters for many law firms, banks, and trust companies. Bank secrecy laws and low taxes encourage foreigners to invest in the financial services industry. Near Vaduz are several industrial firms that produce a wide array of products including frozen foods, dental products, central heating systems, and protective coatings for CD-ROMs.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nRecreation and Entertainment\nThe principality's ski resorts are world famous, especially those at Steg and Malbun. The Steg resort has a popular cross-country ski course with an illuminated 1-mile stretch for night skiing. The Malbun resort is located 10 miles from Vaduz and has 12 miles of downhill runs. Members of the British royal family and other celebrities visit the Malbun resort. Hiking, bicycling, and soccer are popular in the summer. The annual number of tourists has been in decline since 1981, although tour buses are seen in Vaduz as much as ever. Vaduz is a small town, and in the summer its streets can become congested with buses and cars. There is a plan to close the main street to all but pedestrian traffic in order to reinvigorate the center of Vaduz. The castle at Vaduz is closed to the public, but it is a popular subject for photographers. The Gutenberg Castle at Balzers is also closed to the public but there are plans to convert it into a museum. The Liechtenstein National Museum contains coins, weapons, and folklore of the country.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nFor such a small country, Liechtenstein has an extensive collection of art works but has never had a museum in which to display them. Hilti, the country's biggest company, has pledged to help finance the building of an art museum in the center of Vaduz. The museum will house the state art collection, exhibit parts of the prince's personal collection, and attract outside exhibitions. The Liechtenstein Postal Museum contains more than 300 frames of national stamps issued since 1912. Groups of ten or more are permitted to sample wines from the prince's own vineyard. Many residents belong to social clubs, and performing in choirs and bands is popular as well. OTHER CITIES\nMALBUN is a hamlet in the mountains of southeast Liechtenstein and is known as the country's ski resort. The resort offers two ski schools, and most runs are for novices or intermediates. With a population of only about 4,200, TRIESEN is the third largest village in the country. South of Vaduz, it lies nestled between the Rhine and the Liechtenstein alps. The beautiful countryside is perfect for outdoor sports enthusiasts.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nHikers may take a trail along the gorge of Lawena, the 1500 meter high alp, or move down into the valley at the foot of the Falknis cliffs. Triesen has several tennis courts and bicycle paths through the village and a beautiful indoor swimming pool. Nearby is the winter sports area Malbun, which offers ski slopes and a natural ice rink. Triesen may also serve as a starting point for excursions to the Swiss mountains or to Lake Constance and to Walensee (Lake Walen). Triesner Hall offers a variety of local cultural and entertainment events throughout the year, including changing historical exhibits and concerts. The St. Mamerten and Maria Chapels are located in the lower part of the village and also contain exhibits on local history. COUNTRY PROFILE\nGeography and Climate\nLiechtenstein is a landlocked country situated along the Rhine River Valley. Liechtenstein is one of Europe 's so-called \"microstates\" (the others are Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City) and has an area of only about 62 square miles, almost the size of Washington, D.C. It is bordered to the north and east by the Austria, and to the south and west by the Switzerland.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe Rhine River flows along its western boundary. A narrow area of relatively level land lies near the Rhine River. The level land occupies about 40% of the country's total area, and the rest of the country is mountainous. The highest point is Grauspitz (8,527 feet) in the south. A steep Alpine slope called the Drei Schwestern (\"three sisters\") extends across the border with Austria. A warm southern wind called the Föhn makes the climate less severe than might be expected from the elevated terrain and inland location. Lowland temperatures average 24° F in January and 68° F in July. The average annual precipitation is 41 inches. Population\nLiechtenstein's population is approximately 32,000. The population is most heavily concentrated in the Rhine River Valley between Schaan and Vaduz. Approximately 88% of the population is Alemannic, descendants of the Germanic tribes that settled between the Main and Danube rivers. The rest of Liechtenstein's population consists of foreign residents, mainly Italian and Turkish. Several thousand Swiss and Austrians commute daily to work in the principality. The state religion is Roman Catholicism, to which approximately 80% of the population adheres. Protestants and other sects account for the remainder.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nGerman is the official language, spoken in an Alemannic dialect. Government\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein was created on January 23, 1719 by act of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. The government is a constitutional monarchy, ruled by the hereditary princes of the house of Liechtenstein. The current monarch is Prince Hans Adam II, who was first given executive power in 1984 and assumed control in 1989. There is a unicameral parliament of 25 members elected every four years. The prince appoints a prime minister, currently Otmar Hasler, selected from the majority party of the parliament. Although the principality has its own civil and criminal codes, in certain instances courts composed of Liechtensteiner, Swiss, and Austrian judges may have jurisdiction over domestic cases. The national flag is divided into two horizontal rectangles, blue above red. On the blue section near the hoist is the princely crown in gold. Arts, Science, Education\nPrimary and secondary education is modeled on Roman Catholic principles and is conducted under government supervision. Many students pursue higher education in Switzerland, Austria, and Germany . The country also has a music school and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nCommerce and Industry\nLiechtenstein has developed since the 1940s from a mainly agricultural to an industrialized nation and a prosperous center for trade and tourism. The majority of factories produce specialized small machinery in addition to precision instruments. Industrial products are made almost exclusively for export. Transportation\nThe main railway for reaching Liechtenstein is Buchs, Switzerland, about 5 miles from Vaduz. Postal buses are the main form of public transportation. A half-mile tunnel connects the Samina River Valley with the Rhine River Valley. A major highway runs through the principality, linking Austria with Switzerland. The nearest airport is in Zürich, Switzerland. Communications\nTelecommunications services are administered by Switzerland. There are no television stations that transmit from Liechtenstein. There are two daily newspapers, the Liechtenstiener Volksblatt and the Liechtensteiner Vaterland, both printed in German. Health\nThe principality has formed agreements with Switzerland and Austria that allow its residents access to hospital facilities in those countries. The government's health care system provides complementary medical examinations for children under the age of 10. NOTES FOR TRAVELERS\nA passport is required for travel to Liechtenstein. A visa is not required for U.S. citizens for stays up to 90 days.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nFor more information on entry requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of Switzerland at 2900 Cathedral Avenue N.W., Washington D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 745-7900, or the nearest Swiss consulate in Atlanta , Chicago , Houston , Los Angeles , New York , or San Francisco . There is no U.S. Embassy or Consulate in Liechtenstein. For assistance and information on travel and security in Liechtenstein, U.S. citizens may contact or register at the U.S. Embassy in Bern at Jubilaeumstrasse 93, telephone (41)(31) 357-7011. LOCAL HOLIDAYS\nJan. 1 …New Year's Day\nJan.2 …St. Berchtold's Day\n100%\nHistory & Background\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein is located between Switzerland and Austria in the Alps of central Europe. Liechtenstein, one of Europe's smallest countries, was acquired by the Liechtenstein family. Prince Hans Adam of Liechtenstein purchased the Imperial Free Territory of Schellenberg in 1699 and the County of Vaduz in 1712, uniting the two territories in 1719 as the Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein, a member state within the Holy Roman Empire . Compulsory education was mandated in 1805. The responsibility for school construction and financing was given to the municipalities resulting in lack of enforcement and unequal educational opportunities for the principality's residents.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe sovereignty and independence of Liechtenstein was established in 1806, developing from a special relationship between French Emperor Napoleon I and Prince John I of Liechtenstein, an Austrian general. First, Liechtenstein was a member state in Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine and later was in the German Confederation. Liechtenstein escaped Europe's nineteenth century wars of German unification, because the country was tucked between Imperial Austria and neutral Switzerland. In 1842, Prince Aloysius II became the first Prince of Liechtenstein to actually visit his country. During the long reign of Prince John II (1858-1929), Liechtenstein was given a Constitution (1862, revised in 1921), disbanded its army (1868), and ended the principality's long standing customs union with Austria in favor of a customs treaty with Switzerland (1923). Prince Francis I (reigned 1929-1938) was the first Prince of Liechtenstein to regularly visit the country. In 1938, the same year Germany annexed Austria, Prince Francis Joseph II (reigned 1938-1989) became the first reigning prince to permanently reside in Liechtenstein. After World War II , Liechtenstein joined the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and the European Economic Area to guarantee its continued political and economic independence.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy with a Prince, Hans Adam II, as Head of State since 1989. Prince Hans Adams represents the country under international law and appoints members of the government, the nation's judges, and civil servants. The Lantag or Parliament, a legislature of 25 delegates elected by the people of Liechtenstein, has authority for the budget, supervises the government's administrative activities, establishes investigating commissions, and recommends legislation. Educational System—Overview\nLiechtenstein's current educational system is based on a series of reforms launched in the middle of the 1980s and implemented in the 1990s, and is under regular review. The Constitution of Liechtenstein requires the state to supervise the whole system of education and schooling. National education in Liechtenstein offers a system of general and vocational education for pupils, students, trainees, and apprentices, which is unrestricted and free of charge. The educational system is responsible for providing students with access to a vocational education based on their abilities and interests. Studies of foreign languages are promoted to prepare students for the demands of a professional career of international interconnections.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nPupils and students are motivated to be participants in a life-long learning process that will benefit both them and the nation. Through close collaboration with Liechtenstein's neighboring countries, Switzerland and Austria, options in all fields of education are available. Liechtenstein's educational system is comparable to the educational systems found in other German-speaking countries. Kindergarten is voluntary and lasts for two years. In practice, 99 percent of all children attend kindergarten. Compulsory school attendance begins at age seven, continues for nine school years, and includes primary and secondary education levels. A voluntary tenth year is available for students to prepare for career opportunities and select professional choices. The Liechtenstein school year begins in mid-August and continues for 40 weeks. In addition to the public school statistics listed below, Liechtenstein has two private preprimary schools, two private primary schools, and one private secondary school. In the year 2000, Liechtenstein had 34 preprimary schools enrolling 334 male and 328 female students with a teaching staff of 59, fourteen primary schools employing 231 teachers for 281 male and 254 female students, and nine secondary schools enrolling 917 males and 931 females with a teaching faculty of 267.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nBecause of its small size, Liechtenstein is not able to offer a fully developed higher educational system within its own borders. Liechtenstein has two public universities. The Fachhochschule Liechtenstein (FHL) enrolls 330 students, 110 from Liechtenstein, in comprehensive programs of graduate and post-graduate vocational education in the fields of building management, international management, logistics, environmental technology, and economic engineering. Liechtenstein's vocational education system utilizes the apprenticeship as the practical method of instruction developed in partnership with the business community. Liechtenstein's second institution of higher learning, the Internationale Akademie fur Philosohie (IAP), offers a course of study in philosophy and enrolls 60 foreign students. The majority of Liechtenstein students graduating with Liechtenstein's university-entrance certificate study abroad in either Switzerland at Fribourg, St. Gall, or Berne universities or Austria in the fields of medicine, law, and economics. In Germany, individual study programs are granted to Liechtenstein students seeking higher education on a case by case basis by the German federal or state governments. A few students attend university in Great Britain and France and in the United States for postgraduate work. Adult education is assigned to non-profit-making institutions within Liechtenstein.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe government of Liechtenstein and the Department of Education supervise the whole educational system, provide the financial support for the population's education within the country and abroad, and determines the curricula and the accreditation of all educational institutions within the nation's borders. The Schulamt (Schools Office) oversees the education system at preprimary, primary, and secondary levels. The Schulamt reviews and recommends qualifications for teacher employment, teacher salaries, the level of state investment in the educational system, the inspection procedures for public and private schools, and curricula. The authority of the Schulamt extends to higher education and grants, pedagogy, media, and teaching materials. Oversight for vocational education is given to the Council of Vocational Education (Berufsbildungsrat ), an advisory committee, and the National Authority of Vocational Education (Amt fur Berufsbildung ) to administer and organize the system. Summary\nSince 1995, Liechtenstein has participated in the European Union 's Leonardo DaVinci Action Program on vocational education. This initiative promotes the integration of Liechtenstein's vocational education system into Europe's educational system. The government of Liechtenstein advocates that its businesses and employees be prepared to cope with the rapid pace of technological and economic change.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein is committed to an active and continuous review of its educational programs to meet the needs of its people and the nation. Bibliography\nJansen, Norbert. Francis Joseph II Ruling Prince of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Government Press and Information Office, 1978. Korner, Kurt. The Educational System in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz, 1998. National Authority of Vocational Education. Vocational Education in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein: Leonardo DaVinci Office, 1998. Seger, Otto. A Survey of Liechtenstein History. Vaduz: Government Press and Information Office, 1984. —William A. Paquette\nOfficial name: Principality of Liechtenstein\nArea: 160 square kilometers (62 square miles)\nHighest point on mainland: Grauspitz (2,599 meters/8,527 feet)\nLowest point on land: Ruggeller Riet (430 meters/1,411 feet)\nHemispheres: Northern and Eastern\nTime zone: 1 p.m. = noon GMT\nLongest distances: 9.4 kilometers (5.8 miles) from east to west; 24.5 kilometers (15.2 miles) from north to south\nLand boundaries: 76 kilometers (47 miles) total boundary length; Austria 35 kilometers (22 miles); Switzerland 41 kilometers (25 miles)\nCoastline: None\nTerritorial sea limits: None\n1 LOCATION AND SIZE\nWith an area slightly smaller than that of Washington, D.C., Liechtenstein is one of the smallest countries in the world, and the fourth-smallest in Euroh2.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nShaped like an elongated triangle, it is sandwiched between the Swiss cantons of Graubünden and St. Gall to the south and west, and the Austrian province of Vorarlberg to the north and east. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES\nLiechtenstein has no territories or dependencies. 3 CLIMATE\nLiechtenstein has a continental climate tempered by a warm south wind called the fohn. Even at the upper Alpine elevations, winter temperatures rarely drop below -15°C (5°F), and lowland temperatures average -5°C (24°F) in January. Summer highs are generally between 20°C (68°F) and 28°C (82°F). Annual precipitation ranges from 91 to 114 centimeters (36 to 45 inches). The higher Alpine peaks are snowcapped year-round. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS\nThe western third of Liechtenstein lies on flat land in the floodplain of the Rhine River, which forms its western boundary. The eastern region consists of Alpine highlands. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS\nLiechtenstein has no major inland lakes. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS\nThe Rhine River and its tributaries drain most of Liechtenstein. The mountain valleys to the east are drained by the Samina River, which rises in the southeast and flows northward through Liechtenstein's mountains into Austria. 8 DESERTS\nThere are no deserts in Liechtenstein.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\n9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN\nAn unusual hill formation, called the Eschnerberg, rises to heights of 730 meters (2,395 feet) on the flat terrain of Liechtenstein's western plains area. Meadows and pastureland make up about 40 percent of the total land area. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES\nLiechtenstein's Alpine foothills and peaks are located on a spur of the Rhaetian Alps called the Rhätikon Massif. Three main valleys traverse the country's mountains. Their highest point is the Grauspitz, which rises to 8,527 feet (2,599 meters) on the southeastern border with Switzerland. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES\nOver the course of many centuries, water has carved a gorge 300 meters (985 feet) deep in the Salzach Valley. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS\nAn unusual hill formation, called the Eschnerberg, rises to heights of 730 meters (2,395 feet) on the flat terrain of Liechtenstein's western plains area. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES\nFormer marshland on the banks of the Rhine was reclaimed for agricultural use in the first half of the twentieth century. Both concrete and wooden bridges span the Rhine, connecting Liechtenstein to neighboring Switzerland. DID YOU KNOW? Liechtenstein is one of only two countries in the world that are doubly landlocked (surrounded by other landlocked countries).","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe other is Uzbekistan . 14 FURTHER READING\nCussans, Thomas, ed. Fodor's Switzerland. New York : Fodor's Travel Publications, 1988. Frommer's Switzerland and Liechtenstein. New York: Prentice Hall Travel, 1994. Greene, Barbara. Valley of Peace: The Story of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Liechtenstein Verlag, 1947. Web Sites\nLonely Planet World Guide: Destination Liechtenstein. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/europe/liechtenstein/ (accessed April 13, 2003). Travel.orgwebsite. http://www.travel.org/liechtens.html (accessed April 24, 2003). Cite this article\nLiteracy rate:\n100%\nThe Imperial Free Territory of Schellenberg (1699) and the County of Vaduz (1712), purchased by the German princely family of Liechtenstein, were merged to form modern Liechtenstein in 1719. Liechtenstein was, successively, a member state of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine from 1807 to 1815, and the German Confederation until 1866. Geographically separated from a united Germany by Austria and Switzerland , Liechtenstein opted for a custom's union, first with Austria and since 1923 with Switzerland. The first Liechtenstein Prince to take up permanent residence in the principality was Francis Joseph II, who reigned from 1938 to 1989. Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy with a reigning prince; since 1989 this has been Hans Adam II.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nThe government is centered in the capital, Vaduz, where a 25-member Diet, or legislature, represents the principality's population of over 32,000 residents. Article 40 of the Constitution of Liechtenstein guarantees each person the right to freely express his opinions and to communicate his ideas verbally, in writing, and in print, or by picture, within the limits of the laws and of morality. The same Article 40 rejects censorship except in public performances and exhibitions. Although a small nation, Liechtenstein has a highly developed industrialized economy based on the free-enterprise system. Low business taxes and easy incorporation rules have enabled almost 74,000 companies to establish offices within the principality. Liechtenstein's workforce is divided among the service industry, agriculture, fishing, foresting, horticulture, and industry, trade, and building, and the country's workers are among Europe's highest wage earners. Newspapers and periodicals and radio and television represent the media in Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein's two daily newspapers are Zeitungen (www.vaterland.li), with a 1995 circulation of 8,920, and the Liechtensteiner Volksblatt (www.lol.li/Volksblatt), with 8,700 readers in 1995. The Liechtensteiner Woche is a weekly newspaper with a 1998 circulation of 13,900.","Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\n\nLiechtenstein prints two weekly periodicals of general interest, Liechtensteiner Anzeigere, which had a 1995 circulation of 29,000, and the Liechtensteiner Wochenzeitung, with 13,880 readers in 1995. Liechtenstein has only one radio station, Radio Liechtenstein (Radio L, www.radio.li), and only one television station, XML Television. The three press bureaus in Liechtenstein are L-Press, Mediateam, and Pressburo Vaduz. The population of Liechtenstein also has ready access to newspapers, periodicals, radio stations, and television stations published and/or broadcast from outside the borders of the principality. Liechtenstein citizens considering a career in the media usually attend universities in neighboring Switzerland, Austria, or Germany. Bibliography\nConstitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Gutenberg, 1982. Kranz, Walter, ed. The Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Government Printing Office, n.d. Seger, Otto. A Survey of Liechtenstein History. Vaduz: Government Printing Office, n.d. World Mass Media Handbook, 1995 ed. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1995. William A. Paquette"],"string":"[\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nLiechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\nTime Zone\\nUTC +1\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein (German: Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a small, alpine German-speaking country doubly landlocked by Switzerland and Austria . It is the last remnant of the Holy Roman Empire and an independent nation with very close ties to Switzerland. It enjoys a very high standard of living and is home to some incredibly beautiful mountain scenery. The principality's capital, Vaduz , is mainly a modern city and a major centre of commerce and international banking. History[ edit ]\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein was established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719 and became a sovereign state in 1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria , but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money laundering and tax evasion. However, the days of bringing suitcases of money into banks for deposit without questions asked is over.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nLiechtensteiners are also very proud of the fact that their nation has never been physically involved in a battle or military confrontation with an \\\"enemy state\\\" and see their flag as a banner of peace. Economy[ edit ]\\nDespite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. The Liechtenstein economy is widely diversified with a large number of small businesses. Low business taxes--the maximum tax rate is 20%--and easy incorporation rules have induced a large number of holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been, since May 1995, a member of the European Economic Area, an organization serving as a bridge between the EFTA and the EU. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nLiechtenstein has one of the highest personal income rates (GDP Per Capita) in the world, with the base rate of income tax currently standing at just 1.2%. Liechtenstein was the home of the Curta calculator. Geography[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein is very mountainous and one of the world's two doubly-landlocked countries (Meaning that the countries that border it are themselves landlocked too) along with Uzbekistan . Most of Liechtenstein's population lives in the long and wide Rhine Valley in the western third. Roads are mainly laid out in a north-south pattern following the valley as well. To the north the main roads lead to the border with Austria, to the south they enter Switzerland, and to the west across the river the bridges also cross into Switzerland. Most of the eastern border with Austria is not passable and is only accessible by foot as it is very mountainous, though the north of the country is well connected by road to Feldkirch in Austria . The country's highest point is the Grauspitz, which stretches to 2,599m. Liechtenstein is 2.5 time bigger than San Marino and it is 81 times bigger than Monaco .\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nClimate[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein has a continental climate featuring cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain, making the country a moderately popular ski destination. Summers are cool to moderately warm, also often cloudy and humid. Entry requirements[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein is a member of the Schengen Agreement . There are no border controls between countries that have signed and implemented this treaty - the European Union (except Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Ireland, Romania and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. Likewise, a visa granted for any Schengen member is valid in all other countries that have signed and implemented the treaty. But be careful: not all EU members have signed the Schengen treaty, and not all Schengen members are part of the European Union. This means that there may be spot customs checks but no immigration checks (travelling within Schengen but to/from a non-EU country) or you may have to clear immigration but not customs (travelling within the EU but to/from a non-Schengen country). Please see the article Travel in the Schengen Zone for more information about how the scheme works and what entry requirements are.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nDespite the country being a member of the Schengen Agreement and the EEA , Liechtenstein is not a member of the EU . Therefore, travellers entering Liechtenstein from Austria (and vice versa) are subject to non-systematic customs controls, despite the fact that there are no immigration controls. Liechtenstein, however, maintains a complete customs union with Switzerland and is represented by Switzerland in embassies around the globe. Since 1923 there have been no border formalities needed for crossing between the two countries. In essence there is nothing more than a sign announcing your arrival in Switzerland or Liechtenstein (when you cross the Rhine or the land border), similar to the situation at smaller border crossings in many EU nations (Austria/Germany/France/Italy etc.). Stamp hunters can, however, get an authentic Liechtenstein entry stamp in their passport at Vaduz 's tourist office for 3.00 Swiss franc (CHF) or €2.50. The stamp is not available at the Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum; the tourist office is the only place that you can purchase the stamp. Be aware that such memorial stamps may render your passport 'falsified' in the eyes of Finland's consular and border control officials.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nBy plane[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein has no airports due to the size of the country. You can take a flight to Zürich Airport (115km). Although the airport was the only major airport near Liechtenstein, there were some limited services from Vienna to St. Gallen -Altenrhein Airport (53km) by Austrian Arrows . There was also a private airport in Bad Ragaz, very near the country. Another popular point of entry is through Friedrichshafen in Germany , which is served by low-cost airlines and Turkish Airlines. There is a heliport in Balzers owned and operated by Swiss Helicopter. From there, one can take scenic flights around the country or book shuttle flights, e.g. from or to Zurich airport. The latter being private charter flights, not scheduled ones, cost around 4000 CHF for up to five passengers. By train or bus[ edit ]\\nThe easiest way of getting to Liechtenstein by train is to travel to Sargans or Buchs in Switzerland, or Feldkirch in Austria, and then take a connecting bus to Liechtenstein. ÖBB, the Austrian federal railway company, runs a very limited train service from Buchs SG station in Switzerland , via Schaan - Vaduz station (near Schaan) to Feldkirch in Austria .\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nTrains only run during weekday peak hours, which makes buses far more convenient. Fast trains from Zurich and many international train services serve Sargans during the day. Consult the SBB timetable [1] to find out what'll be quickest when you're travelling. There are lockers at Sargans station so you can leave your luggage there. The link [2] provides a plan of the station showing the lockers and where to catch the bus from. Liechtenstein buses are a distinctive light green colour. Tickets can be purchased from the driver. Bus route 11 runs from Sargans railway station to Feldkirch railway station via central Vaduz and Schaan . It leaves from outside each station approximately every 30 minutes during the day. A fare to Vaduz is 5.80 CHF from Sargans. Consider buying a whole network one-day pass (12 CHF) or one-week pass (24 CHF) if you are making multiple journeys. Bus route 12 runs every 15 minutes from the train station at Buchs (a town on the Swiss side of the border to Liechtenstein) to Schaan, from where connecting buses run to Vaduz .\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nTickets can be purchased on the bus for 3.40 CHF and it only takes about 10 minutes to Schaan and another 5 to Vaduz. Liechtenstein Bus route 14 is a more direct service from Feldkirch to Vaduz . By car[ edit ]\\nThe Swiss Autobahn A13/E34 runs along the Swiss side of the Rhine River, the border between Switzerland and Liechtenstein. There are several access points that cross the Rhine into Liechtenstein, the two that are most commonly used are the bridge crossing into the southern town of Balzers and the crossing into Vaduz. Parking in Vaduz is easy, with a large parking garage located below the Kunstmuseum. Driving in Liechtenstein is relatively safe, but extra care should be taken on narrow and winding mountain roads. Speed traps are everywhere! Hitch-Hiking[ edit ]\\nVery easy indeed from Feldkirch in Austria. Rush hour sees lots of commuters head into the capital. A simple sign as you stand by the main road in Feldkirch should get you a lift within minutes. Get around[ edit ]\\nPublic transport in Liechtenstein is amazingly efficient and commonly used. The country's sole bus operator is LBA [3] .\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nLBA fares are reasonable, a 7-day unlimited use card costs CHF 24. Another cheap way to travel, weather permitting, is by bike. The roads in Liechtenstein are in excellent condition and many (in the Balzers-Schaan corridor) even offer bike lanes. Biking through the whole country (entering from Austria going all the way south through to Switzerland) takes only a few hours, but is worth every minute of the wonderful alpine scenery! Talk[ edit ]\\nThe national language is German, but the main language in everyday use is Alemannic German dialect, which Liechtenstein shares with German-speaking Eastern Switzerland, Baden-Württemberg (south of Stuttgart, Germany), and Vorarlberg, Austria. Almost everyone can speak standard German when necessary, and English is also prevalent. French and Latin are also widely taught in the secondary public school system. Liechtenstein boasts a number of attractions that are of interest to visitors. Balzers Castle\\nBalzers - Home to a beautiful church and a spectacular Gothic castle. Vaduz - The capital is the main shopping area in the country, with many souvenir stores and assorted restaurants. The city is also home to a modest cathedral and the decade-old Liechtenstein Kunstmuseum. A ski museum is north of the town centre.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nSchloss Vaduz - This imposing and historic castle, home to the royal family, overlooks the city of Vaduz and can be seen closer by following the Castle Trail starting in Vaduz. The castle is not open to the public, but it is possible to view it from quite close up. It is entirely possible to encounter the royal family at the Kunstmuseum, coming in and out of Schloss Vaduz or skiing during winter time. This is one benefit of such a small country. They are recognizable in their cars, which use their birth year for their licence plate number. Triesenberg - Go here if you want to have one of the best views to the swiss alps. Certainly a unique experience. Do[ edit ][ add listing ]\\nLiechtenstein offers great hiking, road biking, and mountain biking terrain. Skiing and snowboarding are also offered at a reasonable price at the country's small resort, Malbun , in comparison to the expensive lift prices in neighboring Switzerland or Austria. Get up early one morning and drive up the mountains on the east side of the river. From here you have an incredible view over Vaduz & Switzerland that you can stand and admire.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nCosts[ edit ]\\nCosts in Liechtenstein are roughly equivalent to those in Switzerland and are therefore somewhat more expensive than other European countries. You will find a few restaurants in the larger cities of Liechtenstein. There is also a McDonald's restaurant (opened in 1996; serves beer), which is very popular and is widely publicised by road signs throughout the country. The many small bakeries are a great place to get a warm, fresh roll or pastry. One recommended restaurant is the Old Castle Inn, Aeulestrasse 22, +423 232 1065, in the centre of Vaduz. It is impossible to miss and offers authentic food at a reasonable price and with a pleasant atmosphere. Contact[ edit ]\\nInternet access is available with one station at Telecom Liechtenstein immediate south of Vaduz's centre on the main road, but this is only open during business hours. Most hotels and some bars/restaurants will have net access such as in Schaan . The last real Internet cafe disappeared, because every one in the country has net access in their homes, so the local market completely disappeared and only visitors need access.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nDrink[ edit ][ add listing ]\\nThe legal drinking/purchasing age is 16 for wine, beer, and cider. While the legal drinking/purchasing age is 18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. There is a small amount of wine that is produced in Liechtenstein that is available in supermarkets and tourist shops throughout the country. Expect to pay around 25 Swiss Francs for an average bottle. The Prince even owns his own vineyard in Vaduz, off the main road. Beer is also available for purchase that is made with malt from Liechtenstein, although most of the beer itself is brewed in Switzerland. A variety of other European wines, beers, and soft drinks are also available. There is now a brewery in Liechtenstein that produces a variety of beers; lagers including Helles (blonde) and Hefe Weizen (unfiltered wheat) styles are brewed. There is also a one-man distillery in Triesen who makes liquors and schnapps from fruits. Tours on Saturdays. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ]\\nThere are a few hotels in Liechtenstein, but they tend to run on the expensive side. There is one youth hostel located in Schaan, but it closes for the winter.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nYou will probably be able to find cheaper accommodation in neighbouring Feldkirch , Austria. Camping Mittagspitz is the only full-service campsite in the Principality. It offers excellent facilities, a friendly reception and a fabulous reasonably priced restaurant. There are three other camp grounds in Liechtenstein. One in Bendern, one in Vaduz, and one in Triesen. All are pretty much full year round. Gasthaus Krone, Dorf 36, 9488 Schellenberg (next to post office and bus-station), ☎ +423 373 1168, [4] . Very inexpensive rooms. Familly run hotel and restaurant. 15 km away from Vaduz, regular (hourly) bus service to all parts of Liechtenstein. 60 CHF (double). edit\\nLearn[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein's university offers courses only in technical sciences. Without either Liechtenstein/Swiss or EU citizenship, a large bank balance and a fluency in German, it is unlikely to interest visitors. Work[ edit ]\\nFinding work in Liechtenstein is difficult. A majority of non-nationals working in the Principality are Swiss, with a smaller number of Austrians and Germans. Liechtenstein is not a member of the European Union, so the government has no obligation to let nationals of EU member states work and live in the country.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nStay safe[ edit ]\\nLiechtenstein is easily one of the safest countries in the world, though it is not without its problems. The most common crime in Liechtenstein is of a non-violent nature, though the Principality maintains a well-equipped police force which maintains a presence on the streets. In the late 1990s, the Liechtenstein Landespolizei launched a crackdown on prostitution in Vaduz. Considering the largest cities nearby are Innsbruck and Zürich, outside of Schaan and Vaduz, the whole place can seem very rural. Drunk drivers and winter road conditions may be your only \\\"realistic\\\" concern. Speed limits are strictly enforced by speed cameras which will be very pricey. Don't speed, enjoy the scenery instead! The country's beautiful scenery is also very dangerous. Cases of hikers finding themselves in difficulty are very common, and extreme care should be taken when leaving the well-marked trails. Follow local advice, read local weather forecasts (newspapers in the Principality print individual forecasts for the different cities in Liechtenstein, which is beneficial because the difference in altitude often cause different weather conditions), and ensure that you have the correct equipment before setting out.\",\n \"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\\n\\nStay healthy[ edit ]\\nThere are excellent medical facilities in Liechtenstein, but it is more likely that you would be transferred to a hospital in Switzerland should you require medical attention. If you are an Austrian or EU citizen you may want to seek medical attention in neighbouring Feldkirch, Austria. Respect[ edit ]\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein has existed for centuries as an independent state and this should be remembered. Liechtenstein is not part of Switzerland or Austria, and its citizens will not hesitate to remind you. Remember that this is a traditional Catholic country. On Sundays, the streets are almost dead except for the tourists and the tourist shops. Liechtensteiners are very proud of their national identity and would take offence at being wrongly labelled \\\"German\\\", \\\"Austrian\\\" or \\\"Swiss\\\". Those who may feel inclined to denounce the monarchy as a system of government should be advised: the prince is well loved and very popular, and he is certainly held in high esteem when discussing national politics. Get out[ edit ]\\nFeldkirch , Austria and Lake Constance make for wonderful destinations.\",\n \"The Two Double Landlocked Countries - Gunnar Garfors\\n\\nGlobetrotting Galore by Gunnar Garfors: The Two Double Landlocked Countries\\nThe Two Double Landlocked Countries\\nUtilising local transport in one of the only two landlocked countries in the world. There are some claims to fame that are more unusual than others. And we all know that something unusual or unique inevitably ends up on bucket lists around the world. It doesn't usually take that much, though. Just check out Instagram, Twitter or Facebook. Bragging about restaurants you have visited, drinks you have consumed, views you have experienced, clothing that you wear or celebrities you have slept with is commonplace. I am myself guilty as charged with several, but not all, of the examples listed above. But let's get down to business and concentrate on the important thing in life. Travelling. I have been to all 198 countries in the world, and written a book about it. It came out in English in July, 2015 . Visiting countries that fit a certain bill are present on a lot of bucket lists. One of the more unusual that I have heard about are double landlocked countries. What they are? A landlocked country has no access to an ocean at its borders.\",\n \"The Two Double Landlocked Countries - Gunnar Garfors\\n\\n44 of the world's 198 countries are landlocked. See the list below. A double landlocked country on the other hand is a country that is surrounded by landlocked countries. There are only two such countries in the world. Liechtenstein in Europe is surrounded by two landlocked countries; Switzerland and Austria while Uzbekistan in Asia is surrounded by five, all of them are stan countries (ending with \\\"stan\\\"). They are Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. Uzbekistan is of course a stan country on its own. As there are seven stan countries in total, the only stan country missing is then Pakistan, which is 300 kilometers from Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan is then of course the only country in the world exclusively surrounded by stan countries. Oh, the trivia you pick up here... The 44 landlocked countries of the world\\nAfghanistan\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Liechtenstein\\nFürstentum Liechtenstein\\nCAPITAL: Vaduz\\nFLAG: The national flag is divided into two horizontal rectangles, blue above red. On the blue rectangle, near the hoist, is the princely crown in gold. ANTHEM: Oben am jungen Rhein (On the Banks of the Young Rhine). MONETARY UNIT: The Swiss franc (SwFr) of 100 centimes, or rappen, has been in use since February 1921. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 centimes and 1, 2, and 5 francs, and notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 francs. SwFr1 = $0.80418 (or $1 = SwFr1.2435; as of 2004). WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard. HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Epiphany, 6 January; Candlemas, 2 February; St. Joseph's Day, 19 March; Labor Day, 1 May; Assumption, 15 August; Nativity of Our Lady, 8 September; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Immaculate Conception, 8 December; Christmas , 25 December; St. Stephen's Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension, Whitmonday, and Corpus Christi. TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT\\nLiechtenstein, roughly triangular in shape, is a landlocked country situated in the Rhine River Valley. The fourth-smallest country in Europe , it is bordered by the Austrian province of Vorarlberg to the n and e, the Swiss canton of Graubünden to the s, and the Rhine River and the Swiss canton of St. Gallen to the w, with a total boundary length of 76 km (47 mi). The principality has an area of 160 sq km (62 sq mi) and extends 24.5 km (15.2 mi) n–s and 9.4 km (5.8 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Liechtenstein is about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC. Liechtenstein's capital city, Vaduz, is located in the western part of the country. TOPOGRAPHY\\nLiechtenstein is divided into a comparatively narrow area of level land bordering the right bank of the Rhine River and an upland and mountainous region occupying the remainder of the country; the level land occupies about two-fifths of the total surface area. The greatest elevation, Grauspitz (2,599 m/8,527 ft), is in the south, in a spur of the Rhaetian Alps.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nCLIMATE\\nClimatic conditions in Liechtenstein are less severe than might be expected from its elevated terrain and inland situation; the mitigating factor is a warm south wind called the Föhn. The annual lowland temperature varies between -4.5°c (24°f) in January and 19.9°c (68°f) in July. Late frost and prolonged dry periods are rare. Average annual precipitation is 105 cm (41 in). FLORA AND FAUNA\\nThe natural plant and animal life of Liechtenstein displays a considerable variety because of the marked differences in altitude. A number of orchid species are able to grow because of the warmth carried by the Föhn. In the higher mountain reaches are such alpine plants as gentian, alpine rose, and edelweiss. Common trees include the red beech, sycamore, maple, alder, larch, and various conifers. Indigenous mammals include the deer, fox, badger, and chamois. Birds, including ravens and eagles, number about 120 species. ENVIRONMENT\\nThe Nature Conservation Act, adopted in 1933, was the nation's first major piece of environmental legislation; the Water Conservation Act dates from 1957, and air pollution laws were passed in 1973 and 1974. All wastewater is purified before being discharged into the Rhine .\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nAccording to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included two types of mammals, one species of bird, and five species of invertebrates. Threatened species include the great horned owl, the Eurasian beaver, the hermit beetle, and the Apollo butterfly. POPULATION\\nThe population of Liechtenstein in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 35,000, which placed it at number 187 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 11% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 18% of the population under 15 years of age. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.4%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 40,000. The population density was 219 per sq km (567 per sq mi), with the population heavily concentrated in the Rhine Valley, in which the two largest communities, Vaduz and Schaan, are located. The UN estimated that 21% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.51%.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe capital city, Vaduz, had a population of 5,000 in that year. MIGRATION\\nThere were 12,000 foreign residents in Liechtenstein in 2000, comprising approximately one-third of the total population. Moreover, about 6,885 Austrians and Swiss commute to Liechtenstein daily. Several hundred Italian, Greek, and Spanish workers have migrated to the principality on a semipermanent basis. In 1998 and 1999, Liechtenstein accepted a high number of Kosovo Albanian asylum seekers, granting them temporary protection. The number of asylum seekers and people under temporary protection comprised nearly 2% of the overall population of Liechtenstein in 1999. In 2004 there were 149 refugees and 68 asylum seekers. The estimated net migration rate in 2005 was 4.8 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory. ETHNIC GROUPS\\nThe indigenous population, accounting for 86% of the total population, is described as being chiefly of Alemannic stock, descendants of the German-speaking tribes that settled between the Main and Danube rivers. Italian, Turkish, and various other groups account for the remaining 14%. RELIGIONS\\nThe state religion is Roman Catholicism, to which about 78% of the population adhere; however, absolute freedom of worship prevails. About 0.07% of the population are Protestants and 0.04% are Muslims.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe Eastern Orthodox Church has about 254 members. Buddhists, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Anglicans, Jews , Baha'is and New Apostolics each have less than 80 members. TRANSPORTATION\\nThe line of the Arlberg express ( Paris to Vienna ) passes through Liechtenstein at Schaan-Vaduz, extending for 18.5 km (11.5 mi), but few international trains stop. The main center for reaching Liechtenstein is Buchs, Switzerland , about 8 km (5 mi) from Vaduz. Postal buses are the chief means of public transportation both within the country and to Austria and Switzerland. A tunnel, 740 m (2,428 ft) in length, connects the Samina River Valley with the Rhine River Valley. In 2002, there were some 250 km (155 mi) of paved roadways. A major highway runs through the principality, linking Austria and Switzerland. The nearest airport is in Zürich, Switzerland. As of 2004, the country had 28 km (17 mi) of navigable waterways. HISTORY\\nThe territory now occupied by the Principality of Liechtenstein first acquired a political identity with the formation of the sub-country of Lower Rhaetia after the death of Charlemagne in 814.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe County of Vaduz was formally established in 1342 and became a direct dependency of the Holy Roman Empire in 1396. The area (to which, in 1434, was added the Lordship of Schellenberg, in the north) was ruled in turn by various families, such as the counts of Montfort, von Brandis, van Sulz, and von Hohenems. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), the area was invaded first by Austrian troops and then, in 1647, by the Swedes. After the von Hohenems line encountered financial difficulty, Prince Johann Adam of Liechtenstein purchased from them first Schellenberg (1699) and then Vaduz (1712). The Liechtenstein family thus added to its vast holdings in Austria and adjoining territories. The Principality of Liechtenstein as such was created on 23 January 1719 by act of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, who made it a direct fief of the crown and confirmed the rule of Prince Anton-Florian, Johann Adam's successor, under the title of Prince von und zu Liechtenstein. During the Napoleonic wars, Liechtenstein was invaded by both the French and the Russians. Following the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), Liechtenstein joined the Confederation of the Rhine, which made the principality a sovereign state.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn 1815, following the downfall of Napoleon, Liechtenstein joined the newly formed Germanic Confederation. With Prussia 's victory over Austria in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), the Confederation was dissolved and the constitutional ties of Liechtenstein to other German states came to an end. In the war, Liechtenstein had furnished Austria-Hungary with 80 soldiers; two years later, the principality disbanded its military force for all time. From 1852, when the first treaty establishing a customs union was signed, until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied economically to Austria. After the war, the collapse of the Austrian currency and economy inclined the principality to seek economic partnership with its other neighbor, Switzerland. A treaty concluded with Switzerland in 1923 provided for a customs union and the use of Swiss currency. Liechtenstein (like Switzerland) remained neutral in World War II , as it had in World War I. After Germany was defeated in 1945, Nazi sympathizers in Liechtenstein who had supported incorporation of the principality into Hitler's Third Reich were prosecuted and sentenced. The postwar decades have been marked by political stability and outstanding economic growth.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nPrince Franz Josef II, who succeeded his granduncle, Franz I, in 1938, was the first reigning monarch actually to reside in Liechtenstein. On 26 August 1984, Franz Josef II handed over executive authority to his eldest son and heir, Crown Prince Hans-Adam. Hans-Adam II has been ruling prince since 13 November 1989, after Franz Josef II died. Liechtenstein has sought further integration into the world community. The country was admitted to the UN in September 1991. In Europe, Liechtenstein joined EFTA in 1991 and became a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) in 1995. Disagreements between Prince Hans-Adam II and parliament arose in the latter half of 1999. In September, the prince's assertion that he had the right to dissolve the government at his discretion raised tensions to the point where Hans-Adam threatened to go into exile in Austria. In October, the European Court of Human Rights ruled on a complaint filed by Dr. Herbert Wille, a senior judge whom the prince had refused to re-appoint because of Wille's assertion that the country's Supreme Court rather than its monarch should be the ultimate authority on constitutional issues.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe court ruled that in depriving Wille of his judicial position because of his political views, the prince had violated the judge's freedom of speech. Wille was awarded 10,000 Swiss francs in compensation as well as payment of his legal costs. Sixty-four percent of Liechtenstein's voters approved a new constitution for Liechtenstein in a referendum held in March 2003; Hans-Adam II will be granted near-absolute powers. Turnout was large, with 14,800 of Liechtenstein's 17,000 electorate casting votes. The prince now has the right to dissolve government, control a committee appointing judges, and has veto power over legislation. The constitution also gives the people the power to call a referendum and abolish the monarchy. As a result of the changes, which many observers deemed undemocratic, Prince Hans-Adam II rescinded his pledge to leave the country. On 15 August 2004 Prince Hans-Adam II transferred the official duties of the ruling prince to his son and heir apparent, Alois, who was seen as less confrontational than his father. Prince Hans-Adam II retained the status of Chief of State. Liechtenstein ranks as one of the world's most prosperous countries with one of the world's highest living standards while its people pay very low taxes.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn 1999, the royal family itself was ranked as the wealthiest in all of Europe while Prince Hans-Adam II personally was ranked as Europe's third-wealthiest monarch. However, in 2000 Liechtenstein ranked among the top 15 countries named by an international task force investigating countries whose banking laws make money laundering possible. Liechtenstein took steps in 2001 to make its banking system more transparent, however a 2003 International Monetary Fund report concluded that although the banking sector had updated its banking regulation, there were not enough staff to fully enforce the regulations. GOVERNMENT\\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the hereditary princes of the house of Liechtenstein. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. The constitution of 5 October 1921, as amended in 1987, provides for a unicameral parliament (Landtag) of 25 members elected for four years. Election is by universal suffrage at age 18 and is on the basis of proportional representation. Women gained the right to vote in 1984. A new voting system that went into effect as of the 1974 national elections provides nine representatives for the Upper Land district and six representatives for the Lower Land district.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nA new constitution was approved in March 2003 that grants the ruling prince extensive powers, including the right to veto legislation and to control the appointment of judges, in addition to the rights guaranteed to him under the former constitution. The prince can call and dismiss the Landtag. On parliamentary recommendation, he appoints the prime minister, who must be of Liechtenstein birth, and the deputy prime minister for four-year terms. It is the regular practice for the prime minister to be of the majority party and the deputy prime minister to be selected from the opposition. The Landtag appoints four councilors for four-year terms to assist in administration. Any group of 1,000 persons or any three communes may propose legislation. Bills passed by the Landtag may be submitted to popular referendum. A law is valid when it receives majority approval by the Landtag and the prince's signed concurrence. POLITICAL PARTIES\\nThe two principal parties are the Fatherland Union (Vaterländische Union—VU) and the Progressive Citizens' Party (Fortschrittliche Bürgerpartei—FBP). In the general elections of 1997, the VU, which has held a majority since 1978, won 13 seats in the Landtag and the FBP 10.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nOther parties included the Free List (Freie Liste—FL), two seats; and the Liechtenstein Non-party List (Uberparteilische Liste Liechtensteins—ULL), which was not represented. The general elections in 1993 resulted in a coalition government headed by Mario Frick of the Fatherland Union (VU). Frick was reelected as prime minister by the Landtag in 1997. Although the VU remains the largest single party, Liechtenstein had a coalition government from 1938 until 1997. In the 2001 elections, the FBP won 49.9% of the vote and 13 seats in the Landtag, to the VU's 41.1% and 11 seats. The Free List (Greens) won 8.8% of the vote and 1 seat. Otmar Hasler was named prime minister. It was the first time since 1978 that the FBP held a majority in parliament. The 2005 elections saw the FBP retaining power with 48.7% of the vote and 12 seats, to the VU's 38.2% and 10 seats. The minority party Free List increased their following with 13% of the vote and 3 seats. The next elections were scheduled for 2009. JUDICIAL SYSTEM\\nThe principality has its own civil and penal codes, although in certain instances courts composed of Liechtenstein, Swiss, and Austrian judges have jurisdiction over Liechtenstein cases.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nCourts that function under sole Liechtenstein jurisdiction are the county court (Landgericht), presided over by one judge, which decides minor civil cases and summary criminal offenses; the juvenile court; and the Schöffengericht, a court for misdemeanors. The remaining courts, with five judges each, have a mixed composition for purposes of impartiality: three Liechtenstein lay judges, one Swiss judge, and one Austrian judge. The criminal court (Kriminalgericht) is for major crimes. Other courts of mixed jurisdiction are the assize court (Schöffengericht-Vergehen), the superior court (Obergericht), and a supreme court (Oberster Gerichtshof). An administrative court of appeal hears appeals from government actions, and the Constitutional Court determines the constitutionality of laws. In June 1986, Liechtenstein adopted a new penal code abolishing the death penalty. The constitution provides for public trials and judicial appeal. The judiciary is separate from the executive and legislative branches. The 2003 referendum gave the prince the ultimate right to control the appointment of the country's judges. The constitution provides for freedom of assembly, association and religion. Crime is rare and Switzerland is responsible for Liechtenstein's defense.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein retains a restrictive law on the availability of abortion, and is allowable only when the life or health of a woman is threatened. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION\\nLiechtenstein became a member of the United Nations on 18 September 1990; it belongs to the IAEA, ITU, UNCTAD, UPU, and WIPO. Liechtenstein is also a member of the Council of Europe, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, EFTA, the OSCE, and the WTO. The principality joined the European Economic Area in 1995. Liechtenstein now has diplomatic relations with nearly 50 countries. In environmental cooperation, the country is part of the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Air Pollution, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification. ECONOMY\\nDespite its small size and limited national resources, Liechtenstein is one of the richest countries in the world on a per capita GDP basis. It has developed since the 1940s from a mainly agricultural to an industrialized country and a prosperous center of trade and tourism. Factories produce a wide range of high-technology manufactures, especially precision instruments. Liechtenstein is also a world leader in specialized dental products. Industrial products are manufactured almost exclusively for export.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nSpecial economic advantages enjoyed by very small nations of Europe (e.g., the issuance of new postage stamps, free exchange of currencies, and liberal laws that provide incentives for the establishment of bank deposits and of nominal foreign business headquarters) also play a part in this prosperity. In 1999 Liechtenstein became the subject of an international investigation into money laundering. Although Liechtenstein subsequently drafted legislation to combat money laundering, the Finance Action Task Force placed the principality on the international \\\"black list\\\" for failing to cooperate with international authorities on the matter. About 35% of the people employed in Liechtenstein commute from Switzerland and Austria. Liechtenstein remains a well-known tax haven, and a location for holding companies to establish nominal offices; these provide for 30% of state revenues. The country has no central bank and does not print its own currency, but uses the Swiss franc instead. Liechtenstein is engaged in harmonizing its economic policies with those of the EU. In 1999, its GDP (at purchasing power parity) was $825 million, an 11% improvement over the previous year. In 2002, the unemployment rate for the country's 10,000 domestic workers was 1.3%. More than 19,000 workers commute to Liechtenstein from neighboring countries—Austria, Switzerland, and Germany.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nINCOME\\nThe US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) reports that in 2005 Liechtenstein's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $825.0 million. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $25,000. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 11%. The average inflation rate in 2001 was 1%. LABOR\\nAs of end 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), there were 29,000 persons in the labor force, including 19,000 foreigners, of whom 13,000 commuted to work from Switzerland, Germany and Austria. As of that date, 1.3% of the workforce were in the agricultural sector, with industry accounting for 47.4% and the services sector 51.3%. Liechtenstein's workforce is highly skilled, but there are not enough native-born workers to meet industry's needs. Unemployment as of September 2002 was 1.3%. All workers, including foreigners, are entitled to form and join unions. There is one trade union that represents about 13% of the workforce.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nStrikes are permitted but are not generally used. Most collective bargaining agreements are adapted from ones signed between Swiss workers and employers. There is no minimum wage, although wages are among the highest in the world. The legal workweek is 45 hours in the industrial sector and 48 hours in nonindustrial firms. The actual workweek is usually 40 to 43 hours. Occupational safety and health standards are set by the government and are rigorously enforced. The minimum working age is 16, but exceptions to this may be made for children wishing to leave school at the age of 14. AGRICULTURE\\nLiechtenstein has only 912 hectares (2,254 acres) of arable land. Until the end of World War II (1939–45), the economy was primarily focused on agriculture. In the Rhine Valley, the most productive area, the chief vegetables are corn, potatoes, and garden produce. On gradual mountain slopes, a variety of grapes and orchard fruits are grown. Alpine pasture, particularly well suited for cattle grazing, covers over 35% of the total land area. In 2005, cattle numbered about 6,000; hogs, 3,000; and sheep, 2,900. ENERGY AND POWER\\nThe first Liechtenstein power station went into operation in 1927; its capacity is now 900 kW.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nAnother station was constructed in 1947–49; it has an installed capacity of 9,600 kW. Total installed capacity in 1989 was 23,000 kW; production amounted to 150 million kWh in 1995. Since domestic production no longer meets local requirements, supplementary energy is imported from Switzerland, especially in winter. In 1995, 92.5% of Liechtenstein's energy requirement was imported from abroad. Consumption of electricity in 2001 was 313.5 million kWh. Imports of electricity in the same year totaled 232.8 million kWh. INDUSTRY\\nThe industry of Liechtenstein, limited by shortages of raw materials, is primarily devoted to small-scale production of precision manufactures. The output includes optical lenses, dental products, high-vacuum pumps, heating equipment, electron microscopes, electronic measuring and control devices, steel bolts, knitting machines, and textiles. Pharmaceuticals, electronics, ceramics, and metal manufacturing are also important. The largest industrial companies in Liechtenstein are Hilti (construction services), Balzers (electro-optical coatings), Hilcona (frozen foods), and Ivoclar-Vivadent (dental medical technology). Liechtenstein's industry is completely geared to exports; industrial exports rose from SwFr196.7 million in 1967 to SwFr3.0 billion in 1996. Around 48% of the labor force is engaged in industry, trade, and construction. In 1999, industry made up approximately 40% of the overall GDP.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nBy 2004, this share fell to 26.4%. Trade and services are the main contributors to the economy, with a 71.6% share. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY\\nLike Swiss industry, manufacturing in Liechtenstein entails a high degree of precision and technological sophistication. Balzers, the country's second-largest employer, is known for its leading role in providing equipment and thin film technology for the CD-ROM industry. Liechtenstein itself has no educational institutions offering advanced scientific training. The Liechtensteinische Gesell-schaft für Umweltschutz, founded in 1973, is concerned with environmental protection. DOMESTIC TRADE\\nLiechtenstein and Switzerland are essentially linked in one common economic zone. The domestic economy is largely based on industry and financial services. The primary product industries are electronics, metal manufacturing, and medical precision instruments. About 48% of the work force are foreigners, with 29% commuting from Switzerland and Austria. Vaduz and Schaan, the chief commercial centers, have some specialty shops, but the smaller communities have only general stores. Regular business hours are generally from 8 am to 6:30 pm. Normal banking hours are from 8:15 am to noon and from 1:30 pm to 4 or 5 pm, Monday through Friday.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nFOREIGN TRADE\\nGoods to and from Liechtenstein pass freely across the frontier with Switzerland, with which Liechtenstein maintains a customs union. Exports in the mid-1990s averaged SwFr2,021,800 per year, as compared with SwFr893,385,000 in 1980. Exports in 1994 were valued at $2.6 billion. Some 40% of exports in 1996 went to EEA countries. Important exports include precision instruments, ceramics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. Liechtenstein imports mainly raw materials, light machinery, and processed foods. In the mid-1990s, imports averaged SwFr1,074,600,000 per year. In 2003, Liechtenstein's exports reached $3.6 billion. Most of these exports went to the EU and Switzerland. The principal export commodities were construction techniques, electronic products, car parts, dental products, and processed agricultural products. BANKING AND SECURITIES\\nAlthough there is a national bank, the duties of the central bank are performed by the Swiss National Bank, a consequence of the currency union with Switzerland. Liechtenstein's banks form an important part of the economy, and they have experienced significant growth in the 1990s. An estimated 4% of the work force was employed by the banking sector in the 1990s.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe National Bank of Liechtenstein (Liechtensteinische Landesbank), founded in 1861, is the state bank of issue; in addition, it deals in real estate mortgages and ordinary banking operations. Liechtenstein Global Trust (LGT), the country's biggest financial institution (owned by the royal family), and the Private Trust Bank Corp., founded in 1956, play an important role in the finance and credit spheres of Liechtenstein's economy. Banking is linked with the Swiss banking system, as is securities trading. In 1945, Liechtenstein's banks had a combined balance sheet of SwFr38 million; in 2003, it was SwFr120 billion, an astonishing SwFr3.6 million for every person in the country. Net income from Liechtenstein's banks totaled SwFr232.5 million in 1996, and contributed over 12% to the country's national income in terms of taxes and dividends paid. Because of Liechtenstein's strict bank secrecy, several thousand foreign businesses are nominally headquartered there. The secrecy laws are, however, waived in the case of criminal intent. There are at present no restrictions on foreign investors' access to financing in Liechtenstein. New laws to combat insider trading and money laundering have recently tightened fiduciary regulations.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nINSURANCE\\nInsurance activities in Liechtenstein are variously conducted by the government (old age and survivors' insurance), by private companies under government regulation (e.g., life, accident, health, and fire), and by farmers' associations. In 1996, a new insurance law came into force, focusing on attracting insurance business from abroad, as Liechtenstein is now a member of the European Economic Area. PUBLIC FINANCE\\nLiechtenstein's economy has experienced more extensive development and industrialization in the past 40 years than any other Western country. In that period, it went from a predominantly agricultural economy to a highly advanced industry-driven economy. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 1998 Liechtenstein's central government took in revenues of approximately $424.2 million and had expenditures of $414.1 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $10.1 million. TAXATION\\nThe main taxes are levied on personal income, business income, and principal. Personal income tax rates are determined by taxable income and taxable wealth. The basic tax rate is 1.2% on income and 0.06% on wealth. However, the communes levy a communal tax of 200%, which brings the combined tax rates to 17.82% on income and 0.89% on wealth.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn addition, a surcharge is levied on the basic tax on income and wealth at rates ranging from 5–395%. Thus, the totals of basic tax, communal tax, and surcharges results in the national tax due. Corporations pay income tax at a rate of 7.5–15%. However, if the company's distributed dividends exceed 8% of taxable capital, an increase of 1–5% is added, based upon the dividend distribution percentage, which can push the maximum rate to 20%. Dividends and interest are subject to a 4% withholding tax. Royalty income is not taxed. Other levies include a capital gains tax on the sale of real estate; death, estate, and gift duties; a motor vehicle registration tax; and a value-added tax (VAT) on goods and services within Liechtenstein and Switzerland at a standard rate of 7.5%. Firms domiciled in Liechtenstein but conducting no gainful pursuits there benefit from extremely favorable tax arrangements, a prime factor in the establishment of nominal business headquarters. Foreign clients pay 1% per year in capital taxes; and only 0.5% for foundations with taxable assets exceeding SwFr10 million. The communes may impose property and income taxes.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nSince joining the European Economic Area in 1995, Liechtenstein has not entered into any agreements covering double taxation, except for Austria. CUSTOMS AND DUTIES\\nThere have been no customs between Switzerland and Liechtenstein since a customs treaty was ratified in 1924. On the Austrian border, Switzerland collects the customs at its own rates. Liechtenstein's part of the duties is calculated on the basis of population and the principality pays an annual indemnification to Switzerland for customs and administration. FOREIGN INVESTMENT\\nThe Prince of Liechtenstein Foundation has established a number of ventures abroad, mainly in the field of investment management and counseling. Several thousand foreign companies have established offices in Liechtenstein because taxes are very low, banking operates in strict secrecy, and the principality is politically stable. Some industrial establishments are owned and managed by Swiss interests. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\\nThe government generally encourages the increasing diversification of industry and the development of tourism. The principality's low taxes and highly secret banking system are attractive to foreign corporations wanting to safeguard patents and trademarks and to individuals who want to protect their wealth for the future. Thousands of corporations have established nominal headquarters in Liechtenstein.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn recent years, the principality is accused of serving as a center for money laundering. In 2002, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) conducted an Offshore Financial Center (OFC) Assessment of Liechtenstein, to evaluate the regulation and monitoring of the country's financial center. The IMF approved of Liechtenstein's efforts to fight money laundering and the financing of international terrorism, and of its planned establishment of an independent supervisory authority. Research and development is a driving force of Liechtenstein's economic success; in 2000, total research and development spending rose over 20% to around $149 million. Also, the industrial sector is diversified and dynamic, serving mostly niche markets outside the country. The relative attractive tax base keeps some of the more prominent companies (Hilti and Unaxis Balzers) in the country, and the low public spending costs (Liechtenstein has no army, no university, and no major medical clinics) keep the federal budget on a surplus. Export income per capita outweighs that of Germany by more than 10 times. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT\\nThere is a universal pension system covering all residents, employed persons, and self-employed individuals. It is funded primarily by the government along with contributions from employees and employers.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIt provides benefits for old age, disability, and survivorship. A social insurance system and universal medical coverage provides sickness and maternity benefits. All residents and persons employed in Liechtenstein are entitled to medical coverage. Work injury and unemployment insurance are provided to all employed persons. There is a family allowance based on number of children and a birth grant provided to all residents and nonresident workers. Equality for women is protected by law, and several groups monitor and promote women's rights. An equal opportunity law addresses workplace discrimination and sexual harassment. In 2004 the government-sponsored mentoring classes to inspire women to run for seats in parliament. Domestic violence laws have been enacted and are actively implemented. Human rights are fully respected in Liechtenstein. HEALTH\\nThe government regulates the practice of medicine and subsidiary occupations, such as nursing and pharmacy. Life expectancy in 2005 was about 79.55 years. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 11.2 and 6.8 per 1,000 people. The infant mortality rate was an estimated 4.7 per 1,000 births in 2005. In 2000, Liechtenstein had an estimated 2.5 physicians per 1,000 people. There were approximately 8.3 hospital beds per 1,000 people.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nA program of preventive medicine, introduced in 1976, provides regular examinations for children up to the age of 10. HOUSING\\nHouses in the countryside are similar to those found in the mountainous areas of Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein does not have a significant housing problem. About 82% of all dwellings have central heating, 89% have a kitchen, 91% have a private bath, 95% have hot water, and 88% have a common sewage system. EDUCATION\\nEducation is based on Roman Catholic principles and is under government supervision. In 1974, the compulsory primary school attendance period was lowered from eight years to five, beginning at age seven. Kindergarten, offered to children ages five to seven, is optional, followed by five compulsory years of primary school. Secondary education is divided into three tracks: oberschule (general); realschule (which offers vocational and, in some cases, university preparatory education), and gymnasium (which provides an eight-year program to prepare students for a university education, with concentrations in either the classics and humanities or economics and mathematics). Liechtenstein also has an evening technical school, a music school, and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nWhile there are no universities in Liechtenstein, gymnasium graduates are may attend universities in Switzerland and Austria and the University of Tubingen in Germany without passing an examination. LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS\\nThe National Library (founded in 1961) serves as the public, academic, and national library. It is located in Vaduz and has over 200,000 volumes. There are three specialized libraries maintained by private institutes, and a small library attached to a state music school. The National Museum, located in Vaduz, includes collections from the Prince and the State, containing an important Rubens collection. The Prince Liechtenstein Art Gallery, founded in 1620 and located in Vaduz, is an important cultural institution in Liechtenstein. The museum is housed upstairs in the tourist information office. Also in the capital are a postage museum and a state historical museum. A ski museum opened in Vaduz in 1994, and there are also museums in Schaan, Schellenberg, and Triesenberg. MEDIA\\nThe post office (including telegraph and telephone services) is administered by Switzerland. Liechtenstein, however, issues its own postage stamps. The Swiss dial system extends to the principality. Direct-dialing is used throughout the country and includes international service.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn 2002, there were 19,900 mainline phones and 11,400 mobile phones in use throughout the country. Telegraph service is efficient. As of 2001, there were one state and one private television station broadcast, along with a private radio station. Residents also receive radio and television broadcasts from neighboring countries. In 1997 there were 21,000 radios and 12,000 television sets in the country. In 2002, there were 20,000 Internet subscribers in the country. Two daily newspapers are published. The Liechtensteiner Volksblatt reflects the political outlook of the Progressive Citizen's Party. It had a circulation of about 8,200 in 2002. The Liechtensteiner Vaterland reflects the views of the Fatherland Union. It had a circulation of about 9,580 in the same year. Liechtensteiner Wochenzeitung, a weekly, had a circulation of 14,000. The media is said to enjoy a large degree of autonomy and freedom from interference, owing to an independent press, an effective judiciary, and a democratic political system. ORGANIZATIONS\\nOrganizations include the Chamber of Industry and Commerce, the Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein, three concert societies, and various other cultural organizations. There are professional organizations representing several fields and occupations. Kiwanis and Lion's clubs are active in the country.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nCharitable institutions include the Liechtenstein Caritas Society (founded in 1924) and the Liechtenstein Red Cross Society (1945). Youth organizations include the Scouts and Guides of Liechtenstein. There are also several organizations devoted to sports and leisure activities. TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION\\nAttractions include mountaineering and nature walks, the castles of Vaduz and Gutenberg (overlooking Balzers), the ruins of several fortresses, the numerous local brass bands and choirs, as well as the operetta societies of Vaduz and Balzers. The most popular sports are swimming, golf, tennis, hiking, and skiing. The ski resort of Malbun has 12 hotels and 7 ski lifts. Modern, comfortable buses offer regular service throughout Liechtenstein, connecting with Austria and Switzerland. In Vaduz, the lower country, and the Alpine regions there are hotels and guest houses. The government actively encourages and supports the tourism industry. In 2003, there were 49,002 visitors, mainly from Luxembourg and Switzerland. Hotel rooms numbered 591 with 1,160 beds and an occupancy rate of 25%. The average length of stay that year was two nights. FAMOUS LIECHTENSTEINERS\\nJoseph Rheinberger (1839–1901), an organist and composer who lived in Munich , was the teacher of many famous composers. Prince John II (r.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\n1858–1929) was admired for donating some SwFr 75 million to the struggling country after World War I. Prince Franz Josef II (1906–89), whose rule began in 1938, was Europe's longest-reigning sovereign. Liechtenstein's current monarch is Prince Hans Adam II (b.1945), who first was given executive power in 1984 and assumed control in 1989. Prince Alois (b.1968) is regent. In 1980, Hanni Wenzel (b.1956) and her brother Andreas (b.1958) won the World Cup international skiing championships. COUNTRY OVERVIEW\\nLOCATION AND SIZE. The independent principality of Liechtenstein is located in central Europe and bordered on the east by Austria and on the south, west, and north by Switzerland . It is one of the smallest countries in the world, with a total area of only 160 square kilometers (62 square miles). Liechtenstein is about 25 kilometers (15.6 miles) long and 6 kilometers (3.75 miles) wide. Its total area is about 0.9 times the size of Washington, D.C. The western edge of the territory lies in the valley of the upper Rhine River and contains a narrow flat strip of arable land.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe rest of the area consists of the foothills of the Alps , covered with forests and rising to several high and rugged peaks in the south. Along with Uzbekistan in Central Asia, Liechtenstein is one of the only two doubly landlocked countries in the world (bounded by other land-locked countries only). The capital and principal urban center, Vaduz, is a small town with a population of about 5,000 located in the west-central part of the country near the Rhine River. POPULATION. The population of Liechtenstein was estimated at 32,207 in July of 2000; in 1998, it was 31,717. Although quite mountainous, Liechtenstein is densely populated, with an overall density of 198 persons per square kilometer (513 per square mile). The population is unevenly distributed and concentrated in the western, lower part of the country, along the Rhine . The principality has a population growth rate of 1.02 percent, with a birth rate of 11.83 births per 1,000 population. The death rate is 6.64 deaths per 1,000 population, and there is a high positive net migration rate of 5.03 immigrants per 1,000 population (all according to 2000 estimates).\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nApproximately one-third of the population are resident aliens, including Iranians, Turks , and others, while the vast majority of the Liechtenstein nationals are mostly of ethnic Germanic origin, like their neighbors in eastern Switzerland and western Austria. A south German dialect, Alemannish, is commonly spoken by some 87.5 percent of the population, while literary German is the official language of the country. In 2000, the labor force included 22,891 people, of which an astounding number of 13,847 were foreigners, mostly guest workers ; 8,231 people commuted from neighboring Austrian and Swiss towns to work daily. Unlike Switzerland, however, immigration does not seem to be a major issue in the domestic political debates in Liechtenstein (in 2000, the Swiss electorate had to vote in a referendum on a conservative proposal to impose an 18 percent quota on the number of foreign workers in the country but decided against). Approximately 88 percent of the population are traditionally Roman Catholic. In 1991, primary (elementary and junior high) school enrollment in the principality totaled 1,985 children, and about 1,200 attended secondary (high) schools. Primary and secondary education is free in Liechtenstein and schooling is required for 8 years.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe population, as elsewhere in Europe, is aging, with a high life expectancy at birth (82.47 years for women, 75.16 for men, 78.81 for the total population, all 2000 estimates). Around 18 percent of the people are 14 years of age and younger, 71 percent are between 15 and 64, and 11 percent are 65 or older. The high and stable standards of living and the declining fertility rate, combined with the limited but steady immigration flow, will contribute to a slow growth of the population and the aging of the Liechtenstein nationals, while immigrants' and guest workers' families will display a more youthful population profile. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY\\nLiechtenstein is tiny in size and has very limited natural resources, but it is nevertheless a prosperous country with a highly industrialized market economy and a robust financial services sector. Since World War II (in which the principality remained neutral), its liberal political regime and remarkably low business taxes have fueled strong economic growth and attracted many foreign companies.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nFor over 80 years, Liechtenstein has been participating in a customs union with Switzerland; it uses the Swiss franc as its national currency, and in most aspects may be regarded as a part of the Swiss economy. Liechtenstein statistics are also included in the Swiss national statistics. Since 1919, Switzerland has represented Liechtenstein abroad diplomatically, as well. Living standards in the country are similar to those in the urban areas of neighboring Switzerland and Austria, both reckoned among the most affluent societies in the world. Its gross domestic product ( GDP ) per capita of $23,000 (1998 estimate) is also among the highest in the world. Favorable tax treatment and extremely streamlined incorporation legislation have lured as many as 74,000 holding (or so-called \\\"letter box\\\") companies, operating overseas, to establish their head offices nominally in Liechtenstein, providing thus as much as 30 percent of the country's revenue basically in maintenance, administrative, and office services fees. Liechtenstein has been an active member of the European Economic Area (EEA), an organization serving as an intermediary between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU) since May 1995.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe government is working to harmonize its economic policies and legislation with those of the EU, although it is not negotiating for full membership in the union. Some modern manufacturing industries have developed recently; notably in precision instruments, dental and optic materials, pharmaceuticals, and electronics. These industries contribute much to the country's positive trade balance. Yet much of the principality's income is also derived from tourism, banking, the sale of postage stamps and other retail services, and from the office expenses of the international companies maintaining their headquarters there. POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION\\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy governed by a hereditary prince. According to the constitution of 1921, legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament (Landtag), consisting of 25 members elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. The Landtag members are elected in the 2 multi-seat constituencies (electoral districts): the Upper (or highland, formerly called Vaduz) and the Lower (or lowland, formerly called Schellenberg), by proportional representation . Although very small in size, Liechtenstein is further divided into 11 administrative units or communes (Gemeinden): Balzers, Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Planken, Ruggell, Schaan, Schellenberg, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nElections for the Landtag held on 9 and 11 February 2001, gave 49.9 percent of the vote and 13 Land-tag seats to the Progressive Citizens' Party in Liechtenstein (FBPL), a conservative group. The then ruling conservative Patriotic Union (VU) received 41.1 percent and 11 seats, and its representative, chief of government Mario Frick, resigned accordingly. An environmentalist group, Free List (FL), remained third with 8.8 percent of the vote, or just 1 seat in the House. In February 1997, the Free List (FL) had achieved the best score in its history with 11.6 percent of the vote, corresponding to 2 seats in the Landtag. Like the VU, in 2001 the FL lost some votes in favor of the FBPL and was not able to retain its former positions in the lowland constituency. Participation in the election reached 86.7 percent, just a bit less than in 1997, when 86.9 percent of the electorate voted. The hereditary prince and the elected government constitute the executive branch of government. The ruling prince, Hans Adam II, assumed his executive powers in 1984, and his heir apparent is his son, Prince Alois von und zu Liechtenstein.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nOn the motion of the parliament, the prince appoints a prime minister and 4 councilors to form the cabinet. Prior to the February 2001 elections, Mario Frick of the VU was the prime minister and chief of government since 15 December 1993. Following the 2001 elections, Otmar Hasler was selected as the prime minister. Liechtenstein is a member of many international organizations such as the United Nations (it maintains a permanent mission to the UN in New York ), the Council of Europe, the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the EFTA, the World Trade Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the World Intellectual Property Organization, among others. With a maximum tax rate of 18 percent, Liechtenstein has one of the most liberal tax regimes in the world, and its banks, generally considered as members of the Swiss banking family, enjoy a stable reputation for their solidity and privacy policies. The country has a stable foreign trade balance surplus and zero foreign debt .\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nBut in 2000, it faced its biggest domestic and foreign political crisis since World War II as the affluent principality was shaken by allegations that it was an international money laundering center and by the subsequent arrests of several leading public figures ordered by a special prosecutor from Austria. A conflict between Prince Hans Adam II and the government over the extent of the royal family's powers, rein-vigorated by the money laundering allegations in 2000, almost brought about a constitutional crisis later that year. The prince and the cabinet had been at odds for quite a long time over a pending project for a constitutional reform. The prince had claimed he wanted to modernize the way Liechtenstein is run and give more power to the people, while the then prime minister Mario Frick and other critics held the opposite was true and claimed the envisaged reforms would concentrate more power in the prince's hands.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe prince threatened to muster the 1,500 signatures required by law to bring about a referendum on the issue if he did not get what he wanted, and said if he was to lose the constitutional debate he would leave for Austria, the seat of his family before World War II. That might raise serious questions about how the principality would be governed in the future. INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS\\nThe transportation system of Liechtenstein consists of 18.5 kilometers (11.5 miles) of railroads, all electrified, owned and operated by, and included in the statistics of\\nCommunications\\naData is for 1997 unless otherwise noted. bData is for 1998 unless otherwise noted. cData is for 2000 unless otherwise noted. SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [Online]. the Austrian Federal Railways. There are 323 kilometers (201 miles) of paved highways. There are no ports or harbors (the Rhine River is not yet navigable anywhere in Liechtenstein) and there are no airports in the small mountainous principality. The country is served in these respects by the extensive infrastructure of neighboring Switzerland and Austria.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein is not traversed by any major international routes and road traffic in the country is 96 percent home-made while only 4 percent is accounted for by transit traffic, running mostly along the Schaanwald-Nendeln-Eschen-Bendern axis. Electricity production in 1995 was about 150 million kilowatt hours (kWh), and Liechtenstein imported more than 90 percent of its energy from Switzerland and Austria. There is a modern telecommunications network with 19,000 main lines in use in 1995. All are linked to and operated by the Swiss telecom networks (some of the world's most technologically advanced) by cable and microwave radio relay. In 1999, 115 of the Swiss Internet service providers were offering service in Liechtenstein. ECONOMIC SECTORS\\nLiechtenstein is highly industrialized, but much of its income is derived from banking, tourism, commerce, the sale of postage stamps, and from the international firms maintaining offices in the country because of more favorable tax treatment. Major manufactures include precision machinery, instruments and tools, pharmaceuticals, food products, metal goods, furniture, and pottery.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe distribution of the labor force by occupation in 1997 was estimated to be as follows: industry, trade, and building, 45 percent; services, 53 percent; and agriculture, fishing, forestry, and horticulture less than 2 percent. AGRICULTURE\\nAgriculture contributes just 2 percent of GDP, although about 24 percent of Liechtenstein's territory consists of arable land, with permanent highland pastures making up 16 percent, and forests and woodland occupying 35 percent of the land. Animal husbandry and dairy farming are among the principal agricultural activities. Livestock graze in the alpine meadows during the summer. The fertile soil of the Rhine valley is used mostly for market vegetable gardening. Local agriculture products include wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, and grapes. The principality imports food, and some of it is processed and reexported. Before World War II, almost half of the working population was occupied in agriculture. This number has continually decreased, and in 2000, about 350 persons (or 1.7 percent of the workforce) are active in agriculture, fishing, forestry, and horticulture. Despite the decline in that number, yields have been significantly increasing due to scientific rationalization and intensive machine cultivation.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nINDUSTRY\\nAbout one-third of the nearly 23,000 working people of Liechtenstein are employed in industrial establishments. Due to the favorable economic conditions, an efficient, export-oriented high-tech industrial manufacturing sector developed over the last decades of the 20th century. Manufacturing, reported jointly with construction and trade, was responsible for nearly 45 percent of the jobs and the GDP by 2000 and a large percentage of the country's exports. Electronics, metal manufacturing, textiles, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, food products and beverages, and precision instruments manufacture are all well developed. The fact that Liechtenstein's economy exports so much is largely due to its high-tech manufacturing sector that accounts for the majority of its exports. Among the most important domestic manufacturers are the Hilti Corporation, a large international supplier of rail anchors and anchor installation services to the rail transport industry, and electrical equipment; Ivoclar-Vivadent, developer and distributor of well-regarded products for prosthetic, restorative, and preventive dentistry; Balzers-Bal-Tec AG, manufacturers of electron microscopy preparation products for biological specimens; Fancoldi R.T., gem industry specialists, producing colored diamonds; and Aqualine, a major Austrian Alps mineral water bottling company. Construction is also an important contributor to the economy, although its scope is necessarily limited.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nAccording to the building statistics, in the last quarter of 2000, 115 new buildings were granted permits. As compared to the same period of 1999, this corresponded to 39 permits less, but the construction volume increased by 5.6 percent and construction costs increased by 17.2 percent to 163.3 million Swiss francs. Building activities generally shifted from housing developments and public buildings towards industry and trade. The construction volume in that sector increased by 110.4 percent, while a decrease of 93.4 percent was registered for public buildings. SERVICES\\nLiechtenstein's economy is increasingly service-based, as in most of western Europe. Services contributed to 53 percent of GDP, and about 10,000 people were employed in the sector in 2000. It particularly expanded over the last decade of the 20th century. In addition to the catering branch (made of 42 hotels and inns, and 81 restaurants and cafes), the public administration, insurance companies, and the health and educational systems, this sector is specially characterized by a vigorous presence in international commercial and financial transactions and in fiduciary business. Finance in Liechtenstein is traditionally a very well-developed sector.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nApart from the presence of the Swiss banks due to the monetary and customs union and the geographical and cultural proximity between the 2 states, 13 local banks exist. These include Liechtenstein-LGT Bank, an international private bank, claiming to be the largest banking operation in the country; Bank von Ernst, a financial institution providing Swiss private banking services, portfolio management, and family foundation; and Liechtenstein-VP Bank Group, a private bank founded in 1956, providing a wide range of financial services, holding assets worth some $5.5 billion, and employing about 600 people (but currently facing some serious legal troubles, as shown below), as well as the Centrum Bank AG, Liechtensteinische Landesbank AG, Neue Bank AG, Verwaltungs-und Privat-Bank AG, and Vorarlberger Volksbank AG. The largest banks in Liechtenstein belong to the Swiss Banking Association and recognize most of its rules, as do all the Swiss banks. The Liechtenstein banks, which administer 112.5 billion Swiss francs (US$70 billion), have been known for their liberal policies and privacy, yet, following some serious money laundering allegations in 2000 described below, they intend to end anonymous accounts and carry out identity checks on their customers.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLegislative changes to that effect are being pushed through parliament in hopes of averting possible sanctions from European Union countries and the United States following the scandals. However, bankers are reluctant to give up their judicial independence. Tourism is also an important contributor to the economy. Despite its small size, alpine Liechtenstein is a diverse country with various communities offering a mix of attractions for all tastes. Situated between some of the most attractive tourist regions in Europe, the Swiss and Austrian Alps, the tiny principality often appears on their visitors' itineraries. Museums, banks, boutiques, dining establishments, historical sites, vineyards, and sports (particularly skiing and hiking) facilities are varied and charming. Liechtenstein is considered a microcosm of the European continent. Apart from the 42 hotels and 81 restaurants, the sale of postal stamps by the state post offices, galleries and shops offering art objects, local handicrafts, and souvenirs are also a significant source of revenue. Retail is well-developed and targeted at serving the tourist clients as well as the local customers and commuters, but the small size of the market is still more conducive to small family-owned stores.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nRetail trade experienced a marked upswing over the 1990s as a result of increased specialization of stores, so that a wide range of diverse products is now available. As the Swiss retail sector is developing towards large-scale self-service and discount chain stores, Liechtenstein retailers have had to face fierce competition from the large Swiss shopping malls in the vicinity. Many of the small family-owned shops, relying basically on local customs, went out of business during the 1990s. Some 1,600 retail and wholesale trade enterprises are united in the Liechtenstein Chamber of Trade and Commerce as an umbrella organization. Trade enterprises cater mainly to the domestic market and contribute to the efficient infrastructure of the country. Companies specializing in serving the offshore \\\"letter box\\\" companies' various needs in Liechtenstein include the Gestina Trust, specialists in the development and management of offshore companies, legal structures, and settlement advice; the Vazus-Syndikus Treuhandanstalt, offering financial advice and consulting in economic and legal matters, accounting, and contracts; the Vazus-Wanger Group, a law and patent firm in commercial law and asset management, and many others. INTERNATIONAL TRADE\\nDue to the very small size of the country's market, Liechtenstein's industry is heavily dependent on exports.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIn 1996, the country exported $2.47 billion worth of goods and services, while importing $917.3 million worth. The European Economic Area (EEA) states are its most important export destinations. Liechtenstein joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as an associate member in 1960 and has been a full member since 1991. In addition, it became a member of the EEA (the intermediary body between the EFTA and the EU) in 1995. Although small, the Liechtenstein economy is very open and its foreign trade balance is traditionally strikingly positive, with exports far outweighing imports, largely thanks to its high-tech manufacturing sector. Principal trade partners in 1995 were the EU and EFTA, recipients of 60.57 percent of exports, and Switzerland, recipient of 15.7 percent, and they were the origins of a comparable percentage of its imports. All trade numbers for Liechtenstein are included in the Swiss national statistics, and therefore a more clear-cut picture of its international trade is difficult to assemble. MONEY\\nLiechtenstein has many advantages issuing from its use of the Swiss franc and from officially being part of the Swiss monetary system.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nIt has a strong currency, a balanced budget with revenues of $424.2 million and expenditures of $414.1 million in 1998 (estimate), and a leading banking sector with solid private banks with a reputation for privacy, limited regulation, and the acceptance of foreign deposits with little oversight. Similarly to Switzerland in the late 1990s, however, these conditions have also led to some serious legal drawbacks. Throughout 2000, Liechtenstein has been troubled by recurrent international allegations of domestic money laundering for transnational organized crime, an abuse of Swiss banking privacy policies. In 2000, the German press printed stunning details from a German federal intelligence agency report accusing Liechtenstein of acting as banker to Central American drug cartels and the Russian mafia. The report alleged that a former prime minister, Hans Brunhart, currently head of the Verwaltungsund Privat-Bank (VP Bank), had been laundering drug money. The report named Liechtenstein as the only European country on an International Financial Action Task Force (FATF) list of 15 nations accused of failing to cooperate against money laundering. Finally, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), in another 2000 publication, listed the principality\\nExchange rates: Liechtenstein\\nSOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE].\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\namong harmful offshore tax havens alongside Tonga, the Bahamas, and Barbados. The allegations caused a storm of indignation in the country. Brunhart objected, and an independent investigator from Austria appointed by Liechtenstein did not support the case. The investigator found that Liechtenstein was not a hub of money laundering, although he criticized its preventive work against \\\"hot money.\\\" In early 2001, the FATF confirmed that the country had made significant progress in connection with the fight against money laundering. The country was removed from the blacklist by the FATF in June of 2001. POVERTY AND WEALTH\\nLiechtenstein is renowned as one of Europe's most affluent and carefree communities. With one of the highest measures of GDP per capita in the world, a low inflation rate (in terms of consumer prices) of 0.5 percent (1997 estimate), and the benefits of the monetary and economic union with Switzerland, the tiny principality offers its subjects one of the highest standards of living in the world, although at a very high cost of living.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nNo data as to Liechtenstein's economic equality index ( Gini index ) are currently available, but if Switzerland's index is used for reference, economic equality in the principality is likely to be in better shape than the United States and even in the more egalitarian United Kingdom . No data as to any extreme cases of poverty are available. WORKING CONDITIONS\\nDue to the number of specialized high-tech companies in Liechtenstein, there is an enormous demand for highly qualified specialists. Since the national job market, on account of its tiny size, can only partly satisfy the demand, the internationally active companies in particular are heavily recruiting in other countries, mostly Switzerland and Austria, but also elsewhere in Europe and the Middle East . GDP per Capita (US$)\\n28,600\\nNote: Data are estimates. SOURCE: Handbook of the Nations, 17th,18th, 19th and 20theditions for 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 data; CIA World Factbook 2001 [Online] for 2000 data. In 2000, the labor force included 22,891 people of which 13,847 were foreigners, mostly guest workers; 8,231 people commuted from neighboring Austrian and Swiss towns to work daily.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nA highly skilled workforce, laws promoting labor flexibility, and agreements between trade unions and employers' associations have resulted in very little labor unrest. The late 1990s have been good for Liechtenstein workers, with salaries having increased by an average of 7 percent between 1997 and 1999. It is all the more important that it was possible at the same time to realize improvements on the job market and to lower the unemployment rate. In 2000, the unemployment ratio fell to 1.0 percent of the domestic labor force. The number of 274 individuals registered as unemployed at the end of February 2001 represents the lowest figure since June 2000, when 260 individuals had been registered. In February 2001, 28 persons were registered as unemployed either for the first time or were re-registered. Some 51 individuals were taken out of the statistics, 32 of whom started a new job, and the rest reached retirement age or started a new business. Full employment is a prominent aim of domestic economic policy. It is a goal that can be reached through measures including a project for the occupation of long-time unemployed, as well as a program for the better integration of handicapped employees.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nCOUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT\\n1719. The former domain of Schellenberg and the country of Vaduz are combined into the Principality of Liechtenstein within the Holy Roman Empire . 1806. The principality is recognized as a sovereign state. Until the end of World War I, it remains closely tied to the Austrian Empire (named the Austro-Hungarian Empire after 1867). 1918. The military defeat and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I forces Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other prosperous yet neutral neighbor, Switzerland. 1938. Prince Franz Joseph II becomes sovereign; the principality remains neutral in World War II (1939-45), while neighboring Austria is annexed by Nazi Germany. 1984. Executive authority is transferred to Prince Hans Adam II (crowned in 1989); a referendum grants women the right to vote in national elections. 1990. Liechtenstein joins the United Nations. 1991. Liechtenstein joins the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). 1992. Voters approve Liechtenstein's membership in the European Economic Area (EEA). 2000. Liechtenstein is disturbed by a money-laundering scandal and a constitutional crisis between the prince and the government.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nFUTURE TRENDS\\nThe Liechtenstein economy is closely related to the Swiss one and is dependent on the latter's progress towards full integration in the EU. It is likely that, despite financial scandals and constitutional problems, the principality will preserve its sound economy and high living standards and will continue to attract foreign companies and workers in the foreseeable future. Liechtenstein has already developed close links with the EU through its participation in the EEA, the comprehensive adjusting of its domestic economic regulations to fit the EU standards, and its close relations with the Austrian economy (Austria is a full member of the union). In the event Switzerland finally decides to join the EU, the adjustment of the monetary and banking system (and possibly some agricultural subsidy policies) will likely be among the serious problems facing the small principality in this regard. As to the problems related to the 2000 banking scandal, there is reason to believe that Liechtenstein can guarantee the implementation of some effective measures to combat money laundering.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe former prime minister appointed 4 new judges working at the national court, the prosecution was restructured , the state department for financial services was strengthened, a new Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) was founded, and a special bank department was set up within the national police force. Some needed legislative changes are being vigorously debated. It is expected that the country's banking practices will be soon brought in line with the general EU provisions, without reducing its competitive advantages too much. The positive ruling by the FATF in June of 2001 indicated the success of these measures. It is harder to predict the outcome of the constitutional crisis. In 2000, Hans Adam II announced that he would end the discussion around the constitution as soon as possible. But reflecting on his new constitutional proposal of 1 March 2001, the former head of the constitutional commission, Peter Wolff, noted that in the controversial points, on which parliamentary criticism focused, nothing had been changed. Whatever the decision, however, it is not likely to cause any serious political disturbance in the principality that might jeopardize social stability and economic development. DEPENDENCIES\\nLiechtenstein has no territories or colonies. BIBLIOGRAPHY\\nGlobal Investment Business Center, Inc. Staff.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein: A Country Study Guide. International Business Publications, 2000. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed July 2001. U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Europe: Liechtenstein. <http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/eurbgnhp.html> . Accessed January 2001. —Valentin Hadjiyski\\nVaduz. MONETARY UNIT:\\nSwiss Franc (SFR). One SFr equals 100 centimes or rappen. There are notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 1,000 Swiss francs, and coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50 centimes and 1, 2, and 5 Swiss francs. The country maintains a monetary and customs union with Switzerland. The Liechtenstein monetary, fiscal, and banking systems can therefore be regarded as an extension of their Swiss counterparts. CHIEF EXPORTS:\\nSmall specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery. CHIEF IMPORTS:\\nMachinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles, fuels. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:\\nMalbun, Triesen\\nINTRODUCTION\\nThe region now known as LIECHTENSTEIN has been continuously inhabited since 3000 BC. The region was a part of Charlemagne 's empire in the 8th century, and it later was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire . The Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein was established in 1719 and has been politically independent since 1815. The principality remained neutral in both World Wars. From 1852 until 1919, Liechtenstein was closely tied economically to Austria .\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nWhen Austria's economy collapsed after World War I, Liechtenstein sought closer ties with its other neighbor, Switzerland . Liechtenstein has thrived since World War II as a prosperous center for trade, finance, precision manufacturing, and tourism. Wine production is also economically important. MAJOR CITY\\nVaduz\\nVaduz is Liechtenstein's capital and main city, located in the western part of the country near the Rhine River. An estimated 5,000 people (about one-sixth of the country's population) lives in Vaduz. Many Swiss and Austrian citizens commute to Vaduz. Few international trains make stops in Liechtenstein, but the main terminal for reaching the country is Buchs, Switzerland, about five miles from Vaduz. Buses regularly travel from Vaduz to Feldkirch, Austria via Schaan. Two oneway streets encircle the center of town. Banking is an increasingly important part of the local economy, and Vaduz is the headquarters for many law firms, banks, and trust companies. Bank secrecy laws and low taxes encourage foreigners to invest in the financial services industry. Near Vaduz are several industrial firms that produce a wide array of products including frozen foods, dental products, central heating systems, and protective coatings for CD-ROMs.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nRecreation and Entertainment\\nThe principality's ski resorts are world famous, especially those at Steg and Malbun. The Steg resort has a popular cross-country ski course with an illuminated 1-mile stretch for night skiing. The Malbun resort is located 10 miles from Vaduz and has 12 miles of downhill runs. Members of the British royal family and other celebrities visit the Malbun resort. Hiking, bicycling, and soccer are popular in the summer. The annual number of tourists has been in decline since 1981, although tour buses are seen in Vaduz as much as ever. Vaduz is a small town, and in the summer its streets can become congested with buses and cars. There is a plan to close the main street to all but pedestrian traffic in order to reinvigorate the center of Vaduz. The castle at Vaduz is closed to the public, but it is a popular subject for photographers. The Gutenberg Castle at Balzers is also closed to the public but there are plans to convert it into a museum. The Liechtenstein National Museum contains coins, weapons, and folklore of the country.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nFor such a small country, Liechtenstein has an extensive collection of art works but has never had a museum in which to display them. Hilti, the country's biggest company, has pledged to help finance the building of an art museum in the center of Vaduz. The museum will house the state art collection, exhibit parts of the prince's personal collection, and attract outside exhibitions. The Liechtenstein Postal Museum contains more than 300 frames of national stamps issued since 1912. Groups of ten or more are permitted to sample wines from the prince's own vineyard. Many residents belong to social clubs, and performing in choirs and bands is popular as well. OTHER CITIES\\nMALBUN is a hamlet in the mountains of southeast Liechtenstein and is known as the country's ski resort. The resort offers two ski schools, and most runs are for novices or intermediates. With a population of only about 4,200, TRIESEN is the third largest village in the country. South of Vaduz, it lies nestled between the Rhine and the Liechtenstein alps. The beautiful countryside is perfect for outdoor sports enthusiasts.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nHikers may take a trail along the gorge of Lawena, the 1500 meter high alp, or move down into the valley at the foot of the Falknis cliffs. Triesen has several tennis courts and bicycle paths through the village and a beautiful indoor swimming pool. Nearby is the winter sports area Malbun, which offers ski slopes and a natural ice rink. Triesen may also serve as a starting point for excursions to the Swiss mountains or to Lake Constance and to Walensee (Lake Walen). Triesner Hall offers a variety of local cultural and entertainment events throughout the year, including changing historical exhibits and concerts. The St. Mamerten and Maria Chapels are located in the lower part of the village and also contain exhibits on local history. COUNTRY PROFILE\\nGeography and Climate\\nLiechtenstein is a landlocked country situated along the Rhine River Valley. Liechtenstein is one of Europe 's so-called \\\"microstates\\\" (the others are Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City) and has an area of only about 62 square miles, almost the size of Washington, D.C. It is bordered to the north and east by the Austria, and to the south and west by the Switzerland.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe Rhine River flows along its western boundary. A narrow area of relatively level land lies near the Rhine River. The level land occupies about 40% of the country's total area, and the rest of the country is mountainous. The highest point is Grauspitz (8,527 feet) in the south. A steep Alpine slope called the Drei Schwestern (\\\"three sisters\\\") extends across the border with Austria. A warm southern wind called the Föhn makes the climate less severe than might be expected from the elevated terrain and inland location. Lowland temperatures average 24° F in January and 68° F in July. The average annual precipitation is 41 inches. Population\\nLiechtenstein's population is approximately 32,000. The population is most heavily concentrated in the Rhine River Valley between Schaan and Vaduz. Approximately 88% of the population is Alemannic, descendants of the Germanic tribes that settled between the Main and Danube rivers. The rest of Liechtenstein's population consists of foreign residents, mainly Italian and Turkish. Several thousand Swiss and Austrians commute daily to work in the principality. The state religion is Roman Catholicism, to which approximately 80% of the population adheres. Protestants and other sects account for the remainder.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nGerman is the official language, spoken in an Alemannic dialect. Government\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein was created on January 23, 1719 by act of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. The government is a constitutional monarchy, ruled by the hereditary princes of the house of Liechtenstein. The current monarch is Prince Hans Adam II, who was first given executive power in 1984 and assumed control in 1989. There is a unicameral parliament of 25 members elected every four years. The prince appoints a prime minister, currently Otmar Hasler, selected from the majority party of the parliament. Although the principality has its own civil and criminal codes, in certain instances courts composed of Liechtensteiner, Swiss, and Austrian judges may have jurisdiction over domestic cases. The national flag is divided into two horizontal rectangles, blue above red. On the blue section near the hoist is the princely crown in gold. Arts, Science, Education\\nPrimary and secondary education is modeled on Roman Catholic principles and is conducted under government supervision. Many students pursue higher education in Switzerland, Austria, and Germany . The country also has a music school and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nCommerce and Industry\\nLiechtenstein has developed since the 1940s from a mainly agricultural to an industrialized nation and a prosperous center for trade and tourism. The majority of factories produce specialized small machinery in addition to precision instruments. Industrial products are made almost exclusively for export. Transportation\\nThe main railway for reaching Liechtenstein is Buchs, Switzerland, about 5 miles from Vaduz. Postal buses are the main form of public transportation. A half-mile tunnel connects the Samina River Valley with the Rhine River Valley. A major highway runs through the principality, linking Austria with Switzerland. The nearest airport is in Zürich, Switzerland. Communications\\nTelecommunications services are administered by Switzerland. There are no television stations that transmit from Liechtenstein. There are two daily newspapers, the Liechtenstiener Volksblatt and the Liechtensteiner Vaterland, both printed in German. Health\\nThe principality has formed agreements with Switzerland and Austria that allow its residents access to hospital facilities in those countries. The government's health care system provides complementary medical examinations for children under the age of 10. NOTES FOR TRAVELERS\\nA passport is required for travel to Liechtenstein. A visa is not required for U.S. citizens for stays up to 90 days.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nFor more information on entry requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of Switzerland at 2900 Cathedral Avenue N.W., Washington D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 745-7900, or the nearest Swiss consulate in Atlanta , Chicago , Houston , Los Angeles , New York , or San Francisco . There is no U.S. Embassy or Consulate in Liechtenstein. For assistance and information on travel and security in Liechtenstein, U.S. citizens may contact or register at the U.S. Embassy in Bern at Jubilaeumstrasse 93, telephone (41)(31) 357-7011. LOCAL HOLIDAYS\\nJan. 1 …New Year's Day\\nJan.2 …St. Berchtold's Day\\n100%\\nHistory & Background\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein is located between Switzerland and Austria in the Alps of central Europe. Liechtenstein, one of Europe's smallest countries, was acquired by the Liechtenstein family. Prince Hans Adam of Liechtenstein purchased the Imperial Free Territory of Schellenberg in 1699 and the County of Vaduz in 1712, uniting the two territories in 1719 as the Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein, a member state within the Holy Roman Empire . Compulsory education was mandated in 1805. The responsibility for school construction and financing was given to the municipalities resulting in lack of enforcement and unequal educational opportunities for the principality's residents.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe sovereignty and independence of Liechtenstein was established in 1806, developing from a special relationship between French Emperor Napoleon I and Prince John I of Liechtenstein, an Austrian general. First, Liechtenstein was a member state in Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine and later was in the German Confederation. Liechtenstein escaped Europe's nineteenth century wars of German unification, because the country was tucked between Imperial Austria and neutral Switzerland. In 1842, Prince Aloysius II became the first Prince of Liechtenstein to actually visit his country. During the long reign of Prince John II (1858-1929), Liechtenstein was given a Constitution (1862, revised in 1921), disbanded its army (1868), and ended the principality's long standing customs union with Austria in favor of a customs treaty with Switzerland (1923). Prince Francis I (reigned 1929-1938) was the first Prince of Liechtenstein to regularly visit the country. In 1938, the same year Germany annexed Austria, Prince Francis Joseph II (reigned 1938-1989) became the first reigning prince to permanently reside in Liechtenstein. After World War II , Liechtenstein joined the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and the European Economic Area to guarantee its continued political and economic independence.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy with a Prince, Hans Adam II, as Head of State since 1989. Prince Hans Adams represents the country under international law and appoints members of the government, the nation's judges, and civil servants. The Lantag or Parliament, a legislature of 25 delegates elected by the people of Liechtenstein, has authority for the budget, supervises the government's administrative activities, establishes investigating commissions, and recommends legislation. Educational System—Overview\\nLiechtenstein's current educational system is based on a series of reforms launched in the middle of the 1980s and implemented in the 1990s, and is under regular review. The Constitution of Liechtenstein requires the state to supervise the whole system of education and schooling. National education in Liechtenstein offers a system of general and vocational education for pupils, students, trainees, and apprentices, which is unrestricted and free of charge. The educational system is responsible for providing students with access to a vocational education based on their abilities and interests. Studies of foreign languages are promoted to prepare students for the demands of a professional career of international interconnections.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nPupils and students are motivated to be participants in a life-long learning process that will benefit both them and the nation. Through close collaboration with Liechtenstein's neighboring countries, Switzerland and Austria, options in all fields of education are available. Liechtenstein's educational system is comparable to the educational systems found in other German-speaking countries. Kindergarten is voluntary and lasts for two years. In practice, 99 percent of all children attend kindergarten. Compulsory school attendance begins at age seven, continues for nine school years, and includes primary and secondary education levels. A voluntary tenth year is available for students to prepare for career opportunities and select professional choices. The Liechtenstein school year begins in mid-August and continues for 40 weeks. In addition to the public school statistics listed below, Liechtenstein has two private preprimary schools, two private primary schools, and one private secondary school. In the year 2000, Liechtenstein had 34 preprimary schools enrolling 334 male and 328 female students with a teaching staff of 59, fourteen primary schools employing 231 teachers for 281 male and 254 female students, and nine secondary schools enrolling 917 males and 931 females with a teaching faculty of 267.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nBecause of its small size, Liechtenstein is not able to offer a fully developed higher educational system within its own borders. Liechtenstein has two public universities. The Fachhochschule Liechtenstein (FHL) enrolls 330 students, 110 from Liechtenstein, in comprehensive programs of graduate and post-graduate vocational education in the fields of building management, international management, logistics, environmental technology, and economic engineering. Liechtenstein's vocational education system utilizes the apprenticeship as the practical method of instruction developed in partnership with the business community. Liechtenstein's second institution of higher learning, the Internationale Akademie fur Philosohie (IAP), offers a course of study in philosophy and enrolls 60 foreign students. The majority of Liechtenstein students graduating with Liechtenstein's university-entrance certificate study abroad in either Switzerland at Fribourg, St. Gall, or Berne universities or Austria in the fields of medicine, law, and economics. In Germany, individual study programs are granted to Liechtenstein students seeking higher education on a case by case basis by the German federal or state governments. A few students attend university in Great Britain and France and in the United States for postgraduate work. Adult education is assigned to non-profit-making institutions within Liechtenstein.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe government of Liechtenstein and the Department of Education supervise the whole educational system, provide the financial support for the population's education within the country and abroad, and determines the curricula and the accreditation of all educational institutions within the nation's borders. The Schulamt (Schools Office) oversees the education system at preprimary, primary, and secondary levels. The Schulamt reviews and recommends qualifications for teacher employment, teacher salaries, the level of state investment in the educational system, the inspection procedures for public and private schools, and curricula. The authority of the Schulamt extends to higher education and grants, pedagogy, media, and teaching materials. Oversight for vocational education is given to the Council of Vocational Education (Berufsbildungsrat ), an advisory committee, and the National Authority of Vocational Education (Amt fur Berufsbildung ) to administer and organize the system. Summary\\nSince 1995, Liechtenstein has participated in the European Union 's Leonardo DaVinci Action Program on vocational education. This initiative promotes the integration of Liechtenstein's vocational education system into Europe's educational system. The government of Liechtenstein advocates that its businesses and employees be prepared to cope with the rapid pace of technological and economic change.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein is committed to an active and continuous review of its educational programs to meet the needs of its people and the nation. Bibliography\\nJansen, Norbert. Francis Joseph II Ruling Prince of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Government Press and Information Office, 1978. Korner, Kurt. The Educational System in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz, 1998. National Authority of Vocational Education. Vocational Education in the Principality of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein: Leonardo DaVinci Office, 1998. Seger, Otto. A Survey of Liechtenstein History. Vaduz: Government Press and Information Office, 1984. —William A. Paquette\\nOfficial name: Principality of Liechtenstein\\nArea: 160 square kilometers (62 square miles)\\nHighest point on mainland: Grauspitz (2,599 meters/8,527 feet)\\nLowest point on land: Ruggeller Riet (430 meters/1,411 feet)\\nHemispheres: Northern and Eastern\\nTime zone: 1 p.m. = noon GMT\\nLongest distances: 9.4 kilometers (5.8 miles) from east to west; 24.5 kilometers (15.2 miles) from north to south\\nLand boundaries: 76 kilometers (47 miles) total boundary length; Austria 35 kilometers (22 miles); Switzerland 41 kilometers (25 miles)\\nCoastline: None\\nTerritorial sea limits: None\\n1 LOCATION AND SIZE\\nWith an area slightly smaller than that of Washington, D.C., Liechtenstein is one of the smallest countries in the world, and the fourth-smallest in Euroh2.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nShaped like an elongated triangle, it is sandwiched between the Swiss cantons of Graubünden and St. Gall to the south and west, and the Austrian province of Vorarlberg to the north and east. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES\\nLiechtenstein has no territories or dependencies. 3 CLIMATE\\nLiechtenstein has a continental climate tempered by a warm south wind called the fohn. Even at the upper Alpine elevations, winter temperatures rarely drop below -15°C (5°F), and lowland temperatures average -5°C (24°F) in January. Summer highs are generally between 20°C (68°F) and 28°C (82°F). Annual precipitation ranges from 91 to 114 centimeters (36 to 45 inches). The higher Alpine peaks are snowcapped year-round. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS\\nThe western third of Liechtenstein lies on flat land in the floodplain of the Rhine River, which forms its western boundary. The eastern region consists of Alpine highlands. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS\\nLiechtenstein has no major inland lakes. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS\\nThe Rhine River and its tributaries drain most of Liechtenstein. The mountain valleys to the east are drained by the Samina River, which rises in the southeast and flows northward through Liechtenstein's mountains into Austria. 8 DESERTS\\nThere are no deserts in Liechtenstein.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\n9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN\\nAn unusual hill formation, called the Eschnerberg, rises to heights of 730 meters (2,395 feet) on the flat terrain of Liechtenstein's western plains area. Meadows and pastureland make up about 40 percent of the total land area. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES\\nLiechtenstein's Alpine foothills and peaks are located on a spur of the Rhaetian Alps called the Rhätikon Massif. Three main valleys traverse the country's mountains. Their highest point is the Grauspitz, which rises to 8,527 feet (2,599 meters) on the southeastern border with Switzerland. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES\\nOver the course of many centuries, water has carved a gorge 300 meters (985 feet) deep in the Salzach Valley. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS\\nAn unusual hill formation, called the Eschnerberg, rises to heights of 730 meters (2,395 feet) on the flat terrain of Liechtenstein's western plains area. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES\\nFormer marshland on the banks of the Rhine was reclaimed for agricultural use in the first half of the twentieth century. Both concrete and wooden bridges span the Rhine, connecting Liechtenstein to neighboring Switzerland. DID YOU KNOW? Liechtenstein is one of only two countries in the world that are doubly landlocked (surrounded by other landlocked countries).\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe other is Uzbekistan . 14 FURTHER READING\\nCussans, Thomas, ed. Fodor's Switzerland. New York : Fodor's Travel Publications, 1988. Frommer's Switzerland and Liechtenstein. New York: Prentice Hall Travel, 1994. Greene, Barbara. Valley of Peace: The Story of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Liechtenstein Verlag, 1947. Web Sites\\nLonely Planet World Guide: Destination Liechtenstein. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/europe/liechtenstein/ (accessed April 13, 2003). Travel.orgwebsite. http://www.travel.org/liechtens.html (accessed April 24, 2003). Cite this article\\nLiteracy rate:\\n100%\\nThe Imperial Free Territory of Schellenberg (1699) and the County of Vaduz (1712), purchased by the German princely family of Liechtenstein, were merged to form modern Liechtenstein in 1719. Liechtenstein was, successively, a member state of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine from 1807 to 1815, and the German Confederation until 1866. Geographically separated from a united Germany by Austria and Switzerland , Liechtenstein opted for a custom's union, first with Austria and since 1923 with Switzerland. The first Liechtenstein Prince to take up permanent residence in the principality was Francis Joseph II, who reigned from 1938 to 1989. Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy with a reigning prince; since 1989 this has been Hans Adam II.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nThe government is centered in the capital, Vaduz, where a 25-member Diet, or legislature, represents the principality's population of over 32,000 residents. Article 40 of the Constitution of Liechtenstein guarantees each person the right to freely express his opinions and to communicate his ideas verbally, in writing, and in print, or by picture, within the limits of the laws and of morality. The same Article 40 rejects censorship except in public performances and exhibitions. Although a small nation, Liechtenstein has a highly developed industrialized economy based on the free-enterprise system. Low business taxes and easy incorporation rules have enabled almost 74,000 companies to establish offices within the principality. Liechtenstein's workforce is divided among the service industry, agriculture, fishing, foresting, horticulture, and industry, trade, and building, and the country's workers are among Europe's highest wage earners. Newspapers and periodicals and radio and television represent the media in Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein's two daily newspapers are Zeitungen (www.vaterland.li), with a 1995 circulation of 8,920, and the Liechtensteiner Volksblatt (www.lol.li/Volksblatt), with 8,700 readers in 1995. The Liechtensteiner Woche is a weekly newspaper with a 1998 circulation of 13,900.\",\n \"Liechtenstein Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia ...\\n\\nLiechtenstein prints two weekly periodicals of general interest, Liechtensteiner Anzeigere, which had a 1995 circulation of 29,000, and the Liechtensteiner Wochenzeitung, with 13,880 readers in 1995. Liechtenstein has only one radio station, Radio Liechtenstein (Radio L, www.radio.li), and only one television station, XML Television. The three press bureaus in Liechtenstein are L-Press, Mediateam, and Pressburo Vaduz. The population of Liechtenstein also has ready access to newspapers, periodicals, radio stations, and television stations published and/or broadcast from outside the borders of the principality. Liechtenstein citizens considering a career in the media usually attend universities in neighboring Switzerland, Austria, or Germany. Bibliography\\nConstitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Gutenberg, 1982. Kranz, Walter, ed. The Principality of Liechtenstein. Vaduz: Government Printing Office, n.d. Seger, Otto. A Survey of Liechtenstein History. Vaduz: Government Printing Office, n.d. World Mass Media Handbook, 1995 ed. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information, 1995. William A. Paquette\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1598,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2521"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Which country has as its joint heads of state a Spaniard and a Frenchman?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Andorra"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["military of andorra","principado de andorra","andorra","religion in andorra","andorra military","principat d andorra","principaute d andorre","hinduism in andorra","principality of andorra","health in andorra","protestantism in andorra","andorran navy","principauté d andorre","valles de andorra","name of andorra","weather in andorra","andorre","iso 3166 1 ad"],"string":"[\n \"military of andorra\",\n \"principado de andorra\",\n \"andorra\",\n \"religion in andorra\",\n \"andorra military\",\n \"principat d andorra\",\n \"principaute d andorre\",\n \"hinduism in andorra\",\n \"principality of andorra\",\n \"health in andorra\",\n \"protestantism in andorra\",\n \"andorran navy\",\n \"principauté d andorre\",\n \"valles de andorra\",\n \"name of andorra\",\n \"weather in andorra\",\n \"andorre\",\n \"iso 3166 1 ad\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Head of state\n\nA head of state is the highest-ranking position in a sovereign state and is vested with powers to act as the chief public representative of that state. In most countries, the head of state is a natural person, but the position is held by a body of persons in the Federal Council of Switzerland and the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and, in two other United Nations member states, the position is held by two persons jointly: the Co-Princes of Andorra and the Captains Regent of San Marino.[https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS], Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (2016-04-08). Retrieved on 2016-04-15. The role and functions of the office of a head of state may range from being purely ceremonial figurehead to one that wields autocratic executive power, for the nature of the position of a head of state is for each state to decide. Although several models or patterns exist, there are many idiosyncrasies in different states which preclude tidy classifications.","Head of state\n\nThe office of a head of state is often distinct from a head of government. For example, the distinction is made in article 7 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, article 1 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents and the United Nations protocol list. In parliamentary systems like the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the monarch and the president are recognized as their respective heads of state, while the prime minister and the chancellor are recognized as the heads of government. However, in republics with a presidential system (as in the United States and Brazil) or certain parliamentary republics (as in South Africa and Botswana), their presidents are recognized as being both heads of state and heads of government.","Head of state\n\nThe role of the head of state generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution, laws, unwritten customs, or by their traditions, including the appointment of members of the government and ambassadors. Before the enactment of the modern French constitution, Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French presidency by stating the head of state should embody \"the spirit of the nation\" for the nation itself and the world and embody \"a certain idea about France\" (). Today, many countries expect their head of state to carry out their duties with dignity in a similar fashion.","Head of state\n\nConstitutional models","Head of state\n\nSome academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of \"models\".","Head of state\n\nAn independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.Watts.\nIn protocolary terms, the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy, or the president, in the case of a republic.","Head of state\n\nAmong the different state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:","Head of state\n\n# The parliamentary system, with two subset models;\n## The standard model, in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but the exercise of such power is done on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g., United Kingdom, India, Pakistan).\n## The non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (E.g.: Sweden, Japan).\n# The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g., Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and\n# The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g., United States, Brazil).","Head of state\n\nParliamentary system","Head of state\n\nStandard model","Head of state\n\nIn parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and his cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.","Head of state\n\nIn parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).","Head of state\n\nIn republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel) the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.","Head of state\n\nIn reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.","Head of state\n\nFor example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure \"presidential\" system.","Head of state\n\nExamples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as \"unable to reign\" for twenty-four hours.","Head of state\n\nNon-executive model","Head of state\n\nThese officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.","Head of state\n\nThe was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor is defined in the constitution as \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\" (article 1), and is generally recognized throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate \"as designated by the Diet\", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.","Head of state\n\nSince the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \"On Behalf of the Government\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.","Head of state\n\nIn contrast, the only contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the supreme court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.","Head of state\n\nThe most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsowever. The least ceremonial powers held by the President are to appoint the Prime Minister, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the Prime Minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.","Head of state\n\nExecutive model","Head of state\n\nSome parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Suriname) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister, since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.","Head of state\n\nSemi-presidential systems","Head of state\n\nSemi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.","Head of state\n\nOther countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.","Head of state\n\nPresidential system","Head of state\n\nNote: The head of state in a \"presidential\" system may not actually hold the title of \"president\" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.","Head of state\n\nSome constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a \"presidential system\" and sometimes called the \"imperial model\", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centers on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.","Head of state\n\nPresidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g. Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.","Head of state\n\nIn the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations (Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.","Head of state\n\nSingle-party states","Head of state\n\nIn certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).","Head of state\n\nThis may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il-Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of \"Eternal President\" (while all substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared \"the highest post of the state\", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.","Head of state\n\nComplications with categorization","Head of state\n\nWhile clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.","Head of state\n\nConstitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet.[http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101)] (2009). Retrieved on 2014-08-03. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.","Head of state\n\nAnother complication exists with South Africa, in which the President is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognized as the head of state. The offices of President of Nauru and President of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.[http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf Constitution of Botswana], Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU], Parliament of Nauru. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\nPanama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.","Head of state\n\nHistorically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920-1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India.","Head of state\n\nRoles of heads of state","Head of state\n\nHead of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.","Head of state\n\nSymbolic role","Head of state\n\nOne of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the \"personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians\".","Head of state\n\nIn many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.","Head of state\n\nOther common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective \"royal\" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.","Head of state\n\nHeads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.","Head of state\n\nAt home, heads of state are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honor box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.","Head of state\n\nThe Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.","Head of state\n\nAs such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offense) just a military officer or civil servant.","Head of state\n\nFor non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.","Head of state\n\nBelow follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:\n::The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws. :Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:\n::(1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time. ::(2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand. :Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:\n::The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html The Constitution of Japan], Office of the Prime Minister. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.[http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf Constitution of the Italian Republic], Senate of the Republic. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. :Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\n::The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005)], Portuguese Constitutional Court. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\n::(1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states. ::(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution. :Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:\n::The President of the Republic shall be Head of State. ::He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws. :Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:\n::1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State. ::2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms.","Head of state\n\nIn accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html Constitution of the Russian Federation], Government of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:\n::The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of \"President of the Argentine Nation\".[http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION], Argentine Senate. Retrieved on 2012-11-16.","Head of state\n\nExecutive role","Head of state\n\nIn the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as \"Her Majesty's Government\" and \"His Excellency's Government.\" Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Germany, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:\n::Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.[http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition], The Communications Section, Danish Parliament (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:\n::The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986.], ComLaw, Government of Australia (2003) ISBN 0 642 78285 7. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:\n::The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The Constitution], Publications Department, Hellenic Parliament (2008) ISBN 960 560 073 0. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:\n::The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss%289%29.pdf Constitution of India, Part V], Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.","Head of state\n\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:\n::The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.[http://bd.camara.gov.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/1344/constituicao_ingles_3ed.pdf?sequence\n7 Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition], Chamber of Deputies (2010) ISBN 978-85-736-5737-1. Retrieved on 2012-11-13.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:\n::The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.","Head of state\n\nThe few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.","Head of state\n\nAppointment of senior officials","Head of state\n\nThe head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.","Head of state\n\nIn practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.","Head of state\n\nIn presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.","Head of state\n\nThe head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html Constitution of Ireland], Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 2014-08-03. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:\n::The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf THE BELGIAN CONSTITUTION], Legal Department, Belgian House of Representatives (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:\n::The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\n::The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \n:::I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State: \n:::XIII - ...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them; \n:::XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law; \n:::XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts; \n:::XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union; \n:::XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII\n:::XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law.","Head of state\n\nSome countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.","Head of state\n\nDiplomatic role","Head of state\n\nThe Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.Roberts: pp. 71-79. The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.Roberts: pp. 61-68. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2012) 187 sovereign states has ratified.","Head of state\n\nHowever, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a Chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).","Head of state\n\nThe head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.Roberts: pp. 542-543. However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g. between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:\n::1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.\n::2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:\n::The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;\n:::b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;\n:::c) shall sign instruments of ratification;\n:::d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:\n::The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.","Head of state\n\nIn Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the Royal Prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.","Head of state\n\nMilitary role","Head of state\n\nA head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.","Head of state\n\nIn a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military maneuvers is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.","Head of state\n\nIn military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:\n::The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting. ::The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended.], Information Service, Parliament of Norway. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees. :Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. :Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:\n::The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. :Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:\n::The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.","Head of state\n\nHe shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.","Head of state\n\nSome countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers. \n* In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peace-time (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.[https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany], Bundestag (Print version. As at: October 2010). Retrieved on 2012-11-11. \n* In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the Minister is the Chief of General Staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.","Head of state\n\nLegislative roles","Head of state\n\nIt is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America.","Head of state\n\nMost countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure Royal Assent.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:\n::The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:\n::Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.","Head of state\n\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:\n::The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.","Head of state\n\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;\n:::c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;\n:::d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;\n:::e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;\n:::f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:\n::Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated...","Head of state\n\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \n:::III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;\n:::IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;\n:::V - veto bills, wholly or in part;\n:::XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary; \n:::XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution; \n:::XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.","Head of state\n\n:Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:\n::1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.\n::2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.\n::3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id\n80 Constitution of the State of Qatar], Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2012-11-17.","Head of state\n\nIn some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.","Head of state\n\nIf he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.","Head of state\n\nSummoning and dissolving the legislature","Head of state\n\nA head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:\n::The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.\n:Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\n:::b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;","Head of state\n\nOther prerogatives","Head of state\n\nGranting nobility, knighthood and various titles and other honors","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:\n::The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honorably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\n::The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.","Head of state\n\nImmunity","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:\n::The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:\n::The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council. :Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:\n::(1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict. ::(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it. ::(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\n::1.","Head of state\n\nThe President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions. ::2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office. ::3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election. ::4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended. :Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:\n::The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.","Head of state\n\nReserve Powers","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties.","Head of state\n\nThe Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.Parliament shall sit as of right.The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp Constitution of October 4, 1958], The French National Assembly. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.","Head of state\n\n:Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:\n::Article 69\n:::The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.","Head of state\n\n::Article 70\n:::The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.","Head of state\n\nRight of pardon","Head of state\n\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:\n::The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament. :Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:\n::He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation. :Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\n::The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons. :Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:\n::...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.","Head of state\n\n:Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:\n::The President may-\n:::(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;\n:::(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;\n:::(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or\n:::(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.","Head of state\n\nGovernors-general (Commonwealth realms)","Head of state\n\nIn the Commonwealth realms, other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the relevant prime minister, as a representative and to exercise almost all the Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her \"representatives\". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that \"references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the Governor-General\" ). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.","Head of state\n\nAn example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: \"I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision.\"","Head of state\n\nAnother example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General unexpectedly dismissed the Prime Minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The Governor-General issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general. A letter from the Australian monarch's Private Secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.","Head of state\n\nOther Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Elizabeth II are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.","Head of state\n\nSelection and various types and styles of heads of state","Head of state\n\nAlthough many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognized as such by other countries. In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.Robertson: p. 221.Roberts: pp. 35-44. In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or had had other titles.","Head of state\n\nIn medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.Roberts: p. 39. The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.Roberts: pp. 37-38. This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia. Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718. However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.Roberts: pp. 42-43. On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.","Head of state\n\nContemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).Roberts: p. 43.","Head of state\n\nThere are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.","Head of state\n\nEuropean writers and revolutions, 16th–20th centuries","Head of state\n\nNiccolò Machiavelli used Prince () as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise The Prince, originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes. Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) used the term Sovereign. In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign rulerin the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the \"L'etat c'est moi\"to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations. Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g. Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.","Head of state\n\nFile:Machiavelli Principe Cover Page.jpg|Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince\nFile:Albergati Discorsi politici.jpg|Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle\nFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)","Head of state\n\nShared and substitute heads of state","Head of state\n\nInterim","Head of state\n\nWhenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the Vice-President acts when the President is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the Queen's powers may be delegated to Counselors of State when she is abroad or unavailable.","Head of state\n\nShared","Head of state\n\nIn some countries where there is no resident head of state, such as Andorra, a local representative is appointed. In the case of Andorra, two co-princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the President of France, residing in France, and the other is the Bishop of Urgell, residing in Spain. Each co-prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.","Head of state\n\nExtraordinary arrangements","Head of state\n\nIn exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by a new \"provisionary\" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost).","Head of state\n\nReligious heads of state","Head of state\n\nSince antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practicing incestuous marriage. In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.","Head of state\n\nChristianity","Head of state\n\nIn Roman Catholicism, the Pope was once Sovereign Pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States. After Italian unification, the Pope remains head of state of Vatican City. Furthermore, the Bishop of Urgell is ex officio one of the two Co-Princes of Andorra. In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as Supreme Governor of the Church of England, although this is purely symbolic role. Therefore, the Head of State of the United Kingdom has to be of the protestant faith, meaning the role of the British monarchy cannot be expanded to other large minorities within the state.","Head of state\n\nIslam","Head of state\n\nDuring the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.","Head of state\n\nIn the modern Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.","Head of state\n\nHinduism","Head of state\n\nIn Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as \"servant\" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling \"in the name of\" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.","Head of state\n\nBuddhism","Head of state\n\nFrom the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders (\"god-king\") of Tibet.","Head of state\n\nOuter Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924.","Head of state\n\nCity states and crowned republics","Head of state\n\n* The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the Maya civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.\n* Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but \"reigned\" as sovereign dukes.\n* The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine \"republican\" and \"monarchic\" characteristics.\n* The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning \"lieutenant\" or \"governor\", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.","Head of state\n\nMultiple or collective heads of state","Head of state\n\nA collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates; the Directoire; the seven-member Swiss Federal Council, where each member acts in turn as ceremonial head of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two \"Captains-regent\"), which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics, where there always was an even number of consuls.","Head of state\n\nIn condominiums, sovereignty is shared between two external powers: e.g. Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), and the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).","Head of state\n\nIn the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled Consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges). In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two different dynasties.","Head of state\n\nSuch arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).","Head of state\n\nThe National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.","Head of state\n\nUnique cases and titles","Head of state\n\nThough president and various monarchichal titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning \"leader\" in the national language, e.g. Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.","Head of state\n\nIn 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means \"head of state\" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.","Head of state\n\nIn 1959 after the resignation of Vice President of Indonesia Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; \"panglima\" meaning \"commander or martial figurehead\", \"tertinggi\" meaning \"highest\"; roughly translated to English as \"Supreme Commander of the Revolution\"). He was praised as \"Paduka Yang Mulia\", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.","Head of state\n\nThere are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China.","Head of state\n\nIn North Korea, the late Kim Il-sung was named \"Eternal President\" 4 years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the President are constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.","Head of state\n\nThere is debate as to whether Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.","Head of state\n\nIn some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as \"Guide of the Revolution\"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya (\"state of the masses\"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.","Head of state\n\nSometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.","Head of state\n\nIn certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g. the title Sardar-i-Riyasat was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first \"President of the Palestinian National Authority\" in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as \"President of the State of Palestine\".","Head of state\n\nLegitimacy","Head of state\n\nThe position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.","Head of state\n\nBy fiction or fiat","Head of state\n\nPower can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by laws of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.","Head of state\n\nBy divine appointment","Head of state\n\nUnder a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood. In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitamcy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.","Head of state\n\nBy social contract","Head of state\n\nThe notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.","Head of state\n\nBy constitution","Head of state\n\nIndividual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution.","Head of state\n\nBy hereditary succession","Head of state\n\nThe position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.","Head of state\n\nPrimogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically \"agnatic primogeniture\" or \"patrilineal primogeniture\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and male-line males inheriting before females of the male line. This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law (see Terra salica).","Head of state\n\nBefore primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.","Head of state\n\nSometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, but have yet to pass into law, pending approval by all of the affected nations. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.","Head of state\n\nIn some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.","Head of state\n\nOther hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).","Head of state\n\nBy election","Head of state\n\nElection usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.","Head of state\n\nBy appointment","Head of state\n\nA head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.","Head of state\n\nBy force or revolution","Head of state\n\nA head of state may seize power by force or revolution. This is not the same as the use of force to maintain power, as is practiced by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.","Head of state\n\nBy foreign imposition","Head of state\n\nA foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome of the Russo-Swedish War from 1741 to 1743 where the Russian Empress made the imposition of her relative Adolf Frederick as the heir to the Swedish Throne, to succeed Frederick I who lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.","Head of state\n\nLoss","Head of state\n\nApart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.","Head of state\n\nHeads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.","Head of state\n\nSerious violations of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the United Nations Security Council or certain alliances may do.","Head of state\n\nFormer heads of state","Head of state\n\nEffigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century (monument demolished 1950); or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837 - 1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876. Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927-1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the USA in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the \"Shrine of Democracy\".","Head of state\n\nPersonal influence or privileges","Head of state\n\nFormer Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.","Head of state\n\nA monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.","Head of state\n\nBy tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives. Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be King of the Hellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if they were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012. The Republic of Greece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinder acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.","Head of state\n\nHowever, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.","Head of state\n\nIn the Italian constitution provides that after the period sent the President of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges."],"string":"[\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is the highest-ranking position in a sovereign state and is vested with powers to act as the chief public representative of that state. In most countries, the head of state is a natural person, but the position is held by a body of persons in the Federal Council of Switzerland and the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and, in two other United Nations member states, the position is held by two persons jointly: the Co-Princes of Andorra and the Captains Regent of San Marino.[https://www.un.int/protocol/sites/www.un.int/files/Protocol%20and%20Liaison%20Service/hspmfm.pdf HEADS OF STATE, HEADS OF GOVERNMENT, MINISTERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS], Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations (2016-04-08). Retrieved on 2016-04-15. The role and functions of the office of a head of state may range from being purely ceremonial figurehead to one that wields autocratic executive power, for the nature of the position of a head of state is for each state to decide. Although several models or patterns exist, there are many idiosyncrasies in different states which preclude tidy classifications.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe office of a head of state is often distinct from a head of government. For example, the distinction is made in article 7 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, article 1 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents and the United Nations protocol list. In parliamentary systems like the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, the monarch and the president are recognized as their respective heads of state, while the prime minister and the chancellor are recognized as the heads of government. However, in republics with a presidential system (as in the United States and Brazil) or certain parliamentary republics (as in South Africa and Botswana), their presidents are recognized as being both heads of state and heads of government.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe role of the head of state generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's constitution, laws, unwritten customs, or by their traditions, including the appointment of members of the government and ambassadors. Before the enactment of the modern French constitution, Charles de Gaulle described the role he envisaged for the French presidency by stating the head of state should embody \\\"the spirit of the nation\\\" for the nation itself and the world and embody \\\"a certain idea about France\\\" (). Today, many countries expect their head of state to carry out their duties with dignity in a similar fashion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nConstitutional models\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of \\\"models\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAn independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines the extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions.Watts.\\nIn protocolary terms, the head of a sovereign, independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch, in the case of a monarchy, or the president, in the case of a republic.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAmong the different state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished:\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n# The parliamentary system, with two subset models;\\n## The standard model, in which the head of state, in theory, possesses key executive powers, but the exercise of such power is done on the binding advice of a head of government (e.g., United Kingdom, India, Pakistan).\\n## The non-executive model, in which the head of state has either none or very limited executive powers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role (E.g.: Sweden, Japan).\\n# The semi-presidential system, in which the head of state shares key executive powers with a head of government or cabinet (e.g., Russia, France, Sri Lanka); and\\n# The presidential system, in which the head of state is also the head of government and has all executive powers (e.g., United States, Brazil).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nParliamentary system\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nStandard model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief executive officer, heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet, presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has a majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and his cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to the head of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III); likewise, Edward VIII's abdication required the approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is a creature of the constitution and could quite properly be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn republics with a parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel) the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually, the king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFor example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Italy, the Statuto Albertino—the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. So, Italy had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de jure \\\"presidential\\\" system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExamples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the decision by King Léopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II, Belgium voted in a referendum to allow him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as \\\"unable to reign\\\" for twenty-four hours.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNon-executive model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThese officials are excluded completely from the executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system. The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet, who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor is defined in the constitution as \\\"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\\\" (article 1), and is generally recognized throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate \\\"as designated by the Diet\\\", without any right to decline appointment. He is a ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSince the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government. Today, the Speaker of the Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag) the prime minister and terminates his or her commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing \\\"On Behalf of the Government\\\" and the government—not the monarch—is the high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by the prime minister on matters of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn contrast, the only contact the President of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach. The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers, such as referring a bill to the supreme court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe most extreme non-executive republican Head of State is the President of Israel, which holds no reserve powers whatsowever. The least ceremonial powers held by the President are to appoint the Prime Minister, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by the Prime Minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExecutive model\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome parliamentary republics (like South Africa, Botswana and Suriname) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being the leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister, since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSemi-presidential systems\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSemi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly. Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation. President François Mitterrand, a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac, who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany, for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the Reichstag, which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, Paul von Hindenburg, was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPresidential system\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNote: The head of state in a \\\"presidential\\\" system may not actually hold the title of \\\"president\\\" - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a \\\"presidential system\\\" and sometimes called the \\\"imperial model\\\", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America). In this case the debate centers on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgement on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a parliamentary system.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPresidential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico and Venezuela; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g. Communist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the 1870s in the United States, in the aftermath of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson and his near-removal from office, it was speculated that the United States, too, would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the Speaker of the House of Representatives becoming the real center of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by three late nineteenth and early twentieth century assassinations (Lincoln, Garfield and McKinley) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSingle-party states\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics, real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person. In the Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by the de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThis may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea, where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il-Sung, the office was vacant for years, the late president being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of \\\"Eternal President\\\" (while all substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il, initially without any formal office) until it was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by the office of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, while the party leader's post as Chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared \\\"the highest post of the state\\\", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nComplications with categorization\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nWhile clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nConstitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince, constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet.[http://www.icla.up.ac.za/images/un/use-of-force/western-europe-others/Liechtenstein/Constitution%20Liechtenstein%202009.pdf Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein (LR 101)] (2009). Retrieved on 2014-08-03. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAnother complication exists with South Africa, in which the President is in fact elected by the National Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognized as the head of state. The offices of President of Nauru and President of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency.[http://www.botswanaembassy.org/files/constitution_of_botswana.pdf Constitution of Botswana], Embassy of the Republic of Botswana in Washington DC. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.[http://www.naurugov.nr/parliament/constitution.html THE CONSTITUTION OF NAURU], Parliament of Nauru. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPanama, during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega, was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHistorically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920-1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through the Viceroy and Governor-General of India.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nRoles of heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHead of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be the swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSymbolic role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOne of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being the personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the \\\"personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther common representations are on coins, postage and other stamps and banknotes, sometimes by no more than a mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g. Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective \\\"royal\\\" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHeads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume a host role during a state visit, and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAt home, heads of state are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical honor box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations, dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAs such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse, a head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offense) just a military officer or civil servant.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFor non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government), discreetly approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBelow follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 56 (1) of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 states:\\n::The King is the Head of State, the symbol of its unity and permanence. He arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions, assumes the highest representation of the Spanish State in international relations, especially with the nations of its historical community, and exercises the functions expressly conferred on him by the Constitution and the laws. :Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Article 2 of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1986 states:\\n::(1) The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time. ::(2) The Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand. :Example 3 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan states:\\n::The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html The Constitution of Japan], Office of the Prime Minister. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87 of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and represents national unity.[http://www.senato.it/documenti/repository/istituzione/costituzione_inglese.pdf Constitution of the Italian Republic], Senate of the Republic. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 5 (parliamentary republic): Article 67 of the Iraqi constitution of 2005 states:\\n::The President of the Republic is the Head of the State and a symbol of the unity of the country and represents the sovereignty of the country. He shall guarantee the commitment to the Constitution and the preservation of Iraq's independence, sovereignty, unity, and the safety of its territories, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. :Example 6 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 120 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\\n::The President of the Republic represents the Portuguese Republic, guarantees national independence, the unity of the state and the proper operation of the democratic institutions, and is ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/conteudo/files/constituicaoingles.pdf CONSTITUTION OF THE PORTUGUESE REPUBLIC: SEVENTH REVISION (2005)], Portuguese Constitutional Court. Retrieved on 2012-11-02.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Chapter IV, Section 1, Article 66 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\\n::(1)The President shall be the Head of State and represent the State vis-à-vis foreign states. ::(2)The President shall have the responsibility and duty to safeguard the independence, territorial integrity and continuity of the State and the Constitution. :Example 8 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter VI, Article 77 of the Constitution of Lithuania states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall be Head of State. ::He shall represent the State of Lithuania and shall perform everything with which he is charged by the Constitution and laws. :Example 9 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 1-2 of the Constitution of Russia states:\\n::1. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Head of State. ::2. The President of the Russian Federation shall be the guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, he (she) shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignty of the Russian Federation, its independence and State integrity, and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and interaction of State government bodies.[http://www.government.ru/eng/gov/base/54.html Constitution of the Russian Federation], Government of the Russian Federation. Retrieved on 2012-11-02. :Example 10 (presidential republic): Section 87 (Second Division, Chapter 1) of the Constitution of Argentina provides that:\\n::The Executive Power of the Nation shall be vested in a citizen with the title of \\\"President of the Argentine Nation\\\".[http://www.senado.gov.ar/web/interes/constitucion/english.php CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE NATION], Argentine Senate. Retrieved on 2012-11-16.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExecutive role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as \\\"Her Majesty's Government\\\" and \\\"His Excellency's Government.\\\" Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Germany, India, Italy, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): According to Section 12 of the Constitution of Denmark 1953:\\n::Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.[http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/Publications/~/media/Pdf_materiale/Pdf_publikationer/English/My%20Constitutional%20Act_with_explanations_version%209.ashx My Constitutional Act with explanations, 9th edition], The Communications Section, Danish Parliament (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary absentee monarchy): Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900:\\n::The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.[http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2005Q00193/0332ed71-e2d9-4451-b6d1-33ec4b570e9f The Constitution as in force on 1 June 2003 together with proclamation declaring the establishment of the Commonwealth, letters patent relating to the Office of Governor-General, Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, Australia Act 1986.], ComLaw, Government of Australia (2003) ISBN 0 642 78285 7. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 Constitution of Greece:\\n::The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf The Constitution], Publications Department, Hellenic Parliament (2008) ISBN 960 560 073 0. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (parliamentary republic): According to Article 53 (1) of the Constitution of India:\\n::The executive power of the union shall be vested in the President and shall be exercised by him either directly or indirectly through the officers subordinate to him in accordance to the Constitution.[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/Const.Pock%202Pg.Rom8Fsss%289%29.pdf Constitution of India, Part V], Ministry of Law and Justice. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): Under Chapter 4, Article 80, Section 3 of the Constitution of Russia:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal laws, determine the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Title IV, Chapter II, Section I, Article 76 of the Constitution of Brazil:\\n::The Executive Power is exercised by the President of the Republic, assisted by the Ministers of State.[http://bd.camara.gov.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/1344/constituicao_ingles_3ed.pdf?sequence\\n7 Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil: 3rd Edition], Chamber of Deputies (2010) ISBN 978-85-736-5737-1. Retrieved on 2012-11-13.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (presidential republic): Article 2, Section 1 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic, Ireland, Israel, Japan and Sweden.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAppointment of senior officials\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time the prime minister of the United Kingdom was unilaterally selected by the monarch was in 1963, when Queen Elizabeth II appointed Alec Douglas-Home on the advice of outgoing Prime Minister Harold Macmillan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to confirmation by the legislature; and specifically in the US, the Senate has to approve senior executive branch and judicial appointments by a simple majority vote.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state may also dismiss office-holders. There are many variants on how this can be done. For example, members of the Irish Cabinet are dismissed by the president on the advice of the taoiseach; in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder unilaterally; other heads of state, or their representatives, have the theoretical power to dismiss any office-holder, while it is exceptionally rarely used.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/en/constitution/index.html Constitution of Ireland], Office of the Attorney General (December 2013). Retrieved 2014-08-03. In France, while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of the government, he can, in practice, request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the United States, the unwritten convention calls for the heads of the executive departments to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 96 of the Constitution of Belgium:\\n::The King appoints and dismisses his ministers.The Federal Government offers its resignation to the King if the House of Representatives, by an absolute majority of its members, adopts a motion of no confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment by the King within three days of the rejection of a motion of confidence. The King appoints the proposed successor as prime minister, who takes office when the new Federal Government is sworn in.[http://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/publications/constitution/grondwetEN.pdf THE BELGIAN CONSTITUTION], Legal Department, Belgian House of Representatives (August 2012). Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.1.1 of the Constitution of Ireland:\\n::The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann, appoint the Taoiseach.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states:\\n::The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Constitution of Brazil:\\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \\n:::I - appoint and dismiss the Ministers of State: \\n:::XIII - ...appoint the commanders of Navy, Army and Air Force, to promote general officers and to appoint them to the offices held exclusively by them; \\n:::XIV - appoint, after approval by the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Federal Court and those of the superior courts, the Governors of the territories, the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and the Directors of the Central Bank and other civil servants, when established by law; \\n:::XV - appoint, with due regard for the provisions of article 73, the Justices of the Federal Court of Accounts; \\n:::XVI - appoint judges in the events established by this Constitution and the Advocate-General of the Union; \\n:::XVII - appoint members of the Council of the Republic, in accordance with article 89, VII\\n:::XXV - fill and abolish federal government positions, as set forth by law.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome countries have alternative provisions for senior appointments: In Sweden, under the Instrument of Government of 1974, the Speaker of the Riksdag has the role of formally appointing the prime minister, following a vote in the Riksdag, and the prime minister in turn appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at his/her sole discretion.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nDiplomatic role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which codified longstanding custom, operates under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the sending state is accredited to the head of state of the receiving state.Roberts: pp. 71-79. The head of state accredits (i.e. formally validates) his or her country's ambassadors (or rarer equivalent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through sending formal a Letter of Credence (and a Letter of Recall at the end of a tenure) to other heads of state and, conversely, receives the letters of their foreign counterparts.Roberts: pp. 61-68. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic mission cannot take up their role and receive the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head of state in this regard, is codified in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations from 1961, which (as of 2012) 187 sovereign states has ratified.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHowever, there are provisions in the Vienna Convention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank, such as a Chargé d'affaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or equivalent).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on behalf of the state; signs them either personally or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent ratification, when necessary, may rest with the legislature. The treaties constituting the European Union and the European Communities are noteworthy contemporary cases of multilateral treaties cast in this traditional format, as are the accession agreements of new member states.Roberts: pp. 542-543. However, rather than being invariably concluded between two heads of state, it has become common that bilateral treaties are in present times cast in an intergovernmental format, e.g. between the Government of X and the Government of Y, rather than between His Majesty the King of X and His Excellency the President of Y.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 8 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein states:\\n::1) The Reigning Prince shall represent the State in all its relations with foreign countries, without prejudice to the requisite participation of the responsible Government.\\n::2) Treaties by which territory of the State would be ceded, State property alienated, sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected, a new burden imposed on the Principality or its citizens, or an obligation assumed that would limit the rights of the citizens of Liechtenstein shall require the assent of Parliament to attain legal force.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary republic): Article 59 (1) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany states:\\n::The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys..\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 14 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall accredit ambassadors and envoys extraordinary to foreign powers; foreign ambassadors and envoys extraordinary shall be accredited to him.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, Article 86, Section 4 of the Constitution of Russia states:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::a) shall direct the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;\\n:::b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the Russian Federation;\\n:::c) shall sign instruments of ratification;\\n:::d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives accredited to his (her) office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (single party republic): Section 2, Article 81 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states:\\n::The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Canada, these head of state powers belong to the monarch as part of the Royal Prerogative, but the Governor General has been permitted to exercise them since 1947 and has done so since the 1970s.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMilitary role\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is often, by virtue of holding the highest executive powers, explicitly designated as the commander-in-chief of that nation's armed forces, holding the highest office in all military chains of command.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn a constitutional monarchy or non-executive presidency, the head of state may de jure hold ultimate authority over the armed forces but will only normally, as per either written law or unwritten convention, exercise their authority on the advice of their responsible ministers: meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military maneuvers is made elsewhere. The head of state will, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the country's armed forces, and will sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposes; particularly in monarchies where also the monarch's consort and other members of a royal family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a stable, democratic country will appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are eager to assert the primacy of (civilian, elected) politics over the armed forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from coups d'état, the position of commander-in-chief is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as King Albert I of Belgium did during World War I. In these and in revolutionary regimes, the head of state, and often executive ministers whose offices are legally civilian, will frequently appear in military uniform.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article III, Section 15 of the Constitution Act, 1867, a part of the Constitution of Canada, states:\\n::The Command-in-Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue to be vested in the Queen. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 25 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King is Commander-in-Chief of the land and naval forces of the Realm. These forces may not be increased or reduced without the consent of the Storting. They may not be transferred to the service of foreign powers, nor may the military forces of any foreign power, except auxiliary forces assisting against hostile attack, be brought into the Realm without the consent of the Storting. ::The territorial army and the other troops which cannot be classed as troops of the line must never, without the consent of the Storting, be employed outside the borders of the Realm.[http://www.stortinget.no/en/In-English/About-the-Storting/The-Constitution/The-Constitution The Constitution, as laid down on 17 May 1814 by the Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll and subsequently amended.], Information Service, Parliament of Norway. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter II, Article 87, 4th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, shall preside over the Supreme Council of Defense established by law, and shall make declarations of war as have been agreed by Parliament of Italy. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 15 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees. :Example 5 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1 of the Constitution of Russia:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation shall be the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. :Example 6 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States. :Example 7 (executive monarchy): Article 65 of the Constitution of Qatar provides that:\\n::The Emir is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHe shall supervise the same with the assistance of Defence Council under his direct authority. The said Council shall be constituted by an Emiri Resolution, which will also determine the functions thereof.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSome countries with a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state with command-in-chief powers. \\n* In Germany, the Basic Law of the Federal Republic vests this authority in the Minister of Defence in normal peace-time (article 65a), and that command authority is transferred to the Federal Chancellor when a State of Defence is invoked (article 115b): something which has never happened so far.[https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany], Bundestag (Print version. As at: October 2010). Retrieved on 2012-11-11. \\n* In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government, and subordinate to the Minister is the Chief of General Staff who holds the highest level of command within the military.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLegislative roles\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIt is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic role, is the one who opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual State Opening of Parliament with the Speech from the Throne in Britain. Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMost countries require that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and Ireland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. However, in most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a bill their assent, indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as promulgation. Some monarchical states call this procedure Royal Assent.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (non-executive parliamentary monarchy): Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Swedish Riksdag Act provides that:\\n::The formal opening of a Riksdag session takes place at a special meeting of the Chamber held no later than the third day of the session. At this meeting, the Head of State declares the session open at the invitation of the Speaker. If the Head of State is unable to attend, the Speaker declares the session open.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 9 of the Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein provides that:\\n::Every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Section 11.a.1. of the Basic Laws of Israel states:\\n::The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): According to Chapter 4, Article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::a) shall announce elections to the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law;\\n:::c) shall announce referendums in accordance with the procedure established by federal constitutional law;\\n:::d) shall submit draft laws to the State Duma;\\n:::e) shall sign and promulgate federal laws;\\n:::f) shall address the Federal Assembly with annual messages on the situation in the country and on the basic objectives of the internal and foreign policy of the State.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (presidential republic): Article 1, Section 7 of the United States Constitution states:\\n::Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approves he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated...\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 6 (presidential republic): Article 84 of the Brazilian Constitution provides that:\\n::The President of the Republic shall have the exclusive power to: \\n:::III – start the legislative procedure, in the manner and in the cases set forth in this Constitution;\\n:::IV - sanction, promulgate and order the publication of laws, as well as to issue decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereof;\\n:::V - veto bills, wholly or in part;\\n:::XI - upon the opening of the legislative session, send a government message and plan to the National Congress, describing the state of the nation and requesting the actions he deems necessary; \\n:::XXIII - submit to the National Congress the pluriannual plan, the bill of budgetary directives and the budget proposals set forth in this Constitution; \\n:::XXIV - render, each year, accounts to the National Congress concerning the previous fiscal year, within sixty days of the opening of the legislative session.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 7 (ruling monarchy): Article 106 of the Constitution of Qatar states:\\n::1. Any draft law passed by the Council shall be referred to the Emir for ratification.\\n::2. If the Emir, declines to approve the draft law, he shall return it a long with the reasons for such declination to the Council within a period of three months from the date of referral.\\n::3. In the event that a draft law is returned to the Council within the period specified in the preceding paragraph and the Council passes the same once more with a two-thirds majority of all its Members, the Emir shall ratify and promulgate it. The Emir may in compelling circumstances order the suspension of this law for the period that he deems necessary to serve the higher interests of the country. If, however, the draft law is not passed by a two-thirds majority, it shall not be reconsidered within the same term of session.[http://english.mofa.gov.qa/details.cfm?id\\n80 Constitution of the State of Qatar], Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2012-11-17.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain powers in relation to bills to be exercised at his or her discretion. They may have authority to veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time; reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with royal prerogative; this power is rarely used); refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality; refer a bill to the people in a referendum.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIf he or she is also chief executive, he or she can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSummoning and dissolving the legislature\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state is often empowered to summon and dissolve the country's legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is often done on the advice of the head of government. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states have fixed term legislatures, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the U.S. Constitution). In other systems there are usually fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a head of government has lost support in the legislature, some heads of state may refuse a dissolution, where one is requested, thereby forcing the head of government's resignation.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive republic): Article 13.2.2. of the Constitution of Ireland states:\\n::The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve Dáil Éireann on the advice of a Taoiseach who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann.\\n:Example 2 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 12, first sentence of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic may, after consulting the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament, declare the National Assembly dissolved.\\n:Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Chapter 4, article 84 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation provides:\\n::The President of the Russian Federation:\\n:::b) shall dissolve the State Duma in the cases and in accordance with the procedure provided for by the Constitution of the Russian Federation;\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther prerogatives\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nGranting nobility, knighthood and various titles and other honors\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 113 of the Constitution of Belgium states:\\n::The King may confer titles of nobility, without ever having the power to attach privileges to them.\\n:Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 23 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King may bestow orders upon whomever he pleases as a reward for distinguished services, and such orders must be publicly announced, but no rank or title other than that attached to any office. The order exempts no one from the common duties and burdens of citizens, nor does it carry with it any preferential admission to senior official posts in the State. Senior officials honorably discharged from office retain the title and rank of their office. This does not apply, however, to Members of the Council of State or the State Secretaries.No personal, or mixed, hereditary privileges may henceforth be granted to anyone.\\n:Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Title II, Article 87, 8th section of the Constitution of Italy states:\\n::The President shall confer the honorary distinctions of the Republic.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nImmunity\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary non-executive monarchy): Chapter 5, Article 8 of the Swedish Instrument of Government of 1974 states:\\n::The King or Queen who is Head of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions. Nor can a Regent be prosecuted for his or her actions as Head of State. :Example 2 (parliamentary monarchy): Article 5 of the Constitution of Norway states:\\n::The King's person is sacred; he cannot be censured or accused. The responsibility rests with his Council. :Example 3 (parliamentary republic): Chapter 3, Article 65 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic states:\\n::(1) President of the Republic may not be detained, subjected to criminal prosecution or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict. ::(2) President of the Republic may be prosecuted for high treason at the Constitutional Court based on the Senate's suit. The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it. ::(3) Criminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed by the President of the Republic while executing his office shall be ruled out forever. :Example 4 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Chapter I, Article 130 of the Constitution of Portugal states:\\n::1.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe President of the Republic answers before the Supreme Court of Justice for crimes committed in the exercise of his functions. ::2. Proceedings may only be initiated by the Assembly of the Republic, upon a motion subscribed by one fifth and a decision passed by a two-thirds majority of all the Members of the Assembly of the Republic in full exercise of their office. ::3. Conviction implies removal from office and disqualification from re-election. ::4. For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions, the President of the Republic answers before the common courts, once his term of office has ended. :Example 5 (executive monarchy): Article 64 of the Constitution of Qatar:\\n::The Emir is the head of State. His person shall be inviolable and he must be respected by all.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nReserve Powers\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 16 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::Where the institutions of the Republic, the independence of the Nation, the integrity of its territory or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and immediate threat, and where the proper functioning of the constitutional public authorities is interrupted, the President of the Republic shall take measures required by these circumstances, after formally consulting the Prime Minister, the Presidents of the Houses of Parliament and the Constitutional Council.He shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures.The measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as swiftly as possible, with the means to carry out their duties.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe Constitutional Council shall be consulted with regard to such measures.Parliament shall sit as of right.The National Assembly shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergency powers.After thirty days of the exercise of such emergency powers, the matter may be referred to the Constitutional Council by the President of the National Assembly, the President of the Senate, sixty Members of the National Assembly or sixty Senators, so as to decide if the conditions laid down in paragraph one still apply. The Council shall make its decision publicly as soon as possible. It shall, as of right, carry out such an examination and shall make its decision in the same manner after sixty days of the exercise of emergency powers or at any moment thereafter.[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp Constitution of October 4, 1958], The French National Assembly. Retrieved on 2012-11-11.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 2 (executive monarchy): Articles 69 & 70 of the Constitution of Qatar:\\n::Article 69\\n:::The Emir may, be a decree, declare Martial Laws in the country in the event of exceptional cases specified by the law; and in such cases, he may take all urgent necessary measures to counter any threat that undermine the safety of the State, the integrity of its territories or the security of its people and interests or obstruct the organs of the State from performing their duties. However, the decree must specify the nature of such exceptional cases for which the martial laws have been declared and clarify the measures taken to address this situation. Al-Shoura Council shall be notified of this decree within the fifteen days following its issue; and in the event that the Council is not in session for any reason whatsoever, the Council shall be notified of the decree at its first convening. Martial laws shall be declared for a limited period and the same shall not be extended unless approved by Al-Shoura Council.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n::Article 70\\n:::The Emir may, in the event of exceptional cases that require measures of utmost urgency which necessitate the issue of special laws and in case that Al-Shoura Council is not in session, issue pertinent decrees that have the power of law. Such decree-laws shall be submitted to Al-Shoura Council at its first meeting; and the Council may within a maximum period of forty days from the date of submission and with a two-thirds majority of its Members reject any of these decree-laws or request amendment thereof to be effected within a specified period of time; such decree-laws shall cease to have the power of law from the date of their rejection by the Council or where the period for effecting the amendments have expired.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nRight of pardon\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 1 (parliamentary monarchy): Section 24 of the Constitution of Denmark states:\\n::The King can grant pardons and amnesties. He may only pardon Ministers convicted by the Court of Impeachment with the consent of Parliament. :Example 2 (parliamentary republic): According to Chapter V, Article 60(2) of the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany:\\n::He [The President] shall exercise the power to pardon individual offenders on behalf of the Federation. :Example 3 (semi-presidential republic): Title II, Article 17 of the French Constitution of 1958 states:\\n::The President of the Republic is vested with the power to grant individual pardons. :Example 4 (presidential republic): Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution of the United States provides that:\\n::...and he [The President] shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n:Example 5 (presidential parliamentary republic): Part XI, Article 80 of the Constitution of Nauru:\\n::The President may-\\n:::(a) grant a pardon, either free or subject to lawful conditions, to a person convicted of an offence;\\n:::(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the execution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offence;\\n:::(c) substitute a less severe form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a person for an offence; or\\n:::(d) remit the whole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nGovernors-general (Commonwealth realms)\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Commonwealth realms, other than the United Kingdom, a governor-general (governor general in Canada) is appointed by the sovereign, on the advice of the relevant prime minister, as a representative and to exercise almost all the Royal Prerogative according to established constitutional authority. In Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her \\\"representatives\\\". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state. New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Tuvalu explicitly name the monarch as their head of state (though Tuvalu's constitution states that \\\"references in any law to the Head of State shall be read as including a reference to the Governor-General\\\" ). Governors-general are frequently treated as heads of state on state and official visits; at the United Nations, they are accorded the status of head of state in addition to the sovereign.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAn example of a governor-general departing from constitutional convention by acting unilaterally (that is, without direction from ministers, parliament, or the monarch) occurred in 1926, when Canada's governor general refused the head of government's formal advice requesting a dissolution of parliament and a general election. In a letter informing the monarch after the event, the Governor General said: \\\"I have to await the verdict of history to prove my having adopted a wrong course, and this I do with an easy conscience that, right or wrong, I have acted in the interests of Canada and implicated no one else in my decision.\\\"\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAnother example occurred when, in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General unexpectedly dismissed the Prime Minister in order to break a stalemate between the House of Representatives and Senate over money bills. The Governor-General issued a public statement saying he felt it was the only solution consistent with the constitution, his oath of office, and his responsibilities, authority, and duty as governor-general. A letter from the Australian monarch's Private Secretary at the time, Martin Charteris, confirmed that the only person competent to commission an Australian prime minister was the governor-general and it would not be proper for the monarch to personally intervene in matters that the Constitution Act so clearly places within the governor-general's jurisdiction.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther Commonwealth realms that are now constituted with a governor-general as the viceregal representative of Elizabeth II are: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSelection and various types and styles of heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nAlthough many constitutions, particularly from the 19th century and earlier, make no explicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of several present day international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are recognized as such by other countries. In a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.Robertson: p. 221.Roberts: pp. 35-44. In a republic, the head of state nowadays usually bears the title of President, but some have or had had other titles.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn medieval Europe, it was universally accepted that the Pope ranked first among all rulers and was followed by the Holy Roman Emperor.Roberts: p. 39. The Pope also had the sole right to determine the precedence of all others.Roberts: pp. 37-38. This principle was first challenged by a Protestant ruler, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and was later maintained by his country at the Congress of Westphalia. Great Britain would later claim a break of the old principle for the Quadruple Alliance in 1718. However, it was not until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, when it was decided (due to the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the weak position of France and other catholic states to assert themselves) and remains so to this day, that all sovereign states are treated as equals, whether monarchies or republics.Roberts: pp. 42-43. On occasions when multiple heads of state or their representatives meet, precedence is by the host usually determined in alphabetical order (in whatever language the host determines, although French has for much of the 19th and 20th centuries been the lingua franca of diplomacy) or by date of accession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nContemporary international law on precedence, built upon the universally admitted principles since 1815, derives from the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (in particular, articles 13, 16.1 and Appendix iii).Roberts: p. 43.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere are also several methods of head of state succession in the event of the removal, disability or death of an incumbent head of state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nEuropean writers and revolutions, 16th–20th centuries\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nNiccolò Machiavelli used Prince () as a generic term for the ruler, similar to contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise The Prince, originally published in 1532: in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is known as Mirrors for princes. Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) used the term Sovereign. In Europe the role of a monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a sovereign rulerin the sense of Divine Right of Kings as articulated by Jean Bodin, Absolutism and the \\\"L'etat c'est moi\\\"to that of a constitutional monarch; parallel with the conceptual evolution of sovereignty from merely the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian sovereignty (Peace of Westphalia ending both the Thirty Years' War & Eighty Years' War) and popular sovereignty as in consent of the governed; as shown in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England & Scotland, the French Revolution in 1789, and the German Revolution of 1918–1919. The monarchies who survived through this era were the ones who were willing to subject themselves to constitutional limitations. Titles commonly used by monarchs are King/Queen or Emperor/Empress, but also many other; e.g. Grand Duke, Prince, Emir and Sultan.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFile:Machiavelli Principe Cover Page.jpg|Title page of 1550 Italian edition of Machiavelli's The Prince\\nFile:Albergati Discorsi politici.jpg|Bodin named on title page of Discorsi politici (1602) by Fabio Albergati who compared Bodin's political theories unfavourably with those of Aristotle\\nFile:Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.jpg|Frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nShared and substitute heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nInterim\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nWhenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. In a republic, this is - depending on provisions outlined by the constitution or improvised - a vice-president, the chief of government, the legislature or its presiding officer. In a monarchy, this is usually a regent or collegial regency (council). For example, in the United States the Vice-President acts when the President is incapacitated, and in the United Kingdom the Queen's powers may be delegated to Counselors of State when she is abroad or unavailable.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nShared\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some countries where there is no resident head of state, such as Andorra, a local representative is appointed. In the case of Andorra, two co-princes act as the principality's heads of state; one is also simultaneously the President of France, residing in France, and the other is the Bishop of Urgell, residing in Spain. Each co-prince is represented in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nExtraordinary arrangements\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman Dictator) or eliminated by a new \\\"provisionary\\\" regime, such as a collective of the junta type, or removed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nReligious heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSince antiquity, various dynasties or individual rulers have claimed the right to rule by divine authority, such as the Mandate of Heaven and the divine right of kings. Some monarchs even claimed divine ancestry, such as Egyptian pharaohs and Sapa Incas, who claimed descent from their respective sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practicing incestuous marriage. In Ancient Rome, during the Principate, the title ('divine') was conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in establishing a de facto dynasty.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nChristianity\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Roman Catholicism, the Pope was once Sovereign Pontiff and head of state, first, of the politically important Papal States. After Italian unification, the Pope remains head of state of Vatican City. Furthermore, the Bishop of Urgell is ex officio one of the two Co-Princes of Andorra. In the Church of England, the reigning monarch holds the title Defender of the Faith and acts as Supreme Governor of the Church of England, although this is purely symbolic role. Therefore, the Head of State of the United Kingdom has to be of the protestant faith, meaning the role of the British monarchy cannot be expanded to other large minorities within the state.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIslam\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nDuring the early period of Islam, caliphs were spiritual and temporal absolute successors of the Prophet Mohammed. Various political Muslim leaders since have styled themselves Caliph and served as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as the Ottoman Sultan. Historically, some theocratic Islamic states known as imamates have been led by imams as head of state, such as in what is now Oman, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the modern Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader, at present Ali Khamenei serves as head of state. The Aga Khans, a unique dynasty of temporal/religious leadership, leading an offshoot of Shia Islam in Central and South Asia, once ranking among British India's princely states, continue to the present day.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHinduism\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title expressing their positions as \\\"servant\\\" of a patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a viceroy under an absentee god-king, ruling \\\"in the name of\\\" the patron god(ess), such as Patmanabha Dasa (servant of Vishnu) in the case of the Maharaja of Travancore.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBuddhism\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFrom the time of the 5th Dalai Lama until the political retirement of the 14th Dalai Lama in 2011, Dalai Lamas were both political and spiritual leaders (\\\"god-king\\\") of Tibet.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOuter Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan, was another lamaist theocracy from 1585, using various styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the Communist Mongolian People's Republic replaced this regime in 1924.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nCity states and crowned republics\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\n* The polis in Greek Antiquity and the equivalent city states in the feudal era and later, (many in Italy, the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa in Iberia, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions throughout the world in the Maya civilization, etc.) offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see Chief magistrate.\\n* Doges were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but \\\"reigned\\\" as sovereign dukes.\\n* The paradoxical term crowned republic refers to various state arrangements that combine \\\"republican\\\" and \\\"monarchic\\\" characteristics.\\n* The Netherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders-general, titles meaning \\\"lieutenant\\\" or \\\"governor\\\", originally for the Habsburg monarchs.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nMultiple or collective heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA collective head of state can exist in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal triumvirates; the Directoire; the seven-member Swiss Federal Council, where each member acts in turn as ceremonial head of state); Bosnia and Herzegovina (three member presidium, from three different nations); San Marino (two \\\"Captains-regent\\\"), which maintains the tradition of Italian medieval republics, where there always was an even number of consuls.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn condominiums, sovereignty is shared between two external powers: e.g. Andorra (president of France and bishop of Urgell, Spain, co-princes), and the former Anglo-French New Hebrides (each nation's head of state was represented by a high commissioner).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Roman Republic there were two heads of state, styled Consul, both of whom alternated months of authority during their year in office, similarly there was an even number of supreme magistrates in the Italic republics of Ancient Age. In the Athenian Republic there were nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. In Carthage there were two supreme magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (judges). In ancient Sparta there were two hereditary kings, belonging to two different dynasties.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSuch arrangements are not to be confused with supranational entities which are not states and are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) have a symbolic, essentially protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the Commonwealth (held by the British crown, but not legally reserved for it) or 'Head of the Arab Union' (14 February - 14 July 1958, held by the Hashemite King of Iraq, during its short-lived Federation with Jordan, its Hashemite sister-realm).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe National Government of the Republic of China, established in 1928, had a panel of about 40 people as collective head of state. Though beginning that year, a provisional constitution made the Kuomintang the sole government party and the National Government bound to the instructions of the Central Executive Committee of that party.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nUnique cases and titles\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThough president and various monarchichal titles are most commonly used for heads of state, in some nationalistic regimes, the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning \\\"leader\\\" in the national language, e.g. Germany's single national socialist party chief and combined head of state and government, Adolf Hitler, as the Führer between 1934 and 1945.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn 1959, when former British crown colony Singapore gained self-government, it adopted the Malay style Yang di-Pertuan Negara (literally means \\\"head of state\\\" in Malay) for its governor (the actual head of state remained the British monarch). The second and last incumbent of the office, Yusof bin Ishak, kept the style at the 31 August 1963 unilateral declaration of independence and after the 16 September 1963 accession to Malaysia as a state (so now as a constituent part of the federation, a non-sovereign level). After its expulsion from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Singapore became a sovereign Commonwealth republic and installed Yusof bin Ishak as its first President.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn 1959 after the resignation of Vice President of Indonesia Mohammad Hatta, President Sukarno abolished the position and title of vice-president, assuming the positions of Prime Minister and Head of Cabinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (Indonesian: Presiden Seumur Hidup Panglima Tertinggi; \\\"panglima\\\" meaning \\\"commander or martial figurehead\\\", \\\"tertinggi\\\" meaning \\\"highest\\\"; roughly translated to English as \\\"Supreme Commander of the Revolution\\\"). He was praised as \\\"Paduka Yang Mulia\\\", a Malay honorific originally given to kings; Sukarno awarded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble ancestry.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of head of state have been vague. During the Chinese Cultural Revolution, following the downfall of Liu Shaoqi, who was Chairman of the People's Republic of China, no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. This situation was later changed: the Head of State of the PRC is now the President of the People's Republic of China.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn North Korea, the late Kim Il-sung was named \\\"Eternal President\\\" 4 years after his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, some of the duties previously held by the President are constitutionally delegated to the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who performs some of the roles of a Head of State, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors and undertaking overseas visits. However, the symbolic role of a Head of State is generally performed by Kim Jong-un, who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThere is debate as to whether Samoa is/was an elective monarchy or an aristocratic republic, given the comparative ambiguity of the title O le Ao o le Malo and the nature of the head of state's office.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, who kept absolute power (until his overthrow in 2011 referred to as \\\"Guide of the Revolution\\\"), after ten years as combined Head of State and Head of government of the Libyan Jamahiriya (\\\"state of the masses\\\"), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both were his creatures.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since 1 January 1960 independent republic Cameroon (Cameroun, a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo, was at first not styled président but 'merely' known as chef d'état - (French 'head of state') until 5 May 1960. In Uganda, Idi Amin the military leader after the coup of 25 January 1971 was formally styled military head of state till 21 February 1971, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) president.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g. the title Sardar-i-Riyasat was used in Kashmir after its accession to India, and the Palestine Liberation Organization leader, Yasser Arafat, was styled the first \\\"President of the Palestinian National Authority\\\" in 1994. In 2008, the same office was restyled as \\\"President of the State of Palestine\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLegitimacy\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe position of head of state can be established in different ways, and with different sources of legitimacy.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy fiction or fiat\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPower can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, even if only by fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a previous dynasty). There have been cases of sovereignty granted by deliberate act, even when accompanied by laws of succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split). Such grants of sovereignty are usually forced, as is common with self-determination granted after nationalist revolts. This occurred with the last Attalid king of Hellenistic Pergamon, who by testament left his realm to Rome to avoid a disastrous conquest.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy divine appointment\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nUnder a theocracy, perceived divine status translated into earthly authority under divine law. This can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, granting a tool for political influence to a priesthood. In this way, the Amun priesthood reversed the reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten after his death. The division of theocratic power can be disputed, as happened between the Pope and Holy Roman Emperor in the investiture conflict when the temporal power sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular support, and thereby his own legitamcy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction during coronation.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy social contract\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe notion of a social contract holds that the nation—either the whole people or the electorate—gives a mandate, through acclamation or election.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy constitution\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIndividual heads of state may acquire their position by virtue of a constitution.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy hereditary succession\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nThe position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are usually restrictions on the incumbent's exercise of powers and prohibitions on the possibility of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. However, many cases of uncertain succession in European history have often led to wars of succession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPrimogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically \\\"agnatic primogeniture\\\" or \\\"patrilineal primogeniture\\\" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and male-line males inheriting before females of the male line. This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law (see Terra salica).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBefore primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden, by rewriting its 1810 Act of Succession, became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. Other European monarchies (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Similar reforms were proposed in 2011 for the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, but have yet to pass into law, pending approval by all of the affected nations. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body convening after his or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate descendants of the dynasty's founder. Rules of succession may be further limited by state religion, residency, equal marriage or even permission from the legislature.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nOther hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy election\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nElection usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature or of a special college of electors (such as the Electoral College in the United States), or as an exclusive prerogative. Exclusive prerogative allows the heads of states of constituent monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themselves, as in the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. The Pope, head of state of Vatican City, is chosen by previously appointed cardinals under 80 years of age from among themselves in a papal conclave.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy appointment\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state can be empowered to designate his successor, such as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son Richard.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy force or revolution\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA head of state may seize power by force or revolution. This is not the same as the use of force to maintain power, as is practiced by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor Napoleon III of France and King Zog of Albania. In Spain, general Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del Estado, or Chief of State, and established himself as regent for a vacant monarchy. Uganda's Idi Amin was one of several who named themselves President for Life.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy foreign imposition\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA foreign power can establishing a branch of their own dynasty, or one friendly to their interests. This was the outcome of the Russo-Swedish War from 1741 to 1743 where the Russian Empress made the imposition of her relative Adolf Frederick as the heir to the Swedish Throne, to succeed Frederick I who lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nLoss\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nApart from violent overthrow, a head of state's position can be lost in several ways, including death, another by expiration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. In some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament, as in the case of British King Edward VIII. The post can also be abolished by constitutional change; in such cases, an incumbent may be allowed to finish his or her term. Of course, a head of state position will cease to exist if the state itself does.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHeads of state generally enjoy widest inviolability, although some states allow impeachment, or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke the head of state's mandate on exceptional grounds. This may be a common crime, a political sin, or an act by which he or she violates such provisions as an established religion mandatory for the monarch. By similar procedure, an original mandate may be declared invalid.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nSerious violations of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the United Nations Security Council or certain alliances may do.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFormer heads of state\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nEffigies, memorials and monuments of former heads of state can be designed to represent the history or aspirations of a state or its people, such as the equestrian bronze sculpture of Kaiser Wilhelm I, first Emperor of a unified Germany erected in Berlin at the end of the nineteenth century (monument demolished 1950); or the Victoria Memorial erected in front of Buckingham Palace London, commemorating Queen Victoria and her reign (1837 - 1901), and unveiled in 1911 by her grandson, King George V; or the monument, placed in front of the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (Calcutta) (1921), commemorating Queen Victoria's reign as Empress of India from 1876. Another, twentieth century, example is the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a group sculpture constructed (1927-1941) on a conspicuous skyline in the Black Hills of South Dakota (40th state of the Union, 1889), in midwestern United States, representing the territorial expansion of the USA in the first 130 years from its founding, which is promoted as the \\\"Shrine of Democracy\\\".\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nPersonal influence or privileges\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nFormer Presidents of the United States, while holding no political powers per se, sometimes continue to exert influence in national and world affairs.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nA monarch may retain his style and certain prerogatives after abdication, as did King Leopold III of Belgium, who left the throne to his son after winning a referendum which allowed him to retain a full royal household deprived him of a constitutional or representative role. Napoleon transformed the Italian principality of Elba, where he was imprisoned, into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his Cent Jours escape and reseizure of power in France convinced his opponents, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke his gratuitous privileges and send him to die in exile on barren Saint Helena.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nBy tradition, deposed monarchs who have not freely abdicated continue to use their monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their lives. Hence, even after Constantine II ceased to be King of the Hellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his family as if they were still on the throne, as many European royal courts and households do in guest lists at royal weddings, as in Sweden in 2010, Britain in 2011 and Luxembourg in 2012. The Republic of Greece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal status, and has enacted legislation which hinder acquisition of Greek citizenship unless those terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along with property ownership issues, before the European Court of Human Rights for alleged violations of the European Convention on Human Rights, but lost with respect to the name issue.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nHowever, some other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being referred to by their former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's diplomatic passport.\",\n \"Head of state\\n\\nIn the Italian constitution provides that after the period sent the President of the Republic takes the title President Emeritus of the Italian Republic is also a senator for life, and enjoys immunity, flight status and official residences certain privileges.\"\n]","isConversational":false}}},{"rowIdx":1599,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"tc_2522"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"In which country was Adolf Hitler born?"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Austria"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":["republik osterreich","republik oesterreich","austria","austurriki","administrative divisions of austria","austrian architecture","alpine deutschen","eastreach","oostenrijk","austurríki","architecture of austria","avstria","etymology of austria","österreich","osterreich","republik österreich","oesterreich","easterrealm","republic of austria","austrian republic","österrike","iso 3166 1 at","ostria","autriche"],"string":"[\n \"republik osterreich\",\n \"republik oesterreich\",\n \"austria\",\n \"austurriki\",\n \"administrative divisions of austria\",\n \"austrian architecture\",\n \"alpine deutschen\",\n \"eastreach\",\n \"oostenrijk\",\n \"austurríki\",\n \"architecture of austria\",\n \"avstria\",\n \"etymology of austria\",\n \"österreich\",\n \"osterreich\",\n \"republik österreich\",\n \"oesterreich\",\n \"easterrealm\",\n \"republic of austria\",\n \"austrian republic\",\n \"österrike\",\n \"iso 3166 1 at\",\n \"ostria\",\n \"autriche\"\n]","isConversational":false},"documents":{"kind":"list like","value":["Nation state\n\nA nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \"nation\" resulted in failure\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \"nation\", \"(sovereign) state\", \"nation state\", and \"nationalism\". Connor, who gave the term \"ethnonationalism\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \"The Definitional Dilemma\" (pp. 85ff). \nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \"nation state\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \"Nation state\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.","Nation state\n\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \"nation state.\"","Nation state\n\nHistory and origins","Nation state\n\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \"modernization theories\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.","Nation state\n\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \"fairly\", according to Hobsbawm.","Nation state\n\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.","Nation state\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.","Nation state\n\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.","Nation state\n\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \"Westphalian system\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).","Nation state\n\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \"continental imperialism\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements.","Nation state\n\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.","Nation state\n\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.","Nation state\n\nBefore the nation state","Nation state\n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.","Nation state\n\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.","Nation state\n\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.","Nation state\n\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)","Nation state\n\nCharacteristics","Nation state\n\n\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\"","Nation state\n\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.","Nation state\n\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.","Nation state\n\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.","Nation state\n\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.","Nation state\n\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history.","Nation state\n\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).","Nation state\n\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.","Nation state\n\nIn practice","Nation state\n\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \"home\" ethnicity living in other countries.","Nation state\n\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad. * Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies.","Nation state\n\nThough today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world. * Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010). * Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.","Nation state\n\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland","Nation state\n\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation). * Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage.","Nation state\n\nWhile many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both. * Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho. * Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities. * Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs. * North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.","Nation state\n\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002). * Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc. * Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians. * San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy.","Nation state\n\nThe state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians. * Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.","Nation state\n\nThe notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.","Nation state\n\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.","Nation state\n\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.","Nation state\n\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.","Nation state\n\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.","Nation state\n\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \"Zhonghua minzu\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.","Nation state\n\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \"segment-state\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.","Nation state\n\nExceptional cases","Nation state\n\nUnited Kingdom","Nation state\n\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \"countries within a country\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.","Nation state\n\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \"countries within a country\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \"nation state\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \"multinational state\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).","Nation state\n\nKingdom of the Netherlands","Nation state\n\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \n* Netherlands proper\n* Aruba\n* Curaçao\n* Sint Maarten","Nation state\n\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \"countries\" by the Dutch government.","Nation state\n\nIsrael","Nation state\n\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \"Basic Laws\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.","Nation state\n\nPakistan","Nation state\n\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests.","Nation state\n\nMinorities","Nation state\n\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.","Nation state\n\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.","Nation state\n\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.","Nation state\n\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.","Nation state\n\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).","Nation state\n\nIrredentism","Nation state\n\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.","Nation state\n\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.","Nation state\n\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.","Nation state\n\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.","Nation state\n\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.","Nation state\n\nFuture","Nation state\n\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.","Nation state\n\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.","Nation state\n\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet.","Nation state\n\nClash of civilizations","Nation state\n\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.","Nation state\n\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \"The Clash of Civilizations?\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.","Nation state\n\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \"end of history\".","Nation state\n\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.","Nation state\n\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.","Nation state\n\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:","Nation state\n\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.","Nation state\n\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed.","Nation state\n\nHistoriography","Nation state\n\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAdolf Hitler (; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\"leader\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. He joined the German Workers' Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf (\"My Struggle\"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBy 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Following fresh elections won by his coalition, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain and France. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the effective abandonment of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans—actions which gave him significant popular support.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler sought Lebensraum (\"living space\") for the German people. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.","Adolf Hitler\n\nUnder Hitler's leadership and racially motivated ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5.5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (\"sub-humans\") and socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, and constitutes the deadliest conflict in human history.","Adolf Hitler\n\nEarly years","Adolf Hitler\n\nAncestry","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's father Alois Hitler, Sr. (1837 – 1903) was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, and Alois initially bore his mother's surname Schicklgruber. In 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois's mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler. In 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois's father (recorded as \"Georg Hitler\"). Alois then assumed the surname \"Hitler\", also spelled as Hiedler, Hüttler, or Huettler. The Hitler surname is probably based on \"one who lives in a hut\" (German Hütte for \"hut\").","Adolf Hitler\n\nNazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois's mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz, and that the family's 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger's existence, so historians dismiss the claim that Alois's father was Jewish.","Adolf Hitler\n\nChildhood and education","Adolf Hitler\n\nAdolf Hitler was born on 20April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (in present-day Austria), close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Three of Hitler's siblings—Gustav, Ida, and Otto—died in infancy. When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany. There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life. The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding in 1894, and in June 1895 Alois retired to Hafeld, near Lambach, where he farmed and kept bees. Hitler attended Volksschule (a state-owned school) in nearby Fischlham.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Hitler's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school. Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even considered becoming a priest. In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother Edmund, who died from measles in 1900, deeply affected Hitler. He changed from a confident, outgoing, conscientious student to a morose, detached boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAlois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps. Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed. Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf stated that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\".","Adolf Hitler\n\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \"Heil\", and sang the \"Deutschlandlied\" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAfter Alois's sudden death on 3January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behaviour and performance improved. In 1905, after passing a repeat of the final exam, Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.","Adolf Hitler\n\nEarly adulthood in Vienna and Munich","Adolf Hitler\n\nFrom 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours of Vienna's sights. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him in 1907 and again in 1908, citing \"unfitness for painting\". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture, which was also an interest, but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school. On 21December 1907, his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47. Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and men's hostels.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAt the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism. Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor Karl Lueger exploited the rhetoric of virulent anti-Semitism for political effect. German nationalism had a widespread following in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived. German nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and anti-Catholicism, was one influence on Hitler. Hitler read local newspapers such as the Deutsches Volksblatt that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews. Hitler also read newspapers that published the main thoughts of philosophers and theoreticians such as Darwin, Nietzsche, Le Bon and Schopenhauer. Hostile to what he saw as \"Catholic Germanophobia\", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe origin and first expression of Hitler's anti-Semitism remain a matter of debate. Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna. His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a \"confirmed anti-Semite\" before he left Linz. Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna. Historian Richard J. Evans states that \"historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany's defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid \"stab-in-the-back\" explanation for the catastrophe\".","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austro-Hungarian Army. Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve Austria-Hungary because of the mixture of races in its armed forces. After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.","Adolf Hitler\n\nWorld War I","Adolf Hitler\n\nAt the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich and as an Austrian citizen volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army. According to a subsequent report by the Bavarian authorities in 1924, Hitler almost certainly served in the Bavarian Army by error. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment), he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes-en-Weppes, well behind the front lines. He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme. He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914. On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann, Hitler's Jewish superior, he received the Iron Cross, First Class on 4 August 1918, a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's Gefreiter rank. He received the Black Wound Badge on 18May 1918.","Adolf Hitler\n\nDuring his service at headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5March 1917. On 15October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—upon receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. His bitterness over the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology. Like other German nationalists, he believed the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), which claimed that the German army, \"undefeated in the field\", had been \"stabbed in the back\" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the \"November criminals\".","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation—they especially objected to Article 231, which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war. The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain.","Adolf Hitler\n\nEntry into politics","Adolf Hitler\n\nAfter World War I, Hitler returned to Munich. With no formal education or career prospects, he remained in the army. In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas. Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratorical skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12September 1919, becoming party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party).","Adolf Hitler\n\nAt the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society. To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party; NSDAP). Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler was discharged from the army on 31March 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP. The party headquarters was in Munich, a hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000. To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP: Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful, and at a special party congress on 29July, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, replacing Drexler, by a vote of 533to1.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes, including the use of scapegoats, who were blamed for his listeners' economic hardships. Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking. Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, later recalled:","Adolf Hitler\n\nSome visitors who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression.","Adolf Hitler\n\nEarly followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force ace Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. Röhm became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, \"Stormtroopers\"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. A critical influence on Hitler's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung, a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBeer Hall Putsch","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the \"Beer Hall Putsch\". The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's \"March on Rome\" of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav Ritter von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 8November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a beer hall in Munich. Interrupting Kahr's speech, he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. Retiring to a back room, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters, but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support. Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler. The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them. Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason. His trial before the special People's Court in Munich began in February 1924, and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1April, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. There, he received friendly treatment from the guards, and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections. Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.","Adolf Hitler\n\nWhile at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office.","Adolf Hitler\n\nShortly before Hitler was eligible for parole, the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria. The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void. In response, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925.","Adolf Hitler\n\nRebuilding the NSDAP","Adolf Hitler\n\nAt the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved, limiting Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16February. Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities, a ban that remained in place until 1927. To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist elements of the party's programme.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.","Adolf Hitler\n\nRise to power","Adolf Hitler\n\nBrüning administration","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic, which faced challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology. The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree became the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government. The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3 percent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in late 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel. The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify. On 25 September 1930, Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections, which won him many supporters in the officer corps.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBrüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular. Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAlthough Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925, he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years. This meant he was stateless, unable to run for public office, and still faced the risk of deportation. On 25February 1932, the interior minister of Brunswick, Dietrich Klagges, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick, and thus of Germany.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn 1932, Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential elections. A 27January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists. Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some Social Democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan \"Hitler über Deutschland\" (\"Hitler over Germany\"), a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft. He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for political purposes, and utilised it effectively. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAppointment as chancellor","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government \"independent from parliamentary parties\", which could turn into a movement that would \"enrapture millions of people\".","Adolf Hitler\n\nHindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia. Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany.","Adolf Hitler\n\nReichstag fire and March elections","Adolf Hitler\n\nAs chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building. According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire. Others, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible. At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order. Activities of the German Communist Party (KPD) were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9 percent, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.","Adolf Hitler\n\nDay of Potsdam and the Enabling Act","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 21March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This \"Day of Potsdam\" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg.","Adolf Hitler\n\nTo achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The Act—officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (\"Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich\")—gave Hitler's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years. These laws could (with certain exceptions) deviate from the constitution. Since it would affect the constitution, the Enabling Act required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies (in spite of their virulent campaign against the party, the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 23March 1933, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, was decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. The Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.","Adolf Hitler\n\nRemoval of remaining limits","Adolf Hitler\n\nHaving achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized. While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country. On 2May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested. Some were sent to concentration camps. The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners, thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's Volksgemeinschaft (\"people's community\").","Adolf Hitler\n\nBy the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. This included the Nazis' nominal coalition partner, the DNVP; with the SA's help, Hitler forced its leader, Hugenberg, to resign on 29June. On 14July 1933, the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany. The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. In response, Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30June to 2July 1934. Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who, along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher), were rounded up, arrested, and shot. While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 2August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the \"Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich\". This law stated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). With this action, Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAs head of state, Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, by name, rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state. On 19August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 percent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn early 1938, Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair. Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution. Army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship. Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938. Hitler assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command: OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi. By early February 1938, twelve more generals had been removed.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality. Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice, each time for a four-year period. While elections to the Reichstag were still held (in 1933, 1936, and 1938), voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro-Nazi \"guests\" which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote. These elections were held in far-from-secret conditions; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who didn't vote or dared to vote no.","Adolf Hitler\n\nNazi Germany","Adolf Hitler\n\nEconomy and culture","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 percent. The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin. In 1936, Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.","Adolf Hitler\n\nRearmament and new alliances","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn a meeting with German military leaders on 3February 1933, Hitler spoke of \"conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation\" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives. In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a statement of major foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest. In speeches during this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements. At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.","Adolf Hitler\n\nGermany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933. In January 1935, over 90 percent of the people of the Saarland, then under League of Nations administration, voted to unite with Germany. That March, Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an air force (Luftwaffe) and an increase in the size of the navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty, but did nothing to stop it. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 percent of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA \"the happiest day of his life\", believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf. France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.","Adolf Hitler\n\nGermany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years. The plan envisaged an all-out struggle between \"Judeo-Bolshevism\" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.","Adolf Hitler\n\nCount Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming \"inadequate\" British leadership. At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the East, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. In the event of his death, the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his \"political testament\". He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia. Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces). From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.","Adolf Hitler\n\nWorld War II","Adolf Hitler\n\nEarly diplomatic successes","Adolf Hitler\n\nAlliance with Japan","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan. Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army. In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAustria and Czechoslovakia","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 12March 1938, Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss. Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 28–29March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that \"whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly\". In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün (Case Green), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia. As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the \"Fourth Plan\" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy. Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.","Adolf Hitler\n\nGermany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1October 1938. On 29September Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.","Adolf Hitler\n\nChamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome \"peace for our time\", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9October in Saarbrücken. In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts. In his \"Export or die\" speech of 30January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 15March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets, Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.","Adolf Hitler\n\nStart of World War II","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn private discussions in 1939, Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum. Offended by the British \"guarantee\" on 31March 1939 of Polish independence, he said, \"I shall brew them a devil's drink\". In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship on 1April, he threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence, which he perceived as an \"encirclement\" policy. Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade. Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state, but upon its rejection by the Polish government, he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939. On 3 April, Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss (\"Case White\"), the plan for invading Poland on 25August. In a Reichstag speech on 28April, he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHistorians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his fear of an early death.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain. Hitler's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland. Accordingly, on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThis plan required tacit Soviet support, and the non-aggression pact (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. Contrary to Ribbentrop's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo-Polish ties, Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25August to 1September. Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non-aggression guarantee on 25August; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 1September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3September, surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop, \"Now what?\" France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the \"Phoney War\" or Sitzkrieg (\"sitting war\"). Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to Germanise their areas, with \"no questions asked\" about how this was accomplished. Whereas Polish citizens in Forster's area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview. Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as \"racial\" Germans and thus endangered German \"racial purity\". Hitler refrained from getting involved. This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of \"working towards the Führer\": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAnother dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser, who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland, against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, who called for turning Poland into the \"granary\" of the Reich. On 12February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions. On 15May 1940, Himmler issued a memo entitled \"Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East\", calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a \"leaderless class of labourers\". Hitler called Himmler's memo \"good and correct\", and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9April, Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich, his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, and Scandinavians were joined into a \"racially pure\" polity under German leadership. In May 1940, Germany attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June. France and Germany signed an armistice on 22June. Kershaw notes that Hitler's popularity within Germany – and German support for the war – reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6July from his tour of Paris. Following the unexpected swift victory, Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBritain, whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader, Winston Churchill, and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in south-east England. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain. By the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain (in Operation Sea Lion) could not be achieved, and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 27September 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano, and later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, thus yielding the Axis powers. Hitler's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti-British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November, and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn the Spring of 1941, German forces were deployed to North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete.","Adolf Hitler\n\nPath to defeat","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 22June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, 4–5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops had advanced 500 km and won the Battle of Smolensk. Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. His generals disagreed with this change, having advanced within 400 km of Moscow, and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 7December 1941, Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler declared war against the United States.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 18December 1941, Himmler asked Hitler, \"What to do with the Jews of Russia?\", to which Hitler replied, \"als Partisanen auszurotten\" (\"exterminate them as partisans\"). Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein, thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning, with damaging consequences. In December 1942 and January 1943, Hitler's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army. Over 200,000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235,000 were taken prisoner. Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk. Hitler's military judgement became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated, as did Hitler's health.","Adolf Hitler\n\nFollowing the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, placed in charge of the government, soon surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord. Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBetween 1939 and 1945, there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees. The most well known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war. In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table, which deflected much of the blast. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.","Adolf Hitler\n\nDefeat and death","Adolf Hitler\n\nBy late 1944, both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army, Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops, which he perceived as far weaker. On 16December, he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets. The offensive failed after some temporary successes. With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945, Hitler spoke on the radio: \"However grave as the crisis may be at this moment, it will, despite everything, be mastered by our unalterable will.\" Hitler's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12April 1945, but contrary to his expectations, this caused no rift among the Allies. Acting on his view that Germany's military failures meant it had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands. Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy, but he secretly disobeyed the order.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 20April, his 56thbirthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker (Führer's shelter) to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth, who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin. By 21April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin. In denial about the dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under-equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner (Army Detachment Steiner), commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient, while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.","Adolf Hitler\n\nDuring a military conference on 22April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room, then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that \"everything was lost\". He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBy 23April the Red Army had surrounded Berlin, and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city. That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden, arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin, Göring should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a deadline, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler responded by having Göring arrested, and in his last will and testament, written on 29April, he removed Göring from all government positions. On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler, who had left Berlin on 20April, was trying to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies. He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAfter midnight on 29April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. After a wedding breakfast with his new wife, Hitler dictated his will to his secretary Traudl Junge. The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs, Burgdorf, Goebbels, and Bormann. Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.","Adolf Hitler\n\nOn 30April 1945, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule. Their bodies were carried outside to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued. Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBerlin surrendered on 2May. Records in the Soviet archives obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union state that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. On 4April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the Elbe. According to Kershaw, the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them, and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler's remains.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe Holocaust","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe Holocaust and Germany's war in the East was based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The Generalplan Ost (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or \"Germanised\" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe genocide was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference, held on 20January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating, provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22February, Hitler was recorded saying, \"we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews\". Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced, his public speeches, orders to his generals, and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry. He approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union—and was well informed about their activities. By summer 1942, Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement. Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe, with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination.","Adolf Hitler\n\nBetween 1939 and 1945, the Schutzstaffel (SS), assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people, including 5.5 to 6 million Jews (representing two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe), and between 200,000 and 1,500,000 Romani people. Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers. In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists. Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union. These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19.3million civilians and prisoners of war.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles, over three million Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings, and seems never to have visited the concentration camps.","Adolf Hitler\n\nThe Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene. On 15September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include \"Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring\". The laws stripped all non-Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities, now referred to as Action T4.","Adolf Hitler\n\nLeadership style","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip (leader principle). The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader. Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have \"the stronger one [do] the job\". In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. His cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently. Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead he communicated verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate, Martin Bormann. He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler dominated his country's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions.","Adolf Hitler\n\nLegacy","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a \"spell\" being broken. Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest. According to historian John Toland, National Socialism \"burst like a bubble\" without its leader.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral; according to Kershaw, \"Never in history has such ruination—physical and moral—been associated with the name of one man\". Hitler's political programme brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as Stunde Null (Zero Hour). Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale; according to R.J. Rummel, the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare. Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word \"evil\" to describe the Nazi regime. Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHistorian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as \"one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life\". English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as \"among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruelest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known\". For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany. In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States and other NATO nations, and the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union. Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews, the modern nation state of Israel would not exist. He contends that without Hitler, the de-colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed. Further, Haffner claims that other than Alexander the Great, Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure, in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span.","Adolf Hitler\n\nViews on religion","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments. Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it, he had no attachment to it. He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he considered a step backwards. According to Speer, Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity, with its \"meekness and flabbiness\".","Adolf Hitler\n\nHistorian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches. According to Bullock, Hitler did not believe in God, was anticlerical, and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of \"survival of the fittest\". He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society, and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that \"suited his immediate political purposes\". In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, though professing a belief in an \"Aryan Jesus\", one who fought against the Jews. Any pro-Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his private statements, which described Christianity as \"absurdity\" and nonsense founded on lies.","Adolf Hitler\n\nAccording to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report, \"The Nazi Master Plan\", Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich. His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity. This goal informed Hitler's movement early on, but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly. According to Bullock, Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan.","Adolf Hitler\n\nSpeer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler's and Alfred Rosenberg's mystical notions and Himmler's attempt to mythologise the SS. Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHealth","Adolf Hitler\n\nResearchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, coronary sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, syphilis, giant cell arteritis with temporal arteritis, and tinnitus. In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a \"neurotic psychopath\". In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder. Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans-Joachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson's disease, he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, the decisions he was making. Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual. Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World WarII based on only one person.","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler followed a vegetarian diet. At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat. Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler publicly avoided alcohol. He occasionally drank beer and wine in private, but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943. He was a non-smoker for most of his life, but smoked heavily in his youth (25 to 40 cigarettes a day). He eventually quit, calling the habit \"a waste of money\". He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit. Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942. Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, rarely allowing military retreats).","Adolf Hitler\n\nPrescribed 90 medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments. He regularly consumed methamphetamine, barbiturates, opiates, and cocaine. He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs. Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.","Adolf Hitler\n\nFamily","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He met his lover, Eva Braun, in 1929, and married her in April 1945. In September 1931, his half-niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain. Paula Hitler, the last living member of his immediate family, died in 1960.","Adolf Hitler\n\nIn propaganda films","Adolf Hitler\n\nHitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality. He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career—such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens—made by Leni Riefenstahl, regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking.","Adolf Hitler\n\nList of propaganda and film appearances","Adolf Hitler\n\n*Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)\n*Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935)\n*Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)\n*Olympia (1938)"],"string":"[\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \\\"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \\\"nation\\\" resulted in failure\\\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \\\"nation\\\", \\\"(sovereign) state\\\", \\\"nation state\\\", and \\\"nationalism\\\". Connor, who gave the term \\\"ethnonationalism\\\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \\\"The Definitional Dilemma\\\" (pp. 85ff). \\nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \\\"nation state\\\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \\\"Nation state\\\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \\\"nation state.\\\"\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistory and origins\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \\\"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\\\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \\\"modernization theories\\\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \\\"fairly\\\", according to Hobsbawm.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \\\"Westphalian system\\\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \\\"continental imperialism\\\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nBefore the nation state\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nCharacteristics\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n\\\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\\\"\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn practice\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \\\"home\\\" ethnicity living in other countries.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad. * Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThough today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world. * Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010). * Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation). * Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nWhile many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both. * Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho. * Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities. * Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities. * Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs. * North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002). * Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc. * Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians. * San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians. * Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe notion of a unifying \\\"national identity\\\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \\\"Zhonghua minzu\\\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \\\"segment-state\\\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \\\"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\\\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nExceptional cases\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nUnited Kingdom\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \\\"countries within a country\\\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \\\"countries within a country\\\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \\\"nation state\\\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \\\"multinational state\\\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nKingdom of the Netherlands\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \\n* Netherlands proper\\n* Aruba\\n* Curaçao\\n* Sint Maarten\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \\\"countries\\\" by the Dutch government.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIsrael\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \\\"Basic Laws\\\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nPakistan\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nMinorities\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentism\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nFuture\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nClash of civilizations\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \\\"The Clash of Civilizations?\\\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \\\"end of history\\\".\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed.\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistoriography\",\n \"Nation state\\n\\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAdolf Hitler (; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\\\"leader\\\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. He joined the German Workers' Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf (\\\"My Struggle\\\"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBy 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Following fresh elections won by his coalition, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain and France. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the effective abandonment of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans—actions which gave him significant popular support.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler sought Lebensraum (\\\"living space\\\") for the German people. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nUnder Hitler's leadership and racially motivated ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5.5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (\\\"sub-humans\\\") and socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, and constitutes the deadliest conflict in human history.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEarly years\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAncestry\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's father Alois Hitler, Sr. (1837 – 1903) was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, and Alois initially bore his mother's surname Schicklgruber. In 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois's mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler. In 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois's father (recorded as \\\"Georg Hitler\\\"). Alois then assumed the surname \\\"Hitler\\\", also spelled as Hiedler, Hüttler, or Huettler. The Hitler surname is probably based on \\\"one who lives in a hut\\\" (German Hütte for \\\"hut\\\").\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nNazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois's mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz, and that the family's 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger's existence, so historians dismiss the claim that Alois's father was Jewish.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nChildhood and education\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAdolf Hitler was born on 20April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (in present-day Austria), close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Three of Hitler's siblings—Gustav, Ida, and Otto—died in infancy. When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany. There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life. The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding in 1894, and in June 1895 Alois retired to Hafeld, near Lambach, where he farmed and kept bees. Hitler attended Volksschule (a state-owned school) in nearby Fischlham.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Hitler's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school. Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even considered becoming a priest. In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother Edmund, who died from measles in 1900, deeply affected Hitler. He changed from a confident, outgoing, conscientious student to a morose, detached boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAlois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps. Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed. Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf stated that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \\\"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\\\".\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \\\"Heil\\\", and sang the \\\"Deutschlandlied\\\" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAfter Alois's sudden death on 3January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behaviour and performance improved. In 1905, after passing a repeat of the final exam, Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEarly adulthood in Vienna and Munich\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nFrom 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours of Vienna's sights. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him in 1907 and again in 1908, citing \\\"unfitness for painting\\\". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture, which was also an interest, but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school. On 21December 1907, his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47. Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and men's hostels.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAt the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism. Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor Karl Lueger exploited the rhetoric of virulent anti-Semitism for political effect. German nationalism had a widespread following in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived. German nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and anti-Catholicism, was one influence on Hitler. Hitler read local newspapers such as the Deutsches Volksblatt that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews. Hitler also read newspapers that published the main thoughts of philosophers and theoreticians such as Darwin, Nietzsche, Le Bon and Schopenhauer. Hostile to what he saw as \\\"Catholic Germanophobia\\\", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe origin and first expression of Hitler's anti-Semitism remain a matter of debate. Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna. His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a \\\"confirmed anti-Semite\\\" before he left Linz. Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna. Historian Richard J. Evans states that \\\"historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany's defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid \\\"stab-in-the-back\\\" explanation for the catastrophe\\\".\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austro-Hungarian Army. Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve Austria-Hungary because of the mixture of races in its armed forces. After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nWorld War I\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAt the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich and as an Austrian citizen volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army. According to a subsequent report by the Bavarian authorities in 1924, Hitler almost certainly served in the Bavarian Army by error. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment), he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes-en-Weppes, well behind the front lines. He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme. He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914. On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann, Hitler's Jewish superior, he received the Iron Cross, First Class on 4 August 1918, a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's Gefreiter rank. He received the Black Wound Badge on 18May 1918.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nDuring his service at headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5March 1917. On 15October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—upon receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler described the war as \\\"the greatest of all experiences\\\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. His bitterness over the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology. Like other German nationalists, he believed the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), which claimed that the German army, \\\"undefeated in the field\\\", had been \\\"stabbed in the back\\\" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the \\\"November criminals\\\".\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation—they especially objected to Article 231, which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war. The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEntry into politics\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAfter World War I, Hitler returned to Munich. With no formal education or career prospects, he remained in the army. In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas. Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratorical skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12September 1919, becoming party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party).\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAt the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society. To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party; NSDAP). Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler was discharged from the army on 31March 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP. The party headquarters was in Munich, a hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000. To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP: Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful, and at a special party congress on 29July, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, replacing Drexler, by a vote of 533to1.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes, including the use of scapegoats, who were blamed for his listeners' economic hardships. Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking. Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, later recalled:\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nSome visitors who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEarly followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force ace Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. Röhm became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, \\\"Stormtroopers\\\"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. A critical influence on Hitler's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung, a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBeer Hall Putsch\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the \\\"Beer Hall Putsch\\\". The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's \\\"March on Rome\\\" of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav Ritter von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 8November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a beer hall in Munich. Interrupting Kahr's speech, he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. Retiring to a back room, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters, but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support. Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler. The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them. Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason. His trial before the special People's Court in Munich began in February 1924, and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1April, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. There, he received friendly treatment from the guards, and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections. Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nWhile at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nShortly before Hitler was eligible for parole, the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria. The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void. In response, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nRebuilding the NSDAP\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAt the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved, limiting Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16February. Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities, a ban that remained in place until 1927. To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist elements of the party's programme.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nRise to power\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBrüning administration\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic, which faced challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology. The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree became the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government. The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3 percent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in late 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel. The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify. On 25 September 1930, Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections, which won him many supporters in the officer corps.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBrüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular. Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAlthough Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925, he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years. This meant he was stateless, unable to run for public office, and still faced the risk of deportation. On 25February 1932, the interior minister of Brunswick, Dietrich Klagges, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick, and thus of Germany.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn 1932, Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential elections. A 27January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists. Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some Social Democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan \\\"Hitler über Deutschland\\\" (\\\"Hitler over Germany\\\"), a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft. He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for political purposes, and utilised it effectively. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAppointment as chancellor\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government \\\"independent from parliamentary parties\\\", which could turn into a movement that would \\\"enrapture millions of people\\\".\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia. Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nReichstag fire and March elections\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAs chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building. According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire. Others, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible. At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order. Activities of the German Communist Party (KPD) were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9 percent, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nDay of Potsdam and the Enabling Act\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 21March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This \\\"Day of Potsdam\\\" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nTo achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The Act—officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (\\\"Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich\\\")—gave Hitler's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years. These laws could (with certain exceptions) deviate from the constitution. Since it would affect the constitution, the Enabling Act required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies (in spite of their virulent campaign against the party, the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 23March 1933, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, was decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. The Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nRemoval of remaining limits\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHaving achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized. While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country. On 2May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested. Some were sent to concentration camps. The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners, thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's Volksgemeinschaft (\\\"people's community\\\").\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBy the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. This included the Nazis' nominal coalition partner, the DNVP; with the SA's help, Hitler forced its leader, Hugenberg, to resign on 29June. On 14July 1933, the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany. The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. In response, Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30June to 2July 1934. Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who, along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher), were rounded up, arrested, and shot. While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 2August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the \\\"Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich\\\". This law stated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). With this action, Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAs head of state, Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, by name, rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state. On 19August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 percent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn early 1938, Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair. Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution. Army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship. Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938. Hitler assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command: OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi. By early February 1938, twelve more generals had been removed.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality. Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice, each time for a four-year period. While elections to the Reichstag were still held (in 1933, 1936, and 1938), voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro-Nazi \\\"guests\\\" which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote. These elections were held in far-from-secret conditions; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who didn't vote or dared to vote no.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nNazi Germany\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEconomy and culture\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 percent. The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin. In 1936, Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nRearmament and new alliances\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn a meeting with German military leaders on 3February 1933, Hitler spoke of \\\"conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation\\\" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives. In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a statement of major foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest. In speeches during this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements. At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nGermany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933. In January 1935, over 90 percent of the people of the Saarland, then under League of Nations administration, voted to unite with Germany. That March, Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an air force (Luftwaffe) and an increase in the size of the navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty, but did nothing to stop it. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 percent of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA \\\"the happiest day of his life\\\", believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf. France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nGermany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years. The plan envisaged an all-out struggle between \\\"Judeo-Bolshevism\\\" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nCount Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming \\\"inadequate\\\" British leadership. At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the East, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. In the event of his death, the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his \\\"political testament\\\". He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia. Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces). From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nWorld War II\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nEarly diplomatic successes\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAlliance with Japan\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan. Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army. In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAustria and Czechoslovakia\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 12March 1938, Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss. Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 28–29March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that \\\"whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly\\\". In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün (Case Green), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia. As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the \\\"Fourth Plan\\\" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy. Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nGermany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1October 1938. On 29September Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nChamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome \\\"peace for our time\\\", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9October in Saarbrücken. In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts. In his \\\"Export or die\\\" speech of 30January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 15March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets, Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nStart of World War II\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn private discussions in 1939, Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum. Offended by the British \\\"guarantee\\\" on 31March 1939 of Polish independence, he said, \\\"I shall brew them a devil's drink\\\". In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship on 1April, he threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence, which he perceived as an \\\"encirclement\\\" policy. Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade. Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state, but upon its rejection by the Polish government, he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939. On 3 April, Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss (\\\"Case White\\\"), the plan for invading Poland on 25August. In a Reichstag speech on 28April, he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHistorians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his fear of an early death.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain. Hitler's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland. Accordingly, on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThis plan required tacit Soviet support, and the non-aggression pact (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. Contrary to Ribbentrop's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo-Polish ties, Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25August to 1September. Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non-aggression guarantee on 25August; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 1September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3September, surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop, \\\"Now what?\\\" France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the \\\"Phoney War\\\" or Sitzkrieg (\\\"sitting war\\\"). Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to Germanise their areas, with \\\"no questions asked\\\" about how this was accomplished. Whereas Polish citizens in Forster's area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview. Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as \\\"racial\\\" Germans and thus endangered German \\\"racial purity\\\". Hitler refrained from getting involved. This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of \\\"working towards the Führer\\\": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAnother dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser, who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland, against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, who called for turning Poland into the \\\"granary\\\" of the Reich. On 12February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions. On 15May 1940, Himmler issued a memo entitled \\\"Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East\\\", calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a \\\"leaderless class of labourers\\\". Hitler called Himmler's memo \\\"good and correct\\\", and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9April, Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich, his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, and Scandinavians were joined into a \\\"racially pure\\\" polity under German leadership. In May 1940, Germany attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June. France and Germany signed an armistice on 22June. Kershaw notes that Hitler's popularity within Germany – and German support for the war – reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6July from his tour of Paris. Following the unexpected swift victory, Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBritain, whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader, Winston Churchill, and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in south-east England. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain. By the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain (in Operation Sea Lion) could not be achieved, and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 27September 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano, and later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, thus yielding the Axis powers. Hitler's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti-British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November, and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn the Spring of 1941, German forces were deployed to North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nPath to defeat\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 22June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, 4–5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops had advanced 500 km and won the Battle of Smolensk. Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. His generals disagreed with this change, having advanced within 400 km of Moscow, and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 7December 1941, Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler declared war against the United States.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 18December 1941, Himmler asked Hitler, \\\"What to do with the Jews of Russia?\\\", to which Hitler replied, \\\"als Partisanen auszurotten\\\" (\\\"exterminate them as partisans\\\"). Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein, thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning, with damaging consequences. In December 1942 and January 1943, Hitler's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army. Over 200,000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235,000 were taken prisoner. Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk. Hitler's military judgement became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated, as did Hitler's health.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nFollowing the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, placed in charge of the government, soon surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord. Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBetween 1939 and 1945, there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees. The most well known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war. In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table, which deflected much of the blast. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nDefeat and death\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBy late 1944, both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army, Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops, which he perceived as far weaker. On 16December, he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets. The offensive failed after some temporary successes. With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945, Hitler spoke on the radio: \\\"However grave as the crisis may be at this moment, it will, despite everything, be mastered by our unalterable will.\\\" Hitler's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12April 1945, but contrary to his expectations, this caused no rift among the Allies. Acting on his view that Germany's military failures meant it had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands. Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy, but he secretly disobeyed the order.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 20April, his 56thbirthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker (Führer's shelter) to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth, who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin. By 21April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin. In denial about the dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under-equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner (Army Detachment Steiner), commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient, while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nDuring a military conference on 22April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room, then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that \\\"everything was lost\\\". He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBy 23April the Red Army had surrounded Berlin, and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city. That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden, arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin, Göring should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a deadline, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler responded by having Göring arrested, and in his last will and testament, written on 29April, he removed Göring from all government positions. On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler, who had left Berlin on 20April, was trying to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies. He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAfter midnight on 29April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. After a wedding breakfast with his new wife, Hitler dictated his will to his secretary Traudl Junge. The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs, Burgdorf, Goebbels, and Bormann. Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nOn 30April 1945, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule. Their bodies were carried outside to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued. Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBerlin surrendered on 2May. Records in the Soviet archives obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union state that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. On 4April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the Elbe. According to Kershaw, the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them, and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler's remains.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe Holocaust\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe Holocaust and Germany's war in the East was based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The Generalplan Ost (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or \\\"Germanised\\\" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe genocide was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference, held on 20January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating, provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22February, Hitler was recorded saying, \\\"we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews\\\". Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced, his public speeches, orders to his generals, and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry. He approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union—and was well informed about their activities. By summer 1942, Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement. Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe, with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nBetween 1939 and 1945, the Schutzstaffel (SS), assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people, including 5.5 to 6 million Jews (representing two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe), and between 200,000 and 1,500,000 Romani people. Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers. In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists. Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union. These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19.3million civilians and prisoners of war.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles, over three million Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings, and seems never to have visited the concentration camps.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nThe Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene. On 15September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include \\\"Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring\\\". The laws stripped all non-Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities, now referred to as Action T4.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nLeadership style\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip (leader principle). The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader. Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have \\\"the stronger one [do] the job\\\". In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. His cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently. Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead he communicated verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate, Martin Bormann. He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler dominated his country's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nLegacy\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a \\\"spell\\\" being broken. Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest. According to historian John Toland, National Socialism \\\"burst like a bubble\\\" without its leader.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral; according to Kershaw, \\\"Never in history has such ruination—physical and moral—been associated with the name of one man\\\". Hitler's political programme brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as Stunde Null (Zero Hour). Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale; according to R.J. Rummel, the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare. Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word \\\"evil\\\" to describe the Nazi regime. Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHistorian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as \\\"one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life\\\". English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as \\\"among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruelest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known\\\". For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany. In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States and other NATO nations, and the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union. Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews, the modern nation state of Israel would not exist. He contends that without Hitler, the de-colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed. Further, Haffner claims that other than Alexander the Great, Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure, in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nViews on religion\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments. Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it, he had no attachment to it. He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he considered a step backwards. According to Speer, Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity, with its \\\"meekness and flabbiness\\\".\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHistorian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches. According to Bullock, Hitler did not believe in God, was anticlerical, and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of \\\"survival of the fittest\\\". He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society, and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that \\\"suited his immediate political purposes\\\". In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, though professing a belief in an \\\"Aryan Jesus\\\", one who fought against the Jews. Any pro-Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his private statements, which described Christianity as \\\"absurdity\\\" and nonsense founded on lies.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nAccording to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report, \\\"The Nazi Master Plan\\\", Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich. His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity. This goal informed Hitler's movement early on, but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly. According to Bullock, Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nSpeer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler's and Alfred Rosenberg's mystical notions and Himmler's attempt to mythologise the SS. Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHealth\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nResearchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, coronary sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, syphilis, giant cell arteritis with temporal arteritis, and tinnitus. In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a \\\"neurotic psychopath\\\". In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder. Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans-Joachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson's disease, he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, the decisions he was making. Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual. Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World WarII based on only one person.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler followed a vegetarian diet. At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat. Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler publicly avoided alcohol. He occasionally drank beer and wine in private, but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943. He was a non-smoker for most of his life, but smoked heavily in his youth (25 to 40 cigarettes a day). He eventually quit, calling the habit \\\"a waste of money\\\". He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit. Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942. Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, rarely allowing military retreats).\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nPrescribed 90 medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments. He regularly consumed methamphetamine, barbiturates, opiates, and cocaine. He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs. Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nFamily\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He met his lover, Eva Braun, in 1929, and married her in April 1945. In September 1931, his half-niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain. Paula Hitler, the last living member of his immediate family, died in 1960.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nIn propaganda films\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nHitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality. He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career—such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens—made by Leni Riefenstahl, regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking.\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\nList of propaganda and film appearances\",\n \"Adolf Hitler\\n\\n*Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)\\n*Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935)\\n*Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)\\n*Olympia (1938)\"\n]","isConversational":false}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":15,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":138384,"offset":1500,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsImtpZCI6Im1sR1pFYktIVHRVSGRhX1RRdEczQ0N1S3k5ME9Qd25DNHY5elRjM3FVYzgifQ.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc4MjY3ODM0NSwianRpIjoiMDI1ZmRiM2MtZmQ4MC00MWY0LWFhYjMtMGE3M2VkMGI4ZDIxIiwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL01lbW9yeUFzTW9kYWxpdHkvVHJpdmlhUUEiLCJleHAiOjE3ODI2ODE5NDUsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.xURzpTc4cC3pv2GxRMAOID6fo03ly5c4jDgAgq0ObyTGDecO85YNqPKGmbHwza9-sXFfff0FB3P8pPMFXzY3Bw","displayUrls":true,"splitSizeSummaries":[{"config":"default","split":"train","numRows":138384,"numBytesParquet":4149441207},{"config":"default","split":"validation","numRows":17944,"numBytesParquet":531588839},{"config":"default","split":"test","numRows":17210,"numBytesParquet":506953567}]},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":0,"total":0},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false,"savedQueries":{"community":[],"user":[]}}">
id stringlengths 4 10 | question stringlengths 18 1.2k | answer stringlengths 1 179 | answer_aliases listlengths 0 358 | documents listlengths 1 1.63k |
|---|---|---|---|---|
tc_2387 | "Which film poster included the line ""I told you... you know nothing about wickedness?""" | The Lady From Shanghai | [
"lady from shanghai"
] | [
"PoundPosters.com: The Lady from Shanghai 35.5cm x 28cm ...\n\nPoundPosters.com: The Lady from Shanghai 35.5cm x 28cm Mini Print for Only £1 - Buy now!\nTrustpilot\nFilm Print: Directed by the iconic Orson Wells, 'The Lady from Shanghai' starred Rita Hayworth as Elsa 'Rosalie' Bannister and was a classic film from ... |
tc_2388 | Who wrote the very last episode of Seinfeld? | Larry David | [
"lawrence gene 22larry 22 david",
"larry david",
"pretty good",
"lawrence gene david"
] | [
"Seinfeld\n\nSeinfeld is an American sitcom that originally ran for nine seasons on NBC, from 1989 to 1998. It was created by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld, the latter starring as a fictionalized version of himself. Set predominantly in an apartment building in Manhattan's Upper West Side in New York City (althoug... |
tc_2389 | In 1997 which airline replaced the flag on its tail fin with ethnic designs from around the world? | British Airways | [
"flight information and control of operations",
"british airways ads",
"britishairways co uk",
"british air",
"executive club",
"british airways flight numbers",
"club world",
"bashares com",
"british airways",
"british airways lounges",
"club europe",
"britishairways com",
"ba com",
"brit... | [
"Airline\n\nAn airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating cer... |
tc_2390 | Where did Anne Frank die? | Belsen | [
"belsen",
"concentration camp belsen",
"konzentrationslager belsen",
"concentration camp bergen belsen",
"konzentrationslager bergen belsen",
"bergen belsen",
"belsen concentration camp",
"bergen belsen pow camp",
"kz bergen belsen",
"bergen belsen concentration camp",
"kz belsen"
] | [
"Anne Frank\n\nAnnelies Marie Frank (;; 12 June 1929 – February or March 1945Research by The Anne Frank House in 2015 revealed that Frank may have died in February 1945 rather than in March, as Dutch authorities had long assumed. [http://www.annefrank.org/en/News/News/2015/Maart/Anne-Franks-last-months/ \"New resea... |
tc_2391 | "According to the British Bishop Mervyn Stockwood, who would ""go to the Follies Bergere and look at the audience?" | A psychiatrist | [
"psychiatrist disambiguation",
"psychiatrist"
] | [
"Jokes Noop » Doctors\n\nJokes Noop » Doctors\nJokes Noop\nHippocrates (B.C. 460-370) Greek Physician and “Father of Medicine”\nAphorismsNatural forces within us are the true healers of disease. —-\nGalen (129-199? A.D) Greek Physician\nThe physician is Nature’s assistant. —-\nAristotle Aristotle (B.C. 384-322) Gre... |
tc_2392 | In which city was the peace treaty ending the Vietnam war signed? | Paris | [
"parís",
"paris europe",
"paris etymology",
"paname",
"cuisine of paris",
"paris",
"departement de paris",
"paříži",
"ville lumière",
"city of love city",
"paris île de france",
"paris ile de france",
"paříž",
"name of paris and its inhabitants",
"parisian person",
"sports in paris",
... | [
"Vietnam War\n\nThe Vietnam War (), also known as the Second Indochina War, and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America () or simply the American War, was a Cold War-era proxy war that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed... |
tc_2393 | What was Scotland's answer to California's Silicon Valley called? | Silicon Glen | [
"silicon glen"
] | [
"Scotland\n\nScotland (; Scots:; ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east and the North Channel and Irish Sea to t... |
tc_2394 | What was St. Petersburg called for most of the 20th century? | Leningrad | [
"saint petersburg russia federation",
"petersburg russia",
"st peterburg",
"sankt peterburg federal city russia",
"saint petersburg",
"peterpole",
"un locode ruled",
"leningrad ussr",
"ленинград",
"saint peterburg russia",
"санкт петербург",
"sankt petersburg",
"st petersburg russa",
"pete... | [
"Saint Petersburg\n\nSaint Petersburg () is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject (a federal city). Situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the B... |
tc_2395 | What is London's biggest airport called? | Heathrow | [
"great western aerodrome",
"myrtle avenue uk",
"heathrow airlines",
"london heathrow airport",
"heathrow",
"h row",
"london heathw",
"lhr",
"egll",
"heathrow airport",
"philip sherwood",
"heathrow international airport",
"baa heathrow",
"heathrow london",
"london heathrow airport termina... | [
"London\n\nLondon is the capital and most populous city of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. On the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. It was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the Ci... |
tc_2396 | Which country is locked within Belgium, Germany and France? | Luxembourg | [
"county duchy and grand duchy of luxembourg",
"grossherzogtum luxemburg",
"grand duchy of luxembourg",
"luxemburger",
"iso 3166 1 lu",
"luxumburg",
"luxemberg",
"luxemburg",
"luxembourgh",
"state of luxembourg",
"groussherzogtum lëtzebuerg",
"luxembourg country",
"luxemborg",
"lexenburg",
... | [
"Belgium\n\nBelgium (; ; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30528 km2 and has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to... |
tc_2398 | In which category did Marie Curie win her second Nobel Prize? | Chemistry | [
"chemestry",
"molecular chemistry",
"chemical sciences",
"chemistry",
"chemical phenomenon",
"professor of chemistry",
"department of chemistry",
"modern chemistry",
"applied chemistry",
"chemical resources",
"chemical science",
"pure chemistry",
"chem",
"chemistries"
] | [
"Marie Curie\n\nMarie Skłodowska Curie (; ;; 7 November 18674 July 1934), born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person and only woman to win twice, the only ... |
tc_2401 | What is the largest inland port in Europe? | Hamburg, Germany | [
"deham",
"un locode deham",
"hamborg",
"gambrivium",
"free un hansestadt hamborg",
"free city of hamburg",
"hanseatic city of hamburg",
"treva",
"hambourg",
"freie und hansestadt hamburg",
"hamburg state",
"hamburg",
"hamburg city",
"ḥamburg",
"hambro",
"free and hanseatic city of hamb... | [
"List of busiest ports in Europe\n\nBusiest container ports",
"List of busiest ports in Europe\n\nRanks for 2011",
"List of busiest ports in Europe\n\nFile:A birds-eye view of Edith Maersk in the Port of Rotterdam.jpeg|Port of Rotterdam\nFile:Phb dt 8107 CTA.jpg|Port of Hamburg\nFile:Zicht op het Delwaidedok.jp... |
tc_2402 | Which company manufactured the first car to run on diesel? | Mercedes Benz | [
"m b",
"mercedes group",
"mercedes benz",
"bluehybrid",
"mercedes benz mlc class",
"mercedez benz",
"mercedes benz clt class",
"teleaid",
"mercedes benz corporation",
"mercedes benz cle class",
"mercedes benz gls class",
"mercades benz",
"mercedes car group",
"mercedes benz gt amg"
] | [
"2013 Diesel Buying Guide : Top Recommended Diesel Cars\n\nView Other Buying Guides\nTop Recommended Diesels\nModern diesel vehicles are cleaner, quieter and more fuel-efficient than ever, so clear your mind of whatever prejudice you might have. Diesel power is all about great fuel economy, and unlike hybrid power ... |
tc_2403 | "In 1939 who described the actions of Russia as ""a riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma?""" | Winston Churchill | [
"winston churchill",
"winston churchil",
"sir churchill",
"winnie churchill",
"honourable sir winston spencer churchill",
"winston leonard spencer",
"sir winston churchill",
"marigold frances churchill",
"winston churchill mp",
"winston churchilll",
"winston churchhill",
"winston leonard spenc... | [
"Riddle\n\nA riddle is a statement or question or phrase having a double or veiled meaning, put forth as a puzzle to be solved. Riddles are of two types: enigmas, which are problems generally expressed in metaphorical or allegorical language that require ingenuity and careful thinking for their solution, and conund... |
tc_2404 | In Nazi Germany, what was Endloslung? | The Final Solution | [
"endlosung der judenfrage",
"final solution to jewish question",
"german solution",
"endlösung der judenfrage",
"endlosung",
"die endlösung",
"final solution",
"final solution of jewish question",
"endlossung",
"endlösung",
"endloessung",
"endloesung",
"solution to jewish problem",
"soluti... | [
"Nazi Germany\n\nNazi Germany, also known as the Third Reich (), was a period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when the country was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Under Hitler's rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist totalitarian state which contro... |
tc_2405 | Who was Hitler's Prime Minister in Prussia? | Goering | [
"herman goering",
"goering",
"hermann goerring",
"herman wilhelm göring",
"herman wilhelm goering",
"hermann william goering",
"herman william goering",
"hermann william goring",
"herman goerring",
"hermann wilhelm goring",
"goering hermann",
"goring herman",
"göring herman",
"goering herm... | [
"Adolf Hitler\n\nAdolf Hitler (; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\"leader\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he in... |
tc_2406 | Vehicles from which country use the international registration letter L? | Luxembourg | [
"county duchy and grand duchy of luxembourg",
"grossherzogtum luxemburg",
"grand duchy of luxembourg",
"luxemburger",
"iso 3166 1 lu",
"luxumburg",
"luxemberg",
"luxemburg",
"luxembourgh",
"state of luxembourg",
"groussherzogtum lëtzebuerg",
"luxembourg country",
"luxemborg",
"lexenburg",
... | [
"Vehicle documents required for international road haulage ...\n\nVehicle documents required for international road haulage - GOV.UK\nGOV.UK\nVehicle documents required for international road haulage\nFrom:\nVehicle documents drivers need to legally cross international borders in a UK-registered vehicle. Contents\n... |
tc_2407 | Where in England is the location of the Glastonbury Festival? | Pilton | [
"pilton disambiguation",
"pilton",
"pilton ward"
] | [
"Glastonbury Festival\n\n–",
"Glastonbury Festival\n\nGlastonbury Festival is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts that takes place near Pilton, Somerset. In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret, and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have... |
tc_2408 | The Channel Islands are in which Channel? | English Channel | [
"dover traffic separation system",
"channel swimming",
"mor bretannek",
"english channel",
"british channel",
"la manche",
"english chanel",
"narrow seas",
"anglo french pond",
"channel",
"englishchannel",
"british sea",
"mor breizh"
] | [
"Channel Islands\n\nThe Channel Islands (Norman: Îles d'la Manche, French: Îles Anglo-Normandes or Îles de la Manche) are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown dependencies: the Bailiwick of Jersey, consisting of Jersey, the largest of the islands; and the B... |
tc_2409 | The French region of Grasse is famous for making what? | Perfume | [
"perfume bottles",
"eau de parfume",
"perfumedly",
"perfuming",
"perfumery",
"perfumes",
"parfum",
"parfume",
"perfume industry",
"eau de toilet",
"mens fragrance",
"perfume",
"perfume bottle",
"perfumed",
"men s fragrance",
"eau de parfum",
"perfumingly",
"perfumeries",
"extrait... | [
"France\n\nFrance (French:), officially the French Republic (), is a sovereign state comprising territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to t... |
tc_2410 | Which was the last country in mainland Europe to switch from driving on the left? | Sweden | [
"ulf bergman",
"swea region",
"swedish origin",
"swedish climate",
"kingdom of sweden",
"sveden",
"suecia",
"swedish realm",
"zweden",
"iso 3166 1 se",
"mainland sweden",
"konungariket sverige",
"schweden",
"sweden",
"sverige",
"swedish sin",
"climate of sweden",
"etymology of swed... | [
"Europe\n\nEurope is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. To the east and southeast, Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of t... |
tc_2411 | By the end of the 80s, what percentage of British households had two cars? | 20% | [
"20",
"twenty"
] | [
"Life in the 20th Century - A World History Encyclopedia\n\nLife in the 20th Century\nDAILY LIFE IN BRITAIN IN THE 20TH CENTURY\nBy Tim Lambert\nThere were two sides to the 20th century. On the one hand there were severe recessions in the early 1930s and in the 1980s and 1990s. There were also two terrible world wa... |
tc_2415 | In which year did Britain's lease on Hong Kong officially expire? | 1997 | [
"one thousand nine hundred and ninety seven"
] | [
"Hong Kong\n\nHong Kong (), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south of Mainland China at the Pearl River Estuary of the Asia Pacific. With 7.2 million residents of various nationalities in a total land and sea area of 2,754 km2, H... |
tc_2416 | Which Norwegian explorer did Robert Feary beat to the North Pole? | Roald Amundsen | [
"roald amundsen",
"amundsen",
"roald engelbregt gravning amundsen",
"amudsen",
"raoul amundsen",
"roald engelbrecht gravning amundsen"
] | [
"North Pole\n\nThe North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is (subject to the caveats explained below) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.",
"North Pole\n\nThe North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth... |
tc_2419 | """A bridge too far"" referred to airborne landings in which country?" | Netherlands | [
"capitals of holland",
"northern netherlands",
"nederlandia",
"pays bas",
"olanda",
"climate of netherlands",
"neatherlands",
"netherland",
"european netherlands",
"nyderlandai",
"administrative divisions of netherlands",
"dutch inhabitants",
"mainland netherlands",
"iso 3166 1 nl",
"sub... | [
"A Bridge Too Far (film)\n\nA Bridge Too Far is a 1977 British-American epic war film based on the 1974 book of the same name by Cornelius Ryan, adapted by William Goldman. It was produced by Joseph E. Levine and Richard P. Levine and directed by Richard Attenborough.",
"A Bridge Too Far (film)\n\nThe film tells ... |
tc_2420 | Who founded the Cubism movement with Picasso? | Braque | [
"braque george",
"george braques",
"georges braque",
"braque",
"george braque"
] | [
"Cubism\n\nCubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association w... |
tc_2423 | "What is the name shared by the currency units of ""Algeria and Tunisia?" | Dinar | [
"دينار",
"dinars",
"dinar"
] | [
"Algeria\n\nAlgeria ( '; ; ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a sovereign state in North Africa on the Mediterranean coast. Its capital and most populous city is Algiers, located in the country's far north. With an area of 2381741 km2, Algeria is the tenth-largest country in the world, an... |
tc_2427 | Mount Toubkai is the highest peak of which range of mountains? | Atlas Mountains | [
"mt atlas",
"atlas mountain system",
"lesser atlas mountains",
"atlas mountains",
"greater atlas mountains",
"atlas mountain",
"sahara mountains",
"meseta mountains"
] | [
"Mountain range\n\nA mountain range (also mountain barrier, belt, or system) is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of mountain ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically (regionally) related. On Earth, most ... |
tc_2428 | Which South African politician won the Nobel peace Prize in 1960? | Albert Luthuli | [
"albert lutuli",
"albert j luthuli",
"albert john luthuli",
"inkosi albert luthuli",
"mvumbi",
"chief albert luthuli",
"albert luthuli",
"inkosi albert lutuli",
"albert john lutuli",
"luthuli albert john"
] | [
"The Nobel Peace Prize 1960 - Presentation Speech\n\nThe Nobel Peace Prize 1960 - Presentation Speech\nPresentation Speech\nThe Nobel Peace Prize 1960\nAlbert Lutuli\nAward Ceremony Speech\nPresentation Speech by Gunnar Jahn * , Chairman of the Nobel Committee\nThis year the Nobel Committee of the Norwegian Parli... |
tc_2429 | "In which township were 69 demonstrators killed by South ""African police in March 1960?" | Sharpeville | [
"sharpeville gauteng",
"sharpeville"
] | [
"South African Police\n\nThe South African Police (SAP) was the national police force and law enforcement agency in South Africa from 1913 to 1994; it was the de facto police force in the territory of South-West Africa (Namibia) from 1939 to 1981. After South Africa's transition to democracy in 1994, the SAP was re... |
tc_2431 | What is the former name of the People's Republic of Benin? | Dohomey | [
"kingdom of dahomey",
"danhome",
"dhy",
"dahomey",
"dahomeyan",
"dahomey kingdom",
"dohomey"
] | [
"People's Republic of Benin\n\nThe People's Republic of Benin () was a socialist state located in the Gulf of Guinea on the African continent, which would become present-day Benin. The People's Republic was established on 30 November 1975, after the 1972 coup d'état in the Republic of Dahomey. It effectively lasted... |
tc_2432 | Which country is the home of the Ashanti? | Ghana | [
"ghanaian republic",
"republic ghana",
"ghana",
"republic of ghana",
"iso 3166 1 gh",
"ghanaian",
"country ghana",
"ghana homeland",
"democradic republic of ghana",
"etymology of ghana",
"ghanan",
"state of ghana",
"ghanian",
"black star of africa"
] | [
"Ashanti (singer)\n\nAshanti Shequoiya Douglas (born October 13, 1980), known simply as Ashanti, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer and actress. Ashanti is known for her eponymous debut album, which featured the hit song \"Foolish\", and sold over 503,000 copies in its first week of release ... |
tc_2433 | Where did Idi Amin rule from 1971 -1979? | Uganda | [
"people of uganda",
"ugandan people",
"uganda",
"republic of uganda",
"ugandan",
"iso 3166 1 ug",
"ugandese",
"ouganda",
"ugandans"
] | [
"Idi Amin\n\nIdi Amin Dada (; 2816 August 2003) was the third President of Uganda, ruling from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Kenya and Uganda. Eventually, Amin held the rank of major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army, and became its com... |
tc_2434 | In which country are the ruins of ancient Carthage? | Tunisia | [
"medieval tunisia",
"classical tunisia",
"الجمهورية التونسية",
"tunisie",
"tunnisia",
"iso 3166 1 tn",
"name of tunisia",
"al jumhūriyya at tūnisiyya",
"tunesia",
"republic of tunisia",
"tunisia in middle ages",
"tounes",
"administrative divisions of tunisia",
"tounisiyya",
"tunisa",
"... | [
"Ancient Carthage\n\nCarthage (' \"new city\") was the Phoenician city-state of Carthage and during the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, included its sphere of influence, the Carthaginian Empire. The empire extended over much of the coast of North Africa as well as encompassing substantial parts of coastal Iberia and the ... |
tc_2435 | In which country does the White Nile leave Lake Victoria? | Uganda | [
"people of uganda",
"ugandan people",
"uganda",
"republic of uganda",
"ugandan",
"iso 3166 1 ug",
"ugandese",
"ouganda",
"ugandans"
] | [
"White Nile\n\nThe White Nile ( ') is a river of Africa, one of the two main tributaries of the Nile, the other being the Blue Nile. In the strict meaning, \"White Nile\" refers to the river formed at Lake No at the confluence of the Bahr al Jabal and Bahr el Ghazal Rivers.",
"White Nile\n\nIn the wider sense, th... |
tc_2437 | Which African explorer translated the Arabian Nights? | Richard Burton | [
"richard burton",
"richard burton actor",
"richard walter jenkins"
] | [
"In Arabian Nights\n\nIn Arabian Nights (subtitled A caravan of Moroccan dreams) is a travel book by Anglo-Afghan author Tahir Shah illustrated by Laetitia Bermejo. which takes up where his previous book The Caliph's House leaves off, recounting, among much else, events at Dar Khalifa, the Caliph's House, in Casab... |
tc_2438 | After which American President is the capital of Liberia named? | James Monroe | [
"5th president of united states",
"fifth president of united states",
"monroe administration",
"james monroe second inaugural address",
"james monroe",
"monroe james",
"james monroe first inaugural address",
"president monroe",
"presidency of james monroe",
"president james monroe"
] | [
"Monrovia\n\nMonrovia is the capital city of the West African country of Liberia. Located on the Atlantic Coast at Cape Mesurado, Monrovia had a population of 1,010,970 as of the 2008 census. With 29% of the total population of Liberia, Monrovia is the country's most populous city. From January 7, 1822 until the ... |
tc_2439 | In which country were the Mau-0Mau a secret guerrilla movement? | Kenya | [
"republic of kenya",
"prehistory of kenya",
"iso 3166 1 ke",
"kenya",
"kenya disambiguation",
"jamhuri ya kenya",
"etymology of kenya",
"kenyan",
"kenya africa"
] | [
"Mau Mau Uprising\n\nThe Mau Mau Uprising, also known as the Mau Mau Rebellion, Mau Mau Revolt, or Kenya Emergency, was a military conflict that took place in British Kenya between 1952 and 1960. It involved Gĩkũyũ-dominated groups summarily called Mau Mau, the white settlers, and elements of the British Army, inc... |
tc_2440 | Who was the Danish author of Out of Africa? | Karen Blixen | [
"isak denisen",
"karen blixen finecke",
"baroness karen von blixen finecke",
"karen von blixen finecke",
"karen von blixen",
"karen dinesen blixen",
"karen blixen",
"karen christenze",
"baroness blixen",
"karen dinesen",
"karen christenze dinesen",
"pierre andrézel",
"pierre andrezel",
"wi... | [
"Out of Africa\n\nOut of Africa is a memoir by the Danish author Baroness Karen von Blixen-Finecke. The book, first published in 1937, recounts events of the seventeen years when Blixen made her home in Kenya, then called British East Africa. The book is a lyrical meditation on Blixen’s life on her coffee plantati... |
tc_2441 | Which new city in Nigeria has been shaped like a crescent, and has replaced Lagos as capital? | Abuja | [
"maitama district abuja",
"wuse district abuja",
"garki district abuja",
"capital of nigeria",
"central district abuja",
"maitama",
"abuja nigeria",
"abuja",
"asokoro district abuja"
] | [
"Nigeria\n\nThe Federal Republic of Nigeria, commonly referred to as Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic in West Africa, bordering Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises 36 states and ... |
tc_2444 | Is the Great Wall of China 650, 1,450 or 2,050 miles long? | 1,450 | [
"one thousand four hundred and fifty",
"1 450",
"1450"
] | [
"China\n\nChina, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Asia, is the world's most populous state, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China based in the capital of Beijing. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four d... |
tc_2445 | Where did the Gang of Four try to size power in 1976? | China | [
"中華",
"zhōngguó",
"peoples republic of china",
"chinese people s republic",
"territorial disputes of china",
"people s republic of china",
"zhongguo",
"china peking",
"proc",
"red china modern",
"land of china",
"people s republic of china mainland china",
"中華人民共和國",
"zhonghuá rénmín gòngh... | [
"Gang of Four\n\nThe Gang of Four () was a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and were later charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The gang's leading figure was Mao Zedong's last wife Jiang Qing. The other memb... |
tc_2446 | Which Asian city hosted the 1988 Olympic Games? | Seoul | [
"서울시",
"five grand palaces of joseon dynasty seoul",
"buildings and structures in seoul",
"sŏul special city",
"seoul",
"seul",
"hanyang korea",
"seulum",
"soul special city south korea",
"soul south korea",
"shouer",
"soul teukbyeolsi",
"kyungsung",
"seulensis",
"capitals of south korea... | [
"1988 Summer Olympics\n\nThe 1988 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIV Olympiad (), were an international multi-sport event celebrated from 17 September to 2 October 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. They were the second summer Olympic Games to be held in Asia and the first since the 1964 Summer Oly... |
tc_2447 | Who was emperor of Japan during world War II? | Hirohito | [
"great emperor",
"emperor showa",
"hirohito",
"emperor hirohito of japan",
"shōwa emperor",
"michinomiya hirohito",
"hirohito emperor showa",
"hirohito of japan",
"hirihito",
"emperor showa of japan",
"emperor shōwa",
"shōwa of japan",
"emperor shōwa of japan",
"shōwa tennō",
"hirohoto",... | [
"Emperor of Japan\n\nThe Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japan's system of constitutional monarchy. According to the 1947 constitution, he is \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people.\" Historically, he is also the highest authority of the S... |
tc_2448 | What is the capital of Saudi Arabia? | Riyadh | [
"ar riyadh",
"asia riyadh",
"ar riyâd",
"ar riyad",
"riyadh",
"riyâd",
"ar riyád",
"ar riyāḑ",
"al urayja",
"riyadh sa",
"riyadh saudi arabia",
"ar riyyad",
"riyadeh",
"riyadh saudia arabia",
"riyahd",
"riyahd sa",
"al riyadh",
"arriyadh",
"capital of saudi arabia"
] | [
"Saudi Arabia\n\nSaudi Arabia (,), officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is an Arab state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately 2150000 km2, Saudi Arabia is geographically the fifth-largest state in Asia and second-largest state in the Ara... |
tc_2449 | Of which country is Vientiane the capital? | Laos | [
"etymology of laos",
"name of laos",
"ai lao",
"lao pdr",
"ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ",
"lpdr",
"saathiaranagroat prachhathippatay prachhachhon lao",
"lao peoples democratic republic",
"iso 3166 1 la",
"sport in laos",
"lao republic",
"languages of lao people s democratic republic",
"... | [
"Vientiane\n\nVientiane (;; , Viang chan,) is the capital and largest city of Laos, on the banks of the Mekong River near the border with Thailand. Vientiane became the capital in 1563 due to fears of a Burmese invasion. Vientiane was the administrative capital during French rule and, due to economic growth in rec... |
tc_2450 | Who was the Mongol ruler who conquered Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia in the 14th Century? | Tamerlane | [
"timur i lenk",
"amir timur",
"sahib ul qiran",
"timurlane",
"tamurlane",
"timūr gurkānī",
"timurid wars",
"timur beg gurkhani",
"timur gurkan",
"temirlan",
"sahib qiran shah",
"tamerlane",
"timurlane mongol",
"battle of delhi 1398",
"timurlank",
"timur i leng",
"timūr gurkân",
"ta... | [
"Azerbaijan\n\nAzerbaijan ( ; ), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (), is a country in the Transcaucasian region, situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west and Iran to th... |
tc_2451 | Which two Middle-Eastern countries fought a war from 1980 to 1988? | Iran and Iraq | [
"iran and iraq"
] | [
"Iran–Iraq War\n\nThe Iran–Iraq War was an armed conflict between Iran and Ba'athist Iraq lasting from September 1980 to August 1988.",
"Iran–Iraq War\n\nThe Iran–Iraq War began when Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980. It followed a long history of border disputes, and was motivated by fears that the Iranian ... |
tc_2452 | Which sea lies between china and Korea? | Yellow Sea | [
"huanghai",
"west corea sea",
"yellow sae",
"yellow sea in china",
"yellow seas",
"huang hai",
"west korean sea",
"west sea korea",
"west sea of korea",
"黄海",
"west corean sea",
"west sea yellow sea",
"yellow sea",
"west korea sea",
"hwang hai"
] | [
"China\n\nChina, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Asia, is the world's most populous state, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China based in the capital of Beijing. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four d... |
tc_2453 | In which modern country are the ports of Sidon and Tyer? | Lebanon | [
"al jumhūrīyah al lubnānīyah",
"republic of lebanon",
"etymology of lebanon",
"lubnan",
"art in lebanon",
"lebannon",
"liban",
"libano",
"lbn",
"festivals in lebanon",
"al jumhuriyah al lubnaniyah",
"lubnaniyah",
"لبنان",
"state of lebanon",
"name of lebanon",
"health in lebanon",
"l... | [
"Sidon\n\nSidon or Saïda (, , '; Phoenician: 𐤑𐤃𐤍, Ṣdn; Biblical Hebrew: , Ṣīḏōn; ; ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located in the South Governorate of Lebanon, on the Mediterranean coast, about 40 km north of Tyre and 40 km south of the capital, Beirut. In Genesis, Sidon is a son of Canaan, a gra... |
tc_2455 | The West Bank of which river has been occupied by Israel since 1967? | Jordan | [
"urdunn",
"kingdom of jordan",
"al mamlakah al",
"languages of jordan",
"h k of jordan",
"jordanian kingdom",
"administrative divisions of jordan",
"jordanie",
"state of jordan",
"الأردن",
"hashemite kingdom of transjordan",
"أردنّ",
"المملكة الأردنّيّة الهاشميّة",
"jordan country",
"urd... | [
"West Bank\n\nThe West Bank ( '; , HaGadah HaMa'aravit) is a landlocked territory near the Mediterranean coast of Western Asia, forming the bulk of the Palestinian territories.",
"West Bank\n\nThe West Bank shares boundaries (demarcated by the Jordanian-Israeli armistice of 1949) to the west, north, and south wit... |
tc_2456 | Which 15th-century navigator discovered the sea route from Europe to India by the Cape of Good Hope? | Vasco da Gama | [
"vasco di gama",
"vasco da gama",
"vasco de gamma",
"da gama",
"de gama",
"vasco d gama",
"vasco da 1er conde da vidigueira gama",
"gama vasco da",
"vasco de gama",
"discovery of sea route to india",
"isabel sodré",
"discovery of way to indies",
"vasco gama",
"dom vasco da gama",
"vasco ... | [
"Europe\n\nEurope is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. To the east and southeast, Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of t... |
tc_2458 | What did Burma change its name to in 1989? | Myanmar | [
"myanmar formerly burma",
"republic of union of myanmar",
"myanmar burma",
"union of myanmar",
"birmania",
"union of burma",
"birman empire",
"birma",
"burmese republic",
"pyidaunzu thanmăda myăma nainngandaw",
"etymology of burma",
"ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်",
"economic sanctions ... | [
"Myanmar\n\nMyanmar ( , or (also with the stress on first syllable);), officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 1,930 km (1,200 miles) for... |
tc_2459 | A 25 km causeway, the longest in the world, links Saudi Arabia with which other country? | Bahrain | [
"iso 3166 1 bh",
"bahrain",
"barhain",
"bahrayn",
"languages of bahrain",
"al baḥrayn",
"emirate of bahrain",
"mamlakat al baḥrayn",
"bahrain geography",
"dawlat al bahrain",
"etymology of bahrain",
"bahrein islands",
"bahrain s",
"مملكة البحرين",
"1923 sitrah outrage",
"bahrain island... | [
"Saudi Arabia\n\nSaudi Arabia (,), officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is an Arab state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. With a land area of approximately 2150000 km2, Saudi Arabia is geographically the fifth-largest state in Asia and second-largest state in the Ara... |
tc_2460 | Beside which river are the Indian cities of Delhi and Agra? | Jumna | [
"yamuna river",
"river yamuna",
"river jumna",
"iomanes",
"yamuna canal",
"jumna",
"jamna river",
"jomanes",
"ioames",
"yamuna",
"pollution of yamuna river",
"jumna river",
"yamunā"
] | [
"Delhi\n\nDelhi (, Dilli; Devanāgarī: दिल्ली), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi, is the capital territory of the Republic of India. Delhi is historically and culturally connected to both the Upper Doab of the Yamuna-Ganges river system and the Punjab region. It is bordered by Haryana on three s... |
tc_2461 | On which inland sea do the ports of Astrakhan and Baku lie? | Caspian Sea | [
"caspian ocean",
"apsheron threshold",
"caspian lake",
"daryā i māzandarān",
"daryā i xazar",
"caspian region",
"caspian area",
"kaspiy teñizi",
"caspian seas",
"sea of caspia",
"hazar deňizi",
"mazanderan sea",
"hyrcanian sea",
"kaspiyskoye more",
"apsheron sill",
"caspian sea region"... | [
"Astrakhan\n\nAstrakhan () is a city in southern Russia and the administrative center of Astrakhan Oblast. The city lies on two banks of the Volga River, close to where it discharges into the Caspian Sea at an altitude of 28 m below sea level. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 520,339; up from 504,501 recor... |
tc_2463 | Which country was suspended from the Arab League for ten years from 1979? | Egypt | [
"names of egypt",
"jumhuriyat misr al arabiyah",
"eytp",
"iso 3166 1 eg",
"egypt",
"r egypt",
"eygpt",
"kimet",
"name of egypt",
"جمهورية مصرالعربية",
"arab republic of egypt",
"egypt name",
"gift of nile",
"kemmet",
"miṣr",
"egipto",
"جمهوريّة مصرالعربيّة",
"egy",
"egypt info",
... | [
"Arab League\n\nThe Arab League ( '), formally the League of Arab States ( '), is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia. It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Le... |
tc_2464 | With what is the Japanese art of bonsai concerned? | Miniature Trees | [
"miniature trees"
] | [
"Bonsai\n\nis a Japanese art form using trees grown in containers. Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjing from which the art originated, and the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. The Japanese tradition dates back over a thousand years.",
"Bonsai\n... |
tc_2465 | By what name was Thailand known until 1939? | Siam | [
"thailand",
"kingdom of thailand",
"kingdom of thai",
"เมืองไทย",
"prathet thai",
"name of thailand",
"thayland",
"taihland",
"muang thai",
"iso 3166 1 th",
"skateboarding in thailand",
"thai kingdom",
"sport in thailand",
"siam thailand",
"sayam",
"siam",
"ratcha anachak thai",
"ร... | [
"Thailand\n\nThailand ( or ; , );, officially the Kingdom of Thailand (, ;), formerly known as Siam (; ), is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula. It is bordered to the north by Myanmar and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west b... |
tc_2466 | What kind of wild cattle with shaggy coats and upturned horns live in the mountains of Tibet? | Yak | [
"pack yak",
"bos mutus grunniens",
"yaks",
"yak",
"tibetan oxen",
"wild yak",
"almun yak",
"drong",
"bos grunniens mutus",
"bos grunniens grunniens",
"poephagus",
"bos gruniens",
"domestic yak",
"bos grunniens",
"bos mutus",
"poephagus grunniens",
"tibetan ox",
"yak meat",
"mongo... | [
"Tibet\n\nTibet (; ,; ) is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Qiang and Lhoba peoples and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han Chinese and Hui people. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, w... |
tc_2467 | Which 13th-century Mongol warlord controlled probably a larger area than anyone in history, from the Yellow Sea to the Black Sea? | Genghis Khan | [
"jinghiz khan",
"jenghiz khan",
"temuelin",
"tiemuzhen",
"temüjin borjigin",
"شىڭعىس حان",
"ghengis khaan",
"chinghiz kan",
"chingis",
"činggis qan",
"chinghiz khan",
"tie mu zhen",
"genghis khaan",
"temujin",
"chinggis",
"chengjisi han",
"тэмүүжин",
"chaangyus khan",
"鐵木真",
"g... | [
"Mongols\n\nThe Mongols (, Mongolchuud,) are an East-Central Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia and China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. They also live as minorities in other regions of China (e.g. Xinjiang), as well as in Russia. Mongolian people belonging to the Buryat and Kalmyk subgroups live predominan... |
tc_2469 | Which is the largest city in India? | Calcutta | [
"calcutta",
"calcuta",
"kalkutta",
"culcutta",
"south kolkata",
"kolkata west bengal",
"south calcutta",
"downtown mumbai",
"kolkata wb",
"calcutta wb",
"calixestra",
"city of mumbai",
"kolkata india",
"kolkata trivia",
"calcutta india",
"bumbai",
"colcata",
"list of kolkata facts"... | [
"India national cricket team\n\nThe Indian cricket team, also known as Team India and Men in Blue, represents India in international cricket. Governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), it is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One Day International (ODI) and Twenty... |
tc_2470 | Which is the principal island of Japan? | Honshu | [
"honshū",
"honsyu japan",
"japanese main island",
"honshuu japan",
"honsyu",
"honshu island",
"benzhou",
"本州",
"honshu japan",
"honsyuu",
"honsyû",
"japanese mainland",
"honsyu island",
"honsyû japan",
"honshuu",
"honsyuu japan",
"honshu",
"main island japan",
"honshu i",
"hons... | [
"Empire of Japan\n\nThe was the historical Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the enactment of the 1947 constitution of modern Japan.",
"Empire of Japan\n\nImperial Japan's rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan led to its emergence as a world power an... |
tc_2472 | What is the dominant classical language of the Indian subcontinent? | Sanskrit | [
"sanskirt",
"samskrtam",
"iso 639 san",
"neo sanskrit",
"samskrut",
"samskrutham",
"संस्कृतम्",
"modern sanskrit",
"sanskrit",
"samskrita",
"sanscript",
"samskritam",
"spoken sanskrit",
"termination of spoken sanskrit",
"sanscrit",
"sanskrit language indian subcontinent",
"sanskrith"... | [
"Languages of India\n\nThe languages of India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-Aryan languages spoken by 75% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 20% of Indians. Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino-Tibetan, and a few other minor language ... |
tc_2473 | In which 1954 battle did the Vietminh defeat the French and end their influence in Indochina? | Dien Bien Phu | [
"dîen bîen phu",
"dienbien phu",
"ðiện biên phủ",
"dien ben phu",
"điên biên phủ",
"dien bienphu",
"dienbienphu",
"dien bien phu city",
"diên biên phú",
"dien bien phu",
"die bien phu",
"diên biên phu",
"diê biên phu",
"điện biên phủ"
] | [
"French defeated at Dien Bien Phu - May 07, 1954 - HISTORY.com\n\nFrench defeated at Dien Bien Phu - May 07, 1954 - HISTORY.com\nFrench defeated at Dien Bien Phu\nShare this:\nFrench defeated at Dien Bien Phu\nAuthor\nFrench defeated at Dien Bien Phu\nURL\nPublisher\nA+E Networks\nIn northwest Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’... |
tc_2474 | What nationality are the Gurkhas, who have fought for the British and Indian armies since 1815? | Nepalese | [
"nepali",
"nepalese",
"nepali disambiguation",
"nepalian"
] | [
"Gurkha\n\nThe Gurkhas (Nepali : ) ( or), pronounced and correctly spelled as Gorkhas. Historically, the terms \"Gurkha\" and \"Gorkhali\" were derived from the hill town and district of Gorkha from which the Kingdom of Gorkhasthan expanded. The name may be traced to the medieval king of Khas tribe, with Gurkhan ... |
tc_2475 | Which major export of Bangladesh is used to make sacking? | Jute | [
"raw jute",
"jute",
"history of jute fibre",
"jute fiber",
"history of jute fiber",
"jute rugs"
] | [
"Bangladesh\n\nBangladesh (;; ,, lit. \"The country of Bengal\"), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônôprôjatôntri Bangladesh), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It forms the largest and eastern portion the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. Located at the apex of the Bay... |
tc_2476 | What was the former name of Iran? | Persia | [
"naval blockade of iran",
"irân",
"jomhuri ye eslami ye iran",
"persian state of iran",
"islamic govermnet of iran",
"islamic republic of persia",
"republic of iran",
"islamic republic of iran",
"persia",
"islamic iran",
"persia iran",
"shi ite republic of iran",
"shia republic of iran",
"... | [
"Name of Iran\n\nIn the Western world, Persia (or one of its cognates) was historically the common name for Iran. In 1935, Reza Shah asked foreign delegates to use the term Iran, the historical name of the country, used by its native people, in formal correspondence. Since then, in the Western World, the use of the... |
tc_2477 | Which river runs 1,560 miles to the Bay of Bengal? | Ganges | [
"river ganges",
"river ganga",
"ganges river valley",
"gangees",
"ganges valley",
"gangetic",
"ganges",
"gaṅgā",
"gangas",
"ganga river",
"ganges river",
"ganga"
] | [
"Bay of Bengal\n\nThe Bay of Bengal, the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Roughly triangular, it is bordered mostly by India and Sri Lanka to the west, Bangladesh to the north, and Myanmar (Burma) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the east.",
"Bay of Bengal\n\nThe ... |
tc_2478 | Which sheikhdom is the capital of the United Arab Emirates? | Abu Dhabi | [
"alu zaly",
"abu dhabi united arab emirates",
"abû zabi",
"capital of united arab emirates",
"abu dabi",
"abu zaby",
"abu dhabi city",
"abou dhabi",
"abu dhaby",
"أبو ظب",
"abu dabhi",
"abu dhabi",
"abu zabi",
"abu ẓaby",
"abu dhabi u e",
"أبوظبي",
"abū z̧aby",
"municipality of abu... | [
"United Arab Emirates\n\nThe United Arab Emirates (; '), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, ' is a country located at the southeast end of the Arabian Peninsula on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar and Iran. In 2013, ... |
tc_2479 | Which native East Asian plant is the richest natural vegetable food? | Soya | [
"sōya",
"soya",
"soya disambiguation"
] | [
"Vegetable\n\nIn everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a savory meal. The term \"vegetable\" is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and cultural tradition. It normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts and cer... |
tc_2480 | What is the capital of Hong Kong? | Victoria | [
"victoria ward",
"victoria beer",
"victoria city disambiguation",
"victoria england",
"victoria city",
"victoria genus",
"victoria transportation",
"victoria disambiguation",
"city of victoria",
"ss victoria",
"victoria geographical disambiguation",
"victoria",
"victoria film"
] | [
"Victoria, Hong Kong\n\nVictoria, officially the City of Victoria, was one of the first urban settlements in Hong Kong after it became a British colony in 1842. It was initially named Queenstown but was soon known as Victoria. It served as the de facto capital of Hong Kong during the British colonial period, and... |
tc_2482 | "Who founded the modern republic of Turkey and, in 1934, took a name meaning ""Father of the Turks""?" | Kemal Ataturk | [
"atatürk and kurds",
"gazi mustafa kemal pasha",
"mustafa kemal ataturk",
"mustafa kamal ataturk",
"mustafa kemal paşa",
"ataturkism",
"mustafa kemal",
"ataturk cicegi",
"m kemal atatürk",
"m kemal ataturk",
"gazi mustafa kemal",
"mustafa kemal bey",
"mustafa kemal atatrk",
"day of remembr... | [
"Turkey\n\nTurkey (; ), officially the Republic of Turkey (Turkish: ;), is a parliamentary republic in Eurasia, mainly on the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cult... |
tc_2483 | What is the Japanese product kakiemon? | Porcelain | [
"porcelin",
"china pottery",
"porcelan",
"porcelain",
"porcelein",
"porcelain china",
"china material",
"china porcelain",
"china plates"
] | [
"Kakiemon\n\nKakiemon (Japanese:柿右衛門) is a style of Japanese enameled ceramics, traditionally produced at the factories of Arita, in Japan's Hizen province (today, Saga Prefecture) from the mid-17th century onwards. The style shares much in common with the Chinese \"Famille Verte\" style. The superb quality of its ... |
tc_2484 | Which river with a vast delta to the South china Sea rises as the Za Qu in Tibet? | Mekong | [
"mékôngh",
"mae nam khong",
"mae kong",
"lancangjiang river",
"mekong",
"lan ts ang chiang",
"langcangjiang",
"lower mekong river",
"lancang river",
"langcang jiang",
"mekong river basin",
"menam khong",
"mènam khong",
"mekong valley",
"lancang jiang",
"mekhong",
"mekong basin",
"l... | [
"South China Sea\n\nThe South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3500000 km². The area's importance largely results from one-third of the world's shipping sailing through its waters and that it i... |
tc_2485 | Isfahan is a major city in which country? | Iran | [
"naval blockade of iran",
"irân",
"jomhuri ye eslami ye iran",
"persian state of iran",
"islamic govermnet of iran",
"islamic republic of persia",
"republic of iran",
"islamic republic of iran",
"persia",
"islamic iran",
"persia iran",
"shi ite republic of iran",
"shia republic of iran",
"... | [
"Isfahan\n\nIsfahan ( Esfahān, ), historically also rendered in English as Ispahan, Sepahan, Esfahan or Hispahan, is the capital of Isfahan Province in Iran, located about 340 km south of Tehran. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 1,756,126 and its built-up (or metro) area was home to 2,391,738 inhabitants... |
tc_2488 | Who was supposed to have told the Arabian Nights tales? | Scheherazade | [
"shaharazad",
"schezerade",
"sheherazade",
"šeherzada",
"sherazard",
"shaherazad",
"sharazad",
"schéhérazade",
"shahrzād",
"shahrzad",
"sheherazad",
"scheherazade",
"scherezade",
"sherazade",
"sherezade",
"shahrazade",
"sheherezade",
"shahrazad",
"šahrzâd",
"scheherezade",
"s... | [
"One Thousand and One Nights\n\nOne Thousand and One Nights ( kitāb ʾalf layla wa-layla) is a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the Arabian Nights, from the first English language edition (1706), whic... |
tc_2489 | Which is the highest mountain in the Alps? | Mont Blanc | [
"monte bianco",
"mount blanc",
"mt blanc",
"mont blank",
"mont blanc"
] | [
"Alps\n\nThe Alps (; ; ; ; ) are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, The Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Urals longer, but both lie partly in Asia. stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, ... |
tc_2490 | Which country is divided into cantons? | Switzerland | [
"der schweiz",
"switzeland",
"confederation helvetia",
"confederatio helvetica",
"swissland",
"switzerland information",
"confederation suisse",
"switserland",
"confédération suisse",
"swizterland",
"confederation of helvatia",
"swizerland",
"svizzera",
"confederation helvetica",
"land o... | [
"Administrative division\n\nAn administrative division, administrative unit, administrative entity, subnational entity, constituent unit, constituent entity, subdivision, or country subdivision, is a portion of a country or other region delineated for the purpose of administration. Administrative divisions are gra... |
tc_2491 | In which Italian city would you find Leonardo's Last Supper? | Milan | [
"milão",
"ambrosiani",
"meneghini",
"weather in milano",
"milanese duchy",
"milao",
"millaine",
"milán",
"milanesi",
"milano",
"milano italy",
"milan spain",
"history of milan",
"milan italy",
"un locode itmil",
"lordship of milan",
"weather in milan",
"comune di milano",
"mediol... | [
"Italian language\n\nItalian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language. It is the second-closest to Latin in terms of vocabulary after Sardinian.See Italica 1950: 46 (cf. [http://books.google.com/books?idM0sbAAAAIAAJ&q\n%22Demonstrates+a+comparative+statistical+method%22 [1]] and [http://books.google.com/books?id... |
tc_2492 | Which is Italy's longest river? | Po | [
"p o",
"po disambiguation",
"po"
] | [
"Italy\n\nItaly (), officially the Italian Republic (), is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe.The Italian peninsula is geographically located in Southern Europe, while North Italy can be placed partly or totally in Central Europe. Due to cultural, political and historical reasons, Italy is a Western Eur... |
tc_2493 | On which river does Verona stand? | Adige | [
"adige valley",
"etsch adige",
"adige river",
"etsch",
"val adige",
"river etsch",
"adige"
] | [
"Province of Verona\n\nThe Province of Verona () is a province in the Veneto region of Italy. The eastern bank of Lake Garda is near the province. Its capital is the city of Verona. The city is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The province is cosmopolitan in nature. It is bordered by Italian Tyrol in the north, Prov... |
tc_2495 | Which poet died while helping the Greeks fight for their independence? | Byron | [
"byron george gordon lord",
"george gordon byron 6th baron byron",
"6th lord byron",
"byronesque",
"george gordon noel 6th baron byron",
"byron george gordon noel 6th baron byron",
"george gordon noel 6th baron byron byron",
"george byron",
"george gordon baron byron",
"george gordon 6th lord byro... | [
"History of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\n\nHistory of Greece:The Revolution to the 20th Century\nHistory of Greece\nThe Greek Revolution of 1821\nContrary to popular opinion there never was a country called Greece or Hellas until the Revolution of 1821. When rebellion against the Ottoman Empire gave b... |
tc_2497 | From which country did Iceland become independent in 1944? | Denmark | [
"dinamarca",
"denmarc",
"danimarca",
"mainland denmark",
"denmarke",
"kingdom of denmark",
"danemark",
"danmoerk",
"denmark",
"danska",
"danmork",
"denemarke",
"media of denmark",
"iso 3166 1 dk",
"danish kingdom",
"daenemark",
"kingdomofdenmark",
"administrative divisions of denma... | [
"Kingdom of Iceland\n\nThe Kingdom of Iceland (Icelandic: Konungsríkið Ísland; Danish: Kongeriget Island) was a constitutional monarchy that existed through the Act of Union with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918. It lasted until 17 June 1944 when a national referendum established the Republic of Iceland in its pla... |
tc_2503 | In which capital city is the Tivoli amusement park? | Copenhagen | [
"kaupmannahöfn",
"koebenhavn",
"dkcph",
"kjøbenhavn",
"k town copenhagen",
"k town hardcore",
"københavn",
"kobenhavn",
"copenhagen denmark",
"un locode dkcph",
"hafnia latin",
"ktown hardcore",
"kopenhagen",
"köpenhamn",
"koepenhamn",
"copenhague",
"kopenhamn",
"k town punk",
"k... | [
"Tivoli Gardens\n\nTivoli Gardens (or simply Tivoli) is a famous amusement park and pleasure garden in Copenhagen, Denmark. The park opened on 15 August 1843 and is the second-oldest operating amusement park in the world, after Dyrehavsbakken in nearby Klampenborg.",
"Tivoli Gardens\n\nWith 4.733 million visitor... |
tc_2504 | On which river does Prague stand? | Vltava | [
"vllatava river",
"vlatava river",
"moldau river",
"river moldau",
"vltava",
"waldaha",
"river vltava",
"vltava river"
] | [
"Prague\n\nPrague (; ,, ) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union. It is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava River, the city is home to about 1.26 million people, while its larger urban zone... |
tc_2507 | Which European country restored its monarchy in 1975? | Spain | [
"el reino de españa",
"iso 3166 1 es",
"kingdom of spains",
"reino de espana",
"regne d espanha",
"espagna",
"mountains of spain",
"kingdom of spain",
"name of spain",
"etymology of spain",
"regne d espanya",
"spanish kingdom",
"espainiako erresuma",
"reino de españa",
"espanya",
"espa... | [
"Culture of Europe\n\nThe culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the European cultural region. European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \"common cultural heritage\".",
"Culture of Europe\n\nElements",
"Culture o... |
tc_2508 | In which autonomous region of Spain are the cities of Cadiz and Cordoba? | Andalusia | [
"andalusia andalucía",
"andalucía autonomous community spain",
"andalusia",
"andalucía",
"eastern andalusia",
"comunidad autónoma de andalucía",
"andalusian spain",
"andalucia autonomous community",
"andalussiyah",
"andalucía spain",
"andalucia spain",
"andulasia",
"andalucía autonomous comm... | [
"Spain\n\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and ... |
tc_2509 | Which European country colonized Brazil? | Portugal | [
"portugul",
"portugallu",
"portugalska",
"pòtigal",
"portugaul",
"portugalujo",
"portuguese republic",
"iso 3166 1 pt",
"republic of portugal",
"portugalsko",
"portugual",
"bồ đào nha",
"portugall",
"portûnga",
"bo dao nha",
"phortaingeil",
"portugale",
"portugal",
"portugál",
... | [
"Ethnic groups in Europe\n\nThe ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples... |
tc_2510 | Which country was defeated by the USSR in the Winter War of 1939? | Finland | [
"etymology of finland",
"finn land",
"suomen tasavalta",
"republiken finland",
"iso 3166 1 fi",
"finlande",
"fin land",
"finnland",
"republic of finland",
"finland",
"finland during world war ii",
"finland s",
"northern finland",
"name of finland"
] | [
"Soviet Union\n\nThe Soviet Union (), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (), abbreviated to USSR (), was a socialist state on the Eurasian continent that existed from 1922 to 1991. A union of multiple subnational Soviet republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. The Soviet Union ... |
tc_2511 | What is the name of the bay between northern Spain and western France, known for its rough seas? | Bay of Biscay | [
"bizkaiko golkoa",
"cantabrian sea",
"french bay",
"golfe de gascogne",
"gulf of biscay",
"golfo de vizcaya",
"gulf of gascony",
"golf de gasconha",
"bay of biscay"
] | [
"Spain\n\nSpain (; ), officially the Kingdom of Spain (), is a sovereign state largely located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe, with archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, and several small territories on and near the North African coast. Its Mainland is bordered to the south and ... |
tc_2512 | Which city linked by canal with Rotterdam and Amsterdam, is the seat of the Netherlands government? | The Hague | [
"s gravenhage",
"haig",
"s 60gravenshage",
"municipality of hague",
"un locode nlhag",
"hague",
"den hague",
"gravenhage",
"hauge",
"lahey",
"den haag",
"hague netherlands",
"den hagg"
] | [
"Rotterdam\n\nRotterdam ( or; ) is a city in the Netherlands, located in South Holland, within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt river delta at the North Sea. Its history goes back to 1270 when a dam was constructed in the Rotte river by people settled around it for safety. In 1340 Rotterdam was granted city rights by the C... |
tc_2513 | Which is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea? | Sicily | [
"sicily",
"sicilia",
"sicilly",
"island of sicily",
"trinacrian",
"sicily italy",
"jewel of mediterranean"
] | [
"Mediterranean Sea\n\nThe Mediterranean Sea (pronounced) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is sometimes considered ... |
tc_2514 | Which city was the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990? | Bonn | [
"bönnsch beer",
"bonn district",
"bundesdorf",
"bonn",
"bonn am rhein",
"schwarzrheindorf vilich rheindorf",
"bonnsch beer",
"schwarzrheindorf",
"bonna",
"castra bonnensis",
"bonn germany",
"un locode debon",
"boennsch beer",
"capital of west germany"
] | [
"Germany\n\nGermany (; ,), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (, ), is a sovereign state and federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. Its capital and largest city is Berlin. With about 81.8... |
tc_2516 | "In which Cypriot town will you find the ""Tombs of the Rings""?" | Paphos | [
"paphian",
"paphus",
"πάφος",
"páfos",
"paphos cyprus",
"paphos",
"city of paphos",
"kato paphos",
"nea paphos",
"pafos",
"ktima"
] | [
"Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\n\nTombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com",
"Tombs of the Kings - Cyprus.com\n\nDescription\nAbout 2 miles northwards of the Old Harbour you will find the Tombs of the Kings. The tombs are impressive enough to be worthy of kings. They are burial caves carved into the bedrock of the hill ... |
tc_2517 | In which country did Grand Duke Jean become head of state in 1964? | Luxembourg | [
"county duchy and grand duchy of luxembourg",
"grossherzogtum luxemburg",
"grand duchy of luxembourg",
"luxemburger",
"iso 3166 1 lu",
"luxumburg",
"luxemberg",
"luxemburg",
"luxembourgh",
"state of luxembourg",
"groussherzogtum lëtzebuerg",
"luxembourg country",
"luxemborg",
"lexenburg",
... | [
"Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n\nJean (given names: Jean Benoît Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano; born 5 January 1921) reigned as Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He is the father of the current ruler, Grand Duke Henri, and the son of Grand Duchess Charlo... |
tc_2519 | In which country was Pope John Paul II a cardinal before his election? | Poland | [
"lenkija",
"poleland",
"iso 3166 1 pl",
"po land",
"pologne",
"country poland",
"polska",
"pole land",
"ploand",
"polland",
"fourth poland",
"polskor",
"rzeczpospolita polska",
"polish state",
"pols land",
"bastarnia",
"etymology of poland",
"poland",
"polnd",
"architecture of ... | [
"Pope John Paul II\n\nPope Saint John Paul II (; ; ), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was pope from 1978 to 2005. He is widely known to Catholics as Saint John Paul the Great, especially in the names of institutions.",
"Pope John Paul II\n\nHe was elected by the second Papal conclave of 1... |
tc_2520 | Which two countries have a border with Liechtenstein? | Switzerland and Austria | [
"switzerland and austria"
] | [
"Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\n\nLiechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel\nTime Zone\nUTC +1\nThe Principality of Liechtenstein (German: Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a small, alpine German-speaking country doubly landlocked by Switzerland and Austria . It is the last remnant of the Holy Roman Empire and a... |
tc_2521 | Which country has as its joint heads of state a Spaniard and a Frenchman? | Andorra | [
"military of andorra",
"principado de andorra",
"andorra",
"religion in andorra",
"andorra military",
"principat d andorra",
"principaute d andorre",
"hinduism in andorra",
"principality of andorra",
"health in andorra",
"protestantism in andorra",
"andorran navy",
"principauté d andorre",
... | [
"Head of state\n\nA head of state is the highest-ranking position in a sovereign state and is vested with powers to act as the chief public representative of that state. In most countries, the head of state is a natural person, but the position is held by a body of persons in the Federal Council of Switzerland and ... |
tc_2522 | In which country was Adolf Hitler born? | Austria | [
"republik osterreich",
"republik oesterreich",
"austria",
"austurriki",
"administrative divisions of austria",
"austrian architecture",
"alpine deutschen",
"eastreach",
"oostenrijk",
"austurríki",
"architecture of austria",
"avstria",
"etymology of austria",
"österreich",
"osterreich",
... | [
"Nation state\n\nA nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the cons... |
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